Biology of Stored Product Insect Pests

H.E. KRISHNAIAH M.Sc FS, M.Sc BT,.

FOOD PROTECTANTS AND INFESTATION CONTROL DEPARTMENT

CENTRAL FOOD TECHNOLOGICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, MYSORE.

Insect biomass

Insects are the First, most abundant, dominant & most successful form of life on earth. They have been on earth for over 250 million yrs and seem destined to remain. They are both beneficial & harmful. They show great diversity in habits & habitats and morphology, but share common traits with all other arthropods. Over 1 million different known species of insects in the world, some experts estimated that there might be as many as 10 million. All these species are divided up into about 32 orders

Habits & Habitats

Insects have successfully established in diverse habitats as they occur over high mountain range 20,000 feet above the sea level. Insects are an integral part of any ecosystem. Aerobic, terrestrial and aerial.

Variety in forms, size, life history, food habits, power of adaptation and high rate of reproduction. They have various modes of locomotion viz. fly, swim, hop, crawl and just sit.
Storage pests can survive and multiply in various food processing/storage establishments viz. Silos, Shops, Farms, Houses, Bakeries etc. Insect pest can live in various food products like Stored grains, Dried fruits, Milled and processed cereal products, Sweets, Cheese, Meat, Dried fish etc. and can attack even in the field before taken into stores.

Stored products pests have hard exoskeleton and can adapt themselves to almost any conditions and locations.
Temperature, RH and Moisture content of the stored produce plays a crucial role in breeding and development of stored insects.

Ecology
Poikilotherms Temperature: Above 400C and below 100C is lethal Below 180C metabolic process retards Optimum is 300C RH: Optimum 60-70 % Moisture content of grain: 12 % is optimum, below 9% oviposition retards, above 15 % leads to mould proliferation

Morphology
Some insects are big and scary, a number of insects are so small. A feather wing beetle from North America, called Nanosella fungi- 0.025 millimeters Alaptus Magnanimus, a fairy fly - 0.21 millimeters long. stick insect called Pharnacia kirbyi- worlds longest insect. Females of which can be over 36cm long. South American Longhorn Beetle Titanus giganteus, which measures over 16 centimeters in length Weight varies from 2mg to grams. Gravid female of Deinacrida heteracantha can weigh as much as 70 grams.

An insect body has a hard exoskeleton protecting a soft interior, it is divided into three main parts ( the head, thorax and abdomen) each of which is in turn composed of several smaller segments.

The Cuticle
Present over the external surface of the body as well as lining the tracheae, anterior and posterior sections of the alimentary canal and parts of the reproductive system. Thin layer of non-cellular material, flexible, elastic and white when first formed and stays this way in many larval forms, however in most adults it undergoes chemical processes which result in hardening and darkening and which are referred to as 'sclerotization'. The cuticle can be divided into two layers, a very thin outer layer called the epicuticle which contains no chitin and is highly resistant to water and other solvents. Beneath this is the much thicker procuticle which can again be divided into two distinct layers, an outer 'exocuticle' which lies immediately below the 'epicuticle' and an inner 'endocuticle' which consists of a large number of layers of protein and chitin fibres laid down in a laminated pattern such that the individual strands in each layer cross each other thus creating an extremely tough and flexible substance. Below the cuticle lie the other two components of the integument, the 'epidermis' which is a single layer of secretary cells and the 'basement membrane' which is an amorphous layer about 0.5 micrometres thick.

The amazing success of the insects must in part lie with the incredible mixture of flexibility and strength of the integument (that is the part of an insect that makes up the hard exoskeleton) that allows insects their freedom of movement without loss of defence and protection. It is made up of three parts, the most visible of which is the outer 'cuticle' and its attendant bristles and hairs, below this are the 'epidermis' and the 'basement membrane'

The insect's head referred to as the head-capsule, contains insect's feeding and sensory centre. It supports the eyes, antennae and jaws of the insect. (insects do not breath through their mouths but through their thoracic and abdominal spiracles) The upper-mid portion of an insects face is called the 'frons' below this is the 'clypeus' Below to clypeus is the 'labrum' to either side of which surrounds 'mandibles' and 'maxilliary' palps may extend beyond and or below. The 'frons' = that area of the face below the top two 'ocelli' and above the 'frontoclypeal sulcus' (if and when this is visible) and in between the two 'frontogenal sulci', it supports the 'pharyngeal dilator' muscles and in immature forms it bears the lower two arms of the ecdysial cleavage lines. The 'clypeus' = that area of the face immediately below the frons (with which it may be fused in the absence of the frontoclypeal sulcus) and the frontoclypeal sulcus. It supports the 'cibarial dilator' muscles and may be divided horizontally into a 'post.' and 'anteclypeus'. The 'labrum' = upper lip and is generally moveable, it articulates with the clypeus by means of the 'clypeolabral suture'. The rest of the front of the head: above the frons is known as the 'vertex'; the sides of the head are known as the 'gena'.

The Antennae
The antennae are an insects primary, non-visual, sense organs. In some insects it is adapted for grasping the prey and holding female during mating process.

Some insect species lack antennae Viz., Protura.

Antennae possesses a mechanosensory organ on the pedicel (the second antennal segment) called 'Johnston's organ and only the basal antennal segment contains intrinsic muscles. However in two orders (Diplura and Collembola) the antennae lack a 'Johnston's organ' and the last segment contains intrinsic muscles. Antennae come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes, generally the first segment is known as the 'scape', second segment as the 'pedicel' and the rest as the flagellum. It is quite usual that the males of a species have more elaborate antennae than the females, this is because it is normally the males who have to find the females. The greater the surface area of the antennae the more dilute scents they can detect, thus male insects with feathery antennae, such as those seen in many moths, are far more sensitive than the purely filamentous ones of crickets and cockroaches.

Insects possess two different sorts of eyes, the large and obviously visible compound eyes, and two varieties of ocelli or simple eyes. In compound eyes cornea is composed of a number of individual facets or lenses (called ommatidia), rather than a single lens as in ocelli (or our own eyes). The eyes of insects, can be divided into four basic parts: the supportative material that keeps all the parts together; a light gathering part (the lens and the auxilary lens called a 'crystalline cone'); a light receptor that converts the recieved light into electrical energy; and the nerves that carry the electrical impulses to the brain for analysis. The lens is formed by a transparent and colourless cuticle and it is usually biconvex. Beneath this is the crystalline cone (which is comprised of four cells called 'Semper cells) functions as a secondary lens. The receptive parts of an insect's eye are the 'retinula cells'. Each ommatidium normally has eight retinula cells arranged to leave a central core space in the centre of the ommatidium, into which each retinula cell projects a series of microvilli (like very small fingers). These microvilli are the actual light detecting part of the cells and are collectively referred to as the rhabdomere (think cornea). The eight (or occasionally 7 or 9) rhabdomeres (sets of microvilli) form a rhabdom. The corneal lens is supported by 'primary pigment cells' and the retinula cells and associated rhabdoms are supported by 'secondary pigment cells'. The retinula cells are connected to axons at the base of the eye, it is these which carry the information collected by the lenses and converted into electrical impulses by the rhabdom to the brain, thus allowing the insect to see.

MOUTHPARTS OF INSECTS
Insects have diversity of food habits. Thus, mouthparts of each insect are modified according to the nature of the food and mode of feeding. Mouthparts are essentially consists of paired appendages of mandibles, maxilla and labial segments.

Types of mouthparts:
Biting and Chewing type Represent most primitive and unspecialized type, appeared in early insects in the course of evolution. Consists of labrum or upper lip, pair of mandibles, pair of maxillae, labium or lower lip, epipharynx and hypopharynx. Maxillary palps act as sensory feelers to locate the food, Lacinia helps in grasping the food particles, mandibles for masticating the food, ligula helps in pushing the food into the pharynx. This type of mouthparts are common among orthopteran insects like cockroaches, larvae of lepidoptera, beetles etc. Chewing and Lapping type; e.g. Honey bee etc. Piercing and sucking type; e.g. Mosquitoes etc. Sponging type; e.g. Houseflies etc. Siphoning type; e.g. Moths, Butterflies etc.

