Root Locus Analysis

Section 8.
E&CE 380
Copyright 1998 by William J. Wilson. All rights reserved
K
s GH
s KGH
1
) (
0 ) ( 1
=
= +
je
o
X
X
4
O
p
2
p
3
p
1
z
1
X
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Root Locus Analysis
The roots of the closed-loop characteristic equation
define the system characteristic responses.
Their location in the complex s-plane lead to
prediction of the characteristics of the time domain
responses in terms of:
damping ratio, ,
natural frequency, e
n
damping constant, o first-order modes
Consider how these roots change as the loop gain is
varied from 0 to .

second-order modes
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Root Locus Example
The closed-loop
transfer function is

The characteristic equation
is

Consider the characteristic
roots as K = 0 .
E(s) R(s) C(s)
+

) 2 (
+
s s
K
K s s
K
s R
s C
+ +
=
) 2 ( ) (
) (
0 2
2
= + +
K s s
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
For K = 0 the closed-loop
poles are at the open-loop
poles.
For 0 < K < 1 the closed-loop
poles are on the real axis.
For K > 1 the closed-loop
poles are complex, with a real
value of 1 and an imaginary
value increasing with gain K .

Root Locus Example
je
o
X X
2
K = 0
K = 1
K
loci of closed-loop roots
K s
=
1 1
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Time (sec.)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

Step Responses
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6

K = 0.5
K = 1.0
K = 2.0
K = 15.0
K = 50.0
je
o
X X
2
K = 0
K = 1
K
Root Locus Example:
Step Responses
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
This is a second-order system and there two loci.
The root loci start at the open-loop poles.
The root loci tend towards the open-loop zeros at
infinity as K . (Note: the number of zeros is
equal to the number of poles, when the zeros at
infinity are included.)
The relationship between the characteristic
responses and the increasing gain is seen through
the root loci.
Root Locus Example:
Some Observations
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
The General Root Locus Method
Consider the general
system



where
The characteristic
equation is

or

or
R(s)
C(s)
+

G(s)
H(s)
) ( 1
) (
) (
) (
s GH
s G
s R
s C
+
=
L
2 , 1 , 0
=
k
1 ) (
=
s GH
0 ) ( 1
= +
s GH
) 1 2 ( ) (
1 ) (
+ = Z
=
k s GH
s GH
t
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
All values of s which satisfy
; ;
are roots of the closed-loop characteristic
equation.
Consider the following general form
The General Root Locus Method
L
2 , 1 , 0
=
k 1 ) (
=
s GH ) 1 2 ( ) (
+ = Z
k s GH
t

zero. be may : Note
i
p
) ( ) )( (
) ( ) )( (
) (
2 1
2 1
n
m
p s p s p s
z s z s z s K
s GH
+ + +
+ + +
=
L
L
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Then
The General Root Locus Method
1
=
i
1 ) (
1
=
+
+
=
[
[
=
p s
z s K
s GH
n
i
m
i
i
L
2 , 1 , 0
=
k
) 1 2 ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1 1
+ = + Z + Z = Z

= =
k p s z s s GH
n
i
i
m
i
i
t
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Root Locus Method:
Geometric Interpretation
Consider the example


Then the values of s = s
1

which satisfy

) )( (
) (
) (
3 2
1
p s p s s
z s K
s GH
+ +
+
=
t
) 1 2 ( )) ( ) ( ( ) (
3 2 1
+ = + Z + + Z + Z + Z
k p s p s s z s
1
3 2
1
=
+ +
+
p s p s s
z s K
are on the loci and are roots of the characteristic equation.
je
o
X
X
-z
1

X
O
-p
1

-p
3

-p
2

s
1

u
p1

u
p2

u
p3

u
z1

A
B
C
D
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Root Locus Method:
Geometric Interpretation
In terms of the vectors,
the condition for s = s
1

to be on the root loci are


and



je
o
X
X
-z
1

X
O
-p
1

-p
3

-p
2

s
1

u
p1

u
p2

u
p3

u
z1

A
B
C
D
K BCD
A
BCD
A K 1
or 1
= =
L
, 2 , 1 , 0
) 1 2 ( ) (
3 2 1 1
=
+ = + +
k
k
p p p z
t u u u u
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Root Locus Method
When plotting the loci
of the roots as
K = 0 , the
magnitude condition is
always satisfied.
Therefore, a value of
s = s
1
that satisfies the
angle condition, is a
point of the root loci.
The magnitude condition
may then be used to
determine the gain K
corresponding to that
value s
1
.
How can we easily
determine if the angle
condition is satisfied?

