Chapter 4

Nutrients

Purpose of food
Provide energy for vital activities of the body. Synthesize new protoplasm; for cell growth, repair of worn out parts of the body & cell division

Maintain health, i.e. to prevent deficiency diseases.

Nutrients in food
Carbohydrates Fats Organic Nutrients

Proteins
Vitamins Dietary fibre Water Mineral Salts Inorganic Nutrients

Water
Makes up 60% to 70% of body weight. Lost in urine, perspiration and breathing. If not replaced, body gets dehydrated.

Functions
Transport

Mode of action
Main part of blood and body fluid Medium for transport of nutrients Solvent for chemical reaction Needed for digestion

Reactions

Lubrication

Part of the fluid in muscular joint Part of mucus in the alimentary canal
Evaporation of water, cools down the body Prevents overheating

Homeostasis

Carbohydrates :Organic compounds made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

Carbohydrates Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides glycogen

(simple sugars)
Eg. Glucose Fructose Galactose

(complex sugars)
starch cellulose Eg. Maltose Lactose Sucrose

Functions of carbohydrates
Source of energy Form supporting structures, e.g. cellulose cell walls in plants. To be converted to other organic compounds such as amino acids and fats. Formation of nucleic acids.

Synthesize lubricants, eg. Mucus.

Produce nectar in flowers which attracts insects and allow cross pollination to occur.

Types of sugar: Simple sugars or monosaccharides Complex sugars or disaccharides -sucrose (glucose + fructose) -lactose (glucose + galactose) -maltose (glucose + glucose) polysaccharides
disaccharides monosaccharides

Types of polysaccharides: Starch Glycogen Cellulose

Condensation

Condensation
The following equation shows how a maltose molecule can be produced from two glucose molecules.

Condensation
The following equation shows how a maltose molecule can be produced from two glucose molecules.

+
C6H12O6 glucose (simple molecule) C6H12O6 glucose (simple molecule)

Condensation
The following equation shows how a maltose molecule can be produced from two glucose molecules.

+
C6H12O6 glucose (simple molecule) C6H12O6 glucose (simple molecule)

C12H22O11 maltose (larger molecule)

Condensation
The following equation shows how a maltose molecule can be produced from two glucose molecules. In this reaction, a molecule of water is lost. This is called a condensation reaction.

+
C6H12O6 glucose (simple molecule) C6H12O6 glucose (simple molecule)

C12H22O11 maltose (larger molecule)

H2O water

Condensation
The following equation shows how a maltose molecule can be produced from two glucose molecules. In this reaction, a molecule of water is lost. This is called a condensation reaction.

+
C6H12O6 glucose (simple molecule) C6H12O6 glucose (simple molecule)

C12H22O11 maltose (larger molecule)

H2O water

Definition: A condensation reaction is a chemical reaction in which two simple molecules are joined together to form a larger molecule with the removal of one molecule of water.

Hydrolysis

Hydrolysis
A double sugar can be split into two single sugar molecules by using an organic molecule called an enzyme.

Hydrolysis
A double sugar can be split into two single sugar molecules by using an organic molecule called an enzyme. For example, when a solution of maltose is mixed with the enzyme maltase,

C12H22O11 maltose (double sugar)

maltase (enzyme)

Hydrolysis
A double sugar can be split into two single sugar molecules by using an organic molecule called an enzyme. For example, when a solution of maltose is mixed with the enzyme maltase, glucose molecules are produced.

C12H22O11 maltose (double sugar)

maltase (enzyme)

+ C6H12O6 glucose (single sugar) C6H12O6 glucose (single sugar)

Hydrolysis
A double sugar can be split into two single sugar molecules by using an organic molecule called an enzyme. For example, when a solution of maltose is mixed with the enzyme maltase, glucose molecules are produced. Note that a molecule of water is needed to split up the maltose molecule.

C12H22O11 maltose (double sugar)

H2O water

maltase (enzyme)

+ C6H12O6 glucose (single sugar) C6H12O6 glucose (single sugar)

Hydrolysis
A double sugar can be split into two single sugar molecules by using an organic molecule called an enzyme. For example, when a solution of maltose is mixed with the enzyme maltase, glucose molecules are produced. Note that a molecule of water is needed to split up the maltose molecule.

C12H22O11 maltose (double sugar)

H2O water

maltase (enzyme)

+ C6H12O6 glucose C6H12O6 glucose (single sugar) (single sugar) Definition: Hydrolysis or a hydrolytic reaction is a reaction in which a water molecule is needed to break up a complex molecule into smaller molecules.

Test for reducing sugars

Benedicts solution contains copper(II) sulphate (blue). When reduced, it forms a brick-red precipitate of copper(I)oxide.

