Quantitative Techniques for Research

Project Manager, Mirion Technologies Visiting Faculty Member, FJWU, Rawalpindi. Visiting Faculty Member, UAAR, Rawalpindi. Visiting Faculty Member, SZABIST, Islamabad.

Ahmed Arif

Nature of Variables
Variable can be defined as anything having different values e.g. price index, stock index etc. By nature variable can be divided into three categories: Quantitative Variable: Numerical Data e.g. price index, stock index, liquidity ratio etc. Qualitative Variables: Job Satisfaction, Motivation etc. Categorical Variable: Social Classes, Income Classes, different faculty members. Data come in groups. Demographics.

Quantitative Variables
Quantitative variables can be classified into three categories: Interval scale Variables Interval scale data has order and equal intervals. Interval scale variables are measured on a linear scale e.g. Temp Ordinal Variables They are not linear. They can be ranked only. The scale can be transformed by an exponential, logarithmic or any other nonlinear transformation Ratio - scale Variables These are continuous positive measurements on a nonlinear scale. Ratio data are also interval data, but they are not measured on a linear scale.

Qualitative Variables
Nominal Variables

Nominal variables allow for only qualitative classification.

We identify whether an item belong to a category. No ranking.

It is a nominal variable, but its different states are ordered in a meaningful sequence. Ordinal data has order, but the intervals between scale points may be uneven.

Ordinal Variables

Qualitative Variables
Dummy Variables from Quantitative Variables

A quantitative variable can be transformed into a categorical variable, called a dummy variable. Its values are recorded. The quantitative variable Age can be classified into five intervals. The values of the associated categorical variable, called dummy variables, are 1, 2,3,4,5: Preference variables are specific discrete variables, whose values are either in a decreasing or increasing order. Note that preference data are also ordinal.

Preference Variables

Qualitative Variables
Multiple Response Variables

Multiple response variables are those, which can assume more than one value. A typical example is a survey questionnaire about the use of computers in research.

One Sample T-Test

Two Variables or Groups

T-Test

Paired Sample TTest

Measure of Difference

Independent Sample T-Test

Multiple Variables or Groups t

ANOVA

Post Hoc Tucky Test

Hypothesis Testing

One Independent Variable One Dependent Variable Multiple Independent Variable Dependency MANOVA Measure of Association Multiple Dependent Variable Multiple Times Regression Interdependency Pearson/Spearman Factor Analysis

Causal

Simple Regression

Co-relational

Multiple Regression

Tips for Hypothesis Testing

If words like impact, effect,, influence, leads to, enhances, increases, account, variation in, due to, are used, it will fall into dependency case, e.g. No. of Books leads to enhance reading capability of a child. For interdependency the variables are linked/associated with each other e.g. what is the relationship between x and y? When words like differ, vary, variation, difference, differentiate are used in statements most of the time concept would fall under the measure of difference.

Normality of Data
Normality of data is one of the primary assumptions for most of the statistical tests. Normality can be referred to the normal distribution of the data. An abnormal data is dispersed from its mean. Normality is usually checked through:

Skewness (Acceptable Range: -1/+1) Kurtosis (Acceptable Range: Positive) P-P Plot (Data should not be dispersed)

Validity Analysis

Construct: Constructs accurately represent reality. Convergent: Simultaneous measures of same construct correlate. Discriminant: Doesn't measure what it shouldn't. Internal: Causal relationships can be determined. Conclusion: Any relationship can be found. External: Conclusions can be generalized. Criterion: Correlation with standards. Predictive: Predicts future values of criterion. Concurrent: Correlates with other tests. Face: Looks like it'll work.

Reliability Analysis
The instrument is reliable for the data collection for statistical analysis. There are several measures of Reliability. Item Total Analysis: This performed with the help of correlation among the items. Most common measure is inter item consistency. This is measured with the help of Cronbach Alpha.