E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Root Locus Construction Rules
1. The loci start (K = 0)
at the poles of the
open-loop system.
There are n loci .
2. The loci terminate
(K ) at the zeroes
of the open-loop
system (include zeroes
at infinity).
For our example system


Therefore, as K 0 ,
GH(s) , the poles of
the loop transfer function.
As K , GH(s) 0 ,
the zeroes of the loop
transfer function.
K p s p s s
z s
s GH
1
) (
3 2
1
=
+ +
+
=
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
3. The root loci are
symmetrical about the
real axis.
4. As K the loci
approach asymptotes.
There are q = n m
asymptotes and they
intersect the real axis at
angles defined by
The roots with imaginary
parts always occur in
conjugate complex pairs.
When the loci approach
infinity, the angles from
all the poles and zeroes
are equal. The angle
condition then is
mu nu = (2k + 1)t
Root Locus Construction Rules
L
, 2 , 1 , 0 ,
) 1 2 (
=
+
k
q
k
t
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design

The angles from poles
and zeroes to the left
of s
1
are zero. The
angles from poles and
zeroes to the right are
t. An odd number
are required to satisfy
the angle condition.
Root Locus Construction Rules
5. The asymptotes
intersection point on the
real is defined by


6. Real axis sections of the
root loci exist only where
there is an odd number of
poles and zeroes to the
right.
q
s GH s GH


=
) ( of zeroes ) ( of poles
o
a

E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Consider our example
with z
1
= 4 , p
12
= 1 2j


Asymptotes:
Root Locus Construction Rules
Example
) 2 1 )( 2 1 (
) 4 (
) (
j s j s s
s K
s GH
+ + +
+
=
| | | |
1
1 3
) 4 ( ) 2 1 ( ) 2 1 ( 0
+ =

+
=
j j
a
o
2 1 3
) 1 2 (
=

+
k
t t
angles =
je
o
X
X
4
X
O
2
2j
2j
1
+1
real axis
locus
asymptote
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
7. The angles of departure,
u
d
from poles and
arrival, u
a
to zeroes may
be found by applying
the angle condition to a
point very near the pole
or zero.
The angle of arrival at
the zero, -z
1
is obtained
from
Root Locus Construction Rules
t
) 1 2 ( ) (
1
1
+ = +
Z

=
k p -z
n
i
i
u
)
(
2
1 1
+
Z
+

=
z
-z
m
i
i
az
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Departure angle from p
2
.
u
z1
= tan
-1
(2/3) = 33.7


u
p1
= tan
-1
(2/1) = 116.6


u
p3
= 90

Then
33.7

(90

+ 116.6

+ u
p2
) = 180

u
p2
= 352.9

= + 7.1

Root Locus Construction Rules
Example
je
o
X
X
4
X
O
2
2j
2j
+1
-p
2
116.6

33.7

90

-p
3
-p
1
-z
1
u
p2
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
8. The imaginary axis
crossing is obtained by
applying the Routh-
Hurwitz criterion and
checking for the gain that
results in marginal
stability. The imaginary
components are found
from the solution of the
resulting auxiliary
equation.
Marginal stability
refers to the point
where the roots of the
closed-loop system are
on the stability
boundary, i.e. the
imaginary axis.
Root Locus Construction Rules
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Imaginary axis crossing:
Characteristic equation
For marginal stability,
K = 5 and the
auxiliary equation is


Therefore, the
imaginary axis
intersection is

Root Locus Construction Rules
Example
0 4 ) 5 ( 2
0 ) 4 ( ) 2 1 )( 2 1 (
2 3
= + + + +
= + + + + +
K s K s s
s K j s j s s
s
3
1 5+K 0
s
2
2 4K 0
s 5K 0 0
s
0
4K 0
Routh table
j j s
s
16 . 3 10
0 20 2
2
= =
= +
j 16 . 3

E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Summary:
There are three root loci.
One on the real axis from
-p
1
to -z
1
, and a pair of loci
from -p
2
and -p
3
to zeroes
at infinity along the
asymptotes. The departure
angle from these poles is
7.1

and an imaginary axis

crossing at s = 3.16j .
Root Locus Construction Rules
Example
je
o
X
X
4
X
O
2
2j
2j
+1
-p
2
-p
3
-p
1
-z
1
3.16 j
7.1

E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Breakaway Points:
When two or more
loci meet, they will
breakaway from this
point at particular
angles. The point is
known as a breakaway
point. It corresponds
to multiple roots.
Root Locus Construction Rules
x x o o
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
45

Some examples
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
9. The angle of breakaway
is 180

/k where k is the
number of converging
loci.
The location of the
breakaway point is
found from
Note:


Also,
Root Locus Construction Rules
| |
0
) (
or 0
= =
ds
s GH d
ds
dK
| |
| |
0
) (
) (
2
= =

ds
s GH d
s GH
ds
dK
| |
) (
1
=

s GH K
0 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
=
'

'
s D s N s N s D
| | | |
0
) (
) ( ) (
) (
) (
) ( ) ( ) (
2
=
'

'
=
=
s D
s D s N
s D
s N
ds
s D s N d
ds
s GH d
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Root Locus Plot:
Breakaway Point Example
Consider the following loop
transfer function.