MOUTHPARTS

Hearing and Touch

Ears
Hear - Four different ways. 1. tympanum. Tympanal organs always occur as paired organs, they are composed of a thin cuticular membrane (the tympanum) stretched across an air space of some sort and some form of connection to the nervous system. In Orthoptera (Grasshoppers and Crickets) tympanum are common, though situated in different places in different species, i.e. on the first thoracic segment in Grasshoppers and on the front legs in the Crickets. Tympanal organs also occur in the Cicada (Cicadidae, Hemiptera) and some families of the Lepidoptera, (i.e. Noctuidae, Geometridae, and Pyralididae). 2. Johnston's Organ, via the movement of hairs on the antennal scape i.e. the Mosquito Aedes aegypti. 3. Auditory Hairs these occur on some Lepidopteran larvae as well as on some Orthoptera. 4.The Pilifer; this is a unique auditory organ found only in the head of certain species of Hawk Moths of the subfamily Choerocampinae its optimum frequency is between 30 and 70 kHz which would allow it to hear the echolocation calls of many of the larger insectivorous bats.

Touch
Insects have developed many different ways to detect mechanical stimulus, physical change in the receptor, the hairs are attached to nerves which react when the hairs are moved, these are called Trichoid sensilla. Another common type through a drum - something pressing up against the skin of the drum from beneath, these are called Campaniform sensilla. Mechanoreceptors detect not only the physical interaction with another body but also air movements, changes in air pressure and also changes in the stresses being applied to the insects cuticle, thus allowing it to better control its movements and maintain balance. Insects also use modified forms of the various sensory detectors to detect, changes in temperature, humidity and also in some cases to detect infra red radiation, x-ray radiation and the Earth's magnetic field.

Smell
Insects communicate by using smell or chemoreception. Insects have a lot of small sensory bodies scattered over their body, especially on their antennae. Sensilla trichoidea, hair-like structures commonly found on the feet of flies and the antennae of many insects, they are the most common form of chemoreceptor found.

Sensilla basiconica and Sensilla styloconica, these are peg-like or cone-like and are thicker and more solid than trichoid sensilla, these are commonly found on the antennae, maxillary palps of Lepidopteran larvae and the ovipositor of the Blowfly Phormia regina.
Sensilla coeloconica or pit-peg organs these are always situated in a pit on elytra and are common on antennae and they detect Carbon Dioxide. Sensilla placodea these differ from the first three in that they consist of a flat plate of cuticle, they occur on the antennae of various Aphids and Apis mellifera (the Honey Bee).

Circulatory System
Circulatory system is open. Insects don't have veins or arteries. Insect blood, properly called hemolymph, flows freely through the body cavity and makes direct contact with organs and tissues. A single blood vessel runs along the dorsal side of the insect, from the head to the abdomen. In the abdomen, the vessel divides into chambers and functions as the insect heart (14). Perforations in the heart wall, called ostia, allow hemolymph to enter the chambers from the body cavity. Muscle contractions push the hemolymph from one chamber to the next, moving it forward toward the thorax and head. In the thorax, the blood vessel is not chambered. Like an aorta (7), the vessel simply directs the flow of hemolymph to the head. Insect blood is only about 10% hemocytes (blood cells); hemolymph is watery plasma. Hemolymph is green or yellow in color, does not carry oxygen,

 Digestive system
The insect digestive system is a closed system, with one long enclosed tube (alimentary canal) running lengthwise through the body. The salivary glands (30) produce saliva, mixes with food and begins the process of breaking it down. The first section is foregut (27) or stomodaeum. In the foregut, initial breakdown of large food particles occurs, mostly by saliva. The foregut includes the Buccal cavity, the esophagus, and the crop, which stores food before it passes to the midgut. Once food leaves the crop, it passes to the midgut (13) or mesenteron. The midgut is where digestion really happens, through enzymatic action. Microscopic projections from the midgut wall, called microvilli, increase surface area and allow for maximum absorption of nutrients. In the hindgut (16) or proctodaeum, undigested food particles join uric acid from Malphigian tubules to form fecal pellets. The rectum absorbs most of the water in this waste matter, and the dry pellet is then eliminated through the anus (17).

 Excretory system
Uric acid Body fluids are drawn into the Malphigian tubules by osmosis due to large concentrations of potassium inside the tubule. Body fluids pass back into the body, nitrogenous wastes empty into the insect's gut. Water is reabsorbed and waste is expelled from the insect. Waste products from the hemolymph diffuse into the Malpighian tubules, and are then converted to uric acid. The semi-solidified waste empties into the hindgut, and becomes part of the fecal pellet. The hindgut (16) also plays a role in excretion. The insect rectum retains 90% of the water present in the fecal pellet, and reabsorbs it back into the body. This function allows insects to survive and thrive in even the most arid climates.

The Nervous System

The insect nervous system consists of a 'brain' (fusion of 3 pairs 'ganglia) Ganglion- (plural 'ganglia) is a collection of neurons or nerve cells in a single place. ). A pair of slender connectives cords run, side-by-side from the brain to the end of the insect's abdomen are known as the 'ventral nerve cord'. These connective cords meet at intervals along the insect's body at the 'ganglia'. A pair of ganglia per body segment, thus, as the head is made up out of 6 fused body segments, it contains 6 pairs of ganglia, these are collected into 2 groups, each of 3 ganglia, the foremost of which is called the brain and the hindmost the 'subesophageal ganglion'.

The ganglia function to co-ordinate the activities of the body segment they represent.
There are usually 3 thoracic ganglia and 8 abdominal ganglia. But the number of ganglia vary between the species. In some higher insects some of abdominal ganglia have been lost, or become fused with those nearer the head. In the cockroach Blatta orientalis there are 3 thoracic and only 6 abdominal ganglia. In Musca domestica all the abdominal and thoracic ganglia have become fused into a single ganglion.

The Nervous System

Respiration in Insects
Various types of respiratory organs are known among the insects. Tracheal respiration: Spiracles/stigmata: Spiracles have fine hairs/bristles which act as filtering apparatus to keep out dirt and closing apparatus in the form of a valve to prevent undue loss of water and to regulate the flow of air in and out. Trachea consists of branching, elastic air tubes. The tracheal system resembles the circulatory system of vertebrate animals. In insects tracheal system serves for transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide, blood has lost its respiratory function. The tracheal system is an invagination of the cuticle. It is an extensive network of branching and anastomosing tubes. The wall is formed with chitinous layer which prevents the collapse of the trachea. The trachea gives rise to finer tubes called tracheoles. Air sacs: The trachea dilate into air sacs of different sizes allow an increased supply of oxygen and afford a greater capacity for breathing even under stress conditions. Mechanism of gaseous exchange: Respiratory exchange is partly by diffusion and partly by ventilation. Diffusion of oxygen from the spiracles depends on partial pressure within the tracheoles. As the air enters the tracheal system, tracheole fluid takes some oxygen which diffuses into the tissues or active cells. CO2 produced mostly diffuses out through integument and partly through the spiracles.

Breathing

Respiration- 'Spiracles' (special openings in the side of there cuticle) and the air reaches the body through 'Tracheae by diffusion of gases for small distances. Collembola, breath directly through their skins.

The number of spiracles vary between species. One pair per body segment. Diplura have eleven pairs, with four pairs on the thorax. Dragonflies and Grasshoppers there are two thoracic and eight abdominal spiracles. Hoverflies, Syrphidae, have only two pairs on the thorax and none on the abdomen. Mosquito larvae and aquatic Beetle larvae have only one abdominal pair of spiracles. They have valves that allow them to close their spiracles, thus preventing water loss.
The tracheae, which are thin pipes, spread out from the spiracles to reach the whole body, with the smallest tracheoles contacting single muscle cells individually. In Collembola each spiracle produces a tree branch, or tree root, of tracheae that are separate from those of other spiracles. However in most insects the tracheae are all linked to Dorsal Longitudinal Trunk near the top, or back. Lateral Longitudinal Trunk running along the sides just in from the spiracles. Ventral Longitudinal Trunk running along the belly of the insect. In hymenoptera, the tracheae link to a series of airsacs which can store air. Most insects can use their body muscles to squeeze their tracheae and airsacs thus forcing air out, and on release of the muscular tension, drawing fresh air into the large tracheae.

Reproductive System
Insects are prolific in nature due to their ability of large number of eggs produced per females and short life cycle.

