Title

Chapter 2 Lecture Slides

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Chapter 2

The Chemical Basis of Life

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Atomic Structure
Atoms: composed of subatomic particles
Neutrons: no electrical charge Protons: one positive charge Electrons: one negative charge

Nucleus: formed by protons and neutrons Most of the volume of an atom occupied by electrons

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Isotopes and Atomic Mass

Isotopes: two or more forms of same element with same number of protons and electrons but different neutron number
For example; there are three types of hydrogen Denoted by using symbol of element preceded by mass number as 1H, 2H, 3H

Atomic Mass: average mass of naturally occurring isotopes

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Electrons and Chemical Bonding

Intramolecular bonding occurs when outermost electrons are either shared with or transferred to another atom Ionic Bonding: atoms exchange electrons Covalent Bonding: two or more atoms share electron pairs Ion: an atom loses or gains electrons and becomes charged Cation: positively charged ion Anion: negatively charged ion In an ionic bond, cations and anions are attracted to each other and remain close to each other

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Molecules and Compounds

Molecules: two or more atoms chemically combine to form an independent unit
Example: a hydrogen molecule (H2)

Compounds: a substance composed of two or more different types of atoms chemically combined
Example: water (H2O)

Molecular Mass: determined by adding up atomic masses of its atoms or ions

Example: NaCl (22.99 + 35.45)
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Intermolecular Forces: Solubility and Dissociation

Solubility: ability of one substance to dissolve in another For example, sugar or salt dissolves in water Dissociation or Separation: in ionic compounds, cations are attracted to negative end and anions attracted to positive end of water molecules; the ions separate and each becomes surrounded by water molecules Electrolyte: dissociation of an ionic compound in water
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Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes

Electrolytes: solutions made by the dissociation of cations (+) and anions (-) in water
Have the capacity to conduct an electric current Currents can be detected by electrodes

Nonelectrolytes: solutions made by molecules that dissolve in water, but do not dissociate; do not conduct electricity
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2.2 Chemical Reactions and Energy

Atoms, ions, molecules or compounds interact to form or break chemical bonds
Reactants: substances that enter into a chemical reaction. Products: substances that result from the reaction

Chemical bonds are made (synthesis; anabolism) and broken (decomposition; catabolism) during chemical reactions Metabolism: collective term used for the sum of all of the anabolic and catabolic reactions in the body
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Synthesis Reactions
Two or more reactants chemically combine to form a new and larger product. Anabolism.
Chemical bonds made; energy stored in the bonds. Responsible for growth, maintenance and repair Dehydration: synthetic reaction where water is a product Produce chemicals characteristic of life: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids

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Decomposition Reactions
A large reactant is broken down to form smaller products. Catabolism.
Chemical bonds broken; energy released. Hydrolysis: water is split into two parts that contribute to the formation of the products Example: the breakdown of ATP to form ADP and inorganic phosphate with a concomitant release of free energy

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Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Oxidation: loss of an electron by a substance Reduction: gain of an electron by a substance Oxidation-Reduction Reactions: the complete or partial loss of an electron by one substance is accompanied by the gain of that electron by another substance
Synthetic/decomposition reactions can be oxidation reduction reactions Reactions can be described in more than one way
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ATP and Potential Energy

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Heat Energy
When a chemical bond is broken and energy is released, only some of that energy is used to manufacture ATP. Energy that is released but not captured is released as heat. Heat is used by mammals to maintain body temperature.
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Speed of Chemical Reactions

Temperature affects rate of reaction.
Increase in temperature means increase of kinetic energy. Molecules move faster, collide harder and more frequently.

Concentration of reactants.
As concentration of reactants increases, rate of reaction increases. A decrease of O2 in cells can cause death as rate of aerobic chemical reactions decreases.

Catalysts: substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions without being permanently changed or depleted
Enzymes: proteinaceous catalysts that increase the rate of chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy necessary for reaction to begin Activation Energy: minimum energy reactants must have to start a chemical reaction
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Activation Energy and Enzymes

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2.3 Inorganic Chemistry

Inorganic Chemistry: generally, substances that do not contain carbon
Water, oxygen, calcium phosphate, metal ions Exceptions: CO, CO2, and HCO3-

Organic Chemistry: study of carboncontaining substances. Those that are biologically active are called biochemicals.

