Applications of Thermodynamics to

Flow Processes


The discipline
Principles: Fluid mechanics and Thermodynamics
Contrast
Flow process inevitably result from pressure gradients within
the fluid. Moreover, temperature, velocity, and even
concentration gradients may exist within the flowing fluid.
Uniform conditions that prevail at equilibrium in closed
system.
Local state
An equation of state applied locally and instantaneously at any
point in a fluid system, and that one may invoke a concept of
local state, independent of the concept of equilibrium.
Duct flow of compressible fluids
Equations interrelate the changes occurring in
pressure, velocity, cross-sectional area, enthalpy,
entropy, and specific volume of the flowing
system.
Consider a adiabatic, steady-state, one
dimensional flow of a compressible fluid:


The continuity equation:
0
2
2
=
A
+ A
u
H udu dH =
0 =
A
dA
u
du
V
dV
0 ) / ( = V uA d
VdP TdS dH + =
dP
P
V
dS
S
V
dV
S P
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
0 =
A
dA
u
du
V
dV
P P P
S
T
T
V
S
V
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
P
T
V
V
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

1
|
T
C
T
S
P
P
=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
P P
C
VT
S
V |
=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
2
2
c
V
P
V
S
=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
From physics,
c is the speed
of sound in a
fluid
dP
c
V
dS
C
T
V
dV
P
2
=
|
udu dH =
dP
c
V
dS
C
T
V
dV
P
2
=
|
0 1 1
2 2
2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
dA
A
u
TdS
C
u
VdP
c
u
P
|
( ) 0 1 1
2 2
2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + dA
A
u
TdS
C
u
VdP
P
|
M
|
.
|

\
|
=
c
u
M
The Mach number
VdP TdS dH + =
0
1
1
1
2
2 2
2
2
=
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
dA
A
u
TdS
C
u
udu
P
M M
M
|
Relates du to dS and dA
Pipe flow
0
1
1
1
2
2 2
2
2
=
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
dA
A
u
TdS
C
u
udu
P
M M
M
|
( ) 0 1 1
2 2
2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + dA
A
u
TdS
C
u
VdP
P
|
M
dx
dS C
u
T
dx
du
u
P
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
=
2
2
2
1 M
M
|
dx
dS C
u
V
T
dx
dP
P
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
=
2
2
1
1
M
|
For subsonic flow, M
2
< 1, , the pressure decreases
and the velocity increases in the direction of flow. For subsonic
flow, the maximum fluid velocity obtained in a pipe of constant
cross section is the speed of sound, and this value is reached at the
exit of the pipe.
0 >
dx
du
0 <
dx
dP
Consider the steady-state, adiabatic, irreversible flow of an incompressible liquid in a
horizontal pipe of constant cross-sectional area. Show that (a) the velocity is constant.
(b) the temperature increases in the direction of flow. (c) the pressure decreases in the
direction of flow.
Control volume: a finite length of horizontal pipe, with entrance (1) and exit (2)
The continuity equation:
2
2 2
1
1 1
V
A u
V
A u
=
2 1
A A =
2 1
V V =
2 1
u u =
incompressible
const. cross-sectional area
Entropy balance (irreversible): 0
1 2
> = S S S
G
incompressible liquid with heat capacity C
0
2
1
1 2
> = =
}
T
T
G
T
dT
C S S S
1 2
T T >
Energy balance with (u
1
= u
2
):
2 1
H H =
0 ) (
1 2 1 2
2
1
= + =
}
P P V CdT H H
T
T
1 2
T T >
1 2
P P <
If reversible adiabatic: T
2
= T
1
; P
2
= P
1
. The temperature and pressure change
originates from flow irreversibility.