Real axis loci exist for the
full negative axis.
Asymptotes:
angles = (2k+1)t = t/3 , t , 5t/3

2
) 3 (
) (
+
=
s s
K
s GH
2
3
) 0 ( ) 0 3 3 (
=

=
a
o
je
o
X
X
4
X
2
2j
2j
+1
60

asymptotes
3
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Determine the breakaway
points from




then
Root Locus Plot:
Breakaway Point Example
je
o
X
X
4
X
2
2j
2j
+1
3 , 1
0 ) 3 )( 1 ( 3 4
2
=
= + + = + +
s
s s s s
0
) 9 6 (
) 9 12 3 (
9 6 ) 3 (
2 2 3
2
2 3 2
=
+ +
+ +
=
(

(



+ +
=
(

(



+
s s s
s s K
s s s
K
ds
d
s s
K
ds
d
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
10. For a point on the
root locus, s =s
1

calculate the gain, K
from
Alternately, K may be
determined graphically
from the root locus plot
Root Locus Construction Rules
L
L
2 1 1 1
2 1 1 1
z s z s
p s p s
K
+ +
+ +
=
je
o
X
X
X
O
s
1

A
B
C
D
A
BCD
K
=
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Summary of Root Locus Plot
Construction
Plot the poles and zeros of the open-loop system.
Find the section of the loci on the real axis (odd
number of poles an zeroes to the right).
Determine the asymptote angles and intercepts.
+ t
q
k m n q
q
k
a


=
= = =
zeroes poles
, 2 , 1 , 0 , ,
) 1 2 (
angles
o
L
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Determine departure angles. For a pole -p
1


Check for imaginary axis crossings using the
Routh-Hurwitz criterion.
Determine breakaway points.


Complete the plot.
Summary of Root Locus Plot
Construction
t u
) 1 2 ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1 1 2 1 1 1
+ = +
Z + + Z + + Z k p
-p
z
-p
z
-p
p
L L
= =
| |
0
) (
from location
loci converging of # k , / angle
=
ds
s GH d
k
t
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Root Locus Plot Example 3
Loop Transfer function:

Roots:
s = 0, s = 4, s = 2 4j
Real axis segments:
between 0 and 4 .
Asymptotes:
angles =
) 20 4 )( 4 (
) (
2
+ + +
=
s s s s
K
s GH
2
4
) 0 2 2 4 (
=

=
a
o
4
7
,
4
5
,
4
3
,
4 0 4
) 1 2 (
=

+
k
t t t t t
asymptotes
je
o
X
4
X
2
2j
2j
+1
45

4j
4j
X
X
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Breakaway points:






Three points that
breakaway at 90

.
solving, j s
b
45 . 2 2 , 2
=
s s s
s) s s (s
s s s K
s s s s
K
ds
d
0 20 18 6 or
0
80 36 8
) 80 72 24 4 (
80 36 8
2 3
2 3 4
2 3
2 3 4
= + + +
=
+ + +
+ + +
=
(

(



+ + +
je
o
X
4
X
2
2j
2j
+1
45

4j
4j
X
X
Root Locus Plot Example 3
2
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
The imaginary axis
crossings:
Characteristic equation

Routh table
s
4
1 36 K
s
3
8 80 0
s
2
26 K 0
s 80-8K/26 0 0
s
0
K 0 0
Condition for critical
stability
80-8K/26 > 0 or K<260
The auxiliary equation
26 s
2
+ 260 = 0
solving

Root Locus Plot Example 3
0 80 36 8
2 3 4
= + + + +
K s s s s
j j s 16 . 3 10
= =
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
The final plot is shown
on the right.

What is the value of
the gain K
corresponding to the
breakaway point at
s
b
= 2 2.45j ?
Root Locus Plot Example 3
o
X
4
X
2
2j
2j
4j
4j
X
X
3.16j
je
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
From the general magnitude condition the gain
corresponding to the point s
1
on the loci is


For the point s
1
= 2 + 2.45j

K = |2 + 2.45j| |2 + 2.45j + 4| |2 + 2.45j + 2 + 4j|
|2 + 2.45j + 2 4j| / 1.0
= 3.163 3.163 6.45 1.55 = 100.0

Root Locus Plot Example 3
Gain Calculations
[ [
= =
+ + =
m
i
i
n
i
i
z s p s K
1
1
1
1
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Is there a gain
corresponding to a
damping ratio of 0.707
or more for all system
modes?
, = 0.707 = cos(u )
u = 45