Reproductive cycle: Sexual maturation Locating the opposite sex Mating Pre oviposition period Egg laying (oviposition) Hatching of eggs Development of immature stages of adulthood.
Female insects have two ovaries (15), each comprised of numerous functional chambers called ovarioles. Egg production takes place in the ovarioles. Egg are then released into the oviduct. The two lateral oviducts, one for each ovary, join at the common oviduct (18). The female oviposits fertilized eggs with her ovipositor.

Metamorphosis of Insects
Metamorphosis (change in form)- transformation of an immature stage into a sexually mature stage of very different form, structure and habit of life. The shedding/casting off skin at intervals and grow into a new one of a larger size. This process is called moulting or ecdysis. The stage between two moults is called as instar. Four types of metamorphosis: Ametabolous: no metamorphosis, newly hatched creature looks like an adult except in size. E.g. silverfish Hemimetabolous: metamorphosis is incomplete, immature stages are nymphs which are aquatic. E.g. dragonflies. Paurometabolous/gradual metamorphosis: The newly hatched creature resembles an adult, but lacks wing, immature stages are nymphs. E.g. cockroaches. Complete metamorphosis/holometabolous: distinct four developmental stages. E.g. beetles, housefly etc. Hormonal control of metamorphosis: Brain Hormone (BH): lipid in nature, secreted by the neurosecretory cells of the brain activates the somatogastric nervous system. Prothoracicotropic Hormone (PTTH): secreted by the corpora cardiaca, stimulates the prothoracic glands. Prothoracic Gland Hormone (PGH): Ecdysone, secreted by the paired, bilateral sheet of cells in the thorax induces morphogenesis. It is referred as moulting hormone. Juvinile Hormone (JH): secreted by the corpora allata, regulates morphogenesis i.e. development of the larva into adult through pupal stage.

Classification
Kingdom Division Phylum Subphylum Class Sub-class without wings). : Animal Kingdom (Animalia) : Non-chordata (Invertebrata) : Arthropoda : Mandibulata : Insecta :1. Apterygota (4 orders) (Premitive insects

2. Pterygota (Insects with wings) A.Exopterygota -wings develop externally in the nymphal stage (16 orders) B.Endopterygota wings develop internally in the pupal stage (9 orders)

The Insect Orders Taxonomic Name Thysanura Diplura Protura Collembola Ephemeroptera Odonata Plecoptera Grylloblatodea Orthoptera Phasmida Dermaptera Embioptera Dictyoptera Isoptera Zoraptera Psocoptera Mallophaga Siphunculata Hemiptera Thysanoptera Neuroptera Mecoptera Siphonaptera Coleoptera Strepsiptera Diptera Lepidoptera Trichoptera Hymenoptera Common Name 3 Pronged Bristletails 2 Pronged Bristletails 55 600 Number Worldwide 9 11 Number in the UK 25 32 30 400 124 248 248 0 1513 133 60 65 520 182 0 120 186 22 3 661 287 412 20 68 19 219 9 6 256 11 221 260 6 700 Number in Australia The Apterygota (Wingless insects with no true metamorphosis at all)

Proturans 10 17 Springtails 3000 300 The Exopterygota (Hemimetabolous insects with incomplete metamorphosis) May-flies 2000 36 Dragons and Damsels Stone-flies Grasshoppers Stick-Insects Earwigs Web Spinners Roaches and Mantids Termites 5000 1700 16 20 000 3000 1200 300 6000 43 34 0 33 3 5 0 4

1900 0 22 0 Book and Bark Lice 2000 68 Biting Lice 2800 225 Sucking Lice 300 61 True Bugs 100 000 1 410 Thrips 500 180 The Endopterygota (Holometabolous insects with complete metamorphosis) Lacewings etc. 4 700 60 Scorpion-flies 400 4 Fleas 1 400 53 Beetles 370 000 3 700 Stylops 370 16 True Flies 100 000 5 700 Butterflies and Moths Caddis-flies Ants Bees and Wasps 150 000 5 000 120 000 + 2 400 188

New Insect Order Found in Southern Africa Mantophasmatodea

For the first time in the year 2002 after 87 years, researchers have discovered an insect that constitutes a new order of insects. It lives in the Brandberg Mountains of Namibia, on the west coast of Southern Africa. Entomologist Oliver Zompro of the Max Planck Institute of Limnology in Pln, Germany, who identified the creature as unique, said it resembles "a cross between a stick insect, a mantid, and a grasshopper."

 Coleoptera: The most diverse and largest order of insects consists of 125 different families(3, 00,000-5,00, 000 species) One in every four animal species on this planet is a beetle.

Lepidoptera (1,10,000 species), Hymenoptera (1,10,000 species), diptera (35,000 species) Storage pests; 600 beetle species, 70 moth species, 355 mite species

STORAGE PESTS

Storage pests: 600 beetle species, 70 moth species, 355 mite species

Order: 1. Coleoptera (Linnaeus 1758) (Greek, Coleos = sheath, pteron = wing, Insects with sheathy wings). Include all the Beetles. Order: Coleoptera : 1. Family: Dermestidae : Trogoderma granarium. 2. Family: Bostrychidae : Rhyzopertha dominica. 3. Family: Anobiidae : Lasioderma serricorne. Stegobium paniceum. 4. Family: Cucujidae : Cryptolestes pusillus C. ferrugineus. 5. Family: Silvanidae : Oryzaephilus surinamensis O. mercator. 6. Family: Tenebrionidae : Tribolium castaneum T. confusum 7. Family: Bruchidae : Callosobruchus chinensis C. maculatus C. analis 8. Family: Anthribidae : Araecerus fasciculatus 9. Family: Curculionidae : Sitophilus oryzae S. zeamais S. granarius.

Coleoptera-beetles
Segmented body Exoskeleton Insect body: Head, thorax and abdomen. Compound eyes consist of many tiny individual units (facets), which together resemble a honeycomb. Insects does not move and can't close their eyes, and can see well only to a distance of a few feet (about 90 cm).

The antennae (feelers) are sense organs - touch, sound, taste, smell, temperature, and humidity of the beetle's environment. The maxillae palps - detect smells.
Mouth parts are chewing type.The beetle's mouth is a simple hole that lacks jaws, but is surrounded by specialized structures for Lacinea-grasping and crops- grinding, upper "lip," or labrum, a pair of jaw like appendages mandibles serves as pincers. Behind the mandibles are a pair of bladelike appendages -called maxillae followed by a second pair of maxillae that are fused to form the lower lip, or labium. But, in the family Curculionoidea have a distinct snout that can bore into wood and suck sap. The snout has mouthparts at its end and is used for penetration and feeding, and for boring holes for egg-laying. These beetles are mostly plant feeders and are economically important pests of crops. For example, the 30,000 species of weevils in the family Curculionidae include many insect pests, such as the cotton boll weevil, the apple blossom weevil, and the rice weevil. The Curculionidae are also called true weevils, or snout weevils.

Thorax : meso and metathorax are attached to the abdomen, while protharax is isolated between the head and trunk and covered by a dorsal plate called the pronotum. Three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings. Fore wing modified as elytra, hind wing membranous The front pair of legs arises from cavities under the pronotum, with a spiracle positioned just to the rear of the base of each of the front legs. The mesothorax bears the second pair of legs. while the third pair of legs arises from the metathorax. Legs are modified for running, swimming, jumping, digging, or clasping, depending on the species. Abdomen has nine to ten segments, some are not externally visible, each bearing a pair of spiracles, or respiratory openings which direct air through the exoskeleton into the body.

Beetles have hardened forewings, called elytra, which protect the membranous hindwings folded beneath them. The elytra are held against the abdomen at rest, meeting in a straight line down the middle of the back. In flight, a beetle holds the elytra out for balance, and uses its membranous hindwings for movement. Elytra are covered with bristles/hairs and have punctuated/striated. Beetles feeding habits are widely varied, but all have mouthparts adapted for chewing and cause marked damage to the materials infested. Thorax : meso and metathorax are attached to the abdomen, while protharax is isolated between the head and trunk and covered by a dorsal plate called the pronotum. Abdomen has nine to ten segments, some are not externally visible, each bearing a pair of spiracles, or respiratory openings which direct air through the exoskeleton into the body.