0
1
1
1
2
2 2
2
2
=
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
dA
A
u
TdS
C
u
udu
P
M M
M
|
( ) 0 1 1
2 2
2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + dA
A
u
TdS
C
u
VdP
P
|
M
Reversible flow
0
1
1
2
2
=
|
.
|

\
|

+
dx
dA
A
u
dx
du
u
M
( ) 0 1
2
2
=
dx
dA
A
u
dx
dP
V M
Nozzles:
Reversible flow
Subsonic: M <1 Supersonic: M <1
Converging Diverging Converging Diverging
dx
dA
- + - +
dx
dP
- + + -
dx
du
+ - - +
For subsonic flow in a converging nozzle, the velocity increases as the cross-sectional
area diminishes. The maximum value is the speed of sound, reached at the throat.
0
1
1
2
2
=
|
.
|

\
|

+
dx
dA
A
u
dx
du
u
M
( ) 0 1
2
2
=
dx
dA
A
u
dx
dP
V M
isentropic
VdP udu =
}
=
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
P
P
VdP u u
. const PV =

(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

1
1
2 1 1
2
1
2
2
1
1
2
P
P V P
u u
c u =
2
S
V
P
V c
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
2 2
V
P
V
P
S

=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
. const PV =

0
1
= u
1
1
2
1
2

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=

P
P
A high-velocity nozzle is designed to operate with steam at 700 kPa and 300C. At the
nozzle inlet the velocity is 30 m/s. Calculate values of the ratio A/A
1
(where A
1
is the
cross-sectional area of the nozzle inlet) for the sections where the pressure is 600,
500, 400, 300, and 200 kPa. Assume the nozzle operates isentropically.
The continuity equation:
u V
V u
A
A
1
1
1
=
Energy balance: ) ( 2
1
2
1
2
H H u u =
Initial values from the steam table:
K kg
kJ
S

= 2997 . 7
1
kg
kJ
H 8 . 3059
1
=
g
cm
V
3
1
39 . 371 =
u
V
A
A
|
.
|

\
|
=
39 . 371
30
1
) 10 8 . 3059 ( 2 900
3 2
= H u
Since it is an isentropic process, S = S
1
. From the steam table:
600 kPa:
K kg
kJ
S

= 2997 . 7
kg
kJ
H 4 . 3020 =
g
cm
V
3
25 . 418 =
s
m
u 3 . 282 =
120 . 0
1
=
A
A
Similar for other pressures
P (kPa) V (cm
3
/g) U (m/s) A/A
1
700 371.39 30 1.0
600 418.25 282.3 0.120
500 481.26 411.2 0.095
400 571.23 523.0 0.088
300 711.93 633.0 0.091
200 970.04 752.2 0.104
Consider again the nozzle of the previous example, assuming now that steam behaves
as an ideal gas. Calculate (a) the critical pressure ratio and the velocity at the throat.
(b) the discharge pressure if a Mach number of 2.0 is required at the nozzle exhaust.
The ratio of specific heats for steam,
3 . 1 =
1
1
2
1
2

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=

P
P
3 . 1 =
55 . 0
1
2
=
P
P
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

1
1
2 1 1
2
1
2
2
1
1
2
P
P V P
u u
We have u
1
, P
1
, V
1
, P
2
/P
1
,
s
m
u 35 . 544
2
=
(a)
(b)
2 = M
s
m
u 7 . 1088 35 . 544 2
2
= =
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

1
1
2 1 1
2
1
2
2
1
1
2
P
P V P
u u kPa P 0 . 30
2
=
Throttling Process:
When a fluid flows through a restriction, such as an orifice, a partly
closed valve, or a porous plug, without any appreciable change in
kinetic or potential energy, the primary result of the process is a
pressure drop in the fluid.
W Q m zg u H
dt
mU d
fs
cv

