SCE 3103 EXPLORING MATERIALS

4 Hours per week Credit : 3 ( 2 + 1)

Learning outcomes
Identify natural and man-made materials Demonstrate a knowledge of basic concepts of natural and synthetic materials, their chemical composition and properties Demonstrate the use/applications of natural and man-made materials in daily life and industry Articulate the links between theory, knowledge and practical investigations in Exploring Materials through the pedagogical content knowledge of the primary school science curriculum

TOPIC 1 NATURAL MATERIALS

Is any substance that is produced by natural processes Derived from plants, animals or the ground Minerals and the metals that can be extracted are also considered as natural materials

EXAMPLES OF NATURAL MATERIALS

Soil Rubber Petroleum (Fuel) Inorganic materials (stone) Composites (clay, porcelain) Wood (rattan, bamboo, bark ) Metal (copper, bronze, iron, gold, silver) Natural fibers (wool, silk, cotton, flax, hemp, jute, kapok)

PROPERTIES OF NATURAL MATERIALS

It is usually valuable It is pure and natural It can easily decompose and degrade It is derived from plants, animals, or from the ground

TYPES OF MANUFACTURED MATERIALS

Alloys Aromatic compounds Alcohol, ether and amines Aldehydes and ketones Carboxylic acids, esters, amides Plastics Ammonia, sulphuric acid and nitric acid Composite materials Soaps and detergents paper

MAN-MADE MATERIALS
Made from natural materials through chemical processes Inorganic synthetic ; fibre Organic synthetic ; synthetic rubber, PVC, plastics, paper, alcohol, soap and detergents, aromatic compounds

PROPERTIES OF MANUFACTURED MATERIALS

Durable Light weight High strength Design for flexibility Doesnt decompose and degrade easily Usually made from several natural materials Can be created by physical and chemical processes

TOPIC 2 (NATURAL MATERIAL) FUEL

Fossil fuels are nonrenewable Coal, oil, and natural gas are all types of fossil fuels Petroleum is a fossil fuel It is known as crude oil, or black gold It was formed from the remains of plants and animals that died millions of years ago, buried by thousands of feet of sediment. The organic mixture underwent extreme heat and pressure and chemically changed in to hydrocarbon compounds.

continue
Crude oil cannot be used in its natural state It is shipped to oil refineries, where it is separated into simpler mixtures Refined petroleum is mostly a mixture of various hydrocarbons (compounds composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms)

CRUDE OIL (PETROLEUM)

Before crude oil can be used, it must first be separated into fractions. This process is called fractional distillation Each fraction contains a mixture of different hydrocarbon molecules of a similar size and with similar properties. Very large molecules can be split into several smaller molecules, which are more useful. This process is called catalytic cracking.

FOSSIL FUEL
fuel oil
LPG

gasoline

kerosene

diesel

PROPERTIES
Characteristics of various Fractions of fuel The colour of a fraction depends on the size of the molecules it contains. As the molecules get smaller, the colour of the fraction becomes lighter, from dark brown to light brown, orange/yellow and transparent.

decrease in size of molecules

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The exact composition of crude oil depends on where in the world the oil comes from. Crude oil from the North Sea is a light oil because it contains a large amount of small molecules and so a larger proportion of lighter fractions. Crude oil from Saudi Arabia is a heavy oil because it contains a large amount of large molecules and so a larger proportion of heavier fractions.

Fractional distillation
Fractional fraction is the process that uses boiling points to separate petroleum into several distinctive mixtures called fractions The fractions of petroleum are hydrocarbons; compounds containing only the elements hydrogen and carbon. They are organic compounds, since all organic compounds contain carbon

Fractional distillation

Products produced from petroleum

Various types of fuel (gasoline, kerosene, jet fuel, heating and cooking fuel, propane, diesel fuel) Solvents such as those used in paints, lacquers, and printing inks Lubricating oils and greases for automobile engines and other machinery Petroleum (or paraffin) wax used in candy making, packaging, candles, matches, and polishes Petrolatum (petroleum jelly) sometimes blended with paraffin wax in medical products and toiletries

Other products
Asphalt used to pave roads and airfields, to surface canals and reservoirs, and to make roofing materials and floor coverings Petroleum coke used as a raw material for many carbon and graphite products, including furnace electrodes and liners, and the anodes used in the production of aluminum. Petroleum Feedstocks used as chemical feedstock derived from petroleum principally for the manufacture of chemicals, synthetic rubber, and a variety of plastics.

Gasoline
The gasoline fraction in a barrel of crude oil normally represents only about 18% of the total. Gasoline is composed of mainly straight-chain alkanes, containing 6-8 carbon atoms. These are in one of the lightest fractions of petroleum. Today, more than a third of all crude oil undergoes cracking, which converts large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller ones using heat and a catalyst.

What is octane?
If we were just talking chemistry, it would be a hydrocarbon containing 8 carbon atoms and 18 hydrogen atoms, like this: HHHHHHHH H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-H Octane HHHHHHHH When referring to gasoline, the octane rating tells you how much the fuel can be compressed before it spontaneously ignites. Heptane, a 7 carbon chain, does not handle compression well, but octane handles it very well. Eighty-seven-octane gasoline is gasoline that contains 87-percent octane and 13-percent heptane.

What is viscosity?
Some fractions of crude oil are thin and runny. Other fractions are thick and sticky. The runniness of a liquid is called viscosity. For example, the residue from fractional distillation has a very high viscosity (it is viscous) and cannot be easily poured. Gasoline has a low viscosity and pours easily. What is the relationship between the length of a hydrocarbon chain and the viscosity of a fraction? The longer the hydrocarbon chains in a fraction, the more viscous the fraction will be.

Fractions that ignite and burn easily are flammable.

Fractions that have a low boiling point evaporate easily. The easier a fraction evaporates, the more volatile it is. Generally, the smaller the molecules in a fraction, the more volatile and flammable the fraction. The more volatile a fraction is, the easier it mixes with air. This means the fraction ignites and burns easily.

Boiling point of fractions

Fraction LPG GASOLINE NAPHTHA KEROSENE DIESEL LUBRICATING OIL FUEL OIL RESIDUE Boiling point (C) <0 20-200 20-180 180-260 260-340 370-600 >330 N/A

USES
Uses of various fractions in daily life 85% of crude oil is used as a fuel for heating and transport. Only 8% is used to make plastics and other chemicals. A large amount of oil is used as fuel because the hydrocarbons in the fractions burn easily and produce a large amount of useful energy

A fuel is a substance that reacts with oxygen to produce useful energy.

What is LPG used for?

Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) contains propane and butane. They are stored under pressure in metal cylinders.

LPG is used for heating and cooking, especially where piped gas cannot be used, such as camp sites and boats

What is gasoline used for?

Gasoline is one of the most important fractions because it is used as a fuel for cars The gasoline fraction must be refined before it can be used in cars as petrol. Impurities are removed, and chemicals are added to ensure the engine runs smoothly. In the past, these chemicals were lead compounds but because of leads harmful effect on health and the environment, they have been replaced by safer compounds

What is naphtha used for?

