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There is probably no segment of activity in the world attracting as much attention at present as that of knowledge management
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Ackoff indicates that the first four categories relate to the past; they deal with what has been or what is known. Only the fifth category, wisdom, deals with the future because it incorporates vision and design. With wisdom, people can create the future rather than just grasp the present and past. But achieving wisdom isn't easy; people must move successively through the other categories
Knowledge... knowledge is the appropriate collection of information, such that it's intent is to be useful. Knowledge is a deterministic process. When someone "memorizes" information (as less-aspiring test-bound students often do), then they have amassed knowledge. This knowledge has useful meaning to them, but it does not provide for, in and of itself, an integration such as would infer further knowledge. For example, elementary school children memorize, or amass knowledge of, the Multiplications table". They can tell you that "2 x 2 = 4" because they have amassed that knowledge (it being included in the table). But when asked what is "1267 x 300", they can not respond correctly because that entry is not in their Multiplications table. To correctly answer such a question
requires a true cognitive and analytical ability that is only encompassed in the next level... understanding. In computer
parlance, most of the applications we use (modeling, simulation, etc.) exercise some type of stored knowledge.
and probabilistic process. It is cognitive and analytical. It is the process by which I can take
knowledge and synthesize new knowledge from the previously held knowledge. The difference between understanding and knowledge is the difference between "learning" and "memorizing". People who have understanding can undertake useful actions because they can synthesize new knowledge, or in some cases, at least new information, from what is previously known (and understood). That is, understanding can build upon currently held information, knowledge and understanding itself. In computer parlance, AI systems possess understanding in the sense that they are able to synthesize new knowledge from previously stored information and knowledge.
Wisdom... wisdom is an extrapolative and non-deterministic, non-probabilistic process. It calls upon all the previous levels of consciousness, and specifically upon special types of human programming (moral, ethical codes, etc.). It beckons to give us understanding about which there has previously been no understanding, and in doing so, goes far beyond understanding itself. It is the essence of philosophical probing. Unlike the previous four levels, it asks questions to which there is no (easily-achievable) answer, and in some cases, to which there can be no humanly-known answers period. Wisdom is therefore, the
process by which we also distinguish, or judge, between right and wrong, good and bad. I personally believe that
computers do not have, and will never have the ability to posses wisdom. wisdom is a uniquely human state, or as i see it, wisdom requires one to have a soul, for it resides as much in the heart as in the mind. And a soul is something machines will never possess (or perhaps I should reword that to say, a soul is something that, in general, will never possess a machine).
The following diagram represents the transitions from data, to information, to knowledge, and finally to wisdom, and it is understanding that support the transition from each stage to the next. Understanding is not a separate level of its own.
Data represents a fact or statement of event without relation to other things. Ex: It is raining. Information embodies the understanding of a relationship of some sort, possibly cause and effect. Ex: The temperature dropped 15 degrees and then it started raining. Knowledge represents a pattern that connects & generally provides a high level of predictability as to what is described or what will happen next. Ex: If the humidity is very high and the temperature drops substantially the atmospheres is often unlikely to be able to hold the moisture so it rains.
Wisdom embodies more of an understanding of fundamental principles embodied within the knowledge that are essentially the basis for the knowledge being what it is. Wisdom is essentially systemic.
Ex: It rains because it rains. And this encompasses an understanding of all the interactions that happen between raining, evaporation, air currents, temperature gradients, changes, and raining.
References: Ackoff, R. L., "From Data to Wisdom", Journal of Applies Systems Analysis, Volume 16, 1989 p 3-9. Gadomski, Adam Maria, Information, Preferences and Knowledge, An Interesting Evolution in Thought Sharma, Nikhil, The Origin of the Data Information Knowledge Wisdom Hierarchy
DATABASE
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File
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1. Gopal
{ Name field}
letter of name field Gopal)
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a. File creation, b. Locating a record, c. Adding a record, d. Deleting a record, e. Modifying a record
A collection of interrelated data stored together with controlled redundancy to serve one or more applications in optimal fashion; the data are stored so that they are independent of programs which use the data; a common and controlled approach is used in adding new data and modifying and retrieving existing data within the data base.
- Jerome Kanter Management Information Systems Third Edition- Prentice Hall of India private Ltd., New Delhi 110 001. Pp.90- 127
DATABASE is a collection of data organized to serve many applications efficiently by centralizing the data and minimizing redundant data. Rather than storing data in separate files for each application, data are stored physically to appear to users as being stored in only one location. A single database services multiple applications
- KENNETH C. LAUDON & JANE P. LAUDON Essentials of Management Information Systems Third Edition pp. 199 229.
The following figure illustrates an example for database for HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT.
INTEGRATED HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Personnel application
Programs
Personnel department
Payroll: Hours Worked Pay rate Gross pay Deductions Net pay
Payroll department
Benefits: Life insurance Group insurance Health care plan Provident fund Retirement benefits
Benefits department
DATABASE & DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS A database is a mechanized, formally defined, centrally controlled collection of data in an organization. The data structure is physically organized and stored to promote share ability, availability, evoluability, and integrity.
