Internet Technology and Protocols

Definition
The Set of Rules or Standards designed to enable computers to get connected with one another and then exchange information with as little error as possible.

Protocols
TCP Transmission Control Protocol. Ensures that connections are made and maintained between computers. Internet Protocol. Handles software computer addresses. Address Resolution Protocol. Relates IP address with hardware (MAC) addresses. Routing Information Protocol. Finds the quickest route between two computers. Open Shortest Path First. A successor of RIP that increases its speed and reliability. Internet Control Message Protocol. Handle errors and send error messages for TCP/IP.

IP
ARP

RIP
OSPF ICMP

Protocols
BGP/EGP
Border Gateway Protocol/Exterior Gateway Protocol. Handles how data is passed between network. Simple Network Management SNMP Protocol. Allows network administrator to connect to and manage network devices. Point-to-Point Protocol. Provides for PPP dial-up networked connections to n/w. PPP is to allow customers to connect to their services. SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. How e-mail is passed between servers on a TCP/IP Network. POP3/IMAP Post Office Protocol version 3/Internet Message Advertising 4 Protocol version 4. Both set up ways for clients to connect to servers and collect e-mail.

OSI Layers
APPLICATION PRESENTAION

SESSION
TRANSPORT NETWORK DATALINK PHYSICAL

APPLICATION

Provides services that directly support user applications:

Database access, E-mail, File Transfer

Allows Applications to communication with each other from different computers.

PRESENTAION

Translates data between the formats network required and the formats the computer extracts. Protocol conversion, data transmission, compression and encryption, character set conversion and interpretation of graphics commands.

SESSION

Establishes and terminates the session, queues of the incoming messages and is responsible for recovering from and abnormally terminated session. Allows applications on separate computers to share connection called session. Provide services:
Name lookup Security to allow to programs to find each other and establish the communication link. Data synchronization and check points.

TRANSPORT

Responsible for converting messages into the structures required for transmission over network. High level error recovery is provided Ensures that packets are delivered error free, in the sequence, and with no loses or duplications. Breaks large messages from the session layer into packets to be sent to the destination computer and reassembles packet into messages to be presented to the session layer. Sends an acknowledgement to the sender for messages have been received.

NETWORK

Makes routing Decisions and forward packets for devices that are further away than a single link. A link connect to network devices and is implemented by the datalink layer. Translates logical network addresses into physical machine addresses. Routers and Gateways operates in the network layer.

DATALINK

Responsible for gaining access to the network and transmitting the physical block of data from one devices to the another. Includes error checking necessary to ensure an accurate transmission. Uses communication protocols.

PHYSICAL

Defines actual set of wires, plugs and electrical signals that connect the sending and receiving devices to the network.

OSI

COMPARISION

TCP/IP
APPLICATION (PRESENTAION SESSION)

APPLICATION PRESENTAION

SESSION
TRANSPORT NETWORK DATALINK PHYSICAL TRANSPORT (TCP/UDP)

INTERNET (IP)
HOST -TONETWORK (NIC, CABLES)

OSI is a standard "reference model" that describes how protocols should interact with one another. Invented by the Department of Defense, TCP/IP became one of the "standards" that enabled the Internet to become what it is today. TCP/IP doesn't map cleanly into the OSI model, but it is convenient to think in terms of the OSI model when describing protocols

The application layer in TCP/IP handles the responsibilities of layers 5, 6 and 7 in the OSI model. The transport layer in TCP/IP does not always guarantee reliable delivery of packets at the transport layer, while the OSI model does. TCP/IP also offers an option called UDP that does not guarantee reliable packet delivery.

Internet Layer Protocols

Used for routing and providing single network interface to the upper layer. IP looks at each packets IP address. Then using routing protocol, it decides where this packet is to be sent next, choosing the best path. Various protocols at the Internet layer:
IP (Internet Protocol) ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol) BootP (Boot Program) ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)

Internet Protocol
IP is a low-level protocol that routes packets of data across separate networks tied together by routers to form the Internet or an Intranet. Data travels in packets called IP datagrams. Provides basic mechanism for forwarding of data between two computers. IP can also fragment packets if they are too large. Packets are simply handed from computer to computer until they reach to their destination. Sending and Receiving computers known as End system and In-Between computer known as Intermediate systems (Routers, Gateways etc).

 Routers:

Gateways:

Specially designed computers optimized for routing packets. Refers to general purpose computers that are simply used as router and perform no other functions.

Multi-homed host refers top general purpose computers that perform some other functions in addition to routing packets such as file service or Internet site hosting. Host refers to client, server, peer)

Services of IP
Addressing and Fragmentation only. No other functionality provides. Important limitations are: Cannot guarantee that a packet will reach its destination. Has no ability to perform flow control. Performs no error correction. Performs no error detection for the data payload. Does not guarantee that packets will arrive in order and does no order them sequentially.