Naphtha is a very important fraction that has many uses. For example, it is: a raw material (feedstock) in the production of chemicals and plastics used as a cleaning fluid and industrial solvent (a substance that can dissolve another substance) added to petrol and other fuels.

What are kerosene and diesel used for?

Kerosene, also called paraffin, is mainly used as aviation fuel for jet aircraft. It is also used in central heating systems, lamps and stoves.

WHAT IS DIESEL USED FOR?

Diesel is mainly used as a fuel for lorries, buses and cars, and in some boats.

What are lubricating and fuel oil used for?

Lubricating oil, as its name suggests, is used as a lubricant in products with moving parts, such as engines.

 Fuel oil is a heavy fraction used as a fuel for large industrial boilers, oil-fired power stations and ships.

POLLUTION CAUSED BY BURNING FOSSIL FUELS

Pollution
Discuss the pollution caused from burning fossil fuel

AIR POLLUTION INDEX

AQI color code Who is affected? What is the significance? What action should people take? Enjoy activities People unusually sensitive to air pollution: Plan strenuous activities when air quality is better Sensitive groups: Cut back or reschedule strenuous activities

Green Yellow

People who are unusually sensitive to air pollution

Air quality is good Air quality is a concern for people who are unusually sensitive to air pollution

Orange

People with heart or lung disease (including asthma), older adults, and children

Air quality is unhealthy for people in sensitive groups

Red

Everyone, especially people with heart or lung disease (including asthma), older adults, and children Everyone, especially people with heart or lung disease (including asthma), older

Air quality is unhealthy for everyone

Everyone: Cut back or reschedule strenuous activities Sensitive groups: Avoid strenuous activities Everyone: Significantly cut back on physical activities Sensitive groups: Avoid all

Purple

Air quality is very unhealthy for everyone

TOPIC 3 ORES AND MINERALS

Earths crust contains many different rocks. Rocks are the mixture of minerals which can be extracted from their ores to produce useful things Minerals can be solid metallic or non-metallic elements or compound which can be found naturally Metal ores are mineral or mixture of minerals which amounts of metals can be extracted Ores are often oxides, carbonates or sulphides To extract a metal from its ore, the metal ore or compound must undergo a reduction process to free the metal (i.e. the positive metal ions gains electrons to form natural atom, or the oxide losses oxygen to form free metallic atom)

EXTRACTION OF MINERALS (METALLUGRY)

Ores are often oxides, carbonates or sulphides To extract a metal from its ore, the metal ore or compound must undergo a reduction process to free the metal The method of extraction depends on the metal position in the reactivity series

You need to be able to

Rank metals in the Reactivity Series. State the reason why Carbon is important in the Reactivity series. State how a metal will be extracted given its position in the Reactivity Series. Label the equipment used to extract iron, aluminium and copper. Be able to write the equations (word and formula) for these reactions. Explain reduction and oxidation in terms of electron loss and gain (OILRIG).

The Reactivity Series

THE EXTRACTION OF IRON

This site has an animated diagram and the equations! Make sure Boardworks is loaded.

Iron ore requires a two part process oxidation and then reduction. Make sure you can label this diagram and write out the equations.

Copper reduction and electrolysis

Copper should only need to be extracted with carbon. So why is electrolysis necessary?

Aluminium the Hall Heroult electrolysis cell

This process uses HUGE amounts of electricity. Think about environmental implications

PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
The characteristics of a mineral that enables us to distinguish it from other substances are known as properties. Mineral properties can include color, hardness, specific gravity, streak, luster and even taste. Certain properties are characteristic of certain minerals, which makes identification easier. For example, a salty taste is usually halite. However, most minerals require several properties to identify it. So it is important to learn the logic of mineral identification.

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Specific gravity or the density of a mineral relative to water, is helpful in the case of some minerals like gold or galena, that have a high specific gravity. The attraction of a mineral to a magnet (magnetism) is helpful especially for the mineral, magnitite which is naturally magnetic. Some minerals that belong to the carbonate mineral family fizz when a drop of dilute HCl (acid) is put on it. Certain minerals like halite (salty) and sulfur (bitter) have characteristic tastes.

Continue.
Many properties that help identify a mineral are related to light. Luster, is the way that a mineral reflects light. There are two types of luster. Metallic minerals look like shiny or rusted metal. Nonmetallic elements reflect light like glass, pearls, or glue. The color of a mineral is sometimes very helpful. For many minerals with a metallic luster, color is an important means of identification. The lead gray of galena, the brass yellow of pyrite, or the blue of azurite are very diagnostic. However, many times the color may tarnish so it is important to look at a fresh surface. The color of a fine powder of a mineral is a known as its streak. You can use a porcelain plate to scratch a mineral to observe its streak. Hematite has a characteristic red-brown streak, no matter what form hematite comes in. The refraction of light is important in a few minerals, especially calcite. It produces an image that is doubled.

APPLICATIONS OF MINERALS IN DAILY LIFE

A major industry that most people think about is the gem mineral industry. Minerals that are used for gems are usually hard. People love to purchase jewelry to wear or to give as presents. The very symbol of a marriage engagement in the United States is a diamond. This is not true in many other countries. However, a gold ring, as a symbol of marriage is used in many cultures. Many gems are the same mineral but different color for example a ruby (red) and sapphire (blue) are the mineral corundum. Emerald (green) and aquamarine (blue) are the mineral beryl. Peridot (green) is the mineral olivine. Quartz probably has the most varieties of gems because it comes in many coloring including amethyst (purple), agate (multicolored), and tigers eye (brown-yellow). Artists use certain minerals to carve because of their softness. Talc, serpentine, jade, and malachite are soft enough to carve and produce beautiful smooth figures. The color of some of the minerals also make them excellent choices for ornamental uses. For example rose quartz is a pink color, but because it is hard is not used for carving, only as a gemstone. Hardness is also useful as an abrasive. Some varieties of corundum are used as "sand" on sandpaper to help smooth surfaces. Human-made diamonds and garnets are also used to make different grades of abrasives. Different grain sizes of quartz are also used as abrasives, especially to make very smooth surfaces.

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Minerals are also used to extract useful products. An ore is a rock that contains a concentrated percentage of minerals. The minerals in the ore are extracted and then the useful element is removed. For example, copper is a very useful metal used in everything from coins to pipes. Native copper is abundant but ores of copper are more common. The minerals of chalcocite, bornite, chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite, and enargite contain copper which can be extracted chemically. You can always tell if a ore rock contains copper minerals, because there is always a blue color to the rock. Silicon, used in the computer industry is obtained from quartz which is composed of silicon and oxygen. There are many other minerals that are useful to our society from iron, tin, nickel, tin to uranium.

continue.
Minerals, especially feldspar, are also used in making pottery and porcelain. Optical and scientific apparatus use minerals like quartz, fluorite, gypsum and mica for their optical properties. The same minerals that are needed by plants for growth are the same minerals we have been discussing. Fertilizers provide the essential elements of phosphorus, potassium and nitrogen. These elements are found in certain minerals including apatite (phosphorus), sylvite (potassium) and soda niter (nitrogen). They are ground into powder, so their mineral can be easily absorbed by plants. Even humans require minerals for their body. For example kaolin, a clay mineral can absorb water and acids. Kaopectate, a commercial product used to control diarrhea, is made up of kaolin. Minerals are important in more ways than

