Learning & Memory

Learning and Memory

Definition and nature of learning Types of learning
Pavlovs Classical Conditioning Skinners Operant/ Instrumental Conditioning Banduras Social Learning Theory

Memory and forgetting

Learning
Learning

relatively permanent change in an organisms behavior due to experience

What is learning?
Some learning involves development of new skills.

I am learning how to ride a bike.

Some learning involves changes in existing behavior.

Shes learning to control her temper.

Some learning involves simple associations.

I finally learned that where there is smoke, there is fire.

What is learning?
And sometimes it involves learning complex belief systems.
He is trying to learn the Buddhists view of life.

We also figure things out for ourselves.

Learning a mathematical formula.

Learning can also be imposed on us by circumstance.

If you touch a hot stove, youll burn your

Learning Theory
What mechanisms are responsible for the complexity of learning? Locke (1600s) and Berkeley (early1700s) Associationists We learn by associating one idea with another The word flower with the smell and sight of a flower The word stove with the sensation of heat More complex learning more associations

Association
Event 1 Event 2

Learning to associate two events

Sea snail associates splash with a tail shock

learning that two events occur together

two stimuli a response and its consequences

Seal learns to expect a snack for its showy antics

Animals vs. Human

Study of animals: reveals same principles of learning that apply to humans How does a dog learn to sit on command?

Look Bruce, when I said SIT...

Habituation
One of the simplest forms of learning It means; decline in response of organisms response to stimulus once that stimulus becomes familiar; simply getting used to... However, organism does not learn anything new from that event

Habituation
A common way occurs in which a persons attention is captured by a loud or sudden stimulus. For example, a person who moves to a house on a busy street may initially be distracted every time a loud vehicle drives by. After living in the house for some time, however, the person will no longer be distracted by the street noisethe person becomes habituated to it and the initial response disappears.

Habituation
Our environments are full of sights and sounds Habituation allows us to ignore repetitive, unimportant stimuli. Habituation occurs in nearly all organisms, from human beings to animals

Learning in Animals
There are three major areas of learning:
Habituation Classical Conditioning (by Pavlov)

Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning (by Skinner)

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

Two related events: Stimulus 1 Lightning Stimulus 2 Thunder

We learn to associate two stimuli

Result after repetition Stimulus We see lightning

Response We wince anticipating thunder

Operant Conditioning
We learn to associate a response and its consequence
Response: Pushing vending machine button

Consequence:Receiving a candy bar

Learning
Behaviorism

Promoted by John B. Watson View that psychology

should be an objective science studies behavior without reference to mental processes

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov
1849-1936 Russian physician/ neurophysiologist Nobel Prize in 1904 studied digestive secretions

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

Classical Conditioning
organism comes to associate two stimuli
lightning and thunder tone and food

begins with a reflex a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that evokes the reflex neutral stimulus eventually comes to evoke the reflex

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

Pavlovs device for recording salivation

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
effective stimulus that unconditionallynaturally and automatically - triggers a response

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus
salivation when food is in the mouth

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

Conditioned Response (CR)

learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus

Pavlovs Classic Experiment

Before Conditioning

UCS (food in mouth)

UCR (salivation) During Conditioning UCS (food in mouth) Neutral stimulus (tone) UCR (salivation) Neutral stimulus (tone) No salivation

After Conditioning

CS (tone)
CR (salivation)

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

Acquisition
the initial stage of learning, during which a response is established and gradually strengthened the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to evoke a conditioned response

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

UCS (passionate kiss) UCR (sexual arousal)

CS (onion breath)

UCS (passionate Kiss)

CS (onion breath)

UCR (sexual arousal)

CR (sexual arousal)

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

Extinction
diminishing of a conditioned response in classical conditioning, when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

Strong
Acquisition (CS+UCS) Extinction (CS alone) Spontaneous recovery of CR

Strength of CR
Extinction (CS alone)

Weak Pause Time

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

Spontaneous recovery
reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response

Generalization
tendency, once a response has been established, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses

Generalization
Drops of saliva in 30 seconds 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Hind paw
Thigh

Pelvis

Shoulder

Front paw

Trunk

Foreleg

Part of body stimulated

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

Discrimination
in classical conditioning, the ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

Nausea Conditioning among Cancer Patients

UCS (drug) UCR (nausea)

CS (waiting room)

UCS (drug) UCR (nausea)

CS (waiting room)

CR (nausea)

Little Alberts Fear Conditioning

UCS (loud noise) UCR (fear)

CS (rat)

UCS (loud noise)

CS (rat)

UCR (fear)

CR (fear)

Stimulus similar to rat (such as rabbit)

Conditioned fear (generalization)

Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment

Law of Effect
Thorndikes principle that rewarded behavior is likely to recur

Operant Conditioning
Operant Behavior complex or voluntary behaviors
push button, perform complex task

operates (acts) on environment produces consequences Respondent Behavior occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner (19041990)
elaborated Thorndikes Law of Effect developed behavioral technology

Operant Conditioning
Operant Chamber (Skinner Box)
soundproof chamber with a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer contains a device to record responses

Operant Conditioning
Reinforcer
any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Shaping
operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal

Principles of Reinforcement
Primary Reinforcer
an innate reinforcer satisfies a biological need

Secondary Reinforcer
a conditioned reinforcer an event that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response each time it occurs learning occurs rapidly extinction occurs rapidly

Partial Reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time results in slower acquisition greater resistance to extinction

Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses the faster you respond, the more rewards you get different ratios very high rate of responding like piecework pay

Schedules of Reinforcement
Variable Ratio (VR)
schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses like gambling, fishing very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability

Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Interval (FI)
a schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed response occurs more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near

Schedules of Reinforcement
Variable Interval (VI)
schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals produces slow, steady responding like pop quiz

Schedules of Reinforcement
Number of responses 1000 Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio 750 Fixed Interval Rapid responding near time for reinforcement Variable Interval

500

250
Steady responding 0 10 20 30 40 50 Time (minutes) 60 70 80

Punishment
Punishment
aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows powerful controller of unwanted behavior

Problems with Punishment

Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed--behavior returns when punishment is no longer eminent Causes increased aggression- shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems-explains why aggressive delinquents and abusive parents come from abusive homes

Problems with Punishment

Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of school, learned helplessness, depression Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior--reinforcement tells you what to do,punishment tells you what not to do-combination of punishment and reward can be more effective than punishment alone Punishment teaches how to avoid it

Cognition and Operant Conditioning

Cognitive Map
mental representation of the layout of ones environment example: after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

Latent Learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Operant vs Classical Conditioning

Comparison of Classical and Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
The response Acquisition Involuntary, automatic Associating events; CS announces UCS. CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone. Subjects develop expectation that CS signals the arrival of UCS

Operant Conditioning
Voluntary, operates on environment Associating response with a consequence (reinforcer or punisher). Responding decreases when reinforcement stops. Subjects develop expectation that a response will be reinforced or punished; they also exhibit latent learning, without reinforcement. Organisms best learn behavior similar to their natural behaviors; unnatural behaviors instinctively drift back toward natural ones.

Extinction

Cognitive processes

Biological Natural predispositions constrain predispositions stimuli and responses can easily be associated.

Observational Learning
Observational Learning
learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others

Modeling
process of observing and imitating behavior

Prosocial Behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior opposite of antisocial behavior