Add 2 cm3 of Benedicts solution to 2 cm3 of test solution in a test-tube. Shake the mixture before immersing the test-tube in a beaker of boiling water. Observe any colour changes. The colour change can range from blue to green to yellow to brick-red or orange-red precipitate.

Test for starch

Add a few drops of iodine solution to the food sample. The colour changes from brown to blueblack

Enzyme hydrolysis of starch

Enzyme hydrolysis of starch

amylase amylase amylase starch is first broken down by amylase part of a starch molecule

Enzyme hydrolysis of starch

amylase amylase amylase part of a starch molecule amylase enzymes break bonds, releasing maltose maltose molecules

Enzyme hydrolysis of starch

amylase amylase amylase

part of a starch molecule maltose molecules cannot be broken down by amylase amylase amylase amylase amylase

maltose molecules

Enzyme hydrolysis of starch

amylase amylase amylase

part of a starch molecule maltose molecules are broken down by maltase maltase maltase maltase maltase

maltose molecules

Enzyme hydrolysis of starch

amylase amylase amylase

part of a starch molecule maltase maltase maltase maltase

maltose molecules further bond-breaking by maltase enzymes releases glucose glucose molecules

Fats
Organic compounds made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but contain lesser oxygen in proportion to hydrogen.

Functions of fats: As an efficient source and storage of energy. As an insulating material, especially beneath the skin, prevent excess heat loss.

As a solvent for fat-soluble vitamins and many other vital substances. E.g. sex hormones.
As a constituent of protoplasm. As a mean to restrict water loss from the surface of the skin.

Hydrolysis of fats

Hydrolysis of fats
Fats can be broken down into simpler compounds by hydrolysis.

H-C-O-C-R O H-C-O-C-R O H-C-O-C-R H _ _ _

fat molecule

Hydrolysis of fats
Fats can be broken down into simpler compounds by hydrolysis. This involves the addition of water molecules (hydrolysis),
H O H2O

H-C-O-C-R O H-C-O-C-R O H-C-O-C-R H _ _ _

fat molecule

H2O H2O

three water

molecules

Hydrolysis of fats
Fats can be broken down into simpler compounds by hydrolysis. This involves the addition of water molecules (hydrolysis) and occurs readily with an enzyme or a catalyst.
H O H2O H-C-O-C-R O H-C-O-C-R O H-C-O-C-R H _ _ _ _

H2O H2O

catalyst

fat molecule

three water

molecules

Hydrolysis of fats
Fats can be broken down into simpler compounds by hydrolysis. This involves the addition of water molecules (hydrolysis) and occurs readily with an enzyme or a catalyst.
H O H2O H O HO - C - R O H-C-O-C-R O H-C-O-C-R O H-C-O-C-R H _ _ _ _ H - C - OH _ _

H2O H2O

catalyst

H - C - OH H - C - OH H _ _

HO - C - R O HO - C - R

fat molecule

three water

glycerol

three fatty

molecules

acid molecules

Fatty acids and glycerol are the products of fat hydrolysis.

Test for fats

Add 2 cm3 of ethanol to a drop of food sample in a test tube. Add 2 cm3 of water to the mixture. Shake the mixture. A cloudy white emulsion is formed.

Proteins
Complex organic substances containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Sulphur and phosphorus often present.

Functions of protein: Essential for the synthesis of protoplasm, for growth and repair of worn-out body cells. Used for the synthesis of enzymes and some hormones. Used in the formation of anti-bodies to combat diseases. A source of energy.

Test for proteins

Add 2cm3 of Biuret solution to the food sample. Shake well and allow the mixture to stand for 5 mins. The colour change from blue to violet.

Protein Formation and Denaturation

Protein Formation and Denaturation

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins.
amino acids

Protein Formation and Denaturation

Amino acids link up to form polypeptides or peptones.
amino acids

polypeptides

Protein Formation and Denaturation

The bond formed between two amino acids is strong and is called a peptide bond. Peptide bonds are formed in a condensation reaction.
amino acids

polypeptides peptide bond

Protein Formation and Denaturation

amino acids

Polypeptides in turn may be linked up to form an even longer chain of amino acids.

polypeptides

longer chain of amino acids

Protein Formation and Denaturation

amino acids

polypeptides

longer chain of amino acids

The coils are held in place by weak bonds.

protein

weak bonds

Protein Formation and Denaturation

amino acids

polypeptides

A protein molecule is made up of one or more long chains of amino acids folded together. The chains are coiled or folded to give the protein a three-dimensional shape.

longer chain of amino acids

protein

Protein Formation and Denaturation

These weak bonds are easily broken by heat and chemicals such as acids and alkalis.
protein weak bonds

Protein Formation and Denaturation

weak bonds broken protein denaturation

longer chain of amino acids

When these bonds are broken, the protein loses its three-dimensional shape. We say the protein has been denatured. Denaturation usually involves a loss of function of the protein.

