Motivation

Organizational Behavior: Motivation Essence of Life
Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Motivation Defined
Motivation: Psychological processes that cause the arousal
direction, and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed.
Implications Associated with This Definition

Behavior is purposive rather than random - People exhibit both positive (work done on time) and negative (arrive late for work) behavior for a reason Motivation arouses people to do something - People are unlikely to change a behavior or do something different unless they are motivated to do so Motivation causes people to focus on a desired end-result or goal Motivation fuels the persistence needed to exhibit sustained effort on a task
Types of Motives 1- Primary Motives

Physiological, Unlearned
2- General Motives
Not Physiological, Unlearned
3- Secondary Motives
Learned, Psychological
Content vs. Process Motivation Theories Content theories

explain why people have different needs at different times. Implications of Content Theories: 1. Match rewards with employee needs 2. Offer employees a choice of rewards 3. people have different needs at different times 4. Limit use of financial rewards as a source of motivation
Process theories
describe the processes through which needs are translated into behavior
The Motivation Process

Unsatisfied Need Drives Satisfied Need Tension Search Behavior Reduction of Tension
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
Selfactualization Esteem Social Safety Physiological
Needs Hierarchy Theory

Needs Hierarchy Theory SelfActualization Esteem Belongingness Safety Physiological
Maslow arranged five needs in a hierarchy Satisfaction-progression process People who experience selfactualization desire more rather than less of this need
ERG Theory
Needs Hierarchy Theory SelfActualization Esteem Belongingness Safety Existence Physiological Relatedness ERG Theory
Growth
Alderfers model has three sets of needs Adds frustrationregression process to Maslows model
Content Theories of Motivation

Needs Hierarchy Theory SelfActualization Esteem Belongingness Safety Existence Physiological Relatedness Hygienes ERG Theory Motivator--Hygiene McClellands Theory Learned Needs Need for Achievement Need for Power Need for Affiliation
Growth
Motivators
Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory

Hygiene Factors
Quality of supervision Rate of pay Company policies Working conditions Relations with others Job security
High Job Dissatisfaction
Motivational Factors
Career Advancement Personal growth Recognition Responsibility Achievement
0
Job Satisfaction High
Herzbergs Motivator-Hygiene Model

No Satisfaction Jobs that do not offer achievement recognition, stimulating work, responsibility, and advancement.
Motivators
Satisfaction Jobs offering achievement, recognition, stimulating work, responsibility, and advancement. No Dissatisfaction Jobs with good company policies, and administration, technical supervision, salary, interpersonal relationships with supervisors, and working conditions.
Dissatisfaction Hygiene Jobs with poor company policies, and administration, technical supervision salary, interpersonal relationships with supervisors, and working conditions.
Factors
David C. McClelland and Achievement Needs

Characteristics of High Achievers
. 1. Moderate Risk Taking . 2. Need for Immediate Feedback . 3. Satisfaction with Accomplishments . 4. Preoccupation with the Task
Little Ambition
Theory X Workers
Dislike Work Avoid Responsibility Self-Directed
Theory Y Workers
Enjoy Work Accept Responsibility
Specific Goals
Goal-Setting Theory
Challenging Goals Goals and Participation
Effective Goal Setting

Specific Relevant Challenging Commitment Participation Challenging
Task Effort
Task Performance
Reinforcement Theory
Rewards
Consequences
No Rewards
Behavior
Punishment
Equity Theory
Perceived Ratio Comparisona
Outcomes A Inputs A Outcomes A Inputs A Outcomes A Inputs A
a
Employees Assessment
Inequity (Under-Rewarded) Equity Inequity (Over-Rewarded)
< = >
Outcomes B Inputs B Outcomes B Inputs B Outcomes B Inputs B
Person A is the employee, and person B is a relevant other or referent.

