FORMATION DAMAGE

Reservoir Rock Properties

A commercial hydrocarbon reservoir must exhibit two characteristics for commercial development 1.) reservoir must accumulate and store fluids 2.) fluids must be able to flow through relatively long distance under relatively small pressure gradients

Reservoir Rock Properties

Introduce the two reservoir terms:

POROSITY percentage or fraction of void to bulk volume of the rock PERMEABILITY a measure of a rocks specific flow capacity (depends on the interconnectivity of the porosity)

Classification

TYPES OF ROCK FORMATIONS

IGNEOUS
SOLIDIFIED MOLTEN ROCK

METAMORPHIC
ALTERED BY INTENSE HEAT AND PRESSURE

SEDIMENTARY
FORMED BY EROSION, TRANSPORTATION, DEPOSITION

IGNEOUS AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS RARELY CONTAIN OIL & GAS

Origin of Sedimentary Rock

Sedimentary Rock Classification

CLASTIC

Made up of grains that have been sedimented Includes sands and shales

NON-CLASTIC Made up of biogenic or chemical precipitates Includes Limestone and Dolomites

Sedimentary Rock
CLASTIC

NON-CLASTIC

CONGLOMERATEGRAVEL SANDSTONESAND SILTSTONE-SILT SHALE-CLAY

LIMESTONE DOLOMITE SALT GYPSUM COAL

COMMON OIL AND GAS RESERVOIRS ARE YELLOW

Sand and Sandstone

Made up of sand grains
These grains are commonly Quartz Feldspar Rock Fragments Fossils Mica

Sandstone

200 microns

Sandstone
BESIDES SAND GRAINS SANDSTONE MAY CONTAIN
MINERAL CEMENTS

THESE INCLUDE
QUARTZ CALCITE DOLOMITE ANHYDRITE

Sandstone with Anhydrite Cement

200 microns

Micro-Quartz Cementation

50 microns

Sand and Sandstone

Sand or Sandstone may contain:
1. Sand Grains - Always

2. Cements - Not Always (usually)

3. Clays - Not Always (usually) 4. Pore Spaces - Essential for Oil or Gas Reservoir

Sandstone with Clay

50 microns

Porosity
percentage or fraction of void volume to bulk volume

PORE VOLUME = TOTAL VOLUME - SOLIDS VOLUME = (bulk volume) - (volume occupied by solids)

POROSITY = PORE VOLUME / TOTAL VOLUME

Porosity is expressed as a fraction or percentage and often represented by Greek letter phi

Porosity
The Volumetric Fraction of Formation Not Occupied by Solids.

Two types of porosity: Absolute - Volume not occupied by solids. Effective - Interconnected spaces.

Porosity - Determination
TOTAL VOLUME = x r2 x h

h r

r = 1.262 cm

h = 3.0 cm

TOTAL VOLUME = 15.00 cm3

TO DETERMINE POROSITY:
WATER SATURATED WEIGHT DRY WEIGHT WEIGHT WATER = 34.2 G = 31.2 G = 3.0 G --> 3 CC PORE VOL.

POROSITY = PORE VOLUME / TOTAL VOLUME = 3.0/15.0 = 0.2 = 20% POROSITY

Grain Sorting

CONTROLS POROSITY & PERMEABILITY

Large Pore Spaces Yield Good Porosity And High Permeability. Poor sorting yields smaller pore spaces and lower permeability.

Well-Sorted Sandstone

GOOD POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY

Poor Sorting

MUCH LOWER POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY

Pore Size
Methods to determine pore size and optimum bridging particle size 1.

Pore Size in microns () ~ Permeability (mD) example: k = 1000 md ~ 33 pore size 2. Measurement from Thin Section - More Reliable

Estimate from Permeability

Pore Space in Sandstone

330 x 900

200 microns

Permeability
The Ability of a Formation to Transmit Fluid (Through the Inter-Connecting Pore Spaces.)

