Chapter 3 The Cellular Level of Organization

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A Generalized Cell
1. Plasma membrane - forms the cells outer boundary - separates the cells internal environment from the outside environment - is a selective barrier - plays a role in cellular communication

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A Generalized Cell
2. Cytoplasm - all the cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the nucleus - cytosol - the fluid portion, mostly water - organelles - subcellular structures having characteristic shapes and specific functions

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A Generalized Cell
3. Nucleus - large organelle that contains DNA - contains chromosomes, each of which consists of a single molecule of DNA and associated proteins - a chromosome contains thousands of hereditary units called genes

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Fig. 3.1 Generalized Body Cell

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Plasma Membrane

Flexible yet sturdy barrier The fluid mosaic model - the arrangement of molecules within the membrane resembles a sea of lipids containing many types of proteins The lipids act as a barrier to certain substances The proteins act as gatekeepers to certain molecules and ions
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Structure of a Membrane

Consists of a lipid bilayer - made up of phospholipids, cholesterol and glycolipids Integral proteins - extend into or through the lipid bilayer Transmembrane proteins - most integral proteins, span the entire lipid bilayer Peripheral proteins - attached to the inner or outer surface of the membrane, do not extend through it
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Structure of the Plasma Membrane

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Structure of a Membrane

Glycoproteins - membrane proteins with a carbohydrate group attached that protrudes into the extracellular fluid Glycocalyx - the sugary coating surrounding the membrane made up of the carbohydrate portions of the glycolipids and glycoproteins

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Functions of Membrane Proteins

Some integral proteins are ion channels Transporters - selectively move substances through the membrane Receptors - for cellular recognition; a ligand is a molecule that binds with a receptor Enzymes - catalyze chemical reactions Others act as cell-identity markers

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Figure 3.3

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Membrane Permeability

The cell is either permeable or impermeable to certain substances The lipid bilayer is permeable to oxygen, carbon dioxide, water and steroids, but impermeable to glucose Transmembrane proteins act as channels and transporters to assist the entrance of certain substances, for example, glucose and ions
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Passive vs. Active Processes

Passive processes - substances move across cell membranes without the input of any energy; use the kinetic energy of individual molecules or ions Active processes - a cell uses energy, primarily from the breakdown of ATP, to move a substance across the membrane, i.e., against a concentration gradient

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Diffusion

Steepness of concentration gradient Temperature Mass of diffusing substance Surface area Diffusion distance
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Simple Diffusion, Channel-mediated Facilitated Diffusion, and Carrier-mediated Facilitated Diffusion

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Channel-mediated Facilitated Diffusion of Potassium ions through a Gated K + Channel

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Carrier-mediated Facilitated Diffusion of Glucose across a Plasma Membrane

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Extracellular fluid Glucose Glucose transporter

Plasma membrane

Cytosol

Glucose gradient 2

3 Glucose

Osmosis

1. 2.

Net movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high concentration of water (lower concentration of solutes) to one of lower concentration of water Water can pass through plasma membrane in 2 ways: through lipid bilayer by simple diffusion through aquaporins, integral membrane proteins
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Tonicity and its effect on RBCS

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Active Transport
Solutes are transported across plasma membranes with the use of energy, from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher Concentration Sodium-potassium pump
Na+ gradient Extracellular fluid Na+/K+ ATPase 3 Na+ expelled 2K+

Cytosol K+ gradient

3 Na+

P ATP

ADP

+ 4 2K

imported

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Transport in Vesicles

Vesicle - a small spherical sac formed by budding off from a membrane Endocytosis - materials move into a cell in a vesicle formed from the plasma membrane three types: receptor-mediated endocytosis phagocytosis bulk-phase endocytosis (pinocytosis) Exocytosis - vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane, releasing their contents into the extracellular fluid Transcytosis - a combination of endocytosis and exocytosis
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Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

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1 Binding Receptor-LDL complex LDL particle Receptor

Plasma membrane

Clathrin-coated pit

Invaginated plasma membrane 2 Vesicle formation Clathrin-coated vesicle 3 Uncoating