Insects can't close and move their eyes and can see well only to a distance of a few feet (about 90 cm). The eyes consist of many tiny individual units (facets), which together resemble a honeycomb. The beetle's mouth is a simple hole that lacks jaws, but is surrounded by specialized structures for grasping and grinding. Consists of upper "lip," or labrum, a pair of jawlike appendages (called mandibles) serves as pincers. Behind the mandibles are a pair of bladelike appendages (called maxillae), followed by a second pair of maxillae that are fused in the midline to form the lower lip, or labium. Mouth parts designed for chewing solid food. Beetles of the superfamily Curculionoidea have a distinct snout that can bore into wood and suck sap. The snout has mouthparts at its end and is used for penetration and feeding, and for boring holes for egglaying, such as the cotton boll weevil, the apple blossom weevil, and the rice weevil. The Curculionidae are also called true weevils, or snout weevils.

Relative size of stored product beetles

Campodeiform larva

Campodeiform larva

Campodeiform larva

Scarabaeiform larva Eruciform larva

Insect species

Temperature

Relative Humidity

Max. (0C)

Min. Opti. (0C) (0C)

Max. (%)

Min. Opti. (%) (%)

Callosobruchus chinensis (Pulse beetle) Callosobruchus maculatus (Pulse beetle) 35 18-20 30 90-100 Lasioderma serricorne (Cigarette beetle) Stegobium paniceum ( Spice beetle) Araecerus fasciculatus(Coffee bean weevil) Psocids; Book lice Sitophilus oryzae (Rice weevil) Sitophilus zeamais (Maize weevil) 34 18 28-30 90-100 Sitophilus granaries (Granary weevil) Corcyra cephalonica (Rice moth) Sitotroga cerealella (Angoumois grain moth) Plodia interpunctella (The Indian meal moth) Tenebrio molitor (Yellow meal worm) 34-36 20 29 90 Tenebrio obscurus (Dark meal worm) Tenebroides muritanicus (Cadelle) Carpophilus hemipterus (Dried fruit beetle) Necrobia rufipes (Red legged ham beetle) 38-40 18-20 32-34 90 Rhizopertha dominica (Lesser grain borer) Tribolium castaneum ( Red flour beetle) Tribolium confusum( confused flour beetle) Oryzaephilus surinamensis (Saw toothed grain beetle) Cryptolestes ferrugeneous (flat grain beetle) Ephestia cautella (Tropical ware house moth) Trogoderma granarium (Khapra beetle) Grain mites; Flour mites 42 38 41 32 20 15 24 4 33 28 37 25 90 100 73 100

22-25

70

45-50

70-75

40 10 10 40 10 70

75

40 45 3 65

80 70 25 90

Order: Coleoptera Family: Dermestidae Trogoderma granarium (Everts): Khapra beetle

Serious pest of wheat, broken cereals, barley, etc. Cosmopolitan, favoured by hot dry climates. It is reported absent from some countries like, Kenya, Uganda, Central and Southern Africa. Adults brownish black, covered with hairs/scales, 1.5 to 3.5 mm in length, Females bigger than males, Head-Retractive antennae- club. Short lived 9-12days. 70- 80 eggs per female, hatch in 6-20 days. larva 5- 6.3 mm long, covered with numerous reddish brown tufts of setae, urogamphy, undergo diapause state, Larval life 4 weeks to 2 years depending upon temperature and food supply. Pupal period 6-10 days. LIFE CYCLE: 6 weeks to 4 years. TEMP. : Max : 41oC, Min: 24oC, Optimum : 37oC. RH: Max : 73 %, Min : 03 %, Optimum : 25 %. Larva is destructive as an external feeder, adults do not feed.

Order: Coleoptera Family: Bostrychidae

Rhizopertha dominica (F.): Lesser grain borer

Dorsal Lateral

Primary pest of cereals, split pulses, corn products and also attacks drugs, leather, cork, wood and paper boxes etc. Body dark brown, 3-3.5mm in length and 1.41.6mm in width, head deflexed, Elytra well defined with rows of punctures/dipressions. Prothorax tuberculate and rasp shaped. Antennae with large three segmented serrate club. strong flier, Long lived 4-6 months,

Scarabaeiform Larvae

Adult
Ventral

300-400 eggs / female, lay either single or in clusters, hatch in 6-14 days.
Larva 0.3-2.8mm long, active, whitish, head brown, anterior portion much swollen. Larval period 35-40 days, completed either within the grain or in the grain dust.

Exarate Pupa

Pupa 3.9 mm long white, Pupal period 7-8 days.

LIFE CYCLE: 6- 8 weeks. TEMP. : Max: 39oC, Min: 18oC, Optimum: 34oC. RH: Max : 70 %, Min: 25 %, Optimum: 55 %.

Both, larvae and adults are voracious feeders. cosmopolitan.

Order: Coleoptera Family: Anobiidae

Lasioderma serricorne (F.): Cigarette beetle

Serious pest of stored tobacco and its products. Infests spices, dates, peanuts, dried fish, drugs, herbarium medicinal plants, garlic bulbs, oil seeds, books, furniture etc. Larvae are destructive as external feeders, adults do not feed, active fliers. cosmopolitan.
Scarabaeiform Larvae

Adults are brick red to reddish brown in colour, 2.5 to 3 mm long. Finely pubescent, with the head deflexed. Short lived 1-2 weeks Elytra: no punctations and no striations.

Eggs L.serricorne- Adults

Antennae serrate with 11 segments without loose club. 100-120 eggs/ female, hatch in 6-10 days. Larva 4.5 to 6 mm long, hairy, whitish and creamy wrinkled, grublike and curved. External feeder forms cocoons for pupation larval period 3-5 weeks.

Exarate Pupa

pupates inside the cocoon with adhered food particles. Pupal period 6-10 days.
Lateral

Serrate Antenna

LIFE CYCLE : 25 - 35 days. TEMP.: Max: 37oC,Min: 20oC, Optimum: 30oC. RH: Max:100 %, Min: 22 %, Optimum : 70 %.

Larvae are destructive as external feeders, adults do not feed, active fliers. cosmopolitan

Order: Coleoptera Family: Anobiidae Stegobium paniceum (L.): Spice beetle; Drug store beetle
Antennal Loose Club

Serious pest of all spices, spice products, processed foods and herbal drugs. and can penetrate tin foils and sheet lead, good flier. Usually occur in tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions. Body oblong, 2.5 to 3.5 mm long, light brown to reddish brown coloured, with silky fine pubescence, deflexed head. Short lived 2-4 weeks.

S.paniceum S.paniceum

Antennae 3-terminal segments enlarged to form loose club at the tip. Elytra uniquely punctuate and plainly striated.

Scarabaeiform Larvae in Galleries

100-125 eggs /female, hatch in 8-24 days. Larva is hairy, curved. External feeder, forms cocoons for pupation .Larval period 3-5 weeks.
Infested Rusks/Bread

Pupates inside the cocoon with food particles. Pupal period 6-10 days. LIFE CYCLE: 6- 8 weeks. TEMP.: Max: 37oC, Min: 20oC,Optimum: 30oC. RH: Max: 100%, Min: 22 %, Optimum: 70%.

Both adults and larvae are destructive

Order: Coleoptera Family: Cucujidae Cryptolestes pusillus Schonherr Cryptolestes ferrugineus Stephens: Flat grain beetles
Secondary pests of grains, prefer broken grain, cereals, pulses, oilseeds and processed foods. It also attacks cereals, oil seeds, milled cereal products, cocoa, cowpeas, copra etc. Thrives well if the stock is a little damp. Humidity plays an important role for survival of these species. Unable to survive in the temperate regions. Body 1.5 to 2 mm long reddish brown, flattened, depressed and elongate. Long lived, nearly 6-9 months Antennae- 11-segmented, long as elytra. Elytra finely punctate.. 150 eggs /female, hatch in 4-8 days. Larva flattened and straw colored, with tanned head. Terminal abdominal segment bears urogomphy. Forms cocoons for pupation. Larval period 2-4 weeks. Pupates in a sticky cocoon with adhered food particles. Pupal period 6-10 days. LIFE CYCLE: 4- 6 weeks. TEMP.: Max: 42oC, Min: 20oC, Optimum: 33oC. RH: Max: 90 %, Min: 40 %, Optimum: 80 %.

