BIOENERGETICS Part 2

HOW THE BODY CONVERTS FOOD TO ENERGY

GLUCONEOGENESIS
Production of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources
Lactate All amino acids except leucine and lysine Glycerol from fats
Amino acids and glycerol are used only under starvation conditions

Occurs primarily in the liver

CORI CYCLE

GLYCOGENESIS
Formation of glycogen from glucose Occurs in the liver

Influenced by insulin
Inhibits glycogen phosphorylase Stimulates glycogen synthase and glucokinase

GLYCOGENOLYSIS
Breakdown of stored glycogen to form glucose Influenced generally by glucagon and epinephrine in response to low blood glucose levels Glycogen phosphorylase is activated Glycogen synthase is inhibited

(2) CITRIC ACID CYCLE

Also known as the Krebs Cycle Final stage of the breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids. Series of enzymes involved

KETONES
Formed from beta-oxidation pathway of fatty acid metabolism due to low level of glucose (starvation and fasting) Low glucose supply slows down citric acid cycle
No glycolysis No PEP production Greatly reduced oxaloacetate production
As a result, acetyl CoA builds up in the body

(3) OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION

Is a series of reactions which couples the oxidation of NADH and FADH2 to the phosphorylation of ADP to generate ATP NADH = used to produce 3 ATPs FADH2 = used to produce 2 ATPs

NUMBER OF ATP PRODUCED BY THE COMPLETE OXIDATION OF ONE MOLECULE OF GLUCOSE Glycolysis
Substrate-level Phosphorylation 2 ATP 2 NADH x 2 ATP/cytoplasmic NADH 4 ATP

Conversion of 2 pyruvate molecules to 2 acetyl CoA molecules

2 NADH x 3 ATP/NADH 6 ATP 2 ATP 18 ATP 4 ATP

Citric Acid Cycle

2 GTP x 1 ATP/GTP 6 NADH x 3 ATP/NADH 2 FADH2 x 2 ATP/FADH2

CATABOLISM OF THE NITROGEN OF AMINO ACIDS

Dietary proteins are hydrolyzed to amino acids in digestion Amino acids are primarily used to synthesize new proteins Cannot be stored, so excess amino acids are catabolized for energy production in the liver
1. Transamination 2. Oxidative Deamination 3. Urea Cycle

TRANSAMINATION
Amino acids transfer their amino group to alpha-ketoglutarate

OXIDATIVE DEAMINATION
Oxidative deamination of glutamate

UREA CYCLE Ammonia is converted to urea

CATABOLISM OF HEME
Red Blood Cells 80 120 days life span Destroyed by the phagocytic cells Hemoglobin is metabolized
Globin is hydrolyzed to amino acids Heme is oxidized to biliverdin and finally reduced to bilirubin Bilirubin enters the liver Iron is preserved in ferritin and reused