GORDON B. DAVIS & MARGRETHE H. OLSON Management Information Systems Third Edition pp. 205-234
The database approach is made operational by a DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS {DBMS}, A SOFTWARE SYSTEM, WHICH PERFORMS THE FUNCTIONS OF DEFINING, CREATING, REVISING, AND CONTROLLING THE DATABASE. That is DBMS has a specialized function to create and maintain a database and enable individual business applications to extract the data they need without having to create separate files of data definitions in computer programs. The DBMS software provides facilities for retrieving data, generating reports, revising data definitions, updating data, and building applications.The DBMS ACTS AS AN INTERFACE BETWEEN APPLICATION PROGRAMS AND THE PHYSICAL DATA FILES.
Database
Application program
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Objectives of DATABASE & DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 1. 2. Availability: Data should be made available for use by applications (both current and future) and by queries. Shareablility; Data items prepared by one application are available to all applications or queries. No data items are owned by an application. Evaluability: The database can evolve as application usage and query needs evolve. Data Independence: The users of the database establish their view of the data and its structure without regard to the actual physical storage of the data. Data Integrity: The database establishes a uniform high level of accuracy and consistency. Validation rules are applies by the daabase management system. Reduced Redundancy: The presence of duplicate data in multiple data files in file structure of collection of data is completely eliminated.
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Distributed Databases:
A distributed database is one that is stored in more than one physical location. Some parts of the database are stored physically in one location and other parts are stored and maintained in other locations. There are main two ways of distributing a database viz., 1.Replicated database. It provides duplicate of all data at all site this database is recommended if it is necessary for every location to have frequent access to the same data. 2. Partitioned database. In this method the database is divided into segments that are appropriate locations and those segments distributed only to those locations. Example the database may be partitioned along functional lines viz., Financial, Logistic, Human-resource-management, Manufacturing, Marketing, etc., Data may be kept at corporate office and relevant production and personnel data at each manufacturing plant and office site.
Partitioning may also be achieved along geographical lines. That is, all information- Financial, Logistic, Human-resource-management, Manufacturing, Marketing, etc., may be kept at each of the separate locations of an organization. Many organizations with many locations partition the database hierarchically. Detailed data, such as payroll and sales data are kept close to their source-the local site. Regional and national locations receive increasingly less detailed summaries of the detailed data as these data are transmitted up through the organisations hierarchy. Distributed database systems usually reduce costs because; they reduce transfer of data between remote sites and the organisations headquarters. This system may also provide organizations with faster response times for filling orders, answering customer requests, or providing mangers with information. However, distributed database systems also magnify the problems of databases. They compound the problems of control over the database, increase problems of security, for the database, increase data redundancy and the resulting danger to data integrity, and increase the need for more computer resources. Unless the distribution of a database is done very carefully, many of the advantages of having a database in the first place can be lost. The increased power and use of microcomputers by managers and professionals have created additional problems for database administrators. When managers download data from a centralized database to their microcomputers, there is no longer a truly centralized database. Parts of the database are segmented and distributed to these microcomputers. Because of the backlog of requests to be filled at many management information systems departments, other departments may become so frustrated that they decide to acquire their own minicomputers or microcomputers to provide their own information services. When this happens, additional files and databases are established throughout an organization, creating much of the same redundancy, inconsistency, and incompatibility. An important type of distributed database system is called client/server systems. The distributed database & distributed processing has significantly increased the awareness of the data as a key corporate resource and underscored the importance of its management that is Data Resource Management (DRM). The success of DRM function in distributed environment can manifest in several different ways. Success may be reflected by the degree to which preset DRM objectives are realized. The DRM objectives relate to improvements in efficiency and effectiveness of the DRM function. Such objectives include maintaining data integrity, accuracy, security, and availability; providing timely data; designing efficient data distribution strategies; enhancing operational efficiency; setting and enforcing standards; facilitating enhanced data sharing and reducing redundancy; developing strategic data plans; and training information systems personnel and end-users, among others.
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To provide this type of information organizations can use either specialized multidimensional database or a tool that creates multi-dimensional views of data in relational databases. Another name used for multi-dimensional data analysis is On-Line Analytical Processing [OLAP]. OLAP refers to capability for manipulating and analyzing large volume of data from multiple perspectives.
KENGERI
DAVANGERE
BANGALORE
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MALUR
KOLAR
DATA WAREHOUSES
Data warehousing is a multi-billon dollar industry that sprang up during the 1990s. Today most fortune 1000 firms and many smaller ones now have their own data warehouses. The industry resulted from a realization that conventional on-line transactions at a base are not adequate for decision support, data-mining, and customer relationship applications (i.e., e-CRM). To meet the requirement of DSS / GDSS, EIS, data-mining, e-CRM, Supply-chain relationship management & some other similar type of application data warehousing are emerged. Data warehousing and Internet are the two key technologies that offer potential solutions for managing corporate data. Data warehousing liberates information and the Internet makes it easy and less costly to access information from anywhere at anytime.