Types of Permeability Vertical Fracture Permeability Limestones, Chalks, and Some Shales Matrix Permeability - Sand or Sandstone

Permeability
1856 Henry DArcy experimented with water flowing through sand beds. Results of his studies produced equations relating flow rate and pressure gradient

DARCYS LAW: defines the unit of

proportionality (k) between velocity (flow rate) and pressure gradient. This coefficient (k) is a property of the rock - it is independent of the fluid used to measure flow.

Darcy: Practical Definition

In the oil industry, permeability is expressed in Darcy units. A rock has a permeability of 1 Darcy if a pressure gradient of 1 atm/cm induces a flow rate of 1 cm3/cm2 of cross-sectional area of a liquid with a viscosity of 1 cp. The Darcy unit is large for a practical unit - millidarcy is commonly used, where 1 D = 1000 mD

Darcys Law - Linear Flow

K=QL A P

1 D = (1cm3/sec) (1cp) (1cm) (1 cm2) (1 atm) Q = k A P L

Permeability of a Core
P1 L r P2 DARCYS LAW k * A * (P1 - P2) Q = -----------------------*L

Q = flow rate in cc/sec A = area in cm2 = r2 P1, P2 = pressure in atm (1 atm = 1.033 kg/cm2) L = length in cm = viscosity in centipoise (1 cp = dynesec/100 cm2) k = permeability in Darcys

Permeability of a Core
P1 L R P2 DARCYS LAW k * A * (P1 - P2) Q = -----------------------*L rearrange to Q**L k = -----------------A * (P1 - P2)

Permeability of a Core
P1 L R P2 Flow rate = 0.1 cc/sec = 6 cc/min Q**L 0.1 * 1 * 3 0.3 k = ------------------ = ----------------- = ----- = 0.06 darcy A * (P1 - P2) 5 * (2 - 1) 5 Measure Flow rate under conditions: R = 1.262 cm A = 5 sq cm L = 3.0 cm P1 = 2 atm = 1 cp P2 = 1 atm

Permeability of a Core
P1 L R P2 1 darcy = 1000 millidarcys k = 60 millidarcys = 60 md

k = 0.06 darcy

Darcys Law - Radial Flow

re = drainage radius rw = well radius Pe = pressure at re Pw = pressure in well

Pe
re

Pw rw h = reservoir thickness k = permeability u = viscosity of oil

Darcys Law - Radial Flow

re = drainage radius ft rw = well radius ft Pe = pressure in psi at re Pw = pressure in psi in well h = reservoir thickness ft k = permeability md = viscosity of oil cp

Darcys law for a well in a reservoir (disk with hole)

0.00708 * k * h * (Pe - Pw) Q (bbl/day) = ---------------------------------- * ln (re / rw)

Production Rate of Oil

re = 600 ft Pe = 4000 psi rw = 0.5 ft Pw = 3600 psi h = 20 ft k = 60 md = 2 cp

0.00708 * k * h * (Pe - Pw) Q (bbl/day) = ---------------------------------- * ln (re / rw) 0.00708 * 60 * 20 * (4000 - 3600) Q = ----------------------------------------------2 * ln ( 600 / 0.5) 0.00708 * 60 *20 * 400 3398.4 3398.4 Q = ---------------------------------- = ----------- = --------- = 239.7 bbl/d 2 * ln (1200) 2 * 7.09 14.18

Formation Damage
THE WELL PRODUCES LESS THAN IT PREDICTED BY DARCYS LAW.
0.00708 * k * h * (Pe - Pw) Q (bbl/day) = ---------------------------------- * ln (re / rw)

INTRODUCE SKIN FACTOR S

0.00708 * k * h * (Pe - Pw) Q (bbl/day) = ---------------------------------- * ( ln (re / rw) + S)

Skin
0.00708 * k * h * (Pe - Pw) Q (bbl/day) = ---------------------------------- * ( ln (re / rw) + S)

S > 0 ----> FORMATION DAMAGE S < 0 ----> WELL STIMULATION

Skin

SKIN FACTOR 0.0 1.0 3.0 10.0 20.0 50.0 -1.0

PRODUCTION RATE 239.7 210.0 168.4 99.4 62.7 29.8 279.0

Skin

THE SKIN FACTOR CAN BE OBTAINED

FROM A PRESSURE BUILD UP TEST.