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Water
Cohesion and adhesion properties 50-60% of body, 92% of blood High specific heat: large amount of heat required to raise temperature of water
Stabilizes body temperature

Protection
Lubricant, cushion

Participates in chemical reactions

Many reactions take place in water Dehydration and hydrolysis

Serves as a mixing medium

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Acids and Bases; Salts and Buffers

Acid: a proton donor or any substance that releases hydrogen ions Base: a proton acceptor or any substance that binds to or accepts hydrogen ions Salt: a compound consisting of a cation other than a hydrogen ion and an anion other than a hydroxide ion. Example: NaCl Buffer: a solution of a conjugate acid-base pair in which acid and base components occur in similar concentrations

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The pH Scale
Refers to the Hydrogen ion concentration in a solution
Neutral: pH of 7 or equal hydrogen and hydroxide ions Acidic: a greater concentration of hydrogen ions Alkaline or basic: a greater concentration of hydroxide ions Physiologic pH is 7.4
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Buffers
Regulate pH Important biological buffers
Bicarbonate Phosphates Protein Respiratory and renal mechanisms

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Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide

Oxygen (O2): required in the final step in the series of reactions used to extract energy from food. Carbon dioxide (CO2): produced during the catabolism of organic compounds.
Metabolic waste product. Combines with water in plasma and forms H+ thus affecting acid/base balance
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2.4 Organic Chemistry

Carbohydrates: composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.
Divided into monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides Energy sources and structure

Lipids: composed mostly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.

Relatively insoluble in water. Functions: protection, insulation, physiological regulation, component of cell membranes, energy source

Proteins: composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sometimes iodine.

Functions: regulate processes, aid transport, protection, muscle contraction, structure, energy

Nucleic Acids: composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus.

Examples: ATP, DNA, RNA
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Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides
Simple sugars. Six-carbon sugars like glucose, fructose, and galactose are important in the diet as energy sources. Five-carbon sugars are components of ATP, DNA and RNA

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Carbohydrates: Disaccharides
Two simple sugars bound together by dehydration Examples: sucrose, lactose, maltose

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Carbohydrates: Polysaccharides
Long chains of many monosaccharides. Storage molecules for monosaccharides and form part of cell surface markers Glycogen formed by animals. Starch and cellulose formed by plants
Starch in food is used as a source of monosaccharides Cellulose in food acts as fiber (bulk) in the diet

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Lipids: Fats
Ingested and broken down by hydrolysis
Triglycerides: composed of glycerol and fatty acids Functions: protection, insulation, energy source

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Lipids: Fats
Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated
Saturated contains all single bonds in the carbon chain, which produces a more rigid structure Unsaturated contains one (mono) or more (poly) double bonds in the carbon chain, which produces a more relaxed structure
Better because they do not stick to the inside of blood vessels.

Trans fats unsaturated fats that are artificially altered to be more saturated. Are the highest CV risk fat.

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Lipids: Phospholipids
Polar (hydrophilic) at one end; nonpolar (hydrophobic) at the other.
Function: important structural component of cell membranes

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Lipids: Eicosanoids and Fat-soluble Vitamins

Eicosanoids: Derived from fatty acids.
Function: Important regulatory molecules Include thromboxanes, leukotrienes, and prostaglandins

Fat-soluble Vitamins: nonpolar molecules essential for normal functioning.

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Lipids: Steroids
Cholesterol, bile salts, estrogen, testosterone.
Carbon atoms arranged in four rings Functions: physiological regulators and component of cell membranes

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 Amino acids: building blocks of protein Peptide bonds: covalent bonds formed between amino acids during protein synthesis

Proteins

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Protein Structure

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Enzymes
Lower the activation energy necessary for a reaction to occur; bring reactants into close proximity Three-dimensional shape contains an active site where reactants attach. Induced Fit Hypothesis: enzymes change shape to accommodate the shape of specific reactants Enzyme names usually end in ase and often have the same word stem as the reactant; for example a lipid is a reactant for lipase. Cofactors: combine with active site and make nonfunctional enzymes functional Organic cofactors called coenzymes

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Nucleic Acids DNA and RNA

Nucleotides
Composed of a five-carbon sugar, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate Include the nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) and ATP

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DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid

Genetic material of cells copied from one generation to next Composed of 2 strands of nucleotides
Each nucleotide contains one of the organic bases of adenine or guanine (which are purines) and thymine or cystosine (which are pyrimidines).

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RNA: Ribonucleic acid

Similar to a single strand of DNA
Four different nucleotides make up organic bases except thymine is replaced with uracil (pyrimidine)

Responsible for interpreting the code within DNA into the primary structure of proteins.

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Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

Energy currency of the body Provides energy for other chemical reactions as anabolism or drive cell processes as muscle contraction All energy-requiring chemical reactions stop when there is 2-38 inadequate ATP