TOPIC 4 :MANUFACTURED MATERIAL (ALLOYS)

An alloy is a mixture of a pure metal with another pure metal or non-metal The mixture of metals in alloys follow a specific percentage rate Alloys have different properties from the original metal when other elements are added The process of mixing other elements to pure metal is called alloying Alloying produces a new substance which has different properties from the original metal Generally, an alloy is produced by melting a pure metal. Some metal or non-metal is then added to the molten metal and the mixture is then cooled

PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS
High temperature strength
yield strength, ductility, creep

Corrosion
uniform localized stress corrosion cracking

Radiation stability
RIS, microstructure, voids/swelling, creep, growth, phase

Irradiated state properties

strength, ductility, creep, corrosion/SCC, fracture toughness, fatigue

USES OF ALLOYS IN DAILY LIFE

Types of alloy Brass composition 70%Cu 30%Zn 80%Cu 20%tin 75%Cu 25%Ni properties Harder than copper Uses Electrical and kitchen appliances Decorative omaments and trophies Coins

Bronze

Nice appearance and hard Does not rust Nice appearance and shiny Hard and durable Does not rust Same as carbon steel but its appearance is shiny Can withstand corrosion better than carbon steel Nice appearance and hard

Copper nickel

Stainless steel

74%Fe 8%C 18%Cr

Kitchen wares likes forks, spoons and knives

pewter

95%tin 1%antimony 3%Cu

Decorative omaments

TOPIC 5 ; MANUFACTURED MATERIALS (AROMATIC COMPOUNDS)

MANUFACTURED MATERIALS AROMATIC COMPOUNDS Aromatic was used to described some fragrant compounds in early 19th century but are now grouped by chemical behavior (unsaturated compounds that undergo substitution rather than addition). They are distinguished from aliphatic compounds by electronic configuration. Benzene, Phenol, Methyl benzene and benzoic acid

TYPE OF AROMATIC COMPOUNDS

REACTION OF AROMATIC COMPOUNDS

Oxidation of Aromatic Compounds

Alkyl side chains can be oxidized to CO2H by strong reagents such as KMnO4 and Na2Cr2O7 if they have a C-H next to the ring Converts an alkylbenzene into a benzoic acid, ArR ArCO2H

Bromination of Alkylbenzene Side Chains

Reaction of an alkylbenzene with N-bromosuccinimide (NBS) and benzoyl peroxide (radical initiator) introduces Br into the side chain

Reduction of Aromatic Compounds

Aromatic rings are inert to catalytic hydrogenation under conditions that reduce alkene double bonds Can selectively reduce an alkene double bond in the presence of an aromatic ring Reduction of an aromatic ring requires more powerful reducing conditions (high pressure or rhodium catalysts)

PROPERTIES OF AROMATIC COMPOUNDS

Physical properties: The melting and boiling points of aromatic hydrocarbons increase with the molar mass and are higher than that of the corresponding aliphatic hydrocarbon Soluble in organic solvent Insoluble in water Lower densities than water

Chemical properties of Aromatic hydrocarbon

Electrophilic aromatic substitution ; halogenation, nitration, sulphonation, Friedel-Craft alkylation and Friedel-Craft acylation Oxydation Find the chemical reaction for all the reactions above

TOPIC 6: MANUFACTURED MATERIAL (ALCOHOL, ETHERS AND AMINE) first 5 members only

Classification and nomenclature for alcohol

H C H
CH3-OH

H oH H R C OH H R

R C OH H R

R C OH R
Allyl alcohol

CH3CH2-OH methyl alcohol

CH2=CHCH2-OH ethyl alcohol

OH CH H3C CH3 cyclopentyl alcohol OH

H3C

OH CH3 CH3

Isopropyl alcohol

t-butyl alcohol

1-longest continuous chain contain OH

OH OH

1-hextanol

2-hexanol
OH

CH3OH Methanol

CH3CH2OH Ethanol

OH cyclopentanol cyclohexanol

CH2CH3

Cl

CH3

CH3-CH2CH-CH2-CH-CH3
OH

CH3CH2CHCH2CH2CHCH2OH 5-Chloro-2-methyl-1-heptanol

4-Ethyl-2-hexanol

Physical properties
1-when no. of OH Soluble. in H2Oinc. 2-BP. with M wt. 3- BP. In straight chain higher than branched 4-in isomer BP. Dec. with in alkyl gp. 3 < 2<1 5- alcohol BP. Higher than it is alkenes ( hydrogen bond) 6-Alcohol weaker acids

PROPERTIES OF ALCOHOL
Exhibit properties of both alkane and water The alkyl group acts like an alkane and is said to be hydrophobic (water-hating) The Oh group can from hydrogen bonds to neighbouring water molecules and is hydrophilic (waterloving) When the hydrocarbon chain is short, the alcohols are miscible (soluble in any proportions) with water Alcohols, like water have unusually high boiling point because of the inter-molecular hydrogen bonding formed between the molecules

PROPERTIES OF ALCOHOLS
Alcohols and phenols are called hydroxy compounds because they contain a hydroxyl group , -OH The general formula of saturated aliphatic alcohols with one OH group is CnH2n+1OH Alcohols and phenols can be regarded as organic derivatives of water in which one hydrogen is replaced with an alkyl group (R) or and aryl group (Ar) H2O(water), ROH(alcohol), ArOH(phenol)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALCOHOLS

Solubility ; alcohols exhibit properties of both alkane and water The alkyl group acts like an alkane and is said to be hydrophobic (water-hating) The OH group can form hydrogen bonds to neighbouring water molecules and is hydrophilic (water-loving)

Synthesis of alcohols From alkenes:

i)

CH2=CH2 CH3CH=CH2

H2O

H2SO4

Conc.

CH3CH2OH CH3-CH-CH3 OH
OH

ii)

H2SO4 H2O

Conc.

KMnO4
iii)
OH

OH

1) RCO3H 2) H3O R-CH=CH2 1)B2H5 6 2)H2O2 / NaOH 1)B2H5 6 2)H2O2 / NaOH

OH

R-CH2-CH2OH

iv)

CH3-CH=CH2

CH3CH2CH2OH

USES OF ALCOHOL
Compounds with multiple OH are sweet Ethane-1,2 diol or glycol is a sweet liquid, colourless and toxic. It is used for manufacturing PET (plastic) and as a radiator coolant Glycerol is used as a base in many pharmaceutical and cosmetic preparations like hand lotions, creams and toothpaste As a moisture-retaining agent it is sprayed to tobacco leaves to prevent crumbling Is a constituent in printing ink Solvent for paint, grease or other organic substance Used as fuels Phenol can used to prodecu Dettol and nylon

ETHER
R-O-R Ar-O-R Ar-O-Ar Ether : sub. With 2organic residue . Bonded (O) alky.,ary.,vin CH3-O-CH3 CH3CH2OCH2CH3 CH2=CH-O-CH=CH2 Dimethyl ether Diethyl ether Divinyl ether CH2=CHCH2-O-CH2CH=CH2 Diallyl ether

PREPARATIONS OF ETHER
O RCOH + R'OH
acid alcoh.
O CH3CH2-C-OH

H+
hydro.( H2O)

R-C-OR'
O
CH3CH2-C-OC2H5
O

CH3CH2OH

H+ H2O

OH

HO

O O H

O O CH2CH3

CH3CH2OH

PROPERTIES OF ETHER
No hydrogen bond -Bp. = it's same alkanes Some ethers are also used as components in cosmetic products. The most wellknown ether, diethyl ether, is used in combination with other ingredients as an anaesthetic.

