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Woven Structure
Woven Fabrics
Generally characterized by two sets of perpendicular yarns systems One set is raised and lowered to make sheds (these are warp yarns) The other set is passed through these sheds, perpendicular to the warp yarns (these are fill, or pick or weft yarns)
Woven Fabrics
The structure of the woven fabric is the pattern of interlacing between the warp and weft yarns Yarns can float, or not interlace for some distance within a woven fabric
Crimp in Weaves
The crimp is defined as one less than the ratio of the yarn's actual length to the length of fabric it traverses. Crimp levels influence fiber volume fraction, thickness of fabric, and mechanical performance of fabric. High crimp leads to
Reduced tensile and compressive properties Increased shear modulus in the dry fabric and
the resulting composite Fewer regions for localized delamination between individual yarns.
Crimp
Crimp is defined as the ratio of excess length of yarn in a fabric to the length of the fabric
C = ly/ lf - 1
lf
ly
Crimp
Crimp is determined by the texture of the weave and the yarn size Generally, in weaving, the warp yarns have most of the crimp, the fill very little
during weaving and the filling yarn being inserted along a straight path
Crimp
Various models of crimp exist, the most rigorous developed by Pierce in the 1930s.
1 D d2 1
p2
Crimp
pi = (lj D
j) cos j + D sin j
hi = (li D
ci = (li/pj) - 1 h1 + h2 = d 1 + d2 = D
Where pi =Thread spacing; li
= Modular length; ci = Yarn crimp; di = Yarn diameter; hi = Modular height; i = Weave angle D = Scale factor; sum of warp and weft diameters
Crimp
tf + t w pf
Crimp
Thickness
Thickness is a difficult parameter to measure. Thickness is dependent on applied transverse pressure to the fabric Predictions of thickness show variation throughout the unit cell
Thickness
100% 98% 96%
nylon 6 nylon 6,6 polyester
Relative Thickness
94%
92% 90% 88% 86% 0 100 200 300
PEN
400
500
600
Areal Density
Areal density is a measure of the weight per unit area of the fabric
Usually expressed in g/m2 or oz/yd2.
Areal density is a more reliable experimental metric for fabrics than thickness Areal density can be correlated to volume fraction
Areal Density
of i yarns per unit length, Li = linear density of the i yarn, w = width, l = length, and I=warp or weft.
Areal Density
Woven Structures
Twill 3D Woven
Plain weave
3D Weaves
Layer-to-layer
Through thickness
XYZ
weaver, and fill, and a change in fiber volume fraction in consequence to the change in thickness.
Some fiber volume fraction effects can be controlled by tooling. The tailoring occurs in a discrete manner, using individual yarns, whereas most tooling will be approximately continuous.
Consider a tapered panel where gradation in thickness is achieved by changing yarn size/count across the width
Number
18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 3
11 13
15 Dent
17 19
21
23 25
27
29 31
This variation in yarn packing results in variations in Vf for the resulting Fiber composite.
58% 56% 54% 52% 50% 48% 46% 44% 42% 40% 0.000 Calculated Target
Volume Fraction
0.500
1.000
1.500
2.000
2.500
The weave angle will 55 also change throughout the width of the part due 50 to varying warp yarn count and part 45 thickness.
Weave Angle 40
35
30
Calculated Target
25 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 Distance from Thin Edge (in)
Yarn Distributions
The distribution of warp, 60% weft, and Z yarn will also 55% vary throughout the part.
50% 45% 40% Yarn Distribution 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 Distance from Thin Edge (in) 2.0 2.5
%Z
% Warp
% Fill
Variations in Modulus
Volume Fraction
Volume fraction is the percent of fiber contained within a given volume (usually the composite in question) Volume fraction can be calculated from areal density
Processing Errors
Damaged yarns Misplaced yarns
Sources of error
3-D Weaving
filling insertion
fabric movement
Longitudinal yarns
Surface weavers
Lie in warp-thickness plane Located at t=0, t=max
Filling yarns
Lie in fill-thickness plane Generally aligned with the fill direction
Surface Weaver
warp
Process Variables
Yarn sizes (all independent) Reed size (limited by yarn size) Picks per inch (limited by yarn size) Weave angle Number of filled warp positions
Using fiber volume (Vf), thickness (t), ply percentages (wt%) as inputs:
Here r is fiber density for each n fiber type and w is the preform areal density.
Yarn spacings needed for each ith system (warp, fill, weaver) can then be found using the tow linear density N:
Np / ppi l
tan a =
t ppil Np
Tows required to meet thickness can be estimated assuming a common aspect ratio (AR):
d a b
AR= b a2 A=pab=pa AR
a= A =d 1 4AR pAR
a =
A = 6p
10 -4 in 2 3.9 6p
= .00455 in
= total thickness = t = 0.100 inches = 11 tows tows needed for thickness tow thickness 2a 2 .00455 inches
thickness (inches)
Volume fraction (%)
0.100
56
0.100
56
The preforms were procured from a weaver, then evaluated based on the design methodology.
Example Calculations
Example Calculations for Sample 2, using IM7-12k graphite tows for all inputs:
Fiber direction
% tows
0 :
0 90 ttt Total
77 17 6 100
90 :
z:
0
Reported
90
Required Reported Required
ttt
Reported
34.9 67 22.9
4.5 16 2.9
Sample 2
Parameter
Required
0
Reported
90
Required Reported Required
ttt
Reported
12.5 24 7.5
4.5 6 2.7
9
Sample 1 2 Measured angle 9.0 22.5 Predicted angle 14.4 22.7
22.5
Evaluating Sample 2:
6 2 oz 10 in lb yd 6 ypi = wz 2 cos (22.5) 11.8 lbs 16 oz 36 in yd
36 in 2 16 oz = 71.26 oz .100 in 2 yd lb yd
Vf = 53.7%
It was calculated that 74.3 oz/yd2 was needed to meet the 56% volume fraction specified
Example
6 ends per inch, 6 picks per inch, 4 picks thick 12K AS-4 yarns long. & fill, 6K weavers, no surface weavers Weaver yarn ratio - rise/run =tan(w) ar Thickness = 0.25 inch All warp slots filled aspect ratio = (np mp)/t
0.6
0.55 0.5 0.45 0.4
0.35
0.3 0.25
10
12
14
4 ppi 6 ppi
10
12
14
Distribution Ratio
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
8
Picks per inch
10
12
14
16
30
25 20 15 10 5 0 0 2 4 6 8 Picks per inch 10 12 14 16
Distribution Ratio