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Immune System
INTRODUCTION
The immune system protects against assaults on the body
External assaults include microorganisms: protozoans, bacteria, and viruses Internal assaults: abnormal cells reproduce and form tumors that may become cancerous and spread
ORGANIZATION OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM The immune system is continually at work patrolling and protecting the body Identification of cells and other particles
Antigens are unique molecules that mark cells Self-markers: molecules on the surface of cells that are unique to an individual, thus identifying the cell as self to the immune system Nonself-markers: molecules on the surface of foreign or abnormal cells or particles that identify the particle as non-self to the immune system Self-tolerance: the ability of the immune system to attack abnormal or foreign cells but spare normal cells
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ORGANIZATION OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM (cont.) Two major categories of immune mechanisms: (Figure 21-1; Table 21-1) 1. Innate immunity In place before the person has been exposed to the harmful substance provides a general, nonspecific defense against anything that is not self Epithelial barrier cells, phagocytes (neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells), and natural killer (NK) cells 2. Adaptive immunity - acts as a specific defense against specific threatening agents - T and B lymphocytes
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Cytokines: any of several kinds of chemicals released by cells to promote innate and adaptive immune responses (e.g., interleukin, interferon, leukotriene) Other chemicals (e.g., complement, other enzymes, histamine) also play regulatory roles in immunity
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INNATE IMMUNITY
Species resistance: genetic characteristics of an organism or species that defend against pathogens (Table 21-2) Ex. The human species is resistant against disease factors that spread easily among plants Mechanical and chemical barriers: first line of defense (Figure 21-2) Internal environment of the body is protected by a barrier composed of the skin and mucous membranes Skin and mucous membranes provide additional immune mechanisms: sebum, mucus, enzymes, and hydrochloric acid in the stomach
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Interferon: protein synthesized and released into circulation by certain cells if invaded by viruses to signal other nearby cells to enter a protective antiviral state 17
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Toll-like receptors: pattern recognition receptors in the membranes of host cells; when triggered, stimulate many different kinds of innate immune responses
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Subsets of lymphocytes are defined by the CD surface markers that the cells carry (e.g., CD4 and CD8 cells) Activation of lymphocytes requires two stimuli: a specific antigen and activating chemicals (Figure 21-14) Lymphocytes flow through the bloodstream, become distributed in tissues, and return to the bloodstream in a continuous recirculation
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-secrete antibodies 2. memory B cells - able to respond if come in contact with the same antigen - produce more plasma and memory 27 cells
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Diversity of antibodies: infants are born with different clones of B cells in bone marrow, lymph nodes, and spleen; cells of the clone synthesize a specific antibody with a sequence of amino acids in its variable region that differs from the sequence synthesized by other clones Five classes of antibodies: immunoglobulins M, G, A, E, and D (Figure 21-18)
IgM: antibody that naive B cells synthesize and insert into their own plasma membranes; the predominant class produced after initial contact with an antigen IgG: makes up 75% of antibodies in the blood; predominant antibody of the secondary antibody response; can cross the placenta to impart natural passive immunity IgA: major class of antibody in mucous membranes, in saliva and tears IgE: small amount; produces harmful effects such as allergies IgD: small amount in blood; precise function unknown
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Antibody molecules produce antibody-mediated immunity (humoral immunity) within plasma Antibodies determine self from nonself by binding to antigens(Figure 21-19)
Antigen-antibody complex that may have several effects (Figure 21-20)
Transforms toxins into harmless substances Agglutinates antigens to be phagocytized Alters shape of the antibody to expose complement binding sites
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B CELLS AND ANTIBODY-MEDIATED IMMUNITY (cont.) Complement: a component of blood plasma consisting of several protein compounds Complement binds to the exposed site on the antibody A cascade of enzyme activation occurs Membrane attack complexes (MAC) form Drills a hole in the invaders plasma membrane Water rushes in causing the cell to burst = cytolysis
Complement cascade can also initiate vasodilation and chemotaxis to injured area
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Functions of T cells
Cytotoxic T cells: T cells release lymphotoxin to kill cells (Figure 21-26) Helper T cells: regulate the function of B cells, T cells, phagocytes, and other leukocytes (Figure 2127) Suppressor T cells: regulatory T cells that suppress lymphocyte function, thus regulating immunity and promoting self-tolerance T cells function to produce cell-mediated immunity and help regulate adaptive immunity in general
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TYPES OF ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY Adaptive immunity can be further classified according to the way in which it develops
Natural immunity results from nondeliberate exposure to antigens (cross recognition) Artificial immunity results from deliberate exposure to antigens, called immunization
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B cells and T cells work together in a coordinated system of adaptive immunity (Figure 21-29) 47
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Vaccinations
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