General and Special Senses

dr. Dedi Ardinata, M.Kes., AIFM

The Senses
General senses of touch
Temperature Pressure Pain

Special senses
Smell Taste Sight Hearing Equilibrium
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Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Introduction
The general senses are pain, temp. pressure, touch and proprioception. Receptors for these are distributed throughout the body. Special senses are: smell (olfaction), taste (gustation), sight (vision), hearing (auditory). Receptors for these are located in specialized cells called sense organs.

Receptor specificity allows each receptor to respond to particular stimuli. Simplest receptors are free nerve endings. 3

Introduction
Transduction: translation of a stimulus into an action potential. Transferred to an afferent fiber which then travels to the CNS.

Tonic receptors-always sending signals.

Phasic receptors: only when the conditions they monitor change. Fast-adapting receptors are phasic and slowadapting are tonic. 4

The General Senses

Nociceptors: respond to stimuli that are associated with tissue damage. Two types: fast pain and slow pain. Thermoreceptors: respond to changes in temperature. Mechanoreceptors: respond to physical distortion, contact or pressure on their cell membranes. Three types of these.
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General Senses
Mechanoreceptors: tactile receptors, baroreceptors and proprioceptors. Tactile:respond to touch pressure and vibration. Six types are: free nerve endings, the root hair plexus, Merkels discs, Meissners corpuscles, Pacinian corpuscles and Ruffini corpuscles. Baroreceptors:monitor changes in BP in the walls of major arteries and veins. Help coordinate reflex activities of digestion, monitor changes in the reproductive and urinary tracts. 6

General senses
Proprioceptors: monitor the position of joints,

tension in tendons and ligaments,and the

state of muscle contraction.

Chemoreceptors: respond to water-soluble

and lipid-soluble substances dissolved in the

surrounding fluid. They monitor the chemical

composition of body fluids.
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Nociceptors
Detect pain
Referred pain Phantom pain

Mechanoreceptors
Respond to pressure & touch
Tactile receptors Baroreceptors Proprioreceptors Thermoreceptors

Tactile Receptors
Found in the dermis

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Baroreceptors
Monitor changes in pressure

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Chemoreceptors
Detect chemicals in solution
Blood composition

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RECEPTORS AND SENSATIONS

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Senses
Sensory Receptors
specialized cells or multicellular structures that collect information from the environment stimulate neurons to send impulses along sensory fibers to the brain

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Receptor Types
specialized structures at the end of peripheral nerves that respond to stimuli
can be classified according to their location in the body, stimulus type and structure

Chemoreceptors
respond to changes in chemical concentrations

Thermoreceptors
are sensitive to temperature change

Nociceptors

Mechanoreceptors
respond to a change in pressure (i.e. touch, pressure, vibrations, stretch)

respond to extreme (harmful) stimuli by producing the sensation of Photoreceptors (in retina of eye) respond to pain (i.e. all types under changes in light extreme stimuli

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 All senses work in basically the same fashion Special sensory receptors collect information from the environment and stimulate neurons to send a message to the brain stimulation of receptor causes local change in its receptor potential a graded electrical current is generated that reflects intensity of stimulation
if receptor is part of a neuron, the membrane potential may generate an action potential if receptor is not part of a neuron, the receptor potential must be transferred to a neuron to trigger an action potential

Sensory Impulse

peripheral nerves transmit impulses to CNS where 16 they are analyzed and interpreted in the brain

Sensations
Sensation = the conscious or unconscious awareness of external or internal stimuli

Perception = the conscious awareness and interpretation of sensations Projection = process in which the brain projects the sensation back to the apparent source
it allows a person to pinpoint the region of stimulation
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Sensory Adaptation
involves a decreased response to a particular stimulus from the receptors (peripheral adaptations) or along the CNS pathways leading to the cerebral cortex (central adaptation) sensory impulses become less frequent and may cease stronger stimulus is required to trigger impulses All sensory receptors, except nociceptors, adapt to continuous stimuli (i.e. undergo sensory adaptation)
i.e. when you first put a band-aid on you feel it but soon dont notice it at all 18

GENERAL (SOMATIC) SENSES

Receptors associated with skin, muscles, joints, and viscera provide somatic senses.
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Three groups
Exteroceptive Senses:
detect changes at the body's surface: touch pressure temperature