Data marts:
The organization build enterprise-wide data warehouses where a central data warehouse serve the entire organization, or they can create smaller, decentralized data warehouses called data marts. A data mart is a subset of a data warehouse in which a summarized highly focused portion of the organization data is placed in a separate database for a specific population of users (functional or department wise users). Software tools needed for data warehouse
1. Warehouse Construction Software: This software is required to extract relevant data both from operation databases & external sources to make sure the data are clean (free from error), transform the data into a useable form and load the data into the data warehouse. Warehouse construction software is available from IBM, Information Builders, Platinum Technology etc., Warehouse operation software: This software required for storing data and managing the data warehouse. This is accomplished by DBMSs such as Computer Associates CA-Ingres, IBMs DB2, Oracle, Sybase Specialized warehouse management software is offered by Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Information Builders, NCR, Red-Brick, & Others.
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Warehouse Access and Analysis Software: The widest variety of software tools is available in the warehouse access and analysis area, Information catalog tool, such as Platinum Technologys Platinum Repository; tell the user what is in the warehouse. Reporting tools enable a user to produce customized reports from the data warehouse, perhaps on a regular basis. Information Builders FOCUS, a 4GL etc., widely used reporting tool.
Query tool, such as Brio-Technologys Brio Query Enterprise, make it easy for a user to query the warehouse. For more sophisticated data analysis, specialized data-mining tools such as Thinking Machines Darwin, are available. Visualising the data may be important, using a tool such as SAS Institutes SAS/Insight, and presenting the data through an executive Information System (EIS) can be done using Show Business Softwares Show Business EIS or a similar tools. The Figure on the next slide illustrates the data warehouse environment.
Internal data
Data mart -2
External Data
External data
Data-bank
Data warehouse
Data mart -4
Data mart -5
Data mart -6
Information Directory
Data mart -7
A data warehouse is user driven. It provides greater flexibility in using data than traditional information systems. Orr (1996) identifies eight interconnected parts of data warehouse architecture (DWA). The eight parts represent the overall structure of data, communication, processing, and presentation in a data warehouse environment. Among them, the information access layer is the layer that end users deal with when using the data warehouse. It includes the hardware and software that constructs the user interface with the data warehouses. The major goal of the user interface is to make the raw data available easily and seamlessly to the end users. Currently, most organizations implement data warehousing in either a standalone or traditional client / server environment, and most data warehousing applications implement their information access layer using applications with graphic user interface (GUI) running on desktop computers.
Application Server
Web - Pages
Client
Web-Browser
Data warehouse
Web-Server
Ref ..EI- DACHEN AND MARK N. FROLICK Web- Based data warehousing (Information Systems Management Spring 2000),
The Web-based data warehousing allows end users to use Web browsers as a user interface in order to access and manipulate data. Such applications can be Internet, Intranet, or Extranet based. Web-based data warehousing offers following advantages:
1. In recent years, end users have become more experienced in using the Internet for both business and leisure purposes: this phenomenon makes the Web browser a easy-to-use interface for users of all levels of computer skill. Web-based data warehousing reduces the establishment and management cost by offering a thin-client solution. The thin-client solution moves most of the application processing to the server: therefore, there is a reduced need for hardware and software cost and support on the desktop. It brings the power of many computers into one relatively simple desktop device connected to network. Pre-installation of the software is not required, in many instances, and future upgrading and maintenance are performed only on the server, which serves as a device with enormous amount of resources. The Internet provides a way to distribute data to a large number of users in a low-cost and platform- independent environment.
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Data Mining
Data mining forms the most crucial part of data warehousing as it acts like a catalyst that is responsible for sifting gold out of useless pebbles. It analyses all the information stored in databases and extracts only the valuable data for deriving productive results.2.8 In data mining, the data in a data warehouse are processed to identify key factors and trends in historical patterns of business activity. This can be used to help managers make decisions about strategic changes in business operations to gain competitive advantages in the marketplace.
Ref:.2.8 SWASTI OHRI Data Warehousing Mining holds the Key to Success i.t Bureau, US. The complete Magazine on Information Technology-Sept-99.
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Data Planning and Modeling Methodology: The organizational interests served by the DBMS are much broader than those in the traditional file environment: therefore the organization requires enterprise-wide planning for data. An Enterprise analysis, which addresses the information requirements of the entire organisation (as opposed to the requirements of individual applications), is needed to develop databases. The purpose of enterprise analysis is to identify the key entities, attributes, and relationships that constitute the organisation's data. Database Technology, Management and Users: Databases require new software and a new staff specially trained in DBMS techniques, as well as new management structures. Most corporations develop a database design and management group within the corporate information system division that is responsible for the more technical and operational aspect of managing data. The functions it performs are called database administration. This group does the following:
Defines and organizes database structure and content Develop Security Procedures and safeguard the database Develops database documentation Maintains the database management software
In close cooperation with users, the design group establishes the physical database, the logical relations among elements, and the access rules and procedures. A database serves a wider community of users than traditional systems. Relational systems with fourth generation query languages permit employees who are not computer specialists to access large databases. In addition, users include trained computer specialists and nonspecialist, the database helps to optimize access for nonspecialists & more resources must be devoted to training end users. Professional systems workers must be retrained in the DBMS language, DBMS application development procedures, and new software practices.
Any Questions ?
Thank You !
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