Elements of Equity Theory

Outcome/input ratio
inputs -- what employee contributes (e.g. skill) outcomes -- what employees receive (e.g. pay)
Comparison other
person/people we compare ratio with not easily identifiable
Equity evaluation
compare outcome/input ratio with the comparison other
Negative and Positive Inequity

A. An Equitable Situation
Self Other
$2
= $2 per hour 1 hour
$4
= $2 per hour 2 hours
Negative and Positive Inequity (cont)

B. Negative Inequity
Self Other
$2
$3 1 hour
= $3 per hour
Negative and Positive Inequity (cont)

C. Positive Inequity
Self Other
$3
$2
= $1 per hour 1 hours
Consequences of Inequity
1. Change inputs 2. Change outcomes 3. Change perceptions 4. Leave the field 5. Act on the comparison other 6. Change the comparison other Equity Sensitivity Benevolents
Tolerant of being underrewarded
Equity Sensitives
Want ratio to be equal to the comparison other
Entitleds
Prefer receiving proportionately more than others
Organizational Justice
Distributive Justice :
The perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributed.
Procedural Justice:
The perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make allocation decisions.
Interactional Justice:
The perceived fairness of the decision makers behavior in the process of decision making.
Expectancy Theory of Motivation

E-to-P Expectancy 1 P-to-O Expectancy 2 Outcomes & Valences 3
Outcome 1
+ or -
Organizational Rewards
Individual
Individual
Effort
Performance
Outcome 2
+ or -
1. Effort-performance relationship 2. Performance-rewards relationship
Outcome 3
+ or -
Personal Goals
3. Rewards-personal goals relationship

Vrooms Expectancy Theory Concepts

Expectancy: Belief that effort leads to a specific level of performance
Instrumentality: A performance outcome perception.
Valence: The Value of a reward or outcome
Determine the outcomes. Identify good performance so appropriate behaviors can be rewarded. Make sure employees can achieve targeted performance levels. Link desired outcomes to targeted levels of performance. Make sure changes in outcomes are large enough to motivate high effort. Monitor the reward system for inequities.
Managerial Implications of Expectancy Theory
Expectancy Theory in Practice: Increasing the E-to-P expectancy
training, selection, resources, clarify roles, provide coaching and feedback Measure performance accurately, explain how rewards are based on past performance Use valued rewards, individualize rewards, minimize countervalent outcomes
Increasing the P-to-O expectancy Increasing outcome valences
Organizational Implications of Expectancy Theory

Reward people for desired performance, and do not keep pay decisions secret. Design challenging jobs. Tie some rewards to group accomplishments to build teamwork and encourage cooperation. Reward managers for creating, monitoring, and maintaining expectancies, instrumentalities, and outcomes that lead to high effort and goal attainment. Monitor employee motivation through interviews or anonymous questionnaires. Accommodate individual differences by building flexibility into the motivation program.
Goals
Goal: What an individual is trying to accomplish.
Directing ones attention Regulating ones effort Increasing ones persistence Encouraging the development of goalattainment strategies or action plans
Goals motivate the individual by...
Task performance
Insights from Goal-Setting Research

Difficult Goals Lead to Higher Performance. - Easy goals produce low effort because the goal is too easy to achieve. - Impossible goals ultimately lead to lower performance because people begin to experience failure. Specific Difficult Goals Lead to Higher Performance for Simple Rather Than Complex Tasks. - Goal specificity pertains to the quantifiability of a goal. - Specific difficult goals impair performance on novel, complex tasks when employees do not have clear strategies for solving these types of problems. Feedback Enhances The Effect of Specific, Difficult Goals. - Goals and feedback should be used together. Participative Goals, Assigned Goals, and Self-Set Goals Are Equally Effective. - Managers should set goals by using a contingency approach. Different methods work in different situations. Goal Commitment and Monetary Incentives Affect Goal-Setting Outcomes. - Difficult goals lead to higher performance when employees are committed to their goals. - Difficult goals lead to lower performance when employees are not committed to their goals. - Goal based incentives can lead to negative outcomes for employees in complex, interdependent jobs requiring cooperation. * Employees may not help each other. * Quality may suffer as employees pursue quantity goals. * Commitment to difficult goals may suffer.
Guidelines for Writing SMART Goals
S pecific M easurable A ttainable R esults oriented T ime bound

Effect of Goal Difficulty on Performance

High
Task Performance
Area of Optimal Goal Difficulty
Low
Moderate
Challenging
Impossible
Goal Difficulty
Approaches to Job Design

1. The Mechanistic Approach focuses on identifying the most efficient way to perform a job. Employees are trained and rewarded to perform their jobs accordingly. 2. Motivational Approaches these techniques (job enlargement, job rotation, job enrichment, and job characteristics) attempt to improve employees affective and attitudinal reactions and behavioral outcomes. 3. Biological and Perceptual- Motor Approaches Biological techniques focus on reducing employees physical strain, effort, fatigue, and health complaints. The Perceptual-Motor Approach emphasizes the reliability of work outcomes by examining error rates, accidents, and workers feedback about facilities and equipment.
The Job Characteristics Model

