Lecture 7.

WORD-F0RMATION RULES (ways of enriching the vocabulary on the basis of internal means)

AFFIXATION
Affixation represents the use of prefixes and suffixes with the roots/stems of various words to form new words 1.1. PREFIXES 1.1.1. Class changing prefixes a- //. forms adjectives, used in predicative position: the house is ablaze vs. *the ablaze house be- . forms transitive verbs from adjectives, verbs or, most frequently, nouns., e.g.., bewitch, bejewel, en-.: endanger, encircle, enlarge, Other prefixes in this class are: de- to remove the thing denoted by the noun (debark, de-ice, debug, defrost), dis- (disbar), un- (unhorse). 1.1.2. Class maintaining prefixes (classified acc. to semantic principles) a) Negative prefixes (the opposite of): un a prefix of Germanic origin; e.g. unfair, unexpected, none.g. non-smoker, non-profit, non-resident, in- (with the allomorphic variants il-, ir-, im)e.g. inactivate, insane, illogical, improper, irrecoverable, dis- e.g. disobey, disloyal, dislike, a-, /ei/ amoral, apolitical b) Reversative prefixes (to reverse the action:)de.e.g. decode, deactivate, dis- e.g. disconnect, disorder, disinherit, un e.g. undo, unwrap, c) Pejorative prefixes: mis (meaning bad, improper, wrongly):, misconduct, misdirect, misprint, mistreat. mal- (meaning badly, inadequate): malformed, maladjustment, maltreat, maladjusted, pseudo- (meaning false): pseudonym, pseudomycelial.

d) Prefixes of degree /size: arch: archbishop, archduchess, hyperhyperventilate, hyperactive, hypo hypotension, hypochondria; macro-. macrobiotic, macrocosm; micro-. microcosm, microscopic, microsurgery; out- outgrow, outrun, outlive; over-. overdo, overeat, super-. supernatural, superabundant, sur-. surcharge, surreal, surplus; sub meaning inferior to': subadult, subagency, under-.. undercooked, underestimate, ultra- (beyond, excessive): ultramodern, ultrahigh, e) Prefixes of attitude: anti- anti-abortion, anti-Catholic; co- (variants: com-, con-, col-, cor- ) co-author, communicate, conference, contra-( contro-) contravene, controversy, pro pro-allies, pro-democracy, profeminist, pro-union f) Locative prefixes: cata (down): catastrophe, cataract, catapult; circumcircumnavigate, circumcise, dia- (across, through): diagonal, diameter, inter- international, inter-city, inter-departmental; super- over, above: superstructure, superscript; sub- under subway, subcontract; trans transatlantic, transcontinental

g) Prefixes of time and order: ante before antecedent, , ante-nuptial, ex-, former ex-accountant, ex-boxer; fore- before forearm, forebear; pre before preamplifier, pre-arrange; post-after postpone, post-budget, postimpressionism, prim- first primordial, primrose, proto-. prototype, proto-horse, protohuman, re- again rebuild, resettlement, rename. h) Number prefixes : ambi-; both ambidextrous, bi-/ di- means two, bicycle, dichotomy, dilemma. mono-, uni- one monarchy, monotheism

1.2. SUFFIXES (classified acc. to the class of the word they form) 1.2.1. Noun-forming suffixes

Nouns from nouns a) Occupational -eer: pamphleteer, engineer, pioneer. -er: maker of; glover, potter; -ist: violinist, b) Diminutive and female -ette: small; kitchenette, cigarette; feminine: usherette, majorette, -ess: waitress, actress. -let: small, unimportant booklet, starlet, piglet, -y (ie): daddy, auntie, Johnny. c) Status, domain -cracy: system of government democracy, plutocracy; -dom: kingdom, stardom -ery: e.g. slavery, machinery; -hood: boyhood, brotherhood, -ship: friendship, membership;