Proprioceptive Senses:
detect changes in muscles, tendons, and body position

Visceroceptive Senses:
detect changes in viscera only pain will be discussed here
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Three types of receptors

free nerve endings (naked dendritic)
in epithelium,

Meissner's Corpuscles are encapsulated dendritic endings

abundant in hairless portions of skin; lips detect fine touch; distinguish between two points on the skin

Pacinian Corpuscles are also encapsulated dendritic endings:

common in deeper subcutaneous tissues, tendons, and ligaments detect heavy pressure and vibrations

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Temperature Senses
Two types that respond to temperature change: Heat receptors
sensitive to temps above 25oC (77oF) unresponsive at temps above 45oC (113oF) Pain receptors are also triggered as this temperature approaches producing a burning sensation

Cold receptors
sensitive to temps between 10oC (50oF) and 20oC (68oF) below 10oC, pain receptors are triggered producing a freezing sensation

Both undergo rapid sensory adaptation

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Sense of Pain
Free nerve endings are the receptors that detect pain They are widely distributed throughout the skin and internal tissues, with the exception of the nervous tissue of the brain Pain Receptors (Nociceptors)
function is protection against further tissue damage many stimuli may trigger them (i.e. temperature, pressure, chemicals) 24 generally do not adapt to continual stimuli

Sense of Pain cont.

Visceral Pain:
only visceral receptors that produce sensations stretch receptors are stimulated by pressure and/or a decrease in oxygen levels

may feel as if its coming from another area of the body = referred pain
may occur due to sensory impulses from two regions following a common nerve pathway to brain
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Sense of PAIN cont.

Pain Nerve Pathways: Acute pain
occurs rapidly (0.1 sec) is not felt in deep tissues sharp, fast, pricking pain conducted on myelinated fibers ceases when stimulus is removed

Chronic pain
begins slowly and increases in intensity over a period of several seconds or minutes dull, aching, burning, throbbing pain can occur anywhere conducted on unmyelinated fibers 27 may continue after stimulus is removed

Stretch Receptors
Stretch receptors are proprioceptors that send information to the spinal cord and brain concerning the length and tension of muscles

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SPECIAL SENSES
SPECIAL SENSES are senses whose sensory receptors are located in large, complex organs in the head.
The five special senses are vision, hearing, equilibrium, taste, and smell.

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OLFACTION
Sense of Smell Organ=epithelial lining of nose

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Olfactory Receptors
chemoreceptors that are located in the upper nasal cavity
sensitive portion is cilia-like dendrites on bipolar neurons chemicals must be dissolved in solution to be detected undergo rapid sensory adaptation

Olfactory Code
hypothesis odor that is stimulated by a distinct set of receptor cells and its associated receptor proteins 31

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GUSTATION
Sense of Taste Organ = taste buds on tongue

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Taste Receptors
chemoreceptors that are located in taste buds
taste cells modified epithelial cells that function as receptors

taste hairs microvilli that protrude from taste cells=sensitive parts of taste cells
Chemicals must be dissolved in saliva to be detected undergo rapid sensory adaptation
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Taste Sensations
most taste buds are far posterior near the base of the tongue Four Primary Taste Sensations
sweet stimulated by carbohydrates (tip of tongue) sour stimulated by acids (lateral tongue) salty stimulated by salts (perimeter of tongue)

bitter stimulated by many organic compounds (posterior tongue)

Taste varies from person to person

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Gustatory Pathway from Taste Buds

Figure 16.2

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Sense of Hearing
Organ=Ear (Organ of Corti)

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Introduction
The organ of hearing is the Organ of Corti, which is present in the cochlea of the inner ear The sensory receptors are called mechanoreceptors Once these mechanoreceptors are stimulated, the impulse travels on the cochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear (CN VIII) nerve, which leads to the primary auditory cortex (temporal cortex) of the cerebrum
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EAR STRUCTURE

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External Ear
Auricle = outer ear (cartilage)
Function = collection of sound waves

External auditory meatus = ear canal

Function = starts vibrations of sound waves and directs them toward tympanic membrane

Tympanic membrane
vibrates in response to sound waves
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Middle Ear
Function = to amplify and concentrate sound waves. Tympanic cavity = air-filled space behind eardrum; separates outer from inner ear. Auditory ossicles = 3 tiny bones in middle ear:
Malleus (hammer) is connected to tympanic membrane Incus (anvil) connects malleus to stapes Stapes (stirrup) connects incus to the

Oval window = the entrance to inner ear

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Middle Ear cont.