Why Must Proteins Be Broken Down in the Body?

Why Must Proteins Be Broken Down in the Body?

An animal cannot directly absorb the proteins it takes in because protein molecules are too large to pass through living cell surface membranes.

protein molecule

cell surface membrane pore on membrane

Why Must Proteins Be Broken Down in the Body?

An animal cannot directly absorb the proteins it takes in because protein molecules are too large to pass through living cell surface membranes. These protein molecules must be broken down by enzymes during digestion.

protein molecule

cell surface membrane pore on membrane

Why Must Proteins Be Broken Down in the Body?

Digestion is a series of hydrolytic reactions.

Why Must Proteins Be Broken Down in the Body?

Digestion is a series of hydrolytic reactions. The proteins are first hydrolysed into short polypeptides (or peptones).
protein hydrolysis (digestion)

polypeptides

Why Must Proteins Be Broken Down in the Body?

Digestion is a series of hydrolytic reactions. The proteins are first hydrolysed into short polypeptides (or peptones). Polypeptides are in turn hydrolysed into amino acids.
protein hydrolysis (digestion)

polypeptides hydrolysis (digestion) amino acids

Why Must Proteins Be Broken Down in the Body?

Amino acids are simpler and much smaller molecules than proteins. They are soluble in water and are small enough to diffuse through living membranes. Hence, they can be easily absorbed into an animals body.
protein molecule

amino acids cell surface membrane pore on membrane

Figure 4.16 Proteins are too large to diffuse through cell surface membranes, whereas amino acids are small enough to pass through.

Why Must Proteins Be Broken Down in the Body?

amino acids

When amino acids enter the body cells, they are linked up again to form the protein needed by the animal.

polypeptides

protein

The Chemicals of Life (Concept Map)

NUTRIENTS
Carbohydrates
Organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in a ratio of 1 : 2 : 1.
may be

Fats
Organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen but they contain much less oxygen in proportion to hydrogen. Basic units Fats are hydrolysed to form fatty acids and glycerol. Identification Test for fats: A cloudy white emulsion is formed in the ethanol emulsion test.

Proteins
Organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Sulphur may also be present. Basic units Proteins consist of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. amino acids polypeptides proteins Identification Test for proteins: Proteins give a violet colouration with Biuret reagent.

Water
Inorganic nutrient. Water does not contain carbon. Functions of water In animals, water: is a medium for chemical reactions to occur; transports digested food products, excretory products, and hormones from one part of the body to another; is an essential part of protoplasm, lubricants, digestive juices and blood; is essential for hydrolysis; and helps to control body temperature.

Monosaccharides (single sugars), e.g. glucose, fructose and galactose Disaccharides (double sugars), e.g. maltose, lactose and sucrose

Polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates) made up of many monosaccharides

e.g.

Identification Test for reducing sugars: A reducing sugar gives a brick-red precipitate when boiled with Benedicts solution. Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.

Starch

serves as the main form of storage for carbohydrates in green plants; and gives a blue-black colour with iodine (test for starch). serves as the main form of storage for carbohydrates in animals and fungi. forms the cell walls in plants; and cannot be digested by mammals, but is used as fibre in their diet.

Glycogen

Cellulose

In plants, water: is essential for photosynthesis; is needed to keep plant cells turgid; transports mineral salts from the roots to the leaves; and transports food substances from the leaves to other parts of the plants.

Vitamins
Organic compounds.
Required in small amounts. Vitamins B and C are water soluble. (cannot be stored in the body) Vitamins A, D, E and K are fat soluble. (can be stored in the body and not required to be consumed daily)

Vitamins C

Sources
Fruits Potatoes Green

Function Healthy skin Strong Gums Aids in iron absorption Aids in calcium absorption Builds teeth and bones Maintains teeth and bones

Deficiency Scurvy Bleeding gums Loose teeth Rickets Leads to bowlegs

Vegetables D
Fish

liver Fish oil Dairy products

Minerals
Inorganic, chemical elements Regulate body processes

Not stored in the body (except Fe)

Is quickly used and lost Body needs calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iodine, iron and zinc
Minerals Calcium Sources
Cheese Milk Oyster Green

Functions Blood clotting Muscle contraction Development of strong bones

Deficiency Soft bones Osteoporosis Rickets

Vegetables
Iron
Egg Legume Green

Forms haemoglobin Transport oxygen

Anemia Fatigue

Vegetables

Fibre
Consists of carbohydrates. (mainly cellulose and lignin) Not digested by the human beings. Prevents constipation.

Sources
Fruits Vegetables Wholemeal bread Cereals

Functions
Stimulates peristalsis. Absorbs water, making wastes softer.

Energy value of food Different organic food substances have different energy values. Energy value of:- carbohydrates is 16kJ/g - proteins is 17kJ/g - fats is 38kJ/g