ETHER
Ether characterises organic compounds with the general structure: R1-O-R2. The symbols R1 and R2 represent two organic remainders or parts of molecules. If these are equal then these are referred to as simple or symmetrical ether. In all other cases these are called mixed or unsymmetrical ethers. The remainders R1 and R2 that are bonded to the oxygen atom can be alkyl or aryl groups and can therefore originate from alkanes, alkenes or aromatic compounds. In the case of cyclically formed ethers, the two remainders R1 and R2 stay together so that the molecule forms a ring.

Characteristics of ethers
Almost all ethers are easily inflammable and if they come into contact with air then they cause potentially explosive compounds. This explains why special safety measures must be observed when working with these substances. Most ethers are liquid at room temperature and volatile. The highly molecular ethers are solid. Many of the liquid ethers smell quite pleasant.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AMINES

Primary and secondary amines have intermolecular hydrogen bonding, while tertiary amines do not have intermolecular hydrogen bonding The boiling points of isomeric amines are proportional to the number of H-bond per molecule : R-NH2 > RR-NH > RRR-N The boiling points of different classes of organic compounds (or similar molar mass) is R-COOH >R-OH > R-NH2 > R-X > R-H Primary amine is polar molecule

AMINES
Organic compounds of nitrogen N Classified as primary, secondary, tertiary CH3 CH3 CH3NH2 CH3NH CH3N CH3 1 2 3

Naming Amines
IUPAC aminoalkane Common alkylamine

CH3CH2NH2 aminoethane (ethylamine)

NH2 | CH3CHCH3 2-aminopropane (isopropylamine)

CH3NH CH3 N-methylaminomethane (dimethylamine)

Aniline

N-methylaniline

Reactions of Amines
Act as weak bases in water CH3NH2 + H2O CH3NH3+ + OH methylammonium hydroxide Neutralization with acid gives ammonium salt CH3NH2 + HCl CH3NH3+ Cl methylammonium chloride

PROPERTIES OF AMINES
Primary and secondary amines have intermolecular hydrogen bonding, while tertiary amines do not have intermolecular hydrogen bonding The boiling points of isomeric amines are proportional to the number of H-bond per molecule : R-NH2 > RR-NH > RRR-N The boiling points of different classes of organic compounds (or similar molar mass) is R-COOH >R-OH > R-NH2 > R-X > R-H Primary amine is polar molecule

USES OF AMINES
Amines are nitrogenous compounds existing in many plants used widely in pharmaceuticals Fishy smell

TOPIC 7; MANUFACTURED MATERIAL (ALDEHYDES AND KETONES)

Aldehyde : RCOH Ketone : RCOR CH3CHO : ethanal CH3COCH3 : prophanone (asetone)

Carbonyl Group
Carbon atom joined to oxygen by a double bond Ketones Aldehydes

Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones

Oxidation reactions Hydrolysis of Geminal Dihalides Hydration of Alkynes Reactions with Acid Derivatives and Nitriles Reaction with Carboxylic Acids Reaction with Thioacetals

Aldehydes
Comes from alcohol dehydrogenation Obtained by removing of a hydrogen from an alcohol

Aldehydes
Both common and IUPAC names frequently used Common names from acids from which aldehydes can be converted

Ketones
Naming: Drop e, add -one Many common names Simplest is 3 carbons C. name: acetone IUPAC: propanone

Common Carbonyl Compounds

Formaldehyde
Manufactured from methanol Used in many polymers

Acetaldehyde
Prepared from ethyl alcohol Formed in the detoxification of alcohol in the liver

Acetone
Formed in the human body as a by-product of lipid metabolism Excreted in the urine

Hormones
Steroid hormones Progesterone/Testosterone

Physical Properties of Aldehydes and Ketones

Carbon-oxygen double bond is very polar
Affects boiling points More than ethers (C-O bonds) Less than alcohols (C-OH bonds)

Odors
Low aldehydes very pungent High aldehydes pleasant odors (perfumes)

Solubility
Similar to alcohols and ethers Soluble up to about 4 carbons Insoluble after that

Aldehydes/Ketones via Oxidation Reactions

RCH 2 OH R 2 CHOH R'CH R' R C OH CH 2 OH HIO R
4

PCC

C O

PCC

R R' C O

C O

R H +R

CR 2

ozonolysis

C O

C O

R' + H

C O

 Formation of Aldehydes or Ketones

Hydrolysis of Geminal Dihalides

R CH Cl 2 R 2CCl 2 H 2O H 2O R C H + 2 HCl O R C O R + 2 HCl

Aldehydes from Esters and Amides

O R C OR' or O R C NH or O R C NHR' or O R C NR 2 '
2

1. Diisobutylaluminum hydride 2. H 3O
+

O R C H

Ketones via Friedel-Crafts Acylation

R C Cl O R C O C R O O AlCl 3 benzene AlCl 3 benzene C R + HCl O C R + RCOOH O

Ketones via Reaction with Organometallics

C Cl O

(R') 2CuLi

C R' + R'-Cu + LiCl O

where R' can be alkyl, aryl, or vinyl

Ketones from Carboxylic Acids

RCOOH RCOO
-

RL i
+

RCOO R

Li

+ RH Li+

Li

RL i

O C

R R C R R C R OH O O
-

O Li + OH C OH C O R

Li+ Li
+

2O

R R

OH

2O

Aldehyde / Ketone Oxidations

R C O C O or C O CH 3 C O R C O C O H HIO RCOOH + HCOOH
4

H or Ar

C O

Ag(NH 3)2

(Tollens reagent)

RCOOH

(ArCOOH)

KMnO R

or K 2Cr 2O 7

COOH

X2 OH / H 2O
-

HCX 3 + RCOO

+ HIO

Aldehyde / Ketone Nucleophilic Addition Reactions

R C O R C O R C O dry HCl R' R''OH R C R' OR" R' hem ketal i R R C O R C O R' H
2N

R'

R"MgX H
+

H H 2O
-

R" R OH C OH gem diol OH R C OR" ketal cyanohydrin OR" R'

R'

or OH H 2O

R C R' OH

OH C CN R (-H 2 O) R' C N G

R'

HCN

R' G

Chemical Properties of Aldehydes and Ketones

Both under-go combustion reactions Oxidation
Aldehydes can be oxidized, ketones cant Tollens reagent
Benedicts reagent Fehlings reagent

Chemical Properties of Aldehydes and Ketones

Reduction
Variety of agents can reduce aldehydes and ketones to alcohols NaBH4 and H2 commonly

Chemical Properties of Aldehydes and Ketones

Hydration
Formaldehyde dissolves readily in water Acetaldehyde somewhat also
Form hydrates

USES OF KETONES

TOPIC 8; MANUFACTURED MATERIALS CARBOXYLIC ACIDS, ESTERS AND AMIDES

Naming Carboxylic Acids

Formula IUPAC alkan -oic acid
methanoic acid ethanoic acid propanoic acid

Common prefix ic acid

formic acid acetic acid propionic acid butyric acid

HCOOH CH3COOH CH3CH2COOH

CH3CH2CH2COOH butanoic acid

CARBOXYLIC ACID
Carboxylic acids contain the carboxyl group on carbon 1. O CH3 COH = CH3COOH

carboxyl group

PREPARATION OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

Grignard reagent + CO2 yields a carboxylate salt.