THE SKIN FACTOR IS A MEASURE OF FORMATION DAMAGE.

Skin
re = drainage radius rw = well radius Pe = pressure at re Pw = pressure in well Skin (S) Pw rw h = reservoir thickness k = permeability = viscosity of oil

Pe
re

Concepts to Remember

1. POROSITY -

Determines the amount of Oil and/or Gas Available

2. PERMEABILITY - Determines Possible Production Rate

3. SKIN FACTOR -

A measure of Formation Damage

Permeability Testing
Step 1: Determine Undamaged Permeability
UNDAMAGED k

kO

TIME --->

Permeability Testing
Step 2: Damage the Permeability
UNDAMAGED k

kO

expose core to fluid in direction opposite to production flow.

TIME --->

Permeability Testing
Step 3: Determine Damaged Permeability
UNDAMAGED k DAMAGED k

kO

DAMAGED k % RETURN = 100 * ---------------------UNDAMAGED k

TIME --->

Relative Permeability

IN AN OIL RESERVOIR, OIL DOES NOT OCCUPY ALL OF THE PORE SPACE! Hydrocarbons were not the first fluids to occupy the pore space of sedimentary rockwater was.i.e., the rocks were deposited by water.

MOST OIL RESERVOIRS ARE WATER WET MEANING THAT A FILM OF WATER COATS THE GRAIN SURFACES.

Water Saturation (Sw)

FOR A HYDROCARBON RESERVOIR PORE VOL. = VOL. WATER + VOL. OIL

Often expressed as saturation, where

SW = WATER SATURATION SO = OIL SATURATION AND SO + SW = 1

Relative Permeability
SINGLE PHASE PERMEABILITY

OIL PERM

kO
WATER PERM

kW

SW

Formation Damage Definition

Any loss in productivity caused by a source other than natural pressure depletion or mechanical restrictions

Causes of Formation Damage

Once a virgin reservoir is penetrated, damage occurs. The question is to what extent?
One way to classify damage is according to origin...

1. 2. 3. 4.

Drilling Completion Stimulation Production

Formation Damage
Key Questions:

What is Magnitude ?

What is Cause (source) ?

How Far (depth of penetration) ? Can We Prevent ? Can We Recover (remedial treatment) ?

How Much and How Deep is the Damage?

P R O D U C T IO N D A M A G E
PERMEABILITY VS PRODUCTION DAMAGE INVASION DEPTH = 2 FT 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 20 40 60 80 PERMEABILITY DAMAGE 100

Return Perm vs. Skin

Example:
Ki = 60 mD; Kf = 42mD; Damage = 30%

What is the effect on Production?

Formula for S
re = drainage radius ke ra ka rw ke = undamaged permeability ka = damaged permeability

ra = damaged radius
rw = well radius

re

Formula for S
ke = undamaged permeability ka = damaged permeability re = drainage radius

ra = damaged radius
rw = well radius

ke - ka S = ---------- * ln (ra / rw) ka In addition to the amount of permeability damage we need to know the radius of damage.

Radius of Damage
IN V A S IO N D E P T H ( C M )

FILTRATE INVASION
10 CC FLUID LOSS 7.5 CC FLUID LOSS

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 24 48 72 96 120 144
TIME (HOURS)
21 CM WELL DIAMETER 20% POROSITY 5 CC FLUID LOSS

2.5 CC FLUID LOSS

Radius of Damage
IN V A S IO N D E P T H ( C M )

FILTRATE INVASION
10 CC FLUID LOSS 7.5 CC FLUID LOSS TYPICAL PERF DEPTH
5 CC FLUID LOSS

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 24 48 72 96 120 144
TIME (HOURS)
21 CM WELL DIAMETER 20% POROSITY

