Air Pollution

Lecture 10

Air pollution
Gases, liquids or solids present in the atmosphere cause harm to humans, other organisms or materials There are
Primary air pollutants emitted unchanged directly into the atmosphere (e.g. lead) Secondary air pollutants produced from chemical rxn involving primary pollutants (e.g. ozone)

There is
Outdoor air pollution Indoor air pollution sometimes higher than outdoor
fuel-burning (wood, coal, etc.) households have increased health risks (e.g. Soweto study) Non-fuel burning households limited data on SA but for the USA EPA conducted a comprehensive study sick building syndrome: headaches, coughing, sneezing, burning eyes, chronic fatigue Formaldehyde (furniture, paneling, foam insulation), asbestos (insulation, tiles), other organics (trichloroethane aerosols sprays, paradichlorobenzene air fresheners, etc)

Particulate Matter (PM)

Solids > dust and liquids > mists Can include many things: soot, lead asbestos, soil particles, salt and sulfuric acid droplets NB aerodynamic characteristics of particles in flow streams - depended on the size, shape and density of particles Size very important: smaller more harmful
PM10 (diameter < 10 m) inhalable PM2.5 (diameter < 2.5 m) respirable Deposited in and damaging to the lower airways and the lungs - Health effects depend on particle size and chemical composition

Wet and dry depositions damage plants, metal surfaces, fabrics and buildings

Sources of PM
Vehicle emissions (diesel) Industrial & commercial fuel burning
boilers, kilns etc.

Power generation (Eskom) Diesel-powered locomotives an shipping Mining (smoldering coal dumps) Household fuel combustion Biomass combustion (wild fires and crop burning) Other: waste incineration, tyre burning etc

Source: DEAT, 2006

Sulphur Oxides (SO2 and SO3)

SO2 colourless, nonflammable gas
Irritating gas with adverse health effects: coughing, chest discomforts and bronchitis Aggravates asthma

SO3 - is a secondary air pollutant Ecologically sulphur oxides produce acid rain and acidification of dams and rivers Acid rain affects crops, trees and buildings

Sources of SO2
Vehicle emissions (diesel) Industrial & commercial fuel burning
boilers, kilns etc.

Power generation (Eskom) Diesel-powered locomotives an shipping Mining (smoldering coal dumps) Household fuel combustion Biomass combustion (wild fires and crop burning)

Source: DEAT, 2006

Nitrogen Oxides (NOX)

Nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitrous oxide (N2O) Respiratory irritants increasing risk of infections Ecological effects:
Important role in O3 generation Contribute towards acidification and acid rain
Damage to trees, crops and buildings

N2O is a powerful greenhouse gas and contributes to stratospheric ozone depletion

Sources of NO2
Vehicle emissions (diesel) Industrial & commercial fuel burning Power generation (Eskom) Diesel-powered locomotives and shipping Mining (smoldering coal dumps) Household fuel combustion Biomass combustion (wild fires and crop burning)

Source: DEAT, 2006

Ozone (O3)
Powerful, toxic pollutant in the troposphere Most harmful component of smog Damages lung tissue and reduces lung function Impacts on plant function and productivity
E.g. soybeans yields decreased by 35 %

Is a greenhouse gas

Tropospheric Ozone Formation

Ozone is a secondary pollutant formed through a complex photochemical reaction sequence requiring reactive hydrocarbons, nitrogen dioxide and sunlight traffic during day time can only be controlled by reducing the concentrations of nitrogen dioxide and/or hydrocarbons in ambient air the production of O3 takes time, air masses may thus have moved away from the sources of precursors before peak concentrations are reached.

Hydrocarbons and VOCs

Diverse group - gas, liquid and solids VOCs (Volatile Organic Compounds)
Irritants (formaldehyde) Carcinogens (benzene and methyl chloride)

Ecological effects
All (except methane) participate in the formation of O3 and smog at ground level

Sources diverse
VOCs: vehicles, dry cleaners, chemical manufacture plants, paint shops Benzene, toluene and methylene chloride (10 %) are associated with waste disposal sites

Metals in the Air - Lead

Lead v toxic:
Acute: brain damage, kidney damage Chronic: affects the blood, central nervous system, kidneys and vit. D metabolism Children are v sensitive to the chronic effects

Sources
Fuel additives (leaded fuel), lead smelters and battery plants

Standard
0.5 g/m3 limit value and 0.25 g/m3 target value for an annual average

Other Metals in the Air (Cr, Cd, Ni, As)

Effects
Carcinogens (Cr6+, Cd, Ni, As) Cd is highly toxic to wildlife and plants

Sources
Incineration Industrial processes

No air quality limits are set in SA Limits for EU annual average

As 6 ng/m3 Cd 5 ng/m3 Ni 20 ng/m3

High Pollution Days

Atmospheric Emission Sources

Fuel Combustion
Electricity Generation Commercial, Industrial and Household Fuel Burning Transportation

Industrial Processes Waste and Water Treatment

Incineration and Landfill Operations Wastewater Treatment

Mining Agricultural Burning Other Sources

Overview - Sources

Electricity Generation in SA

Emissions per kWh produced by Eskom - 2006

160 g ash 0.22 g particulates (PM) 8.46 g SOX 4.21 g NOX 0.98 kg CO2

Coal used: 0.54 kg Water used: 1.4 kg

Liquid Fuel Sales SA

Air Pollution Monitoring in SA

Air quality data collected in various parts of SA No coordinated approach at national or provincial level 35 agencies different methodologies and approaches Most commonly monitored: SO2, NOX (NO2 and/or NO), O3 and PM (PM10 and dust) Other key urban pollutants (PM2.5, benzene and Pb) are not widely monitored Most stations situated around metropolitan and industrial centers rural and semi-rural areas left out In the eThekwini metro there are currently 15 stations monitoring air quality

Air Quality Management in SA

Air Quality Act (39/2004) a shift from source control to the receiving environment air quality management
Decentralisation of responsibilities at local level Sources: identified, quantified and addressed Ambient air quality targets Source based control measures plus alternative measures (incentives/disincentives, education, voluntary programmes, etc) Access to information and public consultation

Local authorities responsible for:

Monitoring and meeting nationally set limits Air Quality Management Plans

Overview
Elevated PM concentrations in SA
Widespread and frequent exceedances

Exceedances due to SO2 more localised and less frequent NO2 and O3 limits are infrequently exceeded but there is an increasing trend
transportation

Concern about heavy metals monitoring and research