Both adult and larvae are external feeders. cosmopolitan

Order: Coleoptera Family: Silvanidae

Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.): Saw - toothed grain beetle Oryzaephilus mercator Fauvel : Merchant grain beetle
Ventral

Rice grain

Primary pest of oil seeds, dried fruits & nuts, milled products, breakfast foods, broken grains, yeast, sugar candy, tobacco. Secondary pest of whole grains including rice, causing superficial damage. Body slender, dark brown, 2.5- 4mm long, flattened, clothed with lighter pubescence, never flies. Adult may live 1- 3 years, average 6-10 months Prothorax bears six saw- toothlike projections on each side and three prominent ridges dorsally.

Antennae- compact club. Elytra with striations.

Differentiate the species on length of the temple. 50-300 eggs / female, hatch in 3-6 days. Larva is 3-3.3 mm long, flattened. Larval period 2-4 weeks.
O.mercator

Pupate in a delicate silken cocoon, Pupal period 8-25 days.

LIFE CYCLE: 27- 35 days. TEMP.: Max:38oC, Min: 18oC, Optimum: 32oC. RH: Max:90 %, Min:10 %, Optimum: 70 %.

O.mercator

O.surinamensis

Both adults and larvae are destructive, Cosmopolitan.

Order: Coleoptera Family: Tenebrionidae

Tribolium castaneum (Hbst.): Rust-red flour beetle

Secondary pest for grains but serious pests of broken grain and flour called Bran bugs. Infest baking powder, dried fruits and confectioneries. Cannibalistic behaviour seen, both adults and larvae eat on eggs and pupae. Secrete defensive volatile secretions benzoquinones from thoracic and abdominal glands under stress or exposure to fumigants and CO2 and are suspected carcinogens. Body flat, 3- 4 mm long, reddish brown. Strong flier. Long lived up to 4-10 months. Antenna- 3 terminal segments enlarged abruptly. 400-500 eggs / female, oblong, whitish, translucent and sticky, food particles, hatch in 5-6 days. Larva flattened, active, whitish about 5- 6.3mm long. hairless with urogomphy. Larval period 4-10 weeks. Pupate in produce without puparium. Abdominal segments with lateral combs and urogomphy. Pupal genital papillae2-segmented in females, 1-segmented in males. Pupal period 6-12 days. LIFE CYCLE: 4-12 weeks. TEMP.: Max: 40oC, Min: 20oC, Optimum: 32oC. RH: Max: 90 %, Min: 10 %, Optimum: 70 %.

Campodeiform Larvae

Both adult and larvae are destructiveCosmopolitan and more common in tropics.

Order: Coleoptera Family: Tenebrionidae

Tribolium confusum (Duval.): Confused flour beetle

Secondary pest for grains but serious pests of broken grain and flour called Bran bugs. Infest baking powder, dried fruits and confectioneries. Cannibalistic behaviour seen, both adults and larvae eat on eggs and pupae. Secrete defensive volatile secretions benzoquinones from thoracic and abdominal glands under stress or exposure to fumigants and CO2 and are suspected carcinogens.
Tribolium confusum

Gena

Body flat, 3- 4 mm long, reddish brown. Gena- its outward projection prominent, while not prominent in T.castaneum. Do not fly but T.castaneum are strong fliers. Long lived up to 4-10 months. Antennal segments gradually enlarging towards apex, terminal segment longitudinally round, while in T.castaneum antenna is 3 terminal segments enlarged abruptly 400- 500 eggs/ female, oblong, whitish, translucent and sticky, hatch in 5- 6 days. Larva dorsally convex, ventrally flattened, active, whitish about 56.3mm long. hairless with urogomphy. Larval period 4-10 weeks. Pupa initially white, later yellowish brown, pupation takes place in produce without cocoon. Abdominal segments with lateral combs with urogomphy. Pupal period 6-12 days.

T.confusum
Dorsal

T.castaneum

Dorsal

Exarate Pupa

Campodeiform Larva

Both adult and larvae are destructive, LIFE CYCLE: 4-12 weeks. Cosmopolitan and more common in TEMP.: Max: 38oC, Min: 20oC, Optimum: 30oC. RH: Max: 90 %, Min: 10 %, Optimum: 70 %. tropics.

Order: Coleoptera Family: Bruchidae

Callosobruchus chinensis (L.): Cowpea weevil

Serious pest of stored pulses, bean, peas etc., Do not breed in cereals, larvae develop within the seed causing serious damage. Infestation may commence in the field before harvest. Body 3 - 4.5mm long, reddish brown with characteristic dark patches of setae on the elytra. Strong fliers, Short lived 7-12days.
Lateral Dorsal

Head free and deflexed. Elytra elongate, oval, moderately shining and do not cover the entire abdomen. White spot of setae on the post-pronotum. Scutellum is white, pygidium clothed with white pubescence. Antenna- in males deeply pectinate, while in females serrate. 70-100 eggs / female, laid attached to the pod or to the seed, hatch in 4-5 days. Larva whitish, fleshy, apodous, internal feeder, larval life 11-13 days. Pupate near the seed coat, after making a circular thinned out area window. Pupal stage 6-8 days. LIFE CYCLE: 23 30 days. TEMP.: Max: 35oC, Min: 18oC, Optimum: 30oC. RH: Max: 90 %, Min: 25 %, Optimum: 70 %.

Adults do not feed, Larvae internal feeders, Cosmopolitan.

Order: Coleoptera Family: Bruchidae

Callosobruchus maculatus (F.): Bean weevil

Serious pest of stored pulses, bean, peas etc. attacks whole grains. Do not breed in cereals, larvae develop within the seed causing serious damage. Infestation may commence in the field before harvest. Body 4 - 5mm long, dark reddish brown. Head free and deflexed, Strong flier, Short lived 7-12days. Elytra truncate, and do not cover the entire abdomen, elytra in female with dark black patches of setae. Males are overall brown with small blackish markings. Pygidium in females bears dark coloured markings, in males light coloured markings. Antennae serrate in both sexes.. 70-100 eggs / female, laid attached to the pod or to the seed, hatch in 4-6 days. larva apodous, whitish, fleshy, thick,. Larval period 11-13 days. Pupate near the seed coat, after making a circular thinned out area called window. Pupal stage 6-9 days. LIFE CYCLE: 23 30 days. TEMP.: Max: 35oC, Min: 18oC, Optimum: 30oC. RH:Max:90%,Min:25%,Optimum:70%.

Adults do not feed, Larvae internal feeders, develop within the seed up to adult stage. Cosmopolitan.

Order: Coleoptera Family: Anthribidae

Araecerus fasciculatus (deGeer): Coffee bean weevil

Serious primary pest, a threat for the coffee crop. It breeds in coffee berries, cocoa seeds, corn, dried fruits, sweet potatoes, nutmeg, peanuts, spices, citrus fruits areca nut, cotton seeds, tapioca, dried fruits, beans, etc. Frequently seen in the corn fields on the exposed and damaged ears of corn. In storage it breeds on maize flour, cocoa flour, tapioca flour etc. attracted more to commodities with high moisture content between 12% 20 %. Body 2.5 4.5 mm long, tan, chestnut (dark) brown, heavily clothed with setae, rostrum short and broad. Strong flier. Long lived up to 15 17 weeks. Antenna 11-segmented last three segments form a loose club. Prothorax very finely and densely punctate. Legs are larger than body size. Elytra are wide structures with rows of fine, closely impressed punctures, do not cover pygidium which is heavily sclerotized. 50-135 eggs / female, hatch in 4-8 days.
Lateral Ventral

Lateral

Larva 4.5 6.0 mm long, apodous, head round longer than broad, pale, straw coloured, mandibles are stout and triangular, Larval period 45-60 days. Pupates inside or outside the seed in a pupal cell, profusely clothed with setae, Pupal period 6-10 days. LIFE CYCLE: 45-137 days. TEMP.: Max: 35oC, Min: 18oC, Optimum: 28oC. RH: Max: 95 %, Min: 40 %, Optimum: 80 %.

Both adult and larval stages are destructive. Cosmopolitan, serious pest in tropical and sub-tropical countries.

