SKELETAL SYSTEM

BONES & JOINTS

Functions of the Bones

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Support Protection Movement Storage Hematopoiesis

Table. 6.1

2 Types of Bone
Compact bone

Spongy bone

CLASSIFICATION of BONES
According to structure 1. compact = solid mass; dense & hard = forms the outer layer of bone structure = functional unit --- Haversian system

2. cancellous or spongy = contain spaces filled with bone marrow = incomplete Haversian system

CLASSIFICATION of BONES
According to shape 1. long bones = length is greater than breadth = consists of shaft (diaphysis) & two extremities (epiphysis)
diaphysis = filled with yellow marrow = cylindrical, large space or canal at the center = periosteum epiphysis = made up of cancellous tissue
e.g.: femur, humerus, tibia, fibula, radius, ulna, phalanges

Membranes:

1. periosteum 2. endosteum

CLASSIFICATION of BONES

contn.

According to shape 2. short bones = cuboidal in shape = spongy bone with thin coat of compact bone = sesamoid bone -- short bone embedded in a tendon e.g.: patella
e.g.: carpals (wrist), tarsal (ankle) bones

3. flat bones = broad or elongated flat plates

= for protection & muscle attachments composition: 2 thin layers of compact tse. enclosing a thin layer of spongy bone
e.g.: bones of the skull, sternum, ribs, scapula

CLASSIFICATION of BONES
According to shape

contn.

4. Irregular bones = all other bones not assigned to the previous groups
e.g.: vertebrae pelvic bones bones of the base of the skull

CLASSIFICATION of BONES
According to development 1. Membranous = starts as fibrous membrane,

contn.

calcium gradually deposited until structure becomes ossified intramembranous ossification e.g.: bones of the skull, mandible

2. Cartilagenous = starts as cartilage, gradually ossified

enchondral or intracartilagenous ossification.
e.g.: long bones

CLASSIFICATION of BONES
According to location AXIAL

contn.

skull 22 hyoid 1 ossicles 6 vertebrae 26 ribs & sternum

80

25_

CLASSIFICATION of BONES
According to location

contn.

APPENDICULAR Upper Extremities Lower Extremities

clavicle scapulae humerus radius 2 ulna 2 carpals metacarpals phalanges hip bone 2 femur 2 patella 2 tibia 2 fibula 2 16 tarsals 14 10 metatarsals 10 28__ phalanges 28__ 64 62 2 2 2

Fig. 6.10

Table. 6.2

AXIAL SKELETON
I. SKULL = skeleton --- head & face = flattened & irregular = united by joints (sutures) cranium -- skull minus mandible calvarium -- skull after the bones of the face have been removed cavities: a. Cranial - contains the brain b. Orbital - contains eyeball & accessory organs c. nasal

Fig. 6.11

Fig. 6.14

Fig. 6.15

Divisions of the bones of the skull

a. Cerebral / cranial bones / brain case (8 bones) unpaired (4) paired (4)
1. occipital 2. frontal 3. sphenoid 4. ethmoid 1. parietal 2. temporal

b.

Facial or visceral cranium paired (12) unpaired (2)

a. Nasal
b. Lacrimal c. Maxilla e. Palatine f. Inferior nasal concha or turbinate

a. Vomer
b. Mandible

d. Zygomatic / malar / cheek bones

The uppermost portion of the human respiratory system, the nose is a hollow air passage that functions in breathing and in the sense of smell. The nasal cavity moistens and warms incoming air, while small hairs and mucus filter out harmful particles and micro-organisms. This illustration depicts the interior of the human nose.

Fig. 6.13

Fontanelle
= membrane filled spaces found in the skull of newborn infants e.g.: 1. anterior = largest 2. posterior 3. anterolateral (sphenoidal) 4. posterolateral (mastoid)

Fig. 6.37

AXIAL SKELETON
I. HYOID BONE = small U-shape; lies in front of the neck = base of the tongue is attached = lies between mandible & thyroid cartilage

II. OSSICLES = small bones of the ear a. Stapes (stirrup) 2 b. Incus (anvil) 2 c. Malleus (hammer) 2

Fig. 6.16

AXIAL SKELETON
I. VERTEBRAL COLUMN = long, curved, slightly movable pillar = united together by cartilage & ligaments = 71 75 cm. long = formed by series of bones -- vertebrae FUNCTION: 1. support of the trunk 2. contains & protects the spinal cord & nerves

VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Classification of vertebra cervical thoracic lumbar sacral coccygeal young 7 12 5 5 4 33 adult 7 12 5 1 1 26

Intervertebral discs = flattened plates of fibrocartilage that are interposed between the adjacent surfaces of the bodies of vertebrae FUNCTION: 1. uniting medium between vertebrae 2. main shock absorber 3. give flexibility & movement to the whole vertebral column

VERTEBRAL COLUMN
General parts of vertebrae 1. body 5. transverse process 2. arch 6. articular process 3. pedicle or root 7. spinous process 4. lamina 8. spinal or vertebral foramen

Special characteristics of individual vertebrae

a. Cervical vertebrae (7) = forms the skeleton of the neck, all have transverse foramen atypical cervical vertebrae: 1. atlas -- 1st 2. axis or epistropheus = 2nd 3. 7th cervical vertebrae = spinous process not bifid, small transverse foramen b. Thoracic vertebrae (12) = costal pits - rib attachment = circular vertebral canal

VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Special characteristics of individual vertebrae
contn

c. Lumbar vertebrae (5) = presence of mamillary & accessory processes = triangular vertebral foramen d. Sacrum = inverted triangular bone situated between hip bones e. Coccygeal vertebrae (1) = 4 small incomplete vertebrae fused to form the coccyx / tail bone; triangular

Fig. 6.17

Fig. 6.18

Fig. 6.20

AXIAL SKELETON
I. STERNUM (breast bone) = flat bone, found -- anterior thoracic wall = composed of 2 plates of compact bone with a layer of spongy bone in between containing red bone marrow

PARTS:
a. Manubrium b. Corpus or body c. Xiphoid process

AXIAL SKELETON
I. RIBS (12 pairs)
= narrow arched flat bones with 2 ends
1. vertebral - posterior; attaches with thoracic 2. sternal - anterior; attaches with costal cartilages

Classification of ribs:
a. Sternal or true ribs (1st to 7th) - ribs whose costal cartilages are directly attached to sternum b. Asternal or false ribs (8th to 12th) - ribs whose costal cartilages are not attached directly to the sternum but to 7th

subdivisions: 1. false rib proper - 8th, 9th, 10th ribs 2. floating or hanging ribs 11th & 12th

Fig. 6.21

APPENDICULAR SKELETON
BONES of the UPPER EXTREMITY (UE) 1. 2. 3. Clavicle (collar bone) Scapula (shoulder blade) articulates with humerus & clavicle Humerus (arm bone) - longest & largest bone of UE articulates with scapula (above) radius & ulna (below) 4. Radius - lateral bone of the forearm; cupshaped head

5.

Ulna - principal bone of the forearm;

longer & larger than radius

APPENDICULAR SKELETON
BONES of the UPPER EXTREMITY (UE) contn 6. Carpals (wrist bone) - 8 bones arranged into 2 rows - proximal & distal rows Metacarpals (bones of the hand) - 5 long bones placed between carpals & phalanges - numbered from lateral to medial Phalanges (bones of the fingers) = 14 long bones of the fingers -- 3 bones except thumb - 2 bones

7.

1.

Fig. 6.26

Fig. 6.22

Fig. 6.27

APPENDICULAR SKELETON
BONES of the LOWER EXTREMITY (LE)
1. Hip bone (innominate bone)
right & left hip bones + sacrum = pelvic girdle 3 bones: 1. ilium* *Converge on acetabulum a 2. ischium* concave fossa -- articulates with 3. pubis* head of femur form hip joint 2. Femur (thigh) = longest, strongest, largest bone in the body 3. Tibia (shin bone) = long bone; anterior, medial, & larger of the 2 bones of the leg 4. Fibula (peroneal bone) = long slender bone placed

parallel with the tibia but located laterally

Fig. 6.29

Fig. 6.30

Fig. 6.31

Fig. 6.32

Fig. 6.33

Fig. 6.34

APPENDICULAR SKELETON
BONES of the LOWER EXTREMITY (LE) contn 5. Tarsals (ankle bone) = short bones; 2 rows: internal & external rows

6. Metatarsals (bones of foot) = 5 long bones

numbered from medial to lateral 7. Phalanges (bones of toes) = similar to bones of the fingers

Fig. 6.35

Common Fractures
greenstick fracture
= the bone does not break all of the way through.

simple, or closed = when the bone breaks but

the skin does not.

compound, or open

= when the broken bone tears through the skin, introducing the dangerous possibility of infection. The area around a break swells and discolors, but some fractures can be detected only by X-ray. The weakened bones of the elderly are especially susceptible to fractures.

