RF Propagation and Planning

Mobile Radio Propagation: Large-Scale Path Loss

Organization
Basic Propagation Mechanisms
Diffraction
Fresnel zone Geometry
Knife-edge Diffraction
Scattering
Reflection

Scattering
Occurs when the radio channel contains
objects whose sizes are on the order of the
wavelength or less of the propagating wave
and also when the number of obstacles are
quite large.
Causes the transmitter energy to be radiated
in many directions
Lamp posts and street signs may cause
scattering

3.8 Scattering
RF waves impinge on rough surface reflected energy diffuses in all
directions
e.g. lamp posts, trees ~ random multipath components
provides additional RF energy at receiver
actual received signal in mobile environment often stronger than
predicted by diffraction & reflection models alone
Reflective Surfaces
flat surfaces has dimensions >>
rough surface often induces reflection different from specular
reflections
surface roughness often tested using Rayleigh fading criterion
- define critical height for surface protuberances h
c
for given
incident angle u
i

h
c
=
i
u

sin 8
(3.62)
Let h = maximum protuberance minimum protuberance
if h < h
c
surface is considered smooth

if h > h
c
surface is considered rough
h
stone dielectric properties
Permittivity c
r
= 7.51
Conductance o = 0.028
Permeability = 0.95
rough stone parameters
h = 12.7cm
o
h
= 2.54
o
h
= standard deviation of surface height about mean surface height
For h > h
c
reflected E-fields can be solved for rough surfaces using
modified reflection coefficient
I
rough
=
s
I (3.65)

s
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
2
sin
exp

u to
i h
(3.63)
(i) Ament, assume h is a Gaussian distributed random variable with a
local mean, find
s
as:
(ii) Boithias modified scattering coefficient has better correlation
with empirical data
I
0
is Bessel Function of 1
st
kind and 0 order
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

2
0
2
sin
8
sin
8 exp

u to

u to
i h i h
I

s
= (3.64)
3.8.1 Radar Cross Section Model (RCS)
if a large distant objects causes scattering & its location is known
accurately predict scattered signal strengths
determine signal strength by analysis using
- geometric diffraction theory
- physical optics
units = m
2

RCS =
power density of radio wave incident upon scattering object
power density of signal scattered in direction of the receiver
d
T
= distance of transmitter from the scattering object
d
R
= distance of receiver from the scattering object
assumes object is in the far field of transmitter & receiver
P
r
(dBm) = P
t
(dBm) + G
t
(dBi) + 20 log() + RCS [dB m
2
]
30 log(4t) -20 log d
T
- 20log d
R
Urban Mobile Radio
Bistatic Radar Equation used to find received power from
scattering in far field region
describes propagation of wave traveling in free space that
impinges on distant scattering object
wave is reradiated in direction of receiver by:
RCS can be approximated by surface area of scattering object (m
2
)
measured in dB relative to 1m
2
reference
may be applied to far-field of both transmitter and receiver
useful in predicting received power which scatters off large
objects (buildings)
units = dB m
2
[Sei91] for medium and large buildings, 5-10km
14.1 dB m
2
< RCS < 55.7 dB m
2
Review
Types
Free space propagation model
Less accurate as it considers no obstruction
2-Ray Model
Reasonably accurate, Tower(h>50m)


Ground
reflected
path

Final Rx
signal
Direct Signal
ground
Ground Reflection (2-Ray Model)
The free space propagation model does not take into
account signal reflections.

The signal transmitted by a land-based antenna is
received by another land-based antenna in the
presence of a strong ground reflection.

The model is quite accurate for predicting received
signal strength over several km, using tall antennas.
We have
t

t 4
;
120
| |
) (
2 2
0
0
G
A A
E
d P
e e r
= =
After some manipulations, it can be shown that
4
2 2
) (
d
h h
G G P d P
r t
r t t r
=
That means that with the two-ray model received power
decays with
4
d
, rather than
2
d (as in free space).
Received power falls off at 40dB/decade of distance.
Path loss Models
Analytical Model
Empirical Model
Developed by fitting curves or expression
Actual field measurements (known & unknown
factors)
Considers a particular area , particular frequency ,
limited application
Combination of Analytical & Empirical
Lately , several classical models have
emerged to predict large scale coverage for
mobile communication systems .