CH3 CH3CH3CHCH2MgBr O C O

CH3 CH3CH3CHCH2COO MgBr

+

CH3 CH3CH3CHCH2COOH

PREPARATION OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

Basic or acidic hydrolysis of a nitrile produces a carboxylic acid.

Br

NaCN

CN

H H2O

COOH

PROPERTIES OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

Carboxylic acids are weak acids CH3COOH + H2O CH3COO + H3O+

Neutralized by a base CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COO Na+ + H2O The functional group of carboxylic acids consists of a C=O with -OH bonded to the same carbon. Carboxyl group is usually written -COOH. Aliphatic acids have an alkyl group bonded to -COOH. Aromatic acids have an aryl group. Fatty acids are long-chain aliphatic acids. =>

USES OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

Vinegar Benzoic acid (C6H5COOH) used as preservative for many kind of food, especially pickled fruits Methanoic acid and ethanoic acid are used in the rubber industry to coagulate latex Carboxylic acids are used to prepare esters for manufacture perfumes, flavouring agents, essences and cosmetics and as a solvent

ESTERS
In and ester, the H in the carboxyl group is replaced with an alkyl group O

CH3 CO CH3 = CH3COO CH3 ester group

Esters in Plants
Esters give flowers and fruits their pleasant fragances and flavors.

Naming Esters
Name the alkyl from the alcohol O Name the acid with the C=O with ate acid alcohol O methyl CH3 CO CH3 Ethanoate (acetate) methyl ethanoate (IUPAC) methyl acetate (common)

Esterification
Reaction of a carboxylic acid and alcohol Acid catalyst O H+ CH3 COH + HOCH2CH3 O CH3 COCH2CH3 + H2O

Hydrolysis
Esters react with water and acid catalyst Split into carboxylic acid and alcohol O H+

H COCH2CH3 + H2O

O + HOCH2CH3

H COH

Saponification
Esters react with a bases Produce the salt of the carboxylic acid and alcohol O CH3COCH2CH3 + NaOH O
CH3CO Na+ salt of carboxylic acid + HOCH2CH3

ESTERS
In and ester, the H in the carboxyl group is replaced with an alkyl group O

CH3 CO CH3 = CH3COO CH3 ester group

Naming Esters
Name the alkyl from the alcohol O Name the acid with the C=O with ate acid alcohol O methyl CH3 CO CH3 Ethanoate (acetate) methyl ethanoate (IUPAC) methyl acetate (common)

PREPARATION OF ESTERS Esterification

Reaction of a carboxylic acid and alcohol Acid catalyst O H+ CH3 COH + HOCH2CH3 O CH3 COCH2CH3 + H2O

PROPERTIES OF ESTERS
Esters react with water and acid catalyst Split into carboxylic acid and alcohol O H+

H COCH2CH3 + H2O

O + HOCH2CH3

H COH

Saponification
Esters react with a bases Produce the salt of the carboxylic acid and alcohol O CH3COCH2CH3 + NaOH O
CH3CO Na+ salt of carboxylic acid + HOCH2CH3

USES OF ESTERS
Esters have distinct odours and flavours and volatilise easily Perfumes Essences and flavours ( or food extract) Solvents Cosmetics Solvents for glues, polystyrene cement and paints Lotion, powder and hair oils, produce soaps Produce aspirin and candles

AMIDES
Derivatives of carboxylic acids where an amino (-NH2) group replaces the OH group. O O

CH3 COH carboxylic acid acetic acid

CH3 CNH2 amide acetamide

Naming Amides
Alkanamide O HCNH2 from acid name methanamide (IUPAC) formamide (common)

O propanamide (IUPAC) CH3CH2CNH2propionamide(common)

Aromatic Amides
O C NH2 O C NHCH3

Benzamide

N -methylbenzamide

PREPARATION OF AMIDES
acid hydrolysis O HCl + H2O

CH3COH + NH4+Cl O

CH3CNH2 NaOH

CH3CO Na+ + NH3

base hydrolysis

USES OF AMIDES
analgesic: pain reliever; acetaminophen general pain relief. anti-diarrheal: opiate derivatives; with inability to produce recreational ...

TOPIC 9 SYNTHETIC POLYMERS /PLASTICS

TYPES OF PLASTIC There are 2 types of plastic that is: a) Thermoplastics - A polymer that softens ans melts gradually when heated and it can be reshaped when still warm. b) Thermosets - A polymer that cant be reshaped after manufacture

Thermoplastics
polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene & polyvinyl chloride (PVC) most common thermoplastics Any object made from thermoplastic can be remolded into a new shape. Thermoplastics creep considerably more than thermosets, particularly at higher temperature Can be used for light structural properties

Polystyrene
has specific gravity of 1.05 It tensile strength is low, less than 48.5 MPa Modulus of Elasticity is low has good water resistance and dimensional stability and inexpensive (cheap) But it possesses poor heat resistance, limited weather resistance. It is brittle and lacks toughness Pure polystyrene that is crystal clear used for storage container and cups. Polystyrene and expanded polystyrene used in tiles, packaging, containers, foams and housewares. Foamed polystyrene used in poured-inplace concrete wall systems & as insulation boards for foundation walls, masonry and wood walls and roofing.

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

Specific gravity about 1.39 Its made from monomer, vinyl chloride Tensile strength low nearly like polystyrene Its an excellent insulator Used in raincoats and shower curtains Extensively used in floor tiles, electric cables, flexible sheeting, hoses, pipes, expansion joint filler, ,moldings, luggage, decorative wall coverings,

Polyethylene
Specific gravity of 0.92 Tensile strength very low, less than 13.8 Mpa Modulus of Elasticity is very low Its tough, weather-resisting plastic & durable Has excellent electrical properties Has favorable chemical resistance Its common application is as polyethylene bags Polyethylene used in manufacture of films, sheets, pipings, tanks, foams, electrical conduit and moldings. Polyethylene films & sheets used as dampproof courses, membranes & curing membranes

Polypropylene
Has low specific gravity like polyethylene Low modulus of elasticity lightest material of all thermoplastics Has a higher softening point and shinier Good heat resistance but degrades under exposure to sunlight Has good abrasion resistance and hardness Used for pipes, sheets, geomembranes

Acrylics
Crystal clear in natural form has good weather resistance and ease of forming Tensile strength higher than other thermoplastic material Used in light fittings, skylights, screen doors, paints and adhesives

Acrylic Shower Base, Screen and Door

Thermosets
Most popular thermosets are unsaturated polyester, epoxides, phenol-formaldehyde and polyurethane. Polyester used in manufacture of fiberglass product and composite materials Phenol-formaldehyde used in lavatory seats, electrical fittings and equipment decorative laminates.

