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ECE 3323

Principles of Communication
Systems
Section 3.1
The Fourier Transform
1
Introduction
The Fourier Series gives the frequency components
of any well-behaved Periodic Function in the form
of a Line Spectrum.
The Complex Exponential Fourier Series is defined
x(t) =

n =

X
n
exp

(
(
j 2t nt
T
0
,
where x(t) is any well-behaved Periodic Function of
Period T
0
.
2
Introduction
The Complex Fourier Series Coefficients are found
from the integral
X
n
=
1
T
0

]
(
( T
0
)


x(t) exp

(
(
j 2t nt
T
0
dt.

These coefficients form a Line Spectrum of the
periodic function. Can a similar spectrum be found
for non-periodic functions? Yes, through the Fourier
Transform, which describes the spectral (frequency)
content of signals.
3
Introduction
Consider the periodic signal x(t) as shown below:
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
x (t )
t
A
T
0
T
0
W
/
2
W
/
2
. . . . . .
4
Introduction
The Fourier Series Coefficients are
X
n
=
1
T
0

]
(
W

2

W

2

A exp

(
(
j 2t nt
T
0
dt ,
X
n
=
1
T
0

AT
0
j 2tn
exp

(
(
j 2t nt
T
0

W

2
W

2
,
X
n
=
1
T
0

AT
0
j 2tn

(
(
exp
\

|
.
|
|
j t nW
T
0
exp
\

|
.
|
|
j t nW
T
0
.

5
Introduction
Recall
sin u =
exp( ju) exp( ju)
2 j
,
thus
X
n
=
1
T
0

AT
0
tn
sin
\

|
.
|
|
tnW
T
0
,
or
X
n
=
AW
T
0

T
0
tnW
sin
\

|
.
|
|
tnW
T
0
,
6
Introduction
and

X
n
=
AW
T
0
sinc
\

|
.
|
|
nW
T
0
.

7
Introduction
X
n
=
AW
T
0
sinc
\

|
.
|
|
nW
T
0
.
Let T
0
= 2W . This produces a signal with a 50% duty
cycle. The Fourier Series Coefficients are
X
n
=
A
2
sinc
\

|
.
|
|
n
2
,
which may be plotted as follows.
8
Introduction
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
X
n
n
A/2
9
Introduction
X
n
=
AW
T
0
sinc
\

|
.
|
|
nW
T
0
.
Let T
0
= 5W . This produces a signal with a 20% duty
cycle. The Fourier Series Coefficients are

X
n
=
A
5
sinc
\

|
.
|
|
n
5
,

which may be plotted as follows.
10
Introduction
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
X
n
n
A/5
11
Introduction
X
n
=
AW
T
0
sinc
\

|
.
|
|
nW
T
0
.
Let T
0
= 10 W . This produces a signal with 10% duty
cycle. The Fourier Series Coefficients are

X
n
=
A
10
sinc
\

|
.
|
|
n
10
,

which may be plotted as follows.
12
Introduction
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
X
n
n
A/10
As T
0
grows larger, the lines in the spectrum become
closer together. As T
0
, the function x(t)
becomes non-periodic, and the spectrum becomes a
continuous function.
13
The Fourier Transform
For a general, periodic function, the Fourier Series is
x(t) =

n =

X
n
exp

(
(
j 2tnt
T
0
,
where
X
n
=
1
T
0

]
(
T0

2

T0

2

x(t) exp

(
(
j 2tnt
T
0
dt .
The fundamental frequency of the periodic function is
f
0
=
1
T
0
.
14
The Fourier Transform
The spacing between adjacent harmonics in the line spectra
shown above is
Af = (n + 1) f
0
n f
0
= f
0
=
1
T
0
.
The Fourier Series may be written
x(t) =

n =

(
(
(
1
T
0

]
(
T0

2

T0

2

x(t) exp( j 2t nf
0
t) dt exp( j 2t nf
0
t) ,
or
x(t) =

n =

(
(
(
]
(
T0

2

T0

2

x(t) exp( j 2t nf
0
t) dt exp( j 2t nf
0
t) Af
15
The Fourier Transform
As T
0
, the limits of integration go to infinity

f
0
0

the discrete frequencies nf
0
f, a continuous frequency
variable

the increment between adjacent harmonics Af df

the discrete summation becomes a continuous integration.
16
The Fourier Transform
The signal may be written
x(t) =
]
(



(
(
(
]
(



x(t) exp( j 2t f t) dt exp( j 2t f t) df
The factor in the brackets defines the Fourier
Transform of the function x(t)
X( f ) =
]
(



x(t) exp( j 2t f t) dt
Which we denote
X( f ) = F{x(t)}
17
The Fourier Transform
The Fourier Transform is, in general, a Complex
Function, of a Real Variable. As a Complex
Function, it has both a Real Part and an Imaginary
Part, or it may be said to have a Magnitude and a
Phase Angle.

18
The Fourier Transform
We may also define the Inverse Fourier Transform
x(t) =
]
(



X( f ) exp( j 2t f t) df
Which we denote
x(t) = F

1
{ X( f )}
These form a transform pair with a one-to-one
correspondence. Each x(t) has a unique X( f ), and
each X( f ) has a unique x(t).
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