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INTRODUCTION
Rainwater harvesting is a technology used for collecting and storing rainwater from rooftops, the land surface or rock catchments using simple techniques such as jars and pots as well as more complex techniques such as underground check dams.
Design
For determining the volume of storage: Matching the capacity of the tank to the area of the roof Matching the capacity of the tank to the quantity of water required by its users Choosing a tank size that is appropriate in terms of costs, resources and construction methods. In practice the costs, resources and the construction methods tend to limit the tanks to smaller capacities than would otherwise be justified by roof areas or likely needs of consumers. For this reason elaborate calculations aimed at matching tank capacity to roof area is usually unnecessary. However a simplified calculation based on the following factors can give a rough idea of the potential for rainwater collection.
Illustration
Suppose the system has to be designed for meeting drinking water requirement of a fivemember family living in a building with a rooftop area of 100 sq. m. The average annual rainfall in the region is 600 mm (average annual rainfall in Delhi is 611 mm). Daily drinking water requirement per person (drinking and cooking) is 10 litres.
Design procedure:
Following details are available: Area of the catchment (A) = 100 sq. m. Average annual rainfall (R) = 611 mm (0.61 m) Runoff coefficient (C) = 0.85 1. 1. Calculate the maximum amount of rainfall that can be harvested from the rooftop: Annual water harvesting potential = 100 x 0.6 x 0.85 = 51 cu. m. (51,000 litres) 2. Determine the tank capacity: This is based on the dry period, i.e., the period between the two consecutive rainy seasons. For example, with a monsoon extending over four months, the dry season is of 245 days.
3. Calculate drinking water requirement for the family for the dry season = 245 x 5 x 10 = 12,250 litres As a safety factor, the tank should be built 20 per cent larger than required, i.e., 14,700 litres. This tank can meet the basic drinking water requirement of a 5member family for the dry period. A typical size of a rectangular tank constructed in the basement will be about 4.0 m x 4.0 m x 1.0 m
In places where the withdrawal of water is more than the rate of recharge an imbalance in the groundwater reserves is created. Recharging of aquifers are undertaken with the following objectives: To maintain or augment natural groundwater as an economic resource To conserve excess surface water underground To combat progressive depletion of groundwater levels To combat unfavorable salt balance and saline water intrusion = 4.25 cu. m. (4,250 litres) In designing a recharge trench, the length of the trench is an important factor. Once the required capacity is calculated, length can be calculated by considering a fixed depth and width.
Selection of site: Recharge structures should be planned out after conducting proper hydrogeological investigations. Based on the analysis of this data (already existing or those collected during investigation) it should be possible to: 1) Define the sub-surface geology. 2)Determine the presence or absence of impermeable layers or lenses that can impede percolation 3) Define depths to water table and groundwater flow directions 4) Establish the maximum rate of recharge that could be achieved at the site.
The capacity of the tank should be enough to retain the runoff occurring from conditions of peak rainfall intensity. The rate of recharge in comparison to runoff is a critical factor. However, since accurate recharge rates are not available without detailed geo-hydrological studies, the rates have to be assumed. The capacity of recharge tank is designed to retain runoff from at least 15 minutes rainfall of peak intensity. (For Delhi, peak hourly rainfall is 90 mm (based on 25 year frequency) and 15 minutes peak rainfall is 22.5 mm/hr, say, 25 mm, according to CGWB norms). Illustration For an area of 100 sq. m., volume of desilting tank required in Delhi = 100 x 0.025 x 0.85 = 2.125 cu. m. (2,125 litres)
Roof top rain water harvesting system Surface runoff rain water harvesting system
1 .Changi Airport:
In this system implemented in a 15 storey building, the collected roof water was diverted to two rainwater tanks and the water was used only for flushing. The water quality was acceptable in terms of color, turbidity and bacteriological content though the total solids and chloride levels were marginally higher. A simple dual mode system was incorporated in the collection tanks which were placed on the roof of the building. An economic appraisal established that there was an effective saving of 13.7% of the water. The cost of the rainwater was s$0.395 (us$0.25) per cubic meter (cum) as against the cost of potable water which was s$0.535 (us$ 0.33).