Path Loss Models
Path loss models are used to estimate the received
signal level as a function of distance


Log Distance Path Model
Log-normal shadowing
Classification
Log-distance path loss model
Average received signal power decreases
logarithmically with distance, whether in outdoor
or indoor radio channels
The average large-scale path loss for an arbitrary
T-R separation is expressed as a function of
distance by using path loss exponent, n
n indicates the rate at which the path loss increases
with distance


Expression

o (d/d
0
)
n
or
= +10nlog(d/d
0
)
where , the bars in the above equations denote the
average of all the possible path loss values for a
given value of d
d is the Distance b/w Tx and Rx
d0

is the close-in reference distance
) (dB PL
) (d PL
) (
0
d PL
When plotted on a log scale: The modeled
pathloss is a straight line with a slope equal to 10n
dB per decade
For free-space n=2, and for the two-ray model n=4.

Environment Path Loss Exponent, n
Free space 2
Urban area cellular radio 2.7 to 3.5
Shadowed urban cellular radio 3 to 5
In building line-of-sight 1.6 to 1.8
Obstructed in building 4 to 6
Obstructed in factories 2 to 3
Path Loss Exponent for Different Environments
Log-normal Shadowing
Shadowing occurs when objects block LOS
between transmitter and receiver
Log distance path loss model does not consider the
fact that the surrounding environmental clutter
may be vastly different at two different locations
having the same T-R separation
This produces a change in the measured signals
which is vastly different from the average value
predicted by the previous model
A simple statistical model can account for
unpredictable shadowing
Add a zero-mean Gaussian RV to Log-Distance PL

PL(d)[dB] = PL(d)+X

= PL(d
0
)+10nlog(d/ d
0
)+X

and
P
r
(d)[dBm] = P
t
[dBm]-PL(d)[dB]
where,
X

is the Zero mean Gaussian distributed random
variable with standard deviation (also in dB)

o & n are derived from measurements using linear regression
minimizes difference between measured & estimated path loss
minimized in a mean-square sense over many measurements & ds
Path Loss Model Parameters for arbitrary location & specified Tx-Rx
d
0
close in reference distance
o - clutter standard deviation
n path loss exponent
Used for system design & analysis simulations to provide estimated
P
r
(d) at random locations

3.71 Pr [P
r
(d) > ] =
|
|
.
|

\
|

o
) (d P
Q
r
(ii) P
r
(d) > or P
r
(d) < is as
3.72 Pr [P
r
(d) < ] =
|
|
.
|

\
|

o
) (d P
Q
r
(i) PL(d) is RV with a normal distribution in dB about
as a result, P
r
(d) inherits these characteristics
) (d PL
(
) (d P
r

3.9.3 Determination of % Coverage Area
in a given coverage area, let = desired receive signal level
could be determined by receiver sensitivity (or visa versa)
random shadowing effects cause some locations at d to have
received power, P
r
(d) <
Determine boundary coverage vs % area covered within a boundary,
assuming
a circular coverage area with radius R from base station
likelihood of coverage at cell boundary is known (given)
d = r represents radial distance from transmitter
U() =
u
t
t
d dr r r P
R
R
r
] ) ( Pr[
1
2
0 0
2 } }
>
}
> dA r P
R
r
] ) ( Pr[
1
2

t
U() =
(3.73)
useful service area (coverage area): U() = % area with P
r
(d) >
r
R
Coverage Area=Area with signal>
Total Area of the cell
Left Axis = % area with P
r
(R) > (coverage area-use 3.73)
Right Axis = Pr[P
r
(R) > ] (boundary coverage-use 3.68)
o/n =
std deviation of X
path loss exponent
Pr[P
r
(r) > ] o/n U()
0.95 2 0.99
0.70 2 0.9
0.60 2 0.82
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
Pr[P
r
(r) > ]
1
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
U() %
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
o/n
Example 4.9
d
0
=100m P
0
=0dBm

d
1
=200m P
1
=-20dBm

d
2
=1km P
2
=-35dBm

d
3
=3km P
3
=-70dBm


|
.
|

\
|
+ =
d
d
n d P P
i i
0
0
log 10 ) (

Calculate a) n=?
b) o=?
c)
d)P
r
(P
r
(d)>-60dBm)=? E) U(=60dBm)=?