+ =
(

|
.
|

\
|
+ + A +
2
2
1 ) (
0 = Q

0 = W

0 = AH
Constant enthalpy
For ideal gas: 0 = AH
1 2
H H =
1 2
T T =
For most real gas at moderate conditions of temperature and pressure, a reduction
in pressure at constant enthalpy results in a decrease in temperature.
If a saturated liquid is throttled to a lower pressure, some of the liquid vaporizes
or flashes, producing a mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor at the lower
pressure. The large temperature drop results from evaporation of liquid. Throttling
processes find frequent application in refrigeration.
Propane gas at 20 bar and 400 K is throttled in a steady-state flow process to 1 bar.
Estimate the final temperature of the propane and its entropy change. Properties of
propane can be found from suitable generalized correlations.
Constant enthalpy process:
0 ) (
1 2 1 2
= + = A
R R
H
ig
P
H H T T C H
Final state at 1 bar: assumed to be ideal gas and 0
2 2
= =
R R
S H
1
1
2
T
C
H
T
H
ig
P
R
+ =
082 . 1
1
=
r
T 471 . 0
1
=
r
P
( ) ( )
452 . 0 ) 152 . 0 , 471 . 0 , 082 . 1 (
) , , (
1
1
0
1 1
= =
=
(
(

+ =
HRB
OMEGA PR TR HRB
RT
H
RT
H
RT
H
c
R
c
R
c
R
e
And based on 2nd virial coefficients correlation
2 6 3
10 824 . 8 10 785 . 28 213 . 1 T T C
ig
P

+ =
?? =
H
ig
P
C
K T 400 =
K mol
J
C
ig
P

= 07 . 94
K T 2 . 385
2
=
???
K T 6 . 392 400 5 . 0 2 . 385 5 . 0 = + =
K mol
J
C C
ig
P
H
ig
P

= ~ 73 . 92
K T 0 . 385
2
=
R
S
ig
P
S
P
P
R
T
T
C S
1
1
2
1
2
ln ln = A
H
ig
P
S
ig
P
C C ~
2934 . 0 ) 152 . 0 , 471 . 0 , 082 . 1 (
1
= = SRB
R
S
R
K mol
J
S

= A 80 . 23
Throttling a real gas from conditions of moderate temperature and pressure usually
results in a temperature decrease. Under what conditions would an increase in
temperature be expected.
Define the Joule/Thomson coefficient:
H
P
T
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

When will < 0 ???
T P T P H
P
H
C P
H
H
T
P
T
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

Always negative
P T
T
V
T V
P
H
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
T
P
H
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
Sign of ???
P
ZRT
V =
P T
T
Z
P
RT
P
H
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
2
P P
T
Z
P C
RT
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
2

Always positive
P
T
Z
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

Same sign
The condition may obtain locally for real gases. Such
points define the Joule/Thomson inversion curve.
0 =
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
P
T
Z
Fig 7.2
Turbine (Expanders)
A turbine (or expander):
Consists of alternate sets of nozzles and
rotating blades
Vapor or gas flows in a steady-state expansion
process and overall effect is the efficient
conversion of the internal energy of a high-
pressure stream into shaft work.
S
W

Turbine
S
fs
cv
W Q m zg u H
dt
mU d

+ =
(

|
.
|

\
|
+ + A +
2
2
1 ) (
) (
1 2
H H m H m W
S
= A =

1 2
H H H W
S
= A =
The maximum shaft work: a reversible process (i.e., isentropic, S
1
= S
2
)
S S
H isentropic W ) ( ) ( A =
The turbine efficiency
S S
S
H
H
isentropic W
W
) ( ) ( A
A
= q
Values for properly designed turbines: 0.7~ 0.8
A steam turbine with rated capacity of 56400 kW operates with steam
at inlet conditions of 8600 kPa and 500C, and discharge into a
condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa. Assuming a turbine efficiency of
0.75, determine the state of the steam at discharge and the mass rate of
flow of the steam.
S
W