Auditory (Eustachian) tube = passageway
which connects middle ear to nasopharynx

(throat)
Function = to equalize pressure on both

sides of the tympanic membrane, which is

necessary for proper hearing.
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Inner Ear
The inner ear consists of a complex system of intercommunicating chambers and tubes called a labyrinth. Actually, two labyrinths compose the inner ear: Osseous labyrinth = bony canal in temporal bone
Perilymph fills the space between the osseous and membranous labyrinth

Membranous labyrinth = membrane within osseous labyrinth.

Endolymph fills the membranous labyrinth.
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Inner Ear cont.

The inner ear labyrinth can further be divided into three regions (cochlea, vestibule & semi-circular canals) each with a specific function:
Cochlea = snail shaped portion
Function = sense of hearing

Semi-circular canals = three rings

Function = dynamic equilibrium

Vestibule = area between cochlea and semicircular canals

Function = static equilibrium
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The Choclea
divided into two compartments:
Scala vestibuli = upper compartment which extends from oval window to apex Scala tympani = lower compartment which extends from apex to round window

Both compartments are filled with perilymph Between the two bony compartments, we find the membranous labyrinth = cochlear duct
The cochlear duct is filled with endolymph
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Cochlea cont.
There are membranes that separate the

cochlear duct from the bony compartments:

Vestibular membrane separates the cochlear

duct from the scala vestibuli

Basilar membrane separates the cochlear duct from the scala tympani

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Organ of Corti
The mechanoreceptors responsible for the sense of hearing are contained in the Organ of Corti = 16,000 hearing receptor cells located on the basilar membrane. The receptor cells are called "hair cells" The hair cells are covered by the tectorial membrane, which lies over them like a roof
different frequencies of vibration move different parts of basilar membrane particular sound frequencies cause hairs of receptor cells to bend nerve impulse generated

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Sound through the ear

Auditory Nerve Pathways

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First
Sound waves arrive at the tympanic membrane

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Second
Movement of the tympanic membrane causes displacement of the auditory ossicles.

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Third
Movement of the stapes at the oval window establishes pressure waves in the perilymph of the vestibular duct.

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Fourth
The pressure waves distort the basilar membrane on their way to the round window of the tympanic duct.

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Fifth
Vibration of the basilar membrane causes vibration of hair cells against the tectorial membrane

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Sixth
Information about the region and the intensity of stimulation is relayed to the CNS over the cochlear branch of cranial nerve VIII. thalamus for direction to the primary auditory cortex (temporal lobes) of cerebrum for interpretation

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Pathway of Auditory Sense

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Auditory Pathway from the Organ of Corti

Figure 16.23

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SENSE OF EQUILIBRIUM
Organs= vestibule, utricle, saccule, semi-circular canals

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Equilibrium
Static Equilibrium
vestibule sense position of head when body is not moving

Dynamic Equilibrium
semicircular canals sense rotation and movement of head and body
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Static Equilibrium
functions to sense the position of the head and help us maintain posture while motionless The vestibule of the inner ear contains the two membranous chambers responsible for static equilibrium
The utricle communicates with the semi-circular canals The saccule communicates with the cochlear duct
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Static Equilibrium cont.

Each of these chambers contains a macula =

organ of static equilibrium

The macula is composed of "hair cells" that are in contact with a jelly-like fluid containing calcium carbonate crystals (otolith)
When the head is moved, the gel sags due to gravity and the hair cells bend This triggers a sensory impulse
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Dynamic Equilibrium
functions to prevent loss of balance during rapid head or body movement

The three semi-circular canals contain the organ responsible for dynamic equilibrium.
Each semi-circular canal ends in an enlargement called the ampulla Each ampulla houses a sensory organ for dynamic equilibrium called the crista ampullaris, which contains a patch of "hair cells" in a mass of gelatin When the head is moved, the gelatin stays put due to inertia causing the hair cells to bend. This triggers a sensory impulse
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Vision
Organ=the eye Visual Accessory Organs= eyelids, lacrimal apparatus, extrinsic eye muscles
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Introduction
The organ of vision is the retina of the eye

The sensory receptors are called photoreceptor When photoreceptors are stimulated, impulses travel within the optic nerve (CN II) to the visual (occipital) cortex for interpretation
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Visual Accessory Organs

Eyelids = protective
shield for the eyeball.