Nouns (adjectives) from nouns ese: nationality Chinese, Portuguese, Japanese. -(i)an: belonging to, nationality; Indonesian, republican; -ism: doctrine Calvinism, Buddhism, idealism; -ist: member of, occupation Buddhist, stylist, manicurist -ite: member of Labourite, Wagnerite;
Nouns from verbs -ation: lexicalization, computerization, flirtation, formation, containerization, Finlandization, fracturation. -al: denotes action (derived from dynamic verbs): arrival, refusal, denial; ant: inhabitant, lubricant, contestant, -ee: addressee, assignee, deportee, cohabitee, divorcee; -er: actor, lecturer, player, producer, -ing: driving, painting, earnings. -ment: arrangement, commitment, entertainment, improvement, retirement. -ure: closure, failure, departure, Nouns from adjectives -cy:. accuracy, efficiency, Excellency, illiteracy, intimacy; -ity; absurdity, brutality, complexity, formality, -ness: awkwardness, boldness, effectiveness; -th : warmth, length, youth, width.

1.2.2. Verb-forming suffixes -ize: apologize, characterize, symbolize, publicize, pedestrianize, structurize, Vietnamize. -ify: amplify, beautify, clarify, , metrify, fishify (=to supply with fish), testify, specify. -en: blacken, dampen, deepen, flatten, harden, loosen;

1.2.3. Adjective-forming suffixes Adjectives from nouns -al. accidental, additional, conventional, -ed bearded, patterned, pointed, -esque: Dantesque, Haydnesque, Rembrandtesque, picturesque, grotesque, -less, brainless, endless, -ish British, English, Jewish, boyish, childish, -like animal-like, childlike, daisy-like; -ly beastly, fatherly, heavenly, manly, ous: ambitious, courteous, -y: e.g., creamy, silky. Other suffixes which form adjectives from nouns are: -ate: e.g. passionate, affectionate, compassionate -en: e.g. woolen, golden: ese: e.g. Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese.-ful: e.g. useful, delightful, successful; -ic: e.g. algebraic, atomic, heroic, specific. Adjectives from verbs -able: e.g. acceptable, comparable, manageable, -less: countless, tireless; -ive active, attractive, competitive, destructive, effective;- ant/-ent: absorbent, brilliant, constant, -atory: affirmatory, derogatory Adjectives from adjectives -ish biggish, blackish, dampish, darkish; -ly: e.g. lowly, sickly. -some: e.g. queersome, wearisome

COMPOSITION (COMPOUNDING) 1. COMPOUND NOUNS - be sting (cf: the bee stings), snake-bite, rainfall, plain crash, sunshine, toothache - cleaning lady, dancing girl, falling star, laughing stock, - callboy, hangman, glow-worm, playboy - demolition squad - chewing-gum (cf: Mary chews the gum), drinking-water, - flashlight, ripcord, stopwatch - brick-layer, cheese-cutter - fuel oil, gear wheel, houseboat, killer shark, ejector seat - bull's eye, deaths head, crows nest, lions shoe, no-mans land, cats cradle, devils advocate - blotting paper, carving knife, darning needle, - landing strip, swimming pool, bake-house, call-box, checkpoint, showroom, watch-tower.

2. COMPOUND VERBS
2.1. Compound verbs obtained by back-formation: to globe-trot,: to brainwash, to sleep-walk, to air-condition, to book-keep, to gift-wrap, 2. 2. Compound verbs formed by zero-derivation to court-martial, to hand-cuff, to machine-gun,

3. CONVERSION (zero derivation)

3.1. Verbal zero-derivation Derived from SIMPLE NOUNS -asphalt - to asphalt, butter - to butter, paper - to paper; fence - to fence, hedge - to hedge, cream - to cream, curry - to curry, comb - to comb, hammer - to hammer, bottle - to bottle, elbow - to elbow, finger to finger;
Very often derived from COMPOUND NOUNS: -N + N: sandpaper - to sandpaper, handcuff - to handcuff; -Adj + N: wet-nurse - to wet-nurse (to act as a wet-nurse, i.e. as a woman employed to suckle anothers child), Derived from ADJECTIVES: dirty - to dirty, calm - to calm;

3.1.2. Nominal zero-derivation Derived from VERBS: to call - a call, to command - a command, to guess - a guess; Derived from ADJECTIVES (relatively rare and frequently restricted in their syntactic occurrence): comic - a comic, bitter - bitter, final - the finals, regular - regulars; 3.1.3. Adjectival zero-derivation Derived from ADVERBS (adverbs may appear as attributive modifiers): down a down line, a down train, off an off day, the off side of the wall.