In an urban residential area of about 742 hectares having a total of 49,000 flats, rainwater harvesting was very effective. Using further modified computer programmed, it was possible to compute the volume of potable water to be pumped when there was no stored rainwater and also determine the frequency of such pumping.
By 1986, the growing need for water led to the establishment of the lower Seletar-Bedok water scheme where almost nine per cent of the total land area was used. The most important feature of this scheme is that almost one-quarter of this catchment is in urban area having high rise buildings and industries and surface run-offs were subject to a wide verities of contaminants. Hence the control of the water pollution and relevant technologies were the main priorities of the scheme. The lower involved the damming of the Sungei Seletar estuary, which has a catchment area of 3200 ha, and forming of lower Seletar reservoir. The reservoirs are interconnected and raw water from Bedok reservoir is treated to potable levels before distribution. The rest of the catchment of 2,625 ha was primarily urban and both the runoffs are directed to Bedok reservoir.
Advantages
Rainwater harvesting technologies are simple to install and operate. Local people can be easily trained to implement such technologies, and construction materials are also readily available. It is convenient in the sense that it provides water at the point of consumption, and family members have full control of their own systems, which greatly reduces operation and maintenance problems. Running costs, also, are almost negligible. Water collected from roof catchments usually is of acceptable quality for domestic purposes.
It is collected using existing structures not specially constructed for the purpose. It has few negative environmental impacts compared to other water supply project technologies. Although regional or other local factors can modify the local climatic conditions, rainwater can be a continuous source of water supply for both the rural and poor. Depending upon household capacity and needs, both the water collection and storage capacity may be increased as needed within the available catchment area.
Disadvantages
Disadvantages of rainwater harvesting technologies are mainly due to the limited supply and uncertainty of rainfall. Adoption of this technology requires a *bottom up* approach rather than the more usual *top down* approach employed in other water resources development projects. This may make rainwater harvesting less attractive to some governmental agencies tasked with providing water supplies in developing countries, but the mobilization of local government and NGO resources can serve the same basic role in the development of rainwater-based schemes as water resources development agencies in the larger, more traditional public water supply schemes.
For high quality performance. Following aspects should be taken care of: Just before the arrival of monsoon, the rooftop/catchmet area has to be cleaned properly. The roof outlet on the terrace should be covered with a mesh to prevent entry of leafs or other solid waste into the system. The filter materials have to be either replaced or washed properly before the monsoon. The diversion valve has to be opened for the first 5 to 10 minutes of rain to dispose off the polluted first flush. All polluted water should be taken away from the recharge structures. The depth of bores (of recharge structures) shall be finalised depending on the actual site condition
Harvested rainwater is used for direct usage or for recharging aquifers so following precautionary measures should be taken while harvesting rainwater:Roof or terraces uses for harvesting should be clean, free from dust, algal plants etc. Roof should not be painted since most paints contain toxic substances and may peel off. Do not store chemicals, rusting iron, manure or detergent on the roof. Nesting of birds on the roof should be prevented. Terraces should not be used for toilets either by human beings or by pets. Provide gratings at mouth of each drainpipe on terraces to trap leaves debris and floating materials.
Provision of first rain separator should be made to flush off first rains. Do not use polluted water to recharge ground water. Ground water should only be recharged by rainwater. Before recharging, suitable arrangements of filtering should be provided. Filter media should be cleaned before every monsoon season. During rainy season, the whole system (roof catchment's, pipes, screens, first flush, filters, tanks) should be checked before and after each rain and preferably cleaned after every dry period exceeding a month. At the end of the dry season and just before the first shower of rain is anticipated, the storage tank should be scrubbed and flushed off all sediments and debris.