 Other protocols, which are transported within IP packets, add information such as packet serial numbers and error correction codes. The destination system can check to see if all the packets have arrived, arrange them in the correct order, and request any missing packets be sent again based on this additional information. TCP performs all these functions.
IP does include information about how long a packet should remain alive in a system. Every IP packet contains a time to live indicator and decreases this counter by one, each time a router forwards the packet or whenever one second of real time elaspes.

Address Resolution Protocol

IP must inform a Network Access Protocol, such as Ethernet, of the destinations hardware address. If IP does not know the hardware address, it used the ARP protocol to find this information. ARP also acts as an IPs detective. It interrogates the network by sending out a broadcast asking the machine with the specific IP address to reply with its hardware address. ARP is able to translate a software address, the IP address, into a hardware address thereby, finding its whereabouts. Hardware address is know as MAC( Media Access Control).

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is the method for finding a host's hardware address when only its IP address is known. ARP is used in four cases of two hosts communicating: When two hosts are on the same network and one desires to send a packet to the other When two hosts are on different networks and must use a gateway/router to reach the other host When a router needs to forward a packet for one host through another router When a router needs to forward a packet from one host to the destination host on the same network

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

When a IP machine happens to be a diskless machine (A dumb PC). Has no way to initially knowing its IP address but knows MAC address. The RARP protocol sends out a packet that includes its MAC address, and a request to be informed of what IP address is assigned to its MAC address. A RARP server responds with the answer.

BootP (Boot Program)

Stands for boot program. When diskless workstation is switched on, it broadcast a BootP request on the network. A BootP server hears a request and looks up the clients MAC address and its BootP file. If entry is exists it response by telling the machine its IP address and the file that its should boot from. BootP is used by diskless machine to learn the following.
Its IP address The IP address of server machine Name of the file that is to be loaded into the memory and executed at boot up.

SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol

Develop for UNIX environment that supports TCP/IP networking over a serial transmission lines which is connected by modem. This is an older serial Line protocol which does not support automatic negotiation of network configuration. It has been replaced by PPP because of following reasons .
Supports only TCP/IP Required the user to write script for automatic logon process. Required hosts TCP/IP parameters configure manually. Windows 2000 cannot accept connection from SLIP clients.

PPP (Point To Point Protocol

Provides router to router and host to network connection over synchronous and asynchronous circuit. Was design to work with several network layer protocol: IP, IPv6, IPX, AppleTalk. PPP frames can be transmitted over serial lines such as old telephone services, ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network). It is supervisor of SLIP ( Because of )
Supports InternetWork Packet Exchange (IPX) Negotiates the TCP/IP parameters Supports Password Authentication Protocol (PAP), Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP). Supports Windows 9x, NT, 2000.

AppleTalk
The Apple Computer network architecture and network protocols. A network that has Macintosh clients and a computer running Windows 2000 Server or Windows NT Server with Services for Macintosh functions as an AppleTalk network. AppleTalk Phase 2
The extended AppleTalk Internet model

designed by Apple Computer that supports multiple zones within a network and extended addressing capacity.

IPX
Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) is the native NetWare protocol used on many earlier Novell networks.

Network Architecture
Refers to physical layout of the computer connection and the logical method of their communication. First is known as Topology or physical connection. Second part is known as Protocols.
Note: in contrast to physical topology, logical topology are largely abstract. Logical networks are essentially rules of road.

Network Architecture
Ethernet FDDI ATM Token Ring

Ethernet
Standard networking protocol and connection design that joins computers using a bus topology or node joined to a single main cable. It represents the first major product offering with non proprietary (free) communications interfaces and protocols. Developed by Xerox Corporation research laboratory, digital equipment, and intel teamed to define some commercial products based on jointly published Communication standards. Ethernet architecture is based on the concept of the Aloha satellite communications network developed at the University of Hawaii.

ALOHA
Aloha allows multiple distributed devices to communicate with each other over a single radio channel using a satellite as a transponder. One station communicates with another by waiting until the radio channel is idle (determined by the carrier sensing) and then sending a packet of data with a destination address, a source address, and redundant check bits to detect transmission error. All idle stations continuously monitor incoming data and accept those packets with their address and valid checksums. Whenever a station receives a new packet, the receiving station returns an acknowledgement within a specified time interval , it retransmits the packet under the assumption that the previous packet was interfered with by noise or by a transmission from another station as the same time. The latter situation is referred to as a collision.

CSMA/CD

Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection. In a Ethernet, computers share a single network segment, called collision domain. When two computers transmit the data at a same time, a condition called collision occurs. In CSMA/CD, each computer listens for a quiet time on the wire, a computer that has packets of data to transmit sends them out over the network wire. If second computer also has to transmit at the same time, both computers sense the others presence. Both then stop transmitting data, wait a random number of milliseconds, and transmit again.