2.5 CC FLUID LOSS

Calculate S with 1.5 ft Invasion

rw = well radius = 0.5

ra = damaged radius = 1.5 + 0.5 = 2.0

ke = undamaged permeability = 60

ka = damaged permeability = 0.7 * 60 = 42

ke - ka 60 - 42 S = ---------- * Ln (ra / rw) = --------- * Ln (2/0.5) = 0.60 ka 42

Zero Damaged Well

re = 600 ft Pe = 4000 psi rw = 0.5 ft Pw = 3600 psi h = 100 ft k = 60 md = 2cp

0.00708 * k * h * (Pe - Pw) Q (bbl/day) = ---------------------------------- * ln (re / rw) 0.00708 * 60 * 20 * (4000 - 3600) Q = ----------------------------------------------2 * ln ( 600 / 0.5) 0.00708 * 60 *100 * 400 16992 16992 Q = ---------------------------------- = ----------- = --------- = 1198 bbl/d 2 * ln (1200) 2 * 7.09 14.18

Damaged Well
re = 600 ft Pe = 4000 psi rw = 0.5 ft Pw = 3600 psi h = 100 ft = 2cp k = 60 md S = 0.6

0.00708 * k * h * (Pe - Pw) Q (bbl/day) = ---------------------------------- * (ln (re / rw) + S) 0.00708 * 60 * 100 * (4000 - 3600) Q = ----------------------------------------------2 * (ln ( 600 / 0.5) + 0.6) 0.00708 * 60 *100 * 400 16992 16992 Q = ---------------------------------- = ----------- = --------- = 1105 bbl/d 2 * (ln (1200) + 0.6) 2 * 7.69 15.38

Compare
1198 BBL/D UNDAMAGED
WITH 30% PERMEABILITY DAMAGE EXTENDING 1.5 INTO THE RESERVOIR 1105 BBL/D DAMAGED

PRODUCTION RATE IS DAMAGED 7.8%

Compare
1198 BBL/D UNDAMAGED
WITH 30% PERMEABILITY DAMAGE EXTENDING 1.5 INTO THE RESERVOIR 1105 BBL/D DAMAGED

PRODUCTION RATE IS DAMAGED 7.8%

93 BBl/D @ $30/BBl = 2790$/D = $1,018,350/yr

What About a Clear Brine?

Previous example was of a mud that was tested in the lab and produced a 70% return Permeability. The depth of damage was 1.5 ft and the effect on production was a loss of 7.8 %. What about a solids-free, clear brine?

Depth of Invasion for Clear Brine

Example: Lose 1000 bbl of brine to an interval of 100 with a porosity of 30%. Depth of invasion r = V/h

r = 92.6 in (7.7 ft)

Damage Due to Invasion of Clear Brine

kr
100% 90% 80% 70% 60%

S
0 0.3 0.7 1.2 1.9

Production
1198 bpd 1150 bpd 1091 bpd 1025 bpd 945 bpd (loss = 0 bpd) (loss = 48 bpd) (loss = 107 bpd) (loss = 173 bpd) (loss = 253 bpd)

Damage Mechanisms

Solids Plugging filtrate invasion / solids contamination fines migration Chemical Incompatibility clay / shale swelling inducing fines migration fluid-fluid interactions emulsions, precipitation (scaling) wettability reversal

Solids Plugging
d

d d = Diameter of Bridging Particle

d = Diameter of Pore Throat

If d > 1/2d Stable Bridges Will Form

Bridging Theory

Particles 1/3 the Diameter of the Pore Throat Will Plug on the Surface. Particles Less Than 1/3 to About 1/7 the Diameter of the Pore Throat Will Plug in the Pore Channels.

Particles Less Than 1/7 the Diameter of the Pore Throat Will Migrate Freely Through the Formation.