Order: Coleoptera Family: Curculionidae Sitophilus oryzae (L.): Rice weevil Sitophilus zeamais (Motsch): Maize weevil
Serious primary pest of cereals, Infests rice, sorghum, wheat, maize, paddy. Both capable of infesting in the field, Native of India. Body reddish-brown, 3- 3.5mm long, well defined rostrum, rostrum slender, thinner in females, while shorter, stouter in males. Long living- up to one year, average 4 - 5 months
Infested Paddy S.oryzae

Fore wing is modified into protective cover elytra and deeply striated with four light coloured spots. Hind wing membranous ,for fly. Antennae elbowed with compact club. Round and dense punctures on prothorax

Apodous Larvae Dorsal Male & Female Rostrum

Female bores a small hole into the grain and inserts the ovipositor to lay an egg, then plug it with mucilaginous secretions. After complete development, the adult bites its way out of the grain, leaving behind an emergence hole. 100 150 eggs/female, MC in grain favours oviposition (12-14 %). S.zeamais breeds well in 20 % moisture content, hatch in 3- 6 days.

S.oryzae
Exarate Pupa

S.zeamais

Larva apodous, short, white, fleshy, 3- 3.5mm long with dark brown head, dorsally semicircular and ventrally flat. Larval period 25-34 days. Pupate inside the grain, Pupal period 4-8 days. LIFE CYCLE: 4- 6 weeks.

Infested Maize

S. zeamais

TEMP.: Max: 34oC, Min: 17oC, Optimum: 30oC. RH: Max: 100 %, Min: 45 %, Optimum: 70 %. Both adult and larval stages are destructive. Cosmopolitan, internal feeder, Both adult and larval stages are destructive. Cosmopolitan,

Order: Coleoptera Family: Curculionidae Sitophilus granarius (L.): Granary weevil

Primary pest of cereals, internal feeder and are confined to stored grain and do not infest in the field.. Body elongate, oblong, chestnut brown, 3-4 mm long, well defined rostrum. Long living -up to one year, average 4 -5 months. Rostrum in females more slender, longer, cylindrical and finely punctate, in males more wider, shorter with coarse punctures.

Antennae-elbowed with compact club.

S.granarius

Fore wing is as in S.oryzae, while hind wings absent, can not fly. Elytra deeply striated. Prothorax coarsely and less densely punctate than in S.oryzae. EGG: 30-250 eggs/female, white, opaque, ovoid to pear shaped, hatch in 3-6 days. Female bore a small hole into the grain & inserts an egg into the starchy portion of the kernel and covers the hole with a gelatinous fluid. After complete development, the adult bites its way by leaving behind an emergence hole. Larva apodous, small, white, fleshy, 3-3.5mm long with dark brown head, dorsally semicircular and ventrally flat. Larval period 25-30 days, molt 3 times, single larva consumes about 28 mg of wheat during development.

Pupate inside the grain. Pupal period 10-16 days.

LIFE CYCLE: 25 34 days. TEMP.: Max: 34oC, Min: 15oC, Optimum: 28oC. RH: Max: 100 %, Min: 48 %, Optimum: 75 %. Both adult and larval stages are destructive. Mostly in the temperate countries, not well established in tropics

Order: Coleoptera Family: Nitidulidae

Carpophilus hemipterus (L.): Dried Fruit Beetle

This beetle damage fruit, such as figs, dates, and less often raisins. Infestation takes place mainly on cracked or fermenting fruits; sound ones are rarely attacked. The adults are 3 mm long, dull or shiny black, Long lived 2- 3 months.

Elytra are short and truncate, exposing the 2 posterior abdominal segments, with 2 conspicuous, amber-brown spots at the posterior tips and 2 smaller obscure spots of the same color near the bases of the lateral margins, finely punctate
Antennae: last three segments abruptly enlarged and distinctly knobbed. The females lay an average of over 1,000 small, white eggs in ripe figs, or on piles of fermenting fruits in orchards or refuse dumps. The incubation period is 1 to 7 days, averaging 2.2 days.
Ventral Dorsal Lateral

Larvae are 6 to 7 mm long, white or yellowish, with the head and posterior tip of the body amber-brown. The body is clothed with hairs. All larval stages are very active, and try to hide quickly when disturbed. Larval development takes 6 to 14 days. The pupae are robust, oval, somewhat spiny, about 3 mm long, and white or pale yellow, becoming amber when nearly mature. The pupal stage lasts 5 to 11 days. LIFE CYCLE: Vary from a minimum of 15 days in summer to several months in winter. The pupae generally over winter in the soil. TEMP.: Max: 40oC, Min: 20oC, Optimum: 32oC. RH: Max: 90 %, Min: 10 %, Optimum: 70 %.

Adults and Larvae- External feeders on dried fruits. Cosmopolitan and more common in tropics.

Order:Coleoptera Family:Trogossitidae

Tenebroides muritanicus (L.): Cadelle

Cadelle are common in old undisturbed grain bins and flour mills, they attack grains, nuts, flour and other milled products, cereals, breakfast foods, potatoes, shelled and unshelled nuts etc. It is a serious pest in flour mills, granaries, warehouses and stores.
T.muritanicus
Adult

Adults are 8 to 9mm long, shiny black, elongate, oblong and flattened. The prothorax, is distinctly separated from the rest of the body by a loose, prominent joint. The males and females can be distinguished more fine punctures on the ventral side of the abdomen, whereas the punctures on the females are less numerous and coarser. Long lived, often longer than one year. They lay up to 1000 eggs per female, in groups of 10 to 60 near a supply of food, over several months. These hatch within 7 to 10 days. Larvae are fleshy, worm-like, have creamy white elongate bodies with distinct black heads, with two dark plates on the prothorax. Larvae bore into wood & pupate. Pupal period 2 - 3 weeks. LIFE CYCLE: 3 to 14 months., There are several generations per year. TEMP.: Max: 34oC, Min: 22oC, Optimum: 29oC. RH: Max: 90 %, Min: 40 %, Optimum : 75 %.

Larva and Adult stages are destructive, cosmopolitan.

Order: Coleoptera Family: Tenebrionidae Tenebrio molitor (L.): Yellow meal worm Tenebrio obscurus (F.): Dark meal worm

T.molitor-Campodeiform Larvae T.molitor- Larva

Yellow meal worms
Lateral

They are nocturnal, and seek moist, dark, undisturbed places. They are found in undisturbed lots/places of grains and contaminated/spoiled grain lots.

Both the species are flat beetles, 12 mm long similar in appearance, habits, and life histories. They live for 2 to 3 months. The adults normally emerge in the spring and early summer, there is 1 generation per year.
Their common names are based on the colors of the larvae. The adult Tenebrio molitor is shiny dark brown to black, while T.obscurus is pitch black. Antennae-moniliform.

Females lay 400 to 500 bean shaped, sticky, white eggs, singly or in clusters. hatch in about 2 weeks
T.molitorAdult

T.molitor- Exarate Pupa T.obscurusCampodeiform Larva

Larvae are slender, white which soon acquire the characteristic color. Larvae are being used as bait and feed for fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds etc. can be cultured in the mixture of wheat bran and gram flour along with vegetables Pupae are yellowish brown, pupate in produce without puparium. Pupal period 915 days.

Dark meal worm Lateral Ventral

LIFE CYCLE: 4-12 weeks. TEMP.: Max: 35oC, Min: 20oC, Optimum: 28oC. RH: Max: 90 %, Min: 10 %, Optimum: 75 %.

T.obscurus - Adult

T.obscurus -Exarate Pupae

Adults and Larvae- External feeders, feed on broken grain and flour. Cosmopolitan, more common in temperate regions.

Order: Coleoptera Family:Cleridae

Necrobia rufipes (DeGeer): Red legged Ham Beetle

Serious pest of dried or smoked meats and also attacking cheese, bones, hides, drying carrion, copra, salt fish, herring, dried egg yolks, dried figs, "guano", bone meal, palm-nut kernels, and Egyptian mummies. Cannibalistic nature. The adults are 3.5 to 7 mm long, shiny green or greenish blue. Long lived about 14 months or more Antennae capitate with a compact club. Elytra convex, straight sided, and punctate. As many as 2000 eggs may be laid either singly or in clusters. They hatch in 4 or 5 days in warm weather. Larvae are about 10 mm long, slender, tapering toward the head, and are purplish in color. They are repelled by light. There are 3 or 4 larval instars. Pupates in the cocoon, Pupal period 8-12 days. LIFE CYCLE: The life cycle varies from 36 to 150 days or more, depending on the type of food and the temperature. TEMP.: Max: 40oC, Min: 20oC, Optimum: 32oC. RH: Max: 90 %, Min: 10 %, Optimum: 70 %.