Domain
A group of computers that are part of a network and share a common directory database. A domain is administered as a unit with common rules and procedures. Each domain has a unique name.
Back

Members of Ethernets Nuclear Family

10 base-2

10 base-5

10 base-T

100 base-T

100 base-Fx 100 base-T4

Coaxial networking . Maximum length is 185 m. Intermediate step between 10 base2 and 10 base-T. Maximum length is 500m. Runs over two of the four wire pairs of unshielded twisted-pair wire. Maximum length from the hub to a workstation is 100m. Called fast Ethernet, data travel at 100 mbps over two pairs of unshielded twisted-pair copper wire. Fast Ethernet running on optical fibers. not maximum cable length. which is 100 base-T running over four pair of unshielded twisted pair wire. maximum length 20m.

FDDI
It is high performance fiber optic token ring LAN running at 100 mbps over distances up to 200 km with up to 1000 stations connected. Backbone to connect copper LANs. FDDI( Fiber Distributed Data Interface) is ring based network. FDDI uses fiber-optic cables to implement very fast, reliable network. The FDDI cabling consists of two fiber rings, one transmitting clockwise and the other transmitting counterclockwise.

Advantage of FDDI
High bandwidth: Up to 2 GB. Security: Difficult to trap a signal Physical durability: Does not break easily Resistance to EMI: Not susceptible to Electromagnetic Interference. Cable distance: Transmit signals over 2 km without needing any repeaters. Weight: Much less than copper wire with similar bandwidth. Use of multiple tokens: Multiple token to improve network speed. Ability to prioritize workstations: FDDI bypass low-priority workstations when necessary, providing faster service to high priority stations.

Disadvantage
FDDI is a complex technology. Need great expertise for installation. FDDI is very costly. Cable cost, the adapters and concentrators are very expensive.

ATM

(Asynchronous Transmission Mode)

Newest Technology. Can carry both voice and data over network wire or fiber. Transmits all packets as 53-bytes cells. This fixed unit allows very fast switches to be built, because it is much faster to process a known packet size than to figure out the start and end of variable length packets.

 ATM works at layer 2 of the OSI model and typically uses SONET . For framing and error correction out over the wire. ATM switches convert cells to SONET frames and frames to cells at the port interface. Synchronous Optical Network, a standard for connecting fiber-optic transmission systems. SONET was proposed by Bellcore in the middle 1980s and is now an ANSI standard. Allowing voice and video to be transmitted smoothly. Constant Bit Rate (CBR) guarantees bandwidth for real-time voice and video. Its ability to provide quality of service from end to end was highly praised as the perfect multimedia transport. In addition, ATM came from the telephone world, which had always delivered the highest quality communications.

ATM

SONET

What is HUB?
A common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs are commonly used to connect segments of a LAN. A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all packets.

Active HUB
A central connecting device in a network that regenerates signals on the output side to keep the signal strong. Also called a "multiport repeater."

Passive HUB
A central connecting device in a network that joins wires from several stations in a star configuration. It does not provide any processing or regeneration of signals.

How HUB works?

Concentrator
A type of multiplexer that combines multiple channels onto a single transmission medium in such a way that all the individual channels can be simultaneously active. For example, ISPs use concentrators to combine their dial-up modem connections that connect to the Internet. Concentrators are also used in local-area networks (LANs) to combine transmissions from a cluster of nodes. In this case, the concentrator is often called a hub

Concentrator

Multiplexer
A multiplexer is a device that encodes or multiplexes information from two or more data sources into a single channel. They are used in situations where the cost of implementing separate channels for each data source is more expensive than the cost and inconvenience of providing the multiplexing/demultiplexing functions.

 In a physical analogy, consider the merging behaviour of commuters crossing a narrow bridge; vehicles will take turns using the few available lanes. Upon reaching the end of the bridge they will separate into separate routes to their destinations.

Repeater
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a weak or low-level signal and retransmits it at a higher level or higher power, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation.

Repeater

Amplifier
An amplifier can be considered to be any device that uses a small amount of energy to control a source of a larger amount of energy, although the term today usually refers to an electronic amplifier.

Amplifier

VSAT
very small aperture terminal, an earthbound station used in satellite communications of data, voice and video signals, excluding broadcast television. A VSAT consists of two parts, a transceiver that is placed outdoors in direct line of sight to the satellite and a device that is placed indoors to interface the transceiver with the end user's communications device, such as a PC. The transceiver receives or sends a signal to a satellite transponder in the sky. The satellite sends and receives signals from a ground station computer that acts as a hub for the system. Each end user is interconnected with the hub station via the satellite, forming a star topology.

Router
A device that forwards data packets along networks. A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISPs network. A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISPs network. A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISPs network. Very little filtering of data is done through routers.

Router

Gateway
A network gateway is an internetworking system, a system that joins two networks together. A network gateway can be implemented completely in software, completely in hardware, or as a combination of the two. Depending on their implementation, network gateways can operate at any level of the OSI model from application protocols to low-level signaling.

Gateway

Relay Station
An intermediate station that passes information between terminals or other relay stations.