Advantages Of Plastic
It has high damping capacity ( ability to absorb part of the vibrational energy) that makes it suitable in application where vibration is encountered. Excellent water resistant. - It have low water-absorption properties making suitable as impervious membrane layers that could prevent movement of water. Application in foundation, water supply installation, for concrete curing Its lower prices have contributed to the universal application of plastic. Low cost Plastics have a favorable strength / weight ratio. It has low density (less than half of the concrete and 1/7 steel) Since plastic is light, it present ease in handling, transportation, storage and assembly. Most plastics are generally maintenance free and have good corrosion resistance

 Thermal insulation of plastic is higher than other material. - used extensively as wall & ceiling insulation in both cast-in-place (as foamed insulation) and precast constructions (as rigid insulation) Plastics can be molded to any shape and pattern. Plastic products come in variety of colors & textures. - Manufactured plastics have good surface finish and may not require maintenance. - Its availability in many color & texture makes it commonly used for floor, wall tiles & countertops. Plastics can be manufactured with consistent quality.

Disadvantages Of Plastic
has low stiffness and strength which make it can be used for load bearing construction - It is subject to creep, that is the increase in deformation, under load, with time - Rate of creep of plastic higher than concrete - Creep deformation increases with stress level - Therefore, plastics become dimensionally unstable under load. Plastics are combustible/flammable material. Plastics emits toxic gases such as carbon monoxide during burning. Plastics may emit dense smoke, thereby making escape more difficult. - Shouldnt be used in exits areas of building such as around stairways and corridors Expensive and subject to uncertainties arising for the oil price fluctuations. Acoustical insulation of plastic is poor.

Modified Plastic
Addition substances can be added to the plastic during manufacturing process to improve the properties of the plastic. Plasticizers to soften the plastic & make it easier for shaping. Antioxidants prevent degradation by light and heat. Colorants give color to plastic Fibers to improve strength of thermoplastic & thermosets

Fiber Reinforced Plastic

For application requiring very high tensile strength Fibers added not only increase stiffness & strength but also reduce shrinkage, improve abrasion resistance & provide dimensional stability to plastic resin. This is a light weight, high strength & corrosion resistance material. In civil engineering application for pedestrian bridges, bridge repair and as prestressing tendons.

 We illustrate the concept with the industrial preparation of ammonia Haber process

TOPIC 10 INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF NH3, H2SO4 & HNO3

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

NH3

AMMONIA
Ammonia is an important source of fertilizers about 85% of it goes on to make nitrogenous fertilizers. There is a method to manufacture ammonia cheaply on a large scale the Haber process. THE HABER PROCESS In the Haber process, nitrogen and hydrogen combine under special conditions: N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) DH = -92 kJ mol-1

A flow diagram for the Haber process.

A modern Haber process plant.

LABORATORY PREPARATION AND PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA

Preparation of ammonia ammonium salt + alkali salt + ammonia + water e.g. (NH4)2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2NH3(g) + 2H2O(l) Properties of ammonia gas Ammonia is a colourless gas. It has a characteristic pungent choking smell and is poisonous. It is much lighter than air. It can be easily liquefied and is extremely soluble in water. Ammonia gas is alkaline. It turns wet red litmus paper blue. Note that ammonia is the only common alkaline gas.

MAKING AMMONIUM SULPHATE

Ammonium sulphate is a common nitrogenous fertilizer. The raw materials for its manufacture are ammonia (from Haber Process) and sulphuric acid (from Contact Process). LABORATORY PREPARATION OF AMMONIUM SULPHATE In the laboratory, you can prepare ammonium sulphate from ammonia solution and dilute sulphuric acid by a simple titration. 2NH3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq)

USES OF AMMONIA
Uses of ammonia include: Manufacture of fertilizers such as ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulphate (the most important use) Manufacture of nitric acid

This household glass cleaner contains ammonia

An industrial ice-making plant ammonia is used as a refrigerant in making ice.

NITRIC ACID
THE OSTWALD PROCESS Nitric acid is manufactured by the catalytic oxidation of ammonia in the Ostwald process. The raw materials for the manufacture are ammonia, air and water. The reactions involved are: (1) Ammonia is catalytically oxidized to form nitrogen monoxide: Pt catalyst 4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(l) (2) The nitrogen monoxide reacts with more oxygen (in air) to form nitrogen dioxide. 2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)

A flow diagram for the Ostwald process

3) Finally, the nitrogen dioxide is dissolved in water in the presence of air to form nitric acid. 4NO2(g) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l) 4HNO3(aq)

USES OF NITRIC ACID

Nitric acid is used in the following ways: To make fertilizers such as ammonium nitrate To make explosives (e.g. T.N.T. (trinitrotoluene)). To make synthetic fibres such as nylon To make dyes In refining precious metals

Explosive in action!

SULPHURIC ACID Sulphuric acid is one of the most important industrial chemicals.

THE CONTACT PROCESS

Sulphuric acid is made by the Contact process. The process involves three stages: (1) Preparation and purification of sulphur dioxide Sulphur dioxide is often prepared by burning sulphur in air. S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g) Sulphur dioxide and air are first purified and dried.

Diagrammatic representation of part of a Contact process plant.

 Catalytic oxidation of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide Sulphur dioxide and oxygen react according to the equation: 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) DH = -196 kJ mol-1 The sulphur dioxide and air mixture is passed along hot pipes containing vanadium(V) oxide (V2O5) catalyst at 450oC and 1 atm. (3) Conversion of sulphur trioxide to sulphuric acid The hot sulphur trioxide thus formed is passed back to the heat exchanger to heat up the incoming gases (SO2 and air). It is then dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid (98% H2SO4 by mass) in the absorption tower to form oleum (or fuming sulphuric acid). H2SO4(l) + SO3(g) H2S2O7(l) oleum

 Oleum is added to the correct amount of water, so that concentrated sulphuric acid is formed again: H2S2O7 (l) + H2O(l) 2H2SO4(l) Atmospheric pressure Temperature: 450oC Catalyst: vanadium(V) oxide

A flow diagram for the manufacture of sulphuric acid by the Contact process.

USES OF SULPHURIC ACID

Manufacture of fertilizers such as superphosphate and ammonium sulphate. Manufacture of additives (e.g. barium sulphate, calcium sulphate) in white paints. Manufacture of soapless detergents Manufacture of synthetic fibres

Some uses of sulphuric acid.

A pie chart showing the percentages of sulphuric acid used in different industries.

TOPIC 11 COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Definition: any combination of two or more different materials at the macroscopic level. OR Two inherently different materials that when combined together produce a material with properties that exceed the constituent materials.
Reinforcement phase (e.g., Fibers) Binder phase (e.g., compliant matrix)

Advantages
High strength and stiffness Low weight ratio Material can be designed in addition to the structure

Applications
Straw in clay construction by Egyptians Aerospace industry Sporting goods Automotive Construction

Types of Composite Materials

There are five basic types of composite materials: Fiber, particle, flake, laminar or layered and filled composites.