Transport vesicle

Uncoated vesicle 4 Fusion with endosome

5 Recycling of receptors to plasma membrane

Endosome

Transport vesicle

6 Degradation in lysosome

Digestive enzymes
Lysosome

Phagocytosis

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Bulk-phase Endocytosis

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Cytoplasm - 2 components
1. Cytosol - intracellular fluid, surrounds the organelles - the site of many chemical reactions - energy is usually released by these reactions - reactions provide the building blocks for cell maintenance, structure, function and growth 2. Organelles Specialized structures within the cell The cytoskeleton - network of protein filaments throughout the cytosol -provides structural support for the cell -three types according to increasing size: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules
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The Cytoskeleton

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Organelles

Centrosome - located near the nucleus, consists of two centrioles and pericentriolar material (Fig. 2.7) Cilia - short, hair-like projections from the cell surface, move fluids along a cell surface Flagella - longer than cilia, move an entire cell; only example is the sperm cells tail (Fig. 2.8)

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The Centrosome

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Cilia and Flagella

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Organelles

Ribosomes - sites of protein synthesis Endoplasmic reticulum - network of membranes in the shape of flattened sacs or tubules - Rough ER - connected to the nuclear envelope, a series of flattened sacs, surface is studded with ribosomes, produces various proteins -Smooth ER - a network of membrane tubules, does not have ribosomes, synthesizes fatty acids and steroids, detoxifies certain drugs

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Ribosomes

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Endoplasmic Reticulum

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Organelles
Golgi complex - consists of 3-20 flattened, membranous sacs called cisternae - modify, sort, and package proteins for transport to different destinations - proteins are transported by various vesicles Lysosomes - vesicles that form from the Golgi complex, contain powerful digestive enzymes

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Golgi Complex

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Processing and Packaging

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Ribosome

Synthesized protein

Transport vesicle 2

Entry face cisterna Medial cisterna 3 Exit face cisterna 9

4 8 Rough ER Transfer vesicle 4 6

Transport vesicle (to lysosome)

5
Transfer vesicle Secretory vesicle

Membrane vesicle

Proteins in vesicle membrane merge with plasma membrane

Proteins exported from cell by exocytosis Plasma membrane

Lysosomes

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Organelles

Peroxisomes - smaller than lysosomes, detoxify several toxic substances such as alcohol, abundant in the liver Proteasomes - continuously destroy unneeded, damaged, or faulty proteins, found in the cytosol and the nucleus

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Organelles
Mitochondria - the powerhouses of the cell

Generate ATP More prevalent in physiologically active cells: muscles, liver and kidneys Inner and outer mitochondrial membranes Cristae - the series of folds of the inner membrane Matrix - the large central fluid-filled cavity Self-replicate during times of increased cellular demand or before cell division

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Mitochondria

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Organelles - Nucleus

Spherical or oval shaped structure Usually most prominent feature of a cell Nuclear envelope - a double membrane that separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm Nuclear pores - numerous openings in the nuclear envelope, control movement of substances between nucleus and cytoplasm Nucleolus - spherical body that produces ribosomes Genes - are the cells hereditary units, control activities and structure of the cell Chromosomes - long molecules of DNA combined with protein molecules
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Packing of DNA into a Chromosome of a Dividing Cell

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Overview of Gene Expression

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Transcription

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Translation

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P site

Large subunit Initiator tRNA UAC GG A U G A site

Amino acid tRNA

C Small subunit P site Anticodon UAC GG A U G mRNA Codons A site

2 Large and small ribosomal

Amino acid (methionine) Anticodon UAC GG A U G mRNA binding site mRNA subunits join to form a functional ribosome and initiator tRNA fits into P site. Initiator tRNA

3 Anticodon of incoming tRNA pairs

with next mRNA codon at A site.

Small subunit Start codon UAC U GG A U G U A G

1 Initiator tRNA attaches to a start codon.

New peptide bond C U G G A U G U GC

4 Amino acid on tRNA at P site

forms a peptide bond with amino acid at A site.