Core job characteristics *Skill variety *Task identity *Task significance *Autonomy *Feedback from job Critical psychological states *Experienced meaningfulness of the work *Experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work *Knowledge of the actual results of the work activities Outcomes *High internal work motivation *High growth satisfaction *High general job satisfaction *High work effectiveness
Moderators 1. Knowledge and skill 2. Growth need strength 3. Context satisfactions

Skills and Best Practices: Applying the Job Characteristics Model

1. Diagnose the level of employee motivation and job. satisfaction and consider redesigning jobs when motivation ranges from low to moderate. Determine whether job redesign is appropriate in a given context. Redesign jobs by including employees input.
2. 3.
How Satisfied are You with Your Job?

Job satisfaction is an effective or emotional response toward
various facets of ones job. What is your level of job satisfaction with recognition, compensation, and supervision? Is satisfaction across various aspects of your job equally important? Explain.
Causes of Job Satisfaction

Need Fulfillment: Satisfaction is based on the extent to
which a job satisfies a persons needs.
Discrepancies: Satisfaction is determined by the extent to

which an individual receives what he or she expects from a job. which a job allows fulfillment of ones work values. is treated at work.
Value Attainment: Satisfaction results from the extent to Equity: Satisfaction is a function of how fairly an individual Trait/Genetic Components: Satisfaction is partly a function
of personal traits and genetic factors.
Correlates of Job Satisfaction

Variables Related with Satisfaction
Motivation Job Involvement Moderate Organizational Citizenship behavior Organizational Commitment Absenteeism Tardiness Weak Turnover Moderate Heart Disease Moderate Perceived Stress Pro-Union Voting Moderate Life Satisfaction
Direction of Relationship
Positive Positive Positive Positive Negative Negative Negative Negative Negative Negative
Strength of Relationship
Moderate Moderate Strong Weak
Strong
Job Performance Positive Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Positive
Weak
What Is Management by Objectives?

Organizational Objectives Divisional Objectives Departmental Objectives Individual Objectives
Key Elements of MBO

Goal Specificity Participation in Decision Making
Explicit Time Period
Performance Feedback
Linking MBO and Goal-Setting Theory

Difficulty of Goals Feedback on Performance Specificity of Goals Participation in Goal Setting
Employee Recognition Programs

Defining Recognition Recognition and Reinforcement
Recognition Plans in Practice

Employee Involvement Programs

Participative Management Representative Participation
Quality Circles
Employee Stock Ownership
Variable Pay Plans

Piece Rate Profit Sharing
Gainsharing
Bonus Plans
Skill-Based Pay Plans

Promotes Flexibility
Advantages
Facilitates Communication Satisfies Ambitious Workers
Topping Out
Disadvantages
Obsolescence of Skills Performance versus Skills
Skill-Based Plans and Motivation Theories

Hierarchy of Needs Reinforcement Theory Need for Achievement
Equity Theory
The Meaning of Money

Money and employee needs
affects several needs, not just existence needs
Money and attitudes

Money ethic -- not evil, represents success, should be budgeted carefully
Money and self-identity

Influences our self-perceptions Evidence that men more than women identify with money
..
Types of Rewards in the Workplace

Membership and seniority Job status Competencies Performance
..
Membership/Seniority Based Rewards

Fixed wages, seniority increases Advantages
guaranteed wages may attract job applicants seniority-based rewards reduce turnover
Disadvantages
doesnt motivate job performance discourages poor performers from leaving may act as golden handcuffs
Job Status-Based Rewards

Includes job evaluation and status perks Advantages:
job evaluation tries to maintain pay equity motivates competition for promotions
Disadvantages:
employees exaggerate duties, hoard resources creates psychological distance across hierarchy Inconsistent with flatter organizations
Competency-Based Rewards
Pay increases with competencies acquired or demonstrated Skill-based pay Advantages
Pay increases with skill modules learned More flexible work force, better quality, consistent with employability Potentially subjective, higher training costs
Disadvantages
Performance-Based Rewards
Stock ownership Organizational Stock options rewards Profit sharing Team Gainsharing rewards Bonuses Piece rate Commissions Royalties Merit pay
Individual rewards
Problems with Performance Rewards