Composite strength depends on following factors:

Inherent fiber strength, Fiber length, Number of flaws Fiber shape The bonding of the fiber (equally stress distribution) Voids Moisture (coupling agents)

Particle Composites
Particles usually reinforce a composite equally in all directions (called isotropic). Plastics, cermets and metals are examples of particles. Particles used to strengthen a matrix do not do so in the same way as fibers. For one thing, particles are not directional like fibers. Spread at random through out a matrix, particles tend to reinforce in all directions equally.
Cermets (1) OxideBased cermets (e.g. Combination of Al2O3 with Cr) (2) CarbideBased Cermets (e.g. Tungstencarbide, titaniumcarbide) Metalplastic particle composites (e.g. Aluminum, iron & steel, copper particles) Metalinmetal Particle Composites and Dispersion Hardened Alloys (e.g. Ceramicoxide particles

Flake Composites - 1
Flakes, because of their shape, usually reinforce in 2-D. Two common flake materials are glass and mica. (Also aluminum is used as metal flakes

Flake Composites -2
A flake composite consists of thin, flat flakes held together by a binder or placed in a matrix. Almost all flake composite matrixes are plastic resins. The most important flake materials are: 1. Aluminum 2. Mica 3. Glass

Flake Composites -3
Basically, flakes will provide: Uniform mechanical properties in the plane of the flakes Higher strength Higher flexural modulus Higher dielectric strength and heat resistance Better resistance to penetration by liquids and vapor Lower cost

Laminar Composites
Laminar composites involve two or more layers of the same or different materials. The layers can be arranged in different directions to give strength where needed. Speedboat hulls are among the very many products of this kind.

Matrices - Thermosets
Polyester Polyesters have good mechanical properties, electrical properties and chemical resistance. Polyesters are amenable to multiple fabrication techniques and are low cost. Vinyl Esters Vinyl Esters are similar to polyester in performance. Vinyl esters have increased resistance to corrosive environments as well as a high degree of moisture resistance.

Matrices - Thermosets
Epoxy Epoxies have improved strength and stiffness properties over polyesters. Epoxies offer excellent corrosion resistance and resistance to solvents and alkalis. Cure cycles are usually longer than polyesters, however no by-products are produced.

Flexibility and improved performance is also achieved by the utilization of additives and fillers.

Matrices - Thermoplastics
Formed by heating to elevated temperature at which softening occurs
Reversible reaction Can be reformed and/or repaired - not common Limited in temperature range to 150C

Examples
Polypropylene
with nylon or glass can be injected-- inexpensive

Soften layers of combined fiber and resin and place in a mold -- higher costs

Matrices - Others
Metal Matrix Composites - higher temperature
e.g., Aluminum with boron or carbon fibers

Ceramic matrix materials - very high temperature

Fiber is used to add toughness, not necessarily higher in strength and stiffness

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES OF COMPOSITES

Composite materials have succeeded remarkably in their relatively short history. But for continued growth, especially in structural uses, certain obstacles must be overcome. A major one is the tendency of designers to rely on traditional materials such as steel and aluminum unless composites can be produced at lower cost. Cost concerns have led to several changes in the composites industry. There is a general movement toward the use of less expensive fibers. For example, graphite and aramid fibers have largely supplanted the more costly boron in advancedfiber composites. As important as savings on materials may be, the real key to cutting composite costs lies in the area of processing.

TOPIC 12 SOAPS AND MATERIALS

Soap is water soluble sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids which consist of 12 to 18 carbon atoms per molecule Soap is manufactured by heating animal fats or vegetable oils with concentrated sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide General formula ; RCOO-Na+ or RCOOK+ where R is a long-chained alkyl group

Cleaning Action of Soap

SOAP -- made from animal and vegetable fats

vs. DETERGENT -- made from petroleum -- works better in hard water

Hard water contains minerals w/ions like Ca2+, Mg2+, and Fe3+ that replace Na1+ at polar end of soap molecule. Soap is changed into an insoluble precipitate (i.e., soap scum). micelle: a liquid droplet covered w/soap or detergent molecules

Solvation
Soap / Detergent
polar head with long nonpolar tail dissolves nonpolar grease in polar water

TOPIC 13 RUBBER
State the composition of rubber Explain the processing of rubber State the properties of rubber State the uses of rubber in our daily life

COMPOSITION OF RUBBER
Natural rubber is a addition of isoprene, C5H8 The IUPAC name; 2methylbut-1,3 diene Very elastic and is made from isoprene monomers

continue
Polyisoprene is also created synthetically, producing what is sometimes referred to as synthetic natural rubber Synthetic rubber is produced from the polymerisation of 2-chlorobuta-1,3-diene n CH2=CH-C=CH2 Cl 2-chlorobuta-1,3-diene ~(CH2-CH=C-CH2) Cl neoprene

continue
Neoprene is resistant to chemicals and used to make hose for petrol and containers for corrosive chemicals Another synthetic rubber is SBR (styrenebutadiene rubber), a copolymer between phenylethene (30%) and 1,3-butadiene (70%)
CH2=CH-CH=CH2 + CH2=CH CH2-CH=CH-CH2-CH2-CH

1,3-butadiene phenylethene styrene-butadiene rubber

PROCESSING OF RUBBER
Latex or natural rubber consists 35% rubber particles and 65% water Every rubber particle contains rubber molecules which are wrapped by a layer of negatively charged protein membrane Ammonia solution can be used to prevent pre-coagulation of the latex

CROSS-LINKING IN RUBBER
The treatment that accomplishes cross-linking of elastomer molecules, so that the rubber becomes stiffer and stronger but retains extensibility On a submicroscopic scale, the long-chain molecules of rubber become joined at certain tie points, the effect of which is to reduce the ability of the elastomer to flow
A typical soft rubber has 1 or 2 cross-links per 1000 units (mers) As the number of cross-links increases, the polymer becomes stiffer and behaves more and more like a thermosetting plastic (hard rubber)

Figure 14.4 - Effect of vulcanization on rubber molecules: (1) raw rubber, and (2) vulcanized (cross-linked) rubber. Variations of (2) include: (a) soft rubber, low degree of cross- linking; and (b) hard rubber, high degree of cross-linking

Vulcanization Chemicals and Times

As it was first invented by Goodyear in 1839, vulcanization used sulfur (about 8 parts by weight of S mixed with 100 parts of NR) at 140C (280F) for about 5 hours
Vulcanization with sulfur alone is no longer used today, due to the long curing times

Various other chemicals are combined with smaller doses of sulfur to accelerate and strengthen the treatment
The resulting cure time is 15-20 minutes

A variety of non-sulfur vulcanizing treatments have also been developed

Tires and Other Rubber Products

Tires are the principal product of the rubber industry
Tires are about 75% of total rubber tonnage

Other important products:

Footwear Seals Shock-absorbing parts Conveyor belts Hose Foamed rubber products Sports equipment

Tires
Pneumatic tires are critical components of the vehicles on which they are used Functions of vehicle tires:
Support the weight of the vehicle, passengers, and cargo Transmit the motor torque to propel the vehicle Absorb road vibrations and shock to provide a comfortable ride