Stop codon

mRNA movement

6 Protein synthesis stops when

the ribosome reaches stop codon on mRNA. Key: = Adenine = Guanine = Cytosine = Uracil

5 tRNA at P site leaves ribosome,

ribosome shifts by one codon; tRNA previously at A site is now at the P site. Growing mRNA protein

Complete protein tRNA

Summary of movement of ribosome along mRNA

Somatic Cell Division - Mitosis

The cell cycle is a sequence of events in which a body cell duplicates its contents and divides in two Human somatic cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes (total = 46) The two chromosomes that make up each pair are called homologous chromosomes (homologs) Somatic cells contain two sets of chromosomes and are called diploid cells
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Cell Division

Interphase - the cell is not dividing - the cell replicates its DNA - consists of three phases, G1, S, and G2, replication of DNA occurs in the S phase Mitotic phase - consists of a nuclear division (mitosis) and a cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis) to form two identical cells

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The Cell Cycle

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DNA Replication

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Nuclear Division: Mitosis

Prophase - the chromatin fibers change into chromosomes Metaphase - microtubules align the centromeres of the chromatid pairs at the metaphase plate Anaphase - the chromatid pairs split at the centromere and move to opposite poles of the cell; the chromatids are now called chromosomes Telophase - two identical nuclei are formed around the identical sets of chromosomes now in their chromatin form
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Cytoplasmic Division: Cytokinesis

Division of a cells cytoplasm to form two identical cells Usually begins in late anaphase The plasma membrane constricts at its middle forming a cleavage furrow The cell eventually splits into two daughter cells Interphase begins when cytokinesis is complete
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Centrosome: Centrioles Pericentriolar material Nucleolus Nuclear envelope Chromatin Plasma membrane Cytosol

LM all at 700x

(a) INTERPHASE

Kinetochore Centromere Chromosome (two chromatids joined at centromere Early Metaphase plate 3 Mitotic spindle (microtubules)

(f) IDENTICAL CELLS IN INTERPHASE 5

Fragments of nuclear envelope

(b) PROPHASE Late

Cleavage furrow

(c) METAPHASE 4 (e) TELOPHASE

Cleavage furrow Chromosome

Late (d) ANAPHASE

Early

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Reproductive Cell Division

During sexual reproduction each new organism is the result of the union of two gametes (fertilization), one from each parent Meiosis - reproductive cell division that occurs in the gonads (ovaries and testes) that produces gametes with half the number of chromosomes Haploid cells - gametes contain a single set of 23 chromosomes Fertilization restores the diploid number of chromosomes (46)
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Reproductive Cell Division

Meiosis occurs in two successive stages: meiosis I and meiosis II Each of these two stages has 4 phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase Summary - Meiosis I begins with a diploid cell and ends with two cells having the haploid number of chromosomes; in Meiosis II, each of the two haploid cells divides, the net result is four haploid gametes that are genetically different from the original diploid starting cell
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Leptotene stage- condensation of chromatin fibers into long, threadlike structures, similar to what occurs at the beginning of mitosis. Zygotene stage- individual chromosomes become distinguishable and homologous chromosomes become closely paired with each other via synapsis.

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Pachytene stage- crossing over, or the exchange of DNA segments between the homologous chromosomes. This accounts for genetic recombination. Each chromosome undergoes compacting process where the size is reduced to less than of its previous length.

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Diplotene stage- homologous chromosome begin to separate from each other particularly near the centromere. They however, remain attached by connections known as chiasmata. Chiasmata regions where exchange of DNA materials has occured. Diakinesis- chromosomes recondense to their maximally compacted state. Nucleoli disappear, the spindle forms and the nuclear envelope breaks down.

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Cellular Diversity

The average adult has nearly 100 trillion cells There are about 200 different types of cells Cells come in a variety of shapes and sizes Cellular diversity permits organization of cells into more complex tissues and organs
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End of Chapter 3

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