Shift attention away from motivation job itself to extrinsic rewards Create a psychological distance with reward giver Discourage risk taking Used as quick fixes
Improving Reward Effectiveness

Link rewards to performance Ensure rewards are relevant Team rewards for interdependent jobs Ensure rewards are valued Beware of unintended consequences
..
Job Design
Assigning tasks to a job, including the interdependency of those tasks with other jobs Technology influences, but does not determine, job design Employability affects job design
.
Evaluating Job Specialization

Advantages
Less time changing tasks Lower training costs Job mastered quickly Better person-job matching
Disadvantages
Job boredom Discontentment pay Lower quality Lower motivation
Job Characteristics Model

Core Job Characteristics Critical Psychological States Outcomes
Skill variety Task identity Task significance Autonomy Feedback from job
Meaningfulness
Work motivation Growth satisfaction General satisfaction Work effectiveness
Responsibility Knowledge of results Individual differences
Job Rotation vs. Job Enlargement

Job Rotation Job 1 Operate Camera Job 2 Operate Sound Job 3 Report Story
Job Enlargement Job 1 Operate Camera Operate Sound Report Story Job 2 Operate Camera Operate Sound Report Story Job 3 Operate Camera Operate Sound Report Story
Job Enrichment Strategies

Empowering employees
giving employees more autonomy feeling of control and self-efficacy
Forming natural work units

completing an entire task assigning employees to specific clients
Establishing client relationships

employees put in direct contact with clients
Obstacles to Job Design

Difficult to accurately measure job characteristics Resistance to change
skilled workers labor union leaders supervisors
Problem finding optimal level of enrichment and specialization

A Job Performance Model of Motivation

Individual Inputs
Ability, Job knowledge Dispositions & Traits Emotions, Moods, &Affect Beliefs & Values
Skills
Motivational Processes
Arousal Attention & Direction Intensity & Persistence Motivated Behaviors
Job Context
Physical Environment Task Design Rewards & Reinforcement Supervisory Support & Coaching Social Norms Organizational Culture
Enable, Limit
A Job Performance Model of Motivation (cont.)

Skills
Individual Inputs
Motivated Behaviors
Focus: Direction, What we do Intensity: Effort, how hard we try Quality: Task strategies, the way we do it Duration: Persistence, how long we stick to it
Motivational Processes
Performance
Job Context
Enable, Limit

Motivation

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Motivation

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Organizational Behavior: Motivation Essence of Life

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Implications Associated with This Definition

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Types of Motives 1- Primary Motives

Content vs. Process Motivation Theories Content theories

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

The Motivation Process

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Selfactualization Esteem Social Safety Physiological

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Needs Hierarchy Theory

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Content Theories of Motivation

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Herzbergs Motivator-Hygiene Model

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

David C. McClelland and Achievement Needs

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Dislike Work Avoid Responsibility Self-Directed

Enjoy Work Accept Responsibility

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Challenging Goals Goals and Participation

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Effective Goal Setting

Outcomes B Inputs B Outcomes B Inputs B Outcomes B Inputs B

Person A is the employee, and person B is a relevant other or referent.

Elements of Equity Theory

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Negative and Positive Inequity

= $2 per hour 1 hour

= $2 per hour 2 hours

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Negative and Positive Inequity (cont)

= $2 per hour 1 hour

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Negative and Positive Inequity (cont)

= $3 per hour 1 hour

= $1 per hour 1 hours

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Expectancy Theory of Motivation

1. Effort-performance relationship 2. Performance-rewards relationship

3. Rewards-personal goals relationship

Vrooms Expectancy Theory Concepts

Instrumentality: A performance outcome perception.

Valence: The Value of a reward or outcome

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Managerial Implications of Expectancy Theory

Expectancy Theory in Practice: Increasing the E-to-P expectancy

Increasing the P-to-O expectancy Increasing outcome valences

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Organizational Implications of Expectancy Theory

Goals motivate the individual by...

Insights from Goal-Setting Research

Guidelines for Writing SMART Goals

S pecific M easurable A ttainable R esults oriented T ime bound

Effect of Goal Difficulty on Performance

Area of Optimal Goal Difficulty