Turbine
K kg
kJ
S
kg
kJ
H
C T kPa P

= =
= =
6858 . 6 6 . 3391
500 8600
1 1
1 1

K kg
kJ
S kPa P

= ' = 6858 . 6 10
2 2
K kg
kJ
x x S x S x S
v v v v l v

= + = + = ' 6858 . 6 1511 . 8 6493 . 0 ) 1 ( ) 1 (

2 2 2
8047 . 0 =
v
x
kg
kJ
H x H x H
v v l v
4 . 2117 ) 1 (
2 2 2
= + = '
( )
kg
kJ
H H H
S
2 . 1274
1 2
= ' = A
( )
kg
kJ
H H
S
6 . 955 = A = A q
v v l v
H x H x
kg
kJ
H H H
2 2 1 2
) 1 ( 0 . 2436 + = = A + =
9378 . 0 =
v
x
K kg
kJ
S x S x S
v v l v

= + = 6846 . 7 ) 1 (
2 2 2
s
kJ
H m W
S
56400 = A =

s
kg
m 02 . 59 =
A stream of ethylene gas at 300C and 45 bar is expanded adiabatically
in a turbine to 2 bar. Calculate the isentropic work produced. Find the
properties of ethylene by: (a) equations for an ideal gas (b)appropriate
generalized correlations.
R R
H
ig
P
H H T T C H
1 2 1 2
) ( + = A
R R
S
ig
P
S S
P
P
R
T
T
C S
1 2
1
2
1
2
ln ln + = A
K T bar P bar P 15 . 573 2 45
1 2 1
= = =
(a) Ideal gas
1
2
1
2
ln ln
P
P
R
T
T
C S
S
ig
P
= A
0 = AS
0 = AS
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

= 3511 . 6
1135 . 3
exp
2
R
C
T
S
ig
P
) 0 . 0 , 6 392 . 4 , 3 394 . 14 , 424 . 1 ; , 15 . 573 (
2
= E E T MCPS
R
C
S
ig
P
iteration
K T 8 . 370
2
=
) ( ) ( ) (
1 2
T T C H isentropic W
H
ig
P S S
= A =
224 . 7
) 0 . 0 , 6 392 . 4 , 3 394 . 14 , 424 . 1 ; 18 . 370 , 15 . 573 (
=
= E E MCPH
R
C
H
ig
P
mol
J
isentropic W
S
12153 ) 15 . 573 8 . 370 ( 314 . 8 224 . 7 ) ( = =
(b) General correlation
030 . 2
1
=
r
T 893 . 0
1
=
r
P
( ) ( )
234 . 0 ) 087 . 0 , 893 . 0 , 030 . 2 (
1
1
0
1 1
= =
(
(

+ = HRB
RT
H
RT
H
RT
H
c
R
c
R
c
R
e
based on 2nd virial coefficients correlation
097 . 0 ) 087 . 0 , 893 . 0 , 030 . 2 (
1
= = SRB
R
S
R
0 806 . 0 116 . 0
45
2
ln
15 . 573
ln
2
= + = A R
T
C S
S
ig
P
Assuming T
2
= 370.8 K
314 . 1
2
=
r
T 040 . 0
2
=
r
P
0139 . 0 ) 087 . 0 , 040 . 0 , 314 . 1 (
2
= = SRB
R
S
R
based on 2nd virial coefficients correlation
iteration
K T 8 . 365
2
=
296 . 1
2
=
r
T 040 . 0
2
=
r
P
20262 . 0 ) 087 . 0 , 040 . 0 , 296 . 1 (
2
= = HRB
RT
H
c
R
( )
mol
J
H H T T C
H isentropic W
R R
H
ig
P
S s
11920 ) (
) (
1 2 1 2
= + =
A =
Pressure increases: compressors, pumps, fans,
blowers, and vacuum pumps.
Interested in the energy requirement
S
fs
cv
W Q m zg u H
dt
mU d

