Chapter

POWER AND POLITICS

A Definition of Power
Power The capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B so that B acts in accordance with As wishes Exists as a potential or fully actualized influence over a dependent relationship Dependency Bs relationship to A when A possesses something that B requires The greater B's dependence, the more power A has

- Dependence, in turn, is based on alternatives that B perceives and the importance that B places on the alternative(s) that A controls. - A person can have power over you only if he or she controls something you desire.

Contrasting Leadership and Power

Leadership
Focuses on goal achievement Requires goal compatibility with followers Focuses influence downward

Power
Used as a means for achieving goals Requires follower dependency Used to gain lateral and upward influence

Research Focus
Leadership styles and relationships with followers

Research Focus
Power tactics for gaining compliance

14-3

Bases of Power: Formal Power

Formal Power
Established by an individuals position in an organization Three bases: A power base dependent on fear of negative results Compliance achieved based on the ability to distribute rewards that others view as valuable

1. Coercive Power

2. Reward Power

14-4

Bases of Power: Formal Power

3. Legitimate Power
The power a person receives as a result of his or her position in the formal hierarchy of an organization.

4. Information Power
Power that comes from access to and control over information.

Bases of Power: Personal Power

Power that comes from an individuals unique characteristics these are the most effective 1. Expert Power
Influence based on special skills or knowledge

2. Referent Power
Influence based on possession by an individual of desirable resources or personal traits It is really an individuals personality and interpersonal style. They are able to exert influence over others because of the strength of their heroic qualities.
14-6

3. Charismatic Power

Dependency: The Key to Power

The General Dependency Postulate
The greater Bs dependency on A, the greater the

power A has over B

Possession/control of scarce organizational resources that others need makes a manager powerful Access to optional resources (e.g., multiple suppliers) reduces the resource holders power

14-7

What Creates Dependency

Dependency increases when resources are: 1. Importance of the resource to the organization To create dependency, the thing(s) you control must be perceived as being important. Organizations actively seek to avoid uncertainty. Therefore, those individuals or groups who can absorb an organizations uncertainty will be perceived as controlling an important resource.

2. Scarcity of the resource Low-ranking members in an organization who have important knowledge not available to high-ranking members gain power over the high-ranking members. Individuals in occupations in which the supply of personnel is low relative to demand can negotiate compensation and benefit packages, which are far more attractive than can those in occupations where there is an abundance of candidates.
3. Nonsubstitutability of the resource The more that a resource has no viable substitutes, the more power that control over that resource provides.

Power Tactics
Power Tactics
Ways in which individuals translate power bases into specific actions Nine influence tactics:
Legitimacy Rational persuasion* Inspirational appeals* Consultation* Exchange Personal appeals Ingratiation Pressure Coalitions

* Most effective (Pressure is the least effective)

14-10

Preferred Power Tactics by Influence Direction

Upward Influence Rational persuasion

Downward Influence Rational persuasion Inspirational appeals Pressure Consultation Ingratiation Exchange Legitimacy

Lateral Influence Rational persuasion Consultation Ingratiation Exchange Legitimacy Personal appeals Coalitions

14-11

Use of Power Tactics: From Most to Least Popular

Factors Influencing the Choice and Effectiveness of Power Tactics

Sequencing of tactics Softer to harder tactics works best. Skillful use of a tactic Experienced users are more successful. Relative power of the tactic user Some tactics work better when applied downward. The type of request attaching to the tactic Is the request legitimate? How the request is perceived Is the request accepted as ethical? The culture of the organization Culture affects users choice of tactic Country-specific cultural factors Local values favor certain tactics over others.