N.violacea - Adult

N.ruficollisRedshouldered Ham Beetles

The larvae boring into the meat, particularly the fat parts, do most of the damage; the adults are surface feeders. Cosmopolitan and more common in tropics.

Order: 2. Lepidoptera (Linnaeus 1758) (Greek, Lepido = Scale, pteron = wing, Insects with scaly wings). Include Moths and Butterflies. Order: Lepidoptera : 1. Family: Gelechiidae : Sitotroga cerealella 2. Family: Galleriidae : Corcyra cephalonica 3. Family: Phycitidae : Ephestia cautella Plodia interpunctella.

Relative size of stored product moths

Identification of stored product moths

Identification of stored product moths

Adult Moths: variety of shapes, sizes, and colors. Body is long and slender. Females are larger than males. All adults have a pair of large compound eyes and some also have a pair of simple eyes. Wings: Have wingspans of 0.39 to 0.75 inches (10 to 19 millimeters). The wings are usually large than the body and are densely covered with tiny flat hair-like structures called scales. Thousands of scales are arranged on the wings like overlapping shingles on a roof and give different color and patterns. The forewings and hind wings work together while the insect is in flight

Adults have a long coiled tubelike tongue called the proboscis, used for sucking up fluids.
In some proboscis is strong enough to pierce the skin of fruit. Some moths do not have a proboscis, and a few species have jaws. The mouthparts include a pair of fingerlike structures covered with scales called palps. The antennae or sense organs, of moths are long and threadlike or feathery. The abdomen is soft, ten-segmented is covered with scales and lacks any long projections on the tip.

Larva: The larvae are usually known as caterpillars; do not resemble the adults at all. Body is long, soft, and fleshy.

The head is distinct, hard, and has powerful jaws.

The antennae are small and not easily seen. Two silk glands are located inside the lower lip through which spin the silken webbing.

The six true legs are located on the thorax and has a series of paired prolegs. Each leg is fivesegmented and usually tipped with a single claw.
The surfaces of their wrinkled bodies are smooth or covered with scales, fleshy bumps, spines, or tufts of hair. These coverings sometimes help to protect the caterpillars from potential predators. The needlelike spines are sometimes hollow, attached to poison glands, and capable of delivering burning stings. The hairs of some species are especially irritating to people if they get into the eyes, nose, or mouth.

Pupa: The features of the adult are clearly visible in the pupal stage. The legs and wings are tightly glued to the body along their entire lengths. The pupae of moths are usually brownish and smooth. The pupates in a silk cocoon. Many moths do not use any silk at all and pupate in the ground or under tree bark.

Order: Lepidoptera Family: Gelechiidae

Sitotroga cerealella (Olivier): Paddy moth; Angoumois grain moth

Attacks all cereal grains, wheat, maize, paddy, sorghum, barley etc. Infests both in field and granary. Infestation restricted to the periphery of stored grain. Serious pest in warm areas. Wing expanse 12.7mm straw coloured or buff colored, fore wings trapezoidal with a fewer darker markings, hind wings abruptly narrowed at apical end, posterior margins heavily clothed with long setae, distinguished from other moths by its small size. Labial palps 3-segmented usually slender and pointed. Short lived 5-10 days.

120-400 eggs/ female. Fertilized eggs, initially pearly white later change to bright red or pink within 24 hours. Eggs are deeply fluted longitudinally, hatch in 5-7 days.
Larva strongly curved, thorax much stouter than the abdomen, white, later turns reddish in colour, matured larvae 12.7mm long. Prolegs indistinct, each with only two or 3 widely separated indistinct chrochets. 1st instar larva bores and closes the entrance hole with a spun silken web, and feeds upon soft endosperm of the kernel, forms cocoon inside the kernel just below the seed coat. Larval period 2-3 weeks. Pupates within the silken cocoon inside the kernel, reddish brown colour. Pupal period 4 - 6 days. LIFE CYCLE: 4- 6 weeks.

TEMP.: Max: 34oC, Min: 18oC, Optimum: 30oC. RH: Max: 85 %, Min: 50 %, Optimum: 75 %. .
Larval stage is destructive, adults do not feed. Cosmopolitan, serious pest in tropics.

Order: Lepidoptera Family: Galleriidae

Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton): Rice moth

Primary pest of rice, important pest of flour mill, forms silken webbing on material. It infests sorghum, millet, wheat, cocoa, oil seeds (pea nuts), copra, milled products, cocoa, chocolate, dried fruits, biscuits and some spices. Wing expanse 19.05mm, Fore wings uniformly coloured pale, grayish brown without spots but with the veins slightly darkened. Hind wings light gray. Labial palps straight, conspicuous in females, legs long, slender. Short lived 8-15 days. 150-200 eggs/ female, hatch in 3-5 days. Creamy white in colour, matured larva is 15 mm long and 3 mm wide. 5 pairs "prolegs" on the abdominal segments. Larval head is pale brown in colour. Larval period is 18-22 days Pupa 7.5 to 9 mm long, with the short median, parallel, elevated, longitudinal lines and the nearly black anal segments bearing four processes (short spines) are characteristics. LIFE CYCLE: 4- 5 weeks. TEMP.: Max : 34oC, Min : 18oC, Optimum: 30oC. RH: Max: 90%, Min: 20%, Optimum: 75 %.

Larval stage is destructive, adults do not feed. Cosmopolitan, serious pest in tropics.

Order: Lepidoptera Family: Phycitidae

Ephestia cautella (Walker): Tropical warehouse moth; Fig moth

Serious pest of dried fruits, figs, broken cereals, pulses and their products, biscuits, tamarind, oil seeds including groundnuts and palm kernels, cocoa, spices, animal feeding stuffs, flour materials, garlic, dry chillies , etc. Infestation is confined to surface layers of the stored commodity. Some strains of this species are capable of undergoing diapause stage under adverse conditions. Wing expanse about 15.12 mm . Forewing, dull grayish with obscure markings with the basal darker band on the outer edges. The antennal basal joint is swollen in males. Short lived 8-12 days 200-250 eggs/ female, laid on grain materials and on the gunny bags filled with grain, hatch in 3-6 days. Larva 12-14mm long, have setae arising from pigmented spots on the cuticle, look brownish white in colour, larval head dark brown, mature larvae enter a wandering phase and completely obscure the bag surfaces with silken webbing before pupation.
Infested Ground Nuts

E.cautella - Adult

Dorsal

Ventral

Pupates in silken cocoons. Pupal period 8-12 days.

Ventral

LIFE CYCLE: 4 - 5 weeks.

Lateral

TEMP.: Max : 38oC, Min: 15oC, Optimum: 28oC. RH: Max: 100 %, Min: 45 %, Optimum: 70 %.

Larval stage is destructive, adults do not feed. Cosmopolitan.

Order: Lepidoptera Family: Phycitidae

Plodia interpunctella (Hubner): The Indian meal moth

A general feeder usually attacks cereals sometimes spices and dried fruits etc. similar to E.cautella. Larvae prefer to feed on the germ portion of seeds. Under unfavourable conditions undergo diapause condition. Wing expanse 16-18mm. Forewing elongate with basal one third a pale yellowish buff colour, remainder reddish brown to copper coloured . The hind wings uniformly silver grey with a long silky fringe of setae. Labial palps directed forward. The head with a strong cone of scales, absent in Ephestia species; males have antennal basal swelling. Nocturnal in habits, avoid strong light. Short lived 5-13 days. 300 350 eggs/ female, deposited in nutrient and laid singly or in clusters or in chains of up to 30 eggs, hatch in 2-15 days.
Obtect Pupa

Plodia interpunctella
- Adult

Ventral

P.interpunctella- Adult
Eruciform larva

Mature larvae 10 to 13 mm long and 1.8 to 2.2 mm wide. Head moderately pale yellowish brown in colour, with usually 6 ocelli. Larva with pigmented spots on the cuticle. The outer portion reddish bronze with irregular dark bands. Spin a silken thread on which the larval droppings and other frass accumulate. Laraval life 26- 30 days. Pupates in light brown silken cocoon. Pupal period 4-20 days.

