Malta, ET 1

Mechanical
Engineering
1 A Vocational Degree programme developed by MCAST and Fraunhofer IAO.
Master-Untertitelformat bearbeiten
Engineering
Thermodynamics
Mechanical
Engineering
Master-Untertitelformat bearbeiten
Day 1
Course introduction information
Some introductory comments
Some concepts and definitions
Properties of a pure substance
Marine engineering is a field that encompasses a variety of thermal machines

and equipment whose understanding and application are inconceivable without
a solid knowledge of engineering thermodynamics.
In this regard, students should be trained in the proper basic knowledge of

engineering thermodynamics to have been able to understand the operation of
various heat engines and equipment such as steam generators, steam and
gas turbines, reciprocating internal combustion engines, refrigeration and
air-conditioning plant, which include a variety of fans, compressors, pumps
and heat exchangers.
Taking into account the fundamental principles of thermodynamics, this

course is designed in a manner to cover the basics knowledge of engineering
thermodynamics that are necessary to the analysis of complex ships energy
systems.
Course Introduction Information
About Energy (1)
What is energy? We know certain things about it. We know for example that it
can flow in various forms such as heat energy, electrical energy and
mechanical work. It may also be stored in various forms such as strain energy
in a compressed spring, internal energy in a hot body and chemical energy in a
fuel.
Furthermore, Einstein showed at the beginning of the twentieth century that it is

interconvertible with mass itself; that is to