Root Locus Plot Example 3

o
X
4
X
2
2j
2j
4j
4j
X
X
3.16j
je
45

E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Examine the responses for
the various gains and relate
them to the location of the
closed-loop roots.
K = 64, roots are 2, 2,
23.46j
K = 100, roots are 22.45j,
22.45j
K = 260, roots are 3.16j,
43.16j


o
X
4
X
2
2j
2j
4j
4j
X
X
3.16j
je
K=64
K=100
K=260
Root Locus Plot Example 3
Time Responses
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Root Locus Plot Example 3
Time Responses
Time (sec.)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

Step Response, K = 64
0 1 2 3 4 5
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1

s = 2, 2
s = 23.46j
whole response
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Root Locus Plot Example 3
Time Responses
Time (sec.)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

Step Response, K = 100
0 1 2 3 4 5
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1

whole response
s = 22.45j (repeated)
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Root Locus Plot Example 3
Time Responses
Time (sec.)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

Step Response K = 260
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2

whole response
s = 3.16j
s = 43.16j
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Root Locus with Other Parameters
Can we plot the root
locus in terms of the
variation of a
parameter other than
gain, for example a
time constant?
To achieve this we
apply a mathematical
trick.
Consider the loop transfer
function

characteristic equation

regrouping the terms

equivalent loop transfer
function
0 10 ) 10 2 (
2
= + + +
s s s t
0 10 10 2
2
= + + +
s s s t
) 2 (
) 1 (
10 ) (
+
+
=
s s
s
s GH
t
10 2
10
) (
2
+ +
=
s s
s
s H G
t
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
The open-loop poles are
s = 1 3j and the zero is
s = 0 .
Asymptotes: 180

Angle of departure:
108

(90

+ u
d
) = 180


u
d
= 198

Break-in point s
b
= 3.16
( ) 0 10 0
10 2
10
2
2
= =
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
s
s s
s
ds
d t
Root Locus with Other Parameters
je
o
O
X
4 2
3j
3j
+1
X
x
x
x x
t = 0
t = 0.294
t = 0.4325
t = 0.9
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
t = 0 , s = 1 3j
t = 0.293 ,
s = 2.5 2j
t = 0.4325 ,
s = 3.16, s = 3.16
t = 0.90 ,
s = 1, s = 10

Time (sec.)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

Step Responses
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2

Root Locus with Other Parameters
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
The root locus method
focuses on the roots of
the characteristic
equation.
There can be several
different loop transfer
functions that have the
same closed-loop
characteristic equation.
To construct the root
locus for a characteristic
equation which has two
parameters, we construct
fictitious loop transfer
functions and apply the
normal methods.
Root Locus with Two Parameters
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Consider the following
characteristic equation.
s
3
+ s
2
+ | s + o = 0 .
Write this in the general
form of 1 + GH(s) = 0
with | as a multiplying
gain.
This will allow the
plotting of the root locus
with respect to the gain |
for any given value of o.
The roots of the
characteristic equation of
GH(s) define the starting
points for the root loci.
Consider the loci of these
roots.
Root Locus with Two Parameters
0 1
2 3
=
+ +
+
o
|
s s
s
GH(s)
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
The characteristic
equation of GH(s) is
s
3
+ s
2
+ o = 0 , which
may be written as



Now construct the root
locus of GH(s) in terms
of the gain o .
Root Locus with Two Parameters
0
) 1 (
1
2
=
+
+
s s
o
GH(s)
je
o
X
2 1
X X





o
1

o
1
o
2

o
2

o
1
= 0.3
s = 1.2, 0.10.5j
o
2
= 1.8
s = 1.66, 0.331.0j
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Now construct the root
locus for


where the open-loop
poles correspond to
the previous root locus
for varying o .
Asymptotes: 90


o = 0.3
o
a
= (1.2 +0.1 +0.1)/2
= 0.5
o = 1.8
o
a
= (1.66 +0.33 +0.33)/2
= 0.5

Root Locus with Two Parameters
2 3
=
+ + o
|
s s
s
GH(s)
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Imaginary axis
crossings:
s
3
+ s
2
+ | s + o = 0
s
3
1 | 0
s
2
1 o 0
s |o 0 0
s
0
o 0 0
o = | , s
2
+ o = 0

Root Locus with Two Parameters
o
j s
=
je
o
2 1





o
1

o
1
o
2

o
2

O
E&CE 380 Frequency Response Design
Root Locus and Lead Controllers
Consider the previous example


Add a pole/zero combination
at s = 6 , 1 .
The new asymptote intersects
the real axis at
[(0 116) (4 1)]/(4 2) = 1.5
Angle of departure from p
2
is
7.1

+ 90

tan
-1
(2/5) = 75.3

) 2 1 )( 2 1 (
) 4 (
) (
j s j s s
s K
s GH
+ + +
+
=
je
o
X X
4
X
O
2
2j
2j
+1
p
2
p
3
p
1
z
1
O
X