Infested Dried Fruits

LIFE CYCLE: 30 35 days . TEMP.: Max: 36oC, Min: 20oC, Optimum: 29oC. RH: Max: 90 %, Min: 40 %, Optimum : 75 %.
Dorsal

Larval stage is destructive, adults do not feed. Cosmopolitan.

Order : Psocoptera Family: Liposcelidae

Liposcelis bostrychophila : Psocids ; Book lice

Infested Wheat

Psocids are not the major pests. They are essentially scavengers feeding on fragments of organic matter of plant or animal origin. Grow well in humid regions . Prefer to feed on mouldy food materials, old papers and museum specimens. Commonly seen on the wet patches on the walls of the warehouses. At high density they taint foodstuffs with waste products and can physically damage grains (rice, wheat etc.). They may elicit allergic reactions in sensitive persons. Psocids of stored products are very small insects, about 1-1.5mm long, smaller than a pinhead, translucent bodied, winged or wingless Antennae are rather longer with 12-50 similar segments. Mouth parts are of biting type. Females are brown coloured and males are light cream colourded. LIFE SPAN: Live for about 6 months. The maximum recorded life span is 53 weeks feeding on skimmed milk powder.
Female

Infested Produce
Male

EGG: Lay singly or in small batches. lay 3- 4 eggs per day and lay up to 200 eggs /female, hatch in 8-24 days and can reproduce parthenogenetically, Metamorphosis incomplete, Eggs hatch into nymphs. The nymphs are almost colourless. Populations increase rapidly until the nymphs mature into adults.

Females

LIFE CYCLE: 21 days under optimum conditions of Temp. & RH.

Males

TEMP.: Max: 34oC,Min: 20oC,Optimum: 30oC. RH: Max: 90%, Min: 22 %, Optimum: 70%. Adults and Nymphs- Both are external feeders. Occurs in tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions.

Class : Arachnida Order: Acari

Acarus siro (L.): Grain mites ; Flour mites

Common in foodstuffs. These can live in almost any type of flour or in fodder in stores of cereals, corn and old cheese, dried vegetables and dried fruits. Mainly feed on germ portion of the grain and moulds. Thus contaminate with fungal spores and cause allergens in susceptible persons.
Prosoma

Adult - External feeder, Larva / Nymph External feeders. Vary in colour pale, pearly or greyish white, less than 1mm in size. They are smooth, wingless, soft-bodied creatures. Size vary from 0.33 to 0.43mm long, characterised by the presence of 4 pairs of walking legs unlike insects. Do not have antennae, legs acts as sensory organs. Body segments are merged to give a single rounded appearance. Compound eyes are absent, but simple eyes are in many pairs. Short lived up to 3- 4 weeks. A single female can lay up to 500- 800 eggs in her lifetime at a rate of 20-30 a day. Some are viviparous. Some reproduce parthenogenetically Incomplete metamorphosis, The first or larval stage has only six legs. However, when they moult into the nymphal stage, they have eight legs like the adults. After the second nymphal stage they enter hypopus stage, a diapause form, in which they are almost immobile and very resistant to desiccation. In the hypopus stage, the body wall hardens and suckers appear on the underside. These suckers allow the mite to attach to insects and other animals for dispersal.

Metasoma

Acarus siro

Mite infested Produce

LIFE CYCLE: It may take only nine to eleven days to complete under the optimal conditions of humidity and temp. It takes seventeen days at 18-22C, and twenty eight days at 10-16 C. TEMP.:Max: 32oC, Min: 0- 4oC, Optimum: 25o C RH: Max:100%, Min:65 %, Optimum:90%.

Acarus siro

Bracon hebetor Minimum Life Cycle: Egg to adult 9 to 10 days (30C). Adult female longevity about 23 days. Fecundity: approximately 100 eggs. Distribution: Cosmopolitan associated with stored product moths. Not injurious to stored grain. Biology: Adults - Females paralyze and lay eggs in late instar moth larvae. Each female produces about 100 eggs. On the average, eight larvae develop in one host. (Host: Indianmeal moth and almond moth external to grain.) Bracon hebetor, a Parasitoid. Bracon hebetor parasitizes several of the common grain moths such as the Indianmeal moth in the late larval stage. According to the results of laboratory tests, it promises to be a useful biological control agent

Digestive system
The chewed food is passed into the mouth (which secretes the digestive enzyme amylase), then into the muscular pharynx, and then to the esophagus. From there food enters the midgut, where digestive enzymes break it down further. Attached to the end of the midgut are the malpighian tubules, the insect's kidney-like organs of excretion that empty into the hindgut (located just past the midgut). The hindgut is followed by the rectum, which ends in the anus. Digested food enters the hemocoele, or body cavity, and is transported to the organs by means of the circulatory fluid, or hemolymph.

Circulatory system
Beetles have an open circulatory system, that is, they lack an extensive system of arteries and veins and their hemolymph bathes their tissues directly. A tube-like "heart" in the abdomen pumps the hemolymph forward through a dorsal tube ("aorta") in the thorax to the head. Tiny pumps send the hemolymph to the wings, antennae and legs, after which the fluid flows back passively to the heart in the abdomen. The hemolymph transports nutrients throughout the body, and carries waste products from the organs to the malpighian tubules. Free cells called hemocytes travel in the hemolymph and serve to devour foreign microorganisms. Unlike the blood of the vertebrates, the hemolymph is not involved in oxygen transport; that function is performed by the spiracles

Coleoptera-beetles
Segmented body Exoskeleton: chitinous, further strengthened by a proteinaceous substance sclerotin. Carbohydrate polyacetylglucosamine. Serves in protection and muscle attachment, secrets a layer of wax on the outside of the exoskeleton prevents water loss through evaporation. Insect body: Head, thorax and abdomen. Head has 6 segments, fused together to form skull / head capsule. The head bears a pair of compound eyes, a pair of antennae (usually with 11 segments), and the mouthparts . The eyes consist of many tiny individual units (facets), which together resemble a honeycomb. Each facet is surrounding a rodlike light-receptive zone (rhabdom). Each has optic nerve. Eye does not move, and its lenses cannot focus. Instead, each individual eye contributes a tiny bit of the image; these combine to form a crude mosaic of the scene rather than a clear, continuous picture. Insects can't close their eyes, and can see well only to a distance of a few feet (about 90 cm). The antennae (feelers) are sense organs that gather information about the touch, sound, taste, smell, temperature, and humidity of the beetle's environment. The maxillae hold a pair of lobed sense organs, called palps, which may detect smells. The beetle's mouth is a simple hole that lacks jaws, but is surrounded by specialized structures for grasping and grinding. Behind the upper "lip," or labrum, a pair of jawlike appendages (called mandibles) serves as pincers. Behind the mandibles are a pair of bladelike appendages (called maxillae), followed by a second pair of maxillae that are fused in the midline to form the lower lip, or labium. Mouth parts designed for chewing solid food, many of the beetles of the superfamily Curculionoidea have a distinct snout that can bore into wood and suck sap. The snout has mouthparts at its end and is used for penetration and feeding, and for boring holes for egg-laying. These beetles are mostly plant feeders and are economically important pests of crops. For example, the 30,000 species of weevils in the family Curculionidae include many insect pests, such as the cotton boll weevil, the apple blossom weevil, and the rice weevil. The Curculionidae are also called true weevils, or snout weevils.

Thorax : meso and metathorax are attached to the abdomen, while protharax is isolated between the head and trunk and covered by a dorsal plate called the pronotum. Three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings. Fore wing modified as elytra, hind wing membranous The front pair of legs arises from cavities under the pronotum, with a spiracle positioned just to the rear of the base of each of the front legs. The mesothorax bears the second pair of legs. while the third pair of legs arises from the metathorax. Legs are modified for running, swimming, jumping, digging, or clasping, depending on the species. Abdomen has nine to ten segments, some are not externally visible, each bearing a pair of spiracles, or respiratory openings which direct air through the exoskeleton into the body.