Lacrimal gland = tear

secretion; located on upper

lateral surface
Tears contain an enzyme called lysozyme, which functions as an antibacterial agent.

Conjunctiva= inner
lining of eyelid; = red

portion around eye.

Lacrimal apparatus =
tear secretion & distribution

Nasolacrimal duct =
duct which carries tears into nasal cavity (drainage)
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Extrinsic Eye Muscles

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Structure of the Eye

The eye is composed of three distinct layers

or tunics:
The Outer Tunic (fibrous tunic)

The Middle (vascular tunic)

The inner (nervous tunic)

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The Outer Tunic

Function= protection Cornea = transparent anterior portion
Function: helps focus (75%) incoming light rays

Sclera = white posterior portion, which is continuous with eyeball except where the optic nerve and blood vessels pierce through it in the back of eye
Functions:
protection attachment (of eye muscles)
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The Middle tunic (vascular)

Function= nourishment Choroid coat = membrane joined loosely to sclera containing many blood vessels to nourish the tissues of the eye
pigments absorb extra light

Ciliary body = anterior extension from choroid coat, which is composed of 2 parts:
Ciliary muscles which control the shape of the lens (i.e. Accommodation) Ciliary processes which are located on the periphery of the lens Suspensory ligaments extend from the ciliary processes on the lens to the ciliary muscles and function to hold the lens in place

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The Middle tunic cont.

Iris = colored ring around pupil
thin diaphragm muscle lies between cornea and lens The iris separates the anterior cavity of the eye into an anterior chamber and posterior chamber The entire anterior cavity is filled with aqueous humor, which helps nourish the anterior portions of the eye, and maintains the shape of the anterior eye
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Aqueous Humor
fluid in anterior cavity of eye

secreted by epithelium on inner surface of the ciliary body provides nutrients maintains shape of anterior portion of eye

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The Inner tunic (nervous, sensory)

Retina = inner lining of the eyeball; site of photoreceptors
A picture of the retina can be taken with a camera attached to an ophthalmoscope

The optic disc is the location on the retina where nerve fibers leave the eye & join with the optic nerve the central artery & vein also pass through this disk
No photoreceptors are present in the area of the optic disk = blind spot.

The posterior cavity of the eye is occupied by the lens, ciliary body, and the retina
The posterior cavity is filled with vitreous humor, which is a jelly-like fluid, which maintains the spherical shape of the eyeball

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Accommodation
the process by which the lenschanges shape to focus on close objects
The lens is responsible (with cornea) for focusing incoming light rays. If light rays are entering the eye from a distant object, the lens is flat. When we focus on a close object, the ciliary muscles contract, relaxing the suspensory ligaments. Accordingly, the lens thickens allowing us to focus.
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Figure 12.29

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Light Refraction
Incoming light rays are refracted (bent) onto the retina due to the convex surface of both the cornea and the lens. Pathway of Light Through Eye:
1. cornea 2. aqueous humor 3. lens 4. vitreous humor 5. photoreceptors in retina.

Once the rods and/or cones are stimulated, a sensory impulse is carried 94

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Light Through the Eye

as light enters eye, it is refracted by

convex surface of cornea convex surface of lens image focused on retina is upside down and reversed from left to right

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Macula lutea yellow spot of mostly cones Fovea centralis depression of ALL cones, sharpest vision

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Visual Receptors
Rods = long, thin projections contain light sensitive Cones = short/blunt
projections pigment called rhodopsin contain light sensitive hundred times more sensitive pigments called to light than cones erythrolabe, chlorolabe, provide vision in dim light and cyanolabe produce colorless vision and provide vision in bright light outlines produce sharp images dark adapted all opsin and produce color vision light adapted most retinal is together, therefore rods opsin and retinal are VERY sensitive, vision decomposes possible even in dark
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Visual Pigments
Rhodopsin Pigments on Cones light-sensitive each set contains different pigment in rods light-sensitive pigment decomposes in each set is sensitive to presence of light different wavelengths triggers a complex color perceived depends on series of reactions which sets of cones are that initiate nerve stimulated impulses red, green, or blue impulses travel along optic nerve
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Stereoscopic Vision
provides perception of distance and depth

results from formation of two slightly different retinal images

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Visual Pathways to the Brain and Visual Fields

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