14-13

Sexual Harassment: A Case of Unequal Power

Sexual Harassment:
Any unwanted activity of a sexual nature that affects an individuals employment and creates a hostile work environment
Overt actions, like unwanted touching, are relatively easy to spot Subtle actions, like jokes or looks, can cross over the line into harassment

Sexual harassment isnt about sex: it is about abusing an unequal power relationship
Harassment can damage the well-being of the individual, work group, and organization

14-14

Managerial Actions to Prevent Sexual Harassment

Make sure a policy against it is in place. Ensure that employees will not encounter retaliation if they file a complaint. Investigate every complaint and include the human resource and legal departments. Make sure offenders are disciplined or terminated. Set up in-house seminars and training.
14-15

Power In Groups: COALITION

Coalitions
Clusters of individuals who temporarily come together to achieve a specific purpose. Those out of power and seeking to be in will first try to increase their power individually.

Seek to maximize their size to attain influence. Seek a broad and diverse constituency for support of their objectives.

Occur more frequently in organizations with high task and resource interdependencies. Occur more frequently if tasks are standardized and routine.

Politics: Power in Action

Political Behavior
Activities that are not required as part of ones formal role in the organization, but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages or disadvantages within the organization Key Elements: 1. It is outside ones specified job requirements. 2. It encompasses efforts to influence the goals, criteria, or processes used for decision-making. 3. It includes such varied activities as withholding key information from decision makers, whistle blowing, spreading rumors, leaking confidential information, etc.
14-17

Legitimate Political Behavior It refers to normal everyday politicscomplaining to your supervisor, bypassing the chain of command, forming coalitions, etc. Illegitimate political behaviors It refers to one that violate the implied rules of the game, such as sabotage, whistle blowing, and symbolic protests, etc. The vast majority of all organizational political actions are legitimate. The extreme illegitimate forms of political behavior pose a very real risk of loss of organizational membership or extreme sanction.

The Reality of Politics

Organizations are made up of individuals and groups with different values, goals, and interests. This sets up the potential for conflict over resources. The most important factor leading to politics within organizations is the realization that most of the facts that are used to allocate the limited resources are open to interpretation. a. What is good performance? b. Whats an adequate improvement? c. What constitutes an unsatisfactory job? Most managerial decisions take place in the large and ambiguous middle ground of organizational life. Therefore people within organizations will use whatever influence they can to taint the facts to support their goals and interests. 14-19

Politics Is in the Eye of the Beholder

Causes and Consequences of Political Behavior

Factors that Influence Political Behavior

14-21

Employee Responses to Organizational Politics

Most employees have low to modest willingness to play politics and have the following reactions to politics:

14-22

Defensive Behaviors
Employees who perceive politics as a threat have defensive reactions
May be helpful in the short run, dangerous in the long run

Types of defensive behaviors

Avoiding Action: Avoiding Blame:

Overconforming
Buck passing Playing dumb

Buffing
Playing safe Justifying

Avoiding Change: Prevention Self-protection

Stretching
Stalling

Scapegoating
Misrepresenting

14-23

Impression Management (IM)

The process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them We know that people have an ongoing interest in how others perceive and evaluate them. Being perceived positively by others should have benefits for people in organizations. IM Techniques Conformity Excuses Apologies Self-Promotion Flattery Favors Association 14-24

IM Effectiveness
Job Interview Success
IM does work and most people use it Self-promotion techniques are important Ingratiation is of secondary importance

Performance Evaluations
Ingratiation is positively related to ratings Self-promotion tends to backfire

14-25

 High self-monitors (to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors) are good at reading situations and molding their appearances and behavior to fit each situation. Interviewers felt that those applicants for a position as a customer service representative who used IM techniques performed better in the interview, and the interviewers seemed somewhat more inclined to hire these people. The researchers compared IM techniques that focused the conversation on themselves (called a controlling style) with techniques that focused on the interviewer (referred to as a submissive style).

Those applicants who used the controlling style were rated higher by interviewers on factors such as motivation, enthusiasm, and even technical skills, and they received more job offers.

The Ethics of Behaving Politically

It is difficulty to tell ethical from unethical politicking Three questions help:
1. What is the utility of engaging in the behavior? 2. Does the utility balance out any harm done by the action? 3. Does the action conform to standards of equity and justice?

Answers can be skewed toward either viewpoint

14-27

Is Political Action Ethical?

Utilitarianism

Rights

Justice