5.4. CLIPPING/CONTRACTION Clipping is the process by which a word of two or more syllables (usually a noun) is shortened without a change in its function and meaning taking place (e.g. advertisement > advert, ad, examination > exam). The unpredictability concerns the way in which the base lexeme is shortened. a) Aphaeresis (fore-clipping) represents the reduction of the fore part of a word. This can be seen in such examples as (tele) phone, (air) plane, (omni) bus, (violon) cello, (heli) copter; b) Syncope (mid-clipping) consists in the reduction of the middle part of a word: e.g. fancy< fan(ta)sy, celebs < celeb(ritie)s, veg(etari)an; c) Apocope (back-clipping) is the most productive of the three types and consists in the omission of the last part of a word. Here are some examples: memo(randum), cable(gram) cab(riolet) chap(man), miss(tress), fax (from facsimile)

5.5. BLENDING Blends are also called telescoped words, disguised compounds or portmanteau words. -formed from parts of two (or possibly more) other words; blends take the first part of one word and the last part of another -restriction: the splitting up of consonant clusters from either of the original words is not allowed. - examples of blends: flurry =fly + hurry, grumble = growl + rumble, splutter = splash + sputter, twirl = twist + whirl, flubber = flying + rubber, cablegram = cable + telegram, sportscast = sports + broadcast, to snoopervise = snoop + supervise, Amerind = American + Indian, Velcro (fastener consisting of two strips of fabric which cling when pressed together) = velours croch (in French).

6. ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS
- if a word like Value Added Tax is pronounced as /vi ei ti/, that is an abbreviation (alphabetism), but if we pronounce it as /vt/, it has become an acronym. - Examples of alphabetisms: hi-fi, FBI, UFO, NATO and BA. There are large numbers of new technical terms such as VHS (the video home system), PC, EMT. -Examples of acronyms: AIDS (Anti-Immunitary Deficient System), LEM (Lunar Excursion Module), FOBS (Fractional Orbital Bombardment System) and all the terms for computerspeak: (personal computer), RAM (Random Access Memory), ROM (Read Only Memory), BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code).

7. REDUPLICATION -the word-formation rule which brings together two or more elements which are identical or only slightly different. The outcome of this WFR are the reduplicated words. a) reduplicated words based on internal vowel alternations: chit-chat, drip-drop, knick-knack, tip-top, zigzag, tick-tock, ticky-tacky. b) reduplicated words based on rhyme: boogie-woogie, willy-nilly, hocus-pocus, hanky-panky, bow-wow, hob-nob, nitty-gritty, hoity-toity, ricky-ticky, razzle-dazzle.

8. EPONYMOUS WORDS These are common words derived from proper names, i.e. from names of people and from names of places.

8.1. Words from people. -macadam, after John McAdam, a Scottish engineer who was the first to pave streets with small blocks of stone; -mackintosh, after Charles Mackintosh who owned a factory producing raincoats; -guy, after Guy Fawks (1570 1606) who led the conspiracy known as the Gun Powder Plot, meant to kill the king; -bobby (a policemen in England), after Sir Robert Peel, who reorganized the police; -boycott, after Captain Charles S. Boycott, agent in 1880 for the estates of Lord Erne in County Mayo. -lynch, after Captain William Lynch of Virginia, in the 18th century; -shrapnel (fragmented shell), after General Henry Shrapnel (17611842); -sandwich, after Earl of Sandwich.

8.2. Words from places -champagne, an effervescent wine, takes its name from a famous region in France where this drink is produced; -holland, linen or cotton cloth, first made in Holland; -damask, cloth produced in Damascus; -calico comes from Calicut on the Malabar coast of India; -muslin comes from Mosul in Mesopotamia; -the duffel coat, which the Navy made so popular, gets its name from a coarse woolen cloth spun at Duffel near Antwerp; -bikini, a style of beachwear, takes its name from an atoll in the Marshall Islands in the Pacific.