Fig. 6B

Fig. 6C

Bone Deformation
Rickets can result from
insufficient vitamin D in the diet or from insufficient amounts of ultraviolet radiation from the sun. It can lead to skeletal deformation, such as vertebral or leg curvature.

JOINTS

JOINTS
= a site where 2 or more bones come together whether with movement or none ARTHROLOGY

JOINTS
CLASSIFICATION:

1. Fibrous joints = articulating bone surfaces = sutures of skull, inferior tibiofibular joints = very little movement possible

JOINT
CLASSIFICATION: contn.

2. Cartilagenous joints 2 types: a. Primary - united by a plate or bar of hyaline cartilage b. Secondary - united by a plate of fibrocartilage = articular surfaces of bones -covered by a thin layer of hyaline cartilage = small amount of movement

JOINT
CLASSIFICATION:
contn.

1.

Synovial joints = articular surfaces of bones covered by thin layer of hyaline cartilage separated by a joint cavity = permits great degree of movement

JOINT
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING to DEGREE of MOVEMENT

I.

Synarthroses = immovable joints = articulating surface is in direct contact = uniting medium: fibrous tissue hyaline cartilage fibrocartilage

JOINT
Synarthroses a. Sutures - bones of the skull b. Schindylosis - bony plate inserted into a cleft or fissure
e.g.: vomer into maxilla, palatine bones

c. Gomphosis - a conical process received into corresponding socket

e.g.: root of teeth into alveolus of maxilla or mandible

d. Synchondrosis - a cartilagenous medium which later may ossify

e.g.: between epiphysis & diaphysis of long bone

JOINT
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING to DEGREE of MOVEMENT (contn) I. Amphiarthroses = slightly movable joints = articulating surfaces connected by a wide disc of fibrocartilage
a. Symphysis - uniting medium: fibrocartilage e.g.: symphysis pubis b. Syndesmosis - large amount of fibrous connective tissue wide membrane e.g.: interosseous membrane between radius & ulna

JOINT
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING to DEGREE of MOVEMENT (contn) I. Diarthroses = freely movable joints
Types: a. Articular surfaces covered by hyaline cartilage e.g.: sternoclavicular, acromioclavicular joints b. Hinge joints (ginglymus) = flexion & extension movements possible e.g.: elbow, knee, ankle

Diarthroses
c. Pivot joints (trochoid) = central body pivot surrounded by a bony ligamentous ring = possible movement is rotation only e.g.: atlantoaxial & superior radioulnar joints d. Condyloid = have 2 distinct convex surfaces that articulate with 2 concave surfaces = flexion, extension, adduction, abduction possible = small amount of rotation e.g.: metacarpophalangeal metatarsophalangeal joints

Diarthroses
e. Ellipsoid = elliptical convex articular surface that fit into an elliptical concave articular surface = F, E, add., abd. possible = rotation impossible e.g.: wrist joint f. Saddle joints = articular surfaces are reciprocally concavoconvex, resembling saddle on a horses back = F, E, add., abd., rotation possible e.g.: carpometacarpal joint of thumb

Diarthroses
g. Ball & socket joints = ball shaped head of one bone fits into a socket like concavity of another = free movements possible: F, E, add., abd., medial rotation, lateral rotation, circumduction e.g.: acetabulum of hip bone with head of thigh bone

Fig. 6.39a

Fig. 6.39b

POSSIBLE MOVEMENTS of JOINTS 1. Gliding - simple slipping or rubbing of the apposed flat surfaces - no angular or rotary movement e.g.: in between vertebral bodies 2. Angular - generally found in long bones a. Flexion - movement that forms an acute angulation between 2 approximating joints = angle is decreased b. Extension - movement that form an obtuse angulation between 2 parts = angle is increased

POSSIBLE MOVEMENTS of JOINTS 1.

(contn)

4. 5.

Angular (contn) c. Abduction - movement that carries extremity away from the median plane of the body d. Adduction - movement that carries extremity towards the median plane of the body Circumduction - circular motion Rotation - movement along a central axis without the bones being displaced from such axis - directed medially or laterally

POSSIBLE MOVEMENTS of JOINTS (contn) 6. Peculiar movements & positions forearm & hand a. Supination b. Pronation

foot
a. Inversion - plantar surface of the foot directed towards the median plane b. Eversion - plantar surface of the foot directed away from the median plane

Fig. 6.41abcde

Fig. 6.41f

Goodluck!