Tires are used on automobiles, trucks, buses, farm tractors, earth moving equipment, military vehicles, bicycles, motorcycles, and aircraft

PROPERTIES OF RUBBER
Flammable Elastic and can be stretched Reactive to chemical agents such as oil, grease and petrol Flexible since it is a thermoplastic that softens on heating and hardens on heating, can be melted and reshaped to be reused again and again Impermeable to water. This makes it an excellent barrier against pathogens such as HIV virus which causes AIDS. Sensitive to ozone cracking due to the presence of a double bond in each and every repeat unit

USES OF RUBBER
Erasers Water hose Rubber band Soles of shoes Surgical and medical examination gloves and condoms Spring materials for engines to cut down on vibrations

VULCANISED RUBBER
Car mats Car tyres Radiator hoses Window wiper blades Seals and suspension mountings

SYNTHETIC RUBBER
Gaskets Car belts Conveyor belts Flexible pipes or hoses for the petrol industry because it is not attacked by petrol Insulating materials for electrical connections, especially where the environment has chemicals

Cross-linking in rubber

Vulcanisation of rubber

Vulcanisation of rubber
The vulcanisation of natural rubber, a process discovered by Charles Goodyear in 1839, is an example of cross-linking. Goodyear accidentally discovered that adding sulfur to rubber and then heating the mixture makes the rubber harder and reduces its susceptibility to oxidation or other chemical attack. The sulfur changes rubber into a thermosetting polymer by cross-linking the polymer chains through reactions at some of the double bonds. Cross-linking of about 5 percent of the double bonds creates a flexible, resilient rubber. When the rubber is stretched, the cross-links help prevent the chains from slipping, so that rubber retains its elasticity.

TOPIC 14 NATURAL POLYMERS

Polymers are long chain molecules formed by joining together many identical repeating sub-units called monomers 2 types of polymers is natural polymers and syntheticpolymers Are used widely every day 3 main types of natural polymers are cotton, wool and silk

TYPES OF NATURAL POLYMER

starch

natural rubber Natural polymers

wool

cotton

silk

SILK
Silk is a natural protein fiber obtained from cocoons made by the larvae of silkworm reared in captivity Silk is made of proteins secreted in the fluid state by silkworm caterpillar Silkworm feed on selected food plants, namely mulberry leaves and spin cocoons shell to perpetuate life

PROPERTIES OF SILK
has natural shine has smooth and soft texture resistant to mineral acids has good moisture regain poor resistance to sunlight exposure moderate elasticity and wrinkle resistance strongest of all the natural fibers but loses 20% of its strength when wet

USES OF SILK
Tie

Active clothing in warm weather

Uses of silk

Furnishing (Bed sheets, curtains)

Scarf

PROCESSING OF SILK
Cocoons that have been spun by the silkworm are handpicked and placed in oven The heat of the oven is enough to kill the silkworm but not damage the silk in the cocoon The cocoons are soaked in water Multiple threads from the soaked cocoons are unraveled to form a single thread Silk thread is further combined to form thicker strands and dyed to create desired colours

COTTON
Is a soft fiber that grows around the seeds of cotton plant Used to make soft breathable textile

PROPERTIES OF COTTON
Strong Durable Prints well Comfortable Good absorbent of moisture Low resiliency (easily wrinkled) High resistance for alkali and organic solvent

HOW COTTON IS PROCESSED

Cotton fiber, once it has been processed to remove seeds (ginning), consists of nearly pure cellulose, a natural polymer. Each cotton fiber is made up to twenty to thirty layers of cellulose coiled in a neat series of natural springs. When the cotton ball is opened, the fibres dry into flat, twisted, ribbon-like shapes and shapes and become kinked together and interlocked. This interlocked form is ideal for spinning into fine yarn. Cotton production is very efficient, only ten percent or less of the weight is lost in subsequent processing to convert the raw cotton bolls (seed coat) into pure fiber. The cellulose is arranged in a way that gives cotton fibers a high degree of strength, durability, and absorbency.

USES OF COTTON
Towel Socks Bed sheets T-shirts Coffee filters Jeans Cotton buds and swabs

WOOL
Is a fiber derived from the specialised skin cells called follicles, of animals in the Caprinae family, principally sheep

PROPERTIES OF WOOL
Warm materials Tightly crimped fibers The outer cells of the fiber repel water while the inner cells absorb moisture High elasticity-wool possesses much greater ability to return to its natural length after being stretched than any artificial fiber. Highly absorbent-capable of retaining up to 25 percent of its weight in moisture. ideal for dyes-wool takes on richer, deeper, purer colors than vegetable fiber

PROCESSING OF WOOL
After shearing, wool contains a high level of grease which contains valuable lanolin, as well as dirt, dead skin, sweat residue, and vegetable matter. Before the wool can be used for commercial purposes it must be scoured, or cleaned. Scouring may be as simple as a bath in warm water, or a complicated industrial process using detergent and alkali. After that, the wool is separated into five main categories: Fleece, broken, pieces, bellies and locks. The quality of fleece is determined by a technique known as wool classing

USES OF WOOL
Clothes such as sweaters Traditionally used to cover cloth diapers absorb odours and noise in heavy machinery and stereo speakers Blankets, horse rugs, saddle cloths, carpeting, felt, wool insulation and upholstery Some modern cloth diapers use felted wool fabric for covers, and there are several modern commercial knitting patterns for wool diaper covers

TOPIC 15 PAPER
The word paper derives from the greek term for the ancient Egyptian writing material called papyrus, which was formed from beaten strips pf papyrus plants Paper in thin material mainly used for writing upon, printing upon or packanging

TYPES OF PAPER
Bank paper Book paper Inkjet paper pH indicator paper Photographic paper Plain paper Recycled paper Rice paper Paper towels Wall paper Wax paper Sand paper Coated paper (glossy and matt surface) Plain paper Newsprint

PROPERTIES OF PAPER
Basis Weight (GSM) Brightness, Whiteness and Colour Dimensional Stability Folding Endurance (Double Folds) Formation Gloss Machine and Cross Direction Moisture Opacity Porosity Sizing / Cobb Smoothness Stiffness Stretch (Elongation) Tearing Resistance Temperature and Humidity: Conditioning of Paper Thickness Wax Pick No. (Surface Strength) Wire side and Felt side

PROCESS OF MAKING PAPER

The steps in the process of making paper are: Fiber processing / pulping using chemical pulping or mechanical pulping Adding additives Drying Finishing

USES OF PAPER
To write or print on: the piece of paper becomes a document; this may be for keeping a record (or in the case of printing from a computer or copying from another paper: an additional record) and for communication. To represent a value: paper money, bank note, cheque,voucher, ticket For entertainment: book, magazine, newspaper, art For packaging: corrugated box, paper bag, envelope, wrapping tissue, wallpaper For cleaning : toilet paper, handkerchiefs, paper towels, facial tissue For construction : paper mache, origami, quiling, paper engineering, clothing Other uses: sandpaper, blotting paper, litmus paper, universal indicator paper, paper chromatography, electrical insulation paper, filter paper