Critical Plugging Particle Size

Critical Plugging Range Permeability (*Millidarcies) 5 10 50 100 250 500 750 1000 1500 2000 Pore Size (Microns) 2.2 3.2 7.1 10.0 15.8 22.4 27.4 31.6 38.7 44.7 1/3 to 1/7 (Microns) 0.75 to 0.32 1.05 to 0.45 2.36 to 1.01 3.33 to 1.43 5.27 to 2.26 7.45 to 3.19 9.13 to 3.91 10.54 to 4.52 12.91 to 5.53 14.91 to 6.39

For comparison, the size of a human hair is 50-70 microns in diameter, a single grain of table salt is 90-110 microns in diameter. A filter of 10 microns is needed to remove a haze from a liquid.

Particle Sizes of Common Materials

BARITE
FINE CaCO3 MEDIUM CaCO3 COARSE CaCO3 MIX II FINE

- 30 MICRONS
- 15 MICRONS - 35 MICRONS - 100 MICRONS - 60 MICRONS

Damage Due to Solids Plugging

Return Permeability Tests - solids in NaCl brine SOLIDS 0 PPM 100 PPM 190 PPM 420 PPM 990 PPM % DAMAGE 3.8 15.2 25.8 48.4 78.8

Sadlerochit sandstone formation - Alaska

Solids in Clear Brine?

Solids removed from wellbore pipe during circulation mud residue (poor displacement?) scale removal (physical disruption) excessive use of pipe dope Critical considerations when gravel packing Solubilization followed by Precipitation of Iron

Fines Migration
Fines migration refers to the movement through the pore space of naturally occurring particles such as clays micro-crystalline quartz, feldspars, etc. Fines migration is often observed upon onset of water production.

Inducing Fines Migration

Fines are mobile in the phase that wets them. Since most formations are water wet, introducing water (or brine) can induce fines migration. Heavy losses of clear brine can induce hydrodynamic pressures (due to viscosity) that can cause fines to detach and mobilize.

Completion Fluid Damage

Dirty brine entering perforations and pore network (poor displacement or filtration) Brine incompatibility with formation crude or water causing emulsion or precipitation of solids increased water saturation due to intrinsic viscosity of brine Inefficient clean up of fluid loss control pills Incompatibility with stimulation acid, oxidizers or other clean up fluids Problems with gravel pack placement

Completion Fluid Damage

Bad Displacement

Residual mud in wellbore may be carried into formation by clean (filtered) completion brine The completion fluid returns may look clean (low solids / ntu) after circulating, yet the wellbore remains dirty Gravel pack after displacements scrub pipe surface and carry solids into pack

Damage Mechanisms from Clear Brine Completion Fluids

Solids plugging contaminated brine Increased water saturation (water block) high viscosity / high surface tension Emulsification with crude oil reactivity of CBF with asphaltenes Reaction with formation water reactivity of divalent cations with slightly soluble species (CO3-- / SO4-- / S-- )

Completion Fluid Damage

Formation Compatibility

High density brine have a high intrinsic viscosity - up to 40 - 50 times that of pure water. This viscosity makes it difficult to flow back fluid that has been lost to formation.

Surface Tension reducing surfactants aid fluid recovery - SAFE-SURF LT

Completion Fluid Damage

Formation Compatibility SAFE-SURF LT - Fluid Recovery Aid Ki Kf with SAFE-SURF LT

K(md)

Kf without SAFE-SURF LT

Pore Volume of Fluid Flowed Though Core

Completion Fluid Damage

Formation Compatibility - Emulsion

High density brine may destabilize asphaltene particles in crude oil and emulsify crude. SAFE-BREAK CBF and SAFE-BREAK ZINC surfactants to prevent emulsion (not demulsifiers, but emulsion preventers) CBF for calcium chloride / bromide ZINC for zinc bromide and formate brine

Completion Fluid Damage

Formation Compatibility - Precipitates

Ca +2 + H2O + CO3-2 => Ca(CO3)(s) + H2O carbonate precipitate by CO2 producers

Ca +2 + H2O + SO4-2 => Ca(SO4)(s) + H2O sulfate precipitate by seawater contaminated waters
Ca +2 + H2O + H+ + F- => CaF2(s) + H2O + H+ flouride precipitate by HF acid (stimulation)

Completion Fluid Damage

Formation Compatibility - Precipitate Prevention

SAFE-SCAVITE scale inhibitor for calcium based completion fluids Pre-flush with NH4Cl prior to circulating completion fluids when well is acid prepacked with HCl-HF acid.