? ) 2 ( = = d p

Outdoor Propagation Model

Radio propagation in mobile communications
often takes place over irregular terrain.
The profile may vary from simple curved earth
profile to a highly mountainous profile.
The presence of trees, buildings, and other
obstacles need to be taken into account.
There are a number of mobile radio
propagation models to predict path loss over
irregular terrain.
These methods generally aim to predict the
signal strength at a particular sector. But they
vary widely in complexity and accuracy
Okumara Hata Model
OkumuraHata Model
A well-known propagation model for a macro cell
environment to predict median radio signal attenuation
An empirical model i.e. based on field measurements
Okumura performed field measurements in Tokyo and
published results in graphical format
Hata applied the measurement results into equations
Model can be applied without correction factors for urban
areas but in case of other terrain types correction factors
are needed
Weakness of the OkumuraHata model: Does not consider
reflections and shadowing
Okumara Hata Model
Parameter restrictions for model are:
Frequency f : 1501500 MHz, extension 15002000
MHz
Distance between MS and BTS d: 120 km
Transmitter antenna height Hb: 3200 m
Receiver antenna height Hm: 110 m
The OkumuraHata model for path loss prediction
can be written as

Okumara Hata Model
f = frequency (MHz)
Hb = base station antenna height (m)
a(Hm) = mobile antenna correction factor
d = distance between BTS & MS (km)
Lother = additional correction factor for area type correction
Correction factor for MS antenna height for a small or
medium sized city


And for a large city

Okumara Hata Model
Hm is MS antenna height:
Parameters A and B depend on frequency as
follows

Okumara Hata Model

Cell range i.e. distance between BTS and MS is from 1 to
20 km in these calculations
OkumuraHata model valid for frequency ranges 150
1500MHz and 15002000 MHz
Range for BS antenna height is from 30 to 200 metres
MS antenna height from 1 to 10 meters
With additional correction factor (Lother) model can be
applied for all terrain types (different morphological
areas)
Correction factors for each area are determined using the
drive tests to fine tune the model
Path loss calculation using OkumuraHata model done with two parameter
sets and compared to free space loss
Free space loss and OkumuraHata propagation
loss comparison

Okumara Hata Model
Some examples of propagation loss values

Walfisch Ikegami Model
WalfishIkegami Model
An empirical propagation model
for urban area
Applicable for micro cells but
also used for macro cells
Parameters related to Walfish
Ikegami model
Mean value for street widths (w)
in metres
Road orientation angle () in
degrees
Mean value for building heights
(hroof) is an average over
calculation area in metres
Mean value for building
separation (b) calculated from
centre of one building to centre
of another building metres
Walfisch Ikegami Model
WalfishIkegami model separates into two
cases
Line-of-sight (LOS)
Non-line of-sight
Formula for path loss prediction in LOS
condition can be written as

where d = distance (km)
f = frequency (MHz)
Walfisch Ikegami Model
For NLOS, path loss formula:

Lrts = Rooftopstreet diffraction and scatter loss
Lmsd = Multi screen diffraction loss
Path loss in non-line-of-sight situation consists
of three components
Rooftopstreet diffraction and scatter loss
Multi screen diffraction loss and
Free space loss

Walfisch-Ikegami Model
Walfisch-Ikegami Model
Following rule applies


Rooftopstreet diffraction & scatter loss= loss due
to radio wave propagation from closest rooftop to
receiver

LOri = Street orientation loss


Walfisch-Ikegami Model
Multiscreen diffraction loss= due to
propagation from BTS to the closest rooftop
to MS