+ =
(

|
.
|

\
|
+ + A +
2
2
1 ) (
) (
1 2
H H m H m W
S
= A =

1 2
H H H W
S
= A =
The minimum shaft work: a reversible process (i.e., isentropic, S
1
= S
2
)
S S
H isentropic W ) ( ) ( A =
The compressor efficiency
H
H
W
isentropic W
S
S
S
A
A
=
) ( ) (
q
Values for properly designed compressors: 0.7~ 0.8
S
W

compressor
Compression process
Saturated-vapor steam at 100 kPa (t
sat
= 99.63 C ) is compressed
adiabatically to 300 kPa. If the compressor efficiency is 0.75, what is
the work required and what is the work required and what are the
properties of the discharge stream?
For saturated steam at 100 kPa:
K kg
kJ
S

= 3598 . 7
1
kg
kJ
H 4 . 2675
1
=
Isentropic compression
K kg
kJ
S S

= = ' 3598 . 7
1 2
300 kPa
kg
kJ
H 8 . 2888
2
= ' ( )
kg
kJ
H
S
4 . 213 = A
( )
kg
kJ H
H
S
5 . 284 =
A
= A
q kg
kJ
H H H 9 . 2959
1 2
= A + =
300 kPa
C T

1 . 246
2
=
K kg
kJ
S

= 5019 . 7
2
kg
kJ
H W
S
5 . 284 = A =
If methane (assumed to be an ideal gas) is compressed adiabatically
from 20C and 140 kPa to 560 kPa, estimate the work requirement and
the discharge temperature of the methane. The compressor efficiency
is 0.75.
R R
S
ig
P
S S
P
P
R
T
T
C S
1 2
1
2
1
2
ln ln + = A
0 = AS
S
ig
P
C
R
P
P
T T
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
1 2
) 0 . 0 , 6 164 . 2 , 3 081 . 9 , 702 . 1 ; , 15 . 293 (
2
= E E T MCPS
R
C
S
ig
P
iteration
4
1
2
=
P
P
K T 15 . 293
1
=
K T 37 . 397
2
=
( )
R R
H
ig
P
S s
H H T T C
H isentropic W
1 2 1 2
) (
) (
+ =
A =
mol
J
isentropic W
s
2 . 3966 ) ( =
mol
J isentropic W
W
s
s
3 . 5288
) (
= =
q
) (
1 2
T T C
H W
H
ig
P
s
=
A =
) 0 . 0 , 6 164 . 2 , 3 081 . 9 , 702 . 1 ; , 15 . 293 (
2
= E E T MCPH
R
C
H
ig
P
K T 65 . 428
2
=
Pumps
Liquids are usually moved by pumps. The same
equations apply to adiabatic pumps as to adiabatic
compressors.
For an isentropic process:

With
For liquid,



( )
}
= A =
2
1
) (
P
P
S s
VdP H isentropic W
( ) ) ( ) (
1 2
P P V H isentropic W
S s
= A =
dP T V dT C dH
P
) 1 ( | + = VdP
T
dT
C dS
P
| =
P T V T C H
P
A + A = A ) 1 ( |
P V
T
T
C S
P
A = A |
1
2
ln
Water at 45C and 10 kPa enters an adiabatic pump and is discharged
at a pressure of 8600 kPa. Assume the pump efficiency to be 0.75.
Calculate the work of the pump, the temperature change of the water,
and the entropy change of water.
kg
cm
V
3
1010 =
The saturated liquid water at 45C:
K
1
10 425
6
= |
K kg
kJ
C
P

= 178 . 4
( ) ) ( ) (
1 2
P P V H isentropic W
S s
= A =
kg
kJ
kg
cm kPa
isentropic W
s
676 . 8 10 676 . 8 ) 10 8600 ( 1010 ) (
3
6
= = =
kg
kJ
H
isentropic W
W
s
s
57 . 11
) (
= A = =
q
P T V T C H
P
A + A = A ) 1 ( |
K T 97 . 0 = A
P V
T
T
C S
P
A = A |
1
2
ln
K kg
kJ
S

= A 0090 . 0