Emulsions
Emulsions with Crude Oil and Completion Fluids
ZnBr2 CaBr2 CaCl2 NaCl KCl NH4Cl KHCO2

SAFE-BREAK CBF
Emulsions with Crude Oil and Completion Fluids
ZnBr2 CaBr2 CaCl2 NaCl KCl NH4Cl KHCO2 SB-CBF

Case History:
High Island

Gravel Pack with 3% NH4Cl 350 bbl 15.5 ppg Zinc Bromide HD Fluid lost prior to Gravel Pack Well Productivity Less Than Expected Production Samples Obtained
Laboratory Analysis of Produced Water and Oil

Viscous, Highly Paraffinic Crude 7-8% Emulsion, Free Oil Gravity = 39o ZnBr2+CaBr2 Identified in Emulsion
No ZnBr2 or CaBr2 in Production Water

Analysis of High Island Samples

Ion Produced Water Emulsion Water

K Na Fe Ca Zn Cl Br

11,368 ppm 179 ppm <1 ppm 169 ppm 2 ppm 11,000 ppm <1 ppm

218 ppm 9,604 ppm 30 ppm 69,370 ppm 12,984 ppm 13,000 ppm 133,000 ppm

Case History:
South Marsh Island

Workover Operation
Re-perforate, Acid Wash, Gravel Pack Lost 600 bbl 13.0 ppg Calcium Bromide Brine Initial: 479 BOPD, 302 MCFD, 53 BWPD Decline: 80-100 BOPD w/ FTP of 200 psi 50 bbl HCl for HEC Pill ==> No Improvement Laboratory Identified Asphaltenes / Sludge Stimulation Treatments ==> Slight Improvement Compatibility Tests w/ Acids and HD Brine

Crude Sensitivity Tests

South Marsh Island

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Acetic HCl #1 HCl #2 HCl-HF 13 ppg HD Blank 1% Fe2O3

Clay Types

Kaolinite

A TWO-LAYER CLAY

Generally non-expandable
Contributes to migration of fines

Kaolinite Clay

Smectite

A THREE-LAYER CLAY

Great hydrating capability in fresh water

Smectite Clay

illite

A THREE-LAYER CLAY

Compensated with K+ ion Non-swelling characteristic contributes to migration of fines

illite Clay

Chlorite

A FOUR-LAYER CLAY

Magnesium hydroxide between the montmorillonite-type unit layers Damages formation by precipitation of iron if acidizing

Limestone
Calcite

Shale
Fine-grained clastic rocks less than 1/256 mm in diameter

Laminated or thin bedded sections Quartz, Mica & Clay

Sandstones
Clastic sedimentary rock grains ranging from 1/16 to 2 mm

Quartz

Silt stone
Fine-grained clastic rock at least 50% is 1/ to 1/ 16 256 mm diam.

Quartz grains

Drilling Fluid Damage

Solids entering pore networks, cracks, or fractures Filtrate containing damaging polymers Filtrate containing wetting agents or emulsifiers Filtrate incompatibility with formation water Filtrate interaction with pore filling and pore lining clay materials High Overbalance, Surge, or Swab pressure during drilling Cement damage to pore network, fracture or cracks

STIMULATION DAMAGE

Stimulation Fluid Damage Acid sludge deposits Mineral incompatibilities with acid Fines released in acid treatment Fracturing fluid failures and incompatibilities

PRODUCTION DAMAGE

Production damage Asphalt/Paraffin precipitation Sand production Mobilization of fines with high production rates Bacterial scale Precipitation of mineral scale

OTHER CAUSES OF DAMAGE

Other Reservoir character (fractures, faults, inhomogenieties) Wellbore orientation (for example, skin determination for horizontal wells has not been worked out in the same degree of detail as for conventional reservoirs) Any number of failures of equipment, tubulars, packers, cement, etc.

Questions