Walfsich Ikegami Model
Where

Walfisch-Ikegami Model
Parameter ka increases path loss in case BTS is
below the rooftop
Parameters kf control the dependence of the
multi-screen diffraction loss on the the radio
frequency
Parameters for WalfishIkegami model
Frequency range 8002000 MHz
Range for BS Ae height is from 4 to 50 metres
Range for MS Ae height from 1 to 3 metres
Distance between the Tx and Rx from 20 to 5000
metres
Dominated by same mechanisms as outdoor propagation (reflection,
refraction, scattering)
Classified as either LOS or OBS
3.11 Indoor Propagation Model
smaller Tx-Rx separation distances than outdoors
higher environmental variability for much small Tx-Rx separation
- conditions vary from: doors open/closed, antenna position,
- variable far field radiation for receiver locations & antenna types
strongly influenced by building features, layout, materials
Partition Losses Same Floor
hard partitions: immovable, part of building
soft partitions: movable, lower than the ceiling
Partition Losses Different Floor: dependent on external building
dimensions, structural characteristics & materials
Log-distance path loss model: accurate for many indoor paths
PL(dB) =
o
X +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
0
0
log 10 ) (
d
d
n d PL
(3.93)
n depends on surroundings and building type
X
o
= normal random variable in dB having std deviation o
identical to log normal shadowing mode (3.69)
(2) Attenuation Factor Model (Seidel92b)
includes effect of building type & variations caused by obstacles
reduces std deviation for path loss to o ~ 4dB
std deviation for path loss with log distance model o ~13dB
n
SF
= exponent value for same floor measurement must be accurate
FAF = floor attenuation factor for different floor
PAF = partition attenuation factor for obstruction encountered by
primary ray tracing

+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = ) ( ) ( log 10 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
0
0
dB PAF dB FAF
d
d
n dB d PL dB d PL
SF
3.94
primary ray tracing = single ray drawn between Tx & Rx
yields good accuracy with good computational efficiency
FAF
PAF(1)
PAF(2)
Rx
Tx

+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = ) ( log 10 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
0
0
dB PAF
d
d
n dB d PL dB d PL
MF
3.95
o decreases as average region becomes smaller-more specific
Building Path Loss obeys free space + loss factor (o) (Dev90b)
loss factor increases exponentially with d
o (dB/m) = attenuation constant for channel
Replace FAF with n
MF
=

exponent for multiple floor loss
3.96

+ + +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = ) ( ) ( log 20 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
0
0
dB PAF dB FAF d
d
d
dB d PL dB d PL o
f

o
850MHz 0.62
1.7GHz 0.57
4-story bldg
f

o
850MHz 0.48
1.7GHz 0.35
2-story bldg
Location n

(dB) number of points
same floor 2.76 12.9 501
through 1 floor 4.19 5.1 73
through 2 floor 5.04 6.5 30
through 3 floor 5.22 6.7 30
Path Loss Exponent & Standard Deviation for Typical Building
The standard deviation decreases as the average
region becomes smaller and more site specific.
3.12 Signal Penetration into Buildings
no exact models
signal strength increases with height
lower levels are affected by ground clutter (attenuation &
penetration)
higher floors may have LOS channel stronger incident signal on
walls
RF Penetration affected by
- frequency: penetration loss decreases with increasing
frequency
- height within building: building penetration loss
decreased at a rate of 1.9dB per floor from the ground
level upto fifteenth floor, loss attributed to shadowing
- Measurement made in front of windows indicated
6dB less penetration loss
penetration loss
decreases with increased frequency
loss in front of windows is 6dB less than without windows
penetration loss decreases 1.9dB with each floor when < 15
th

floor
increased attenuation at <15 floors shadowing affects from
taller buildings
metallic tints result in 3dB to 30dB attenuation
penetration impacted by angle of incidence
Frequency
(MHz)
Attenuation
(dB)
441 16.4
896.5 11.6
1400 7.6
Ray Tracing & Site Specific Models
rapid acceleration of computer & visualization capabilities
SISP site specific propagation models
GIS graphical information systems
- support ray tracing
- augmented with aerial photos & architectural drawings
Penetration Loss vs Frequency for two different building
Frequency
(MHz)
Attenuation
(dB)
900 14.2
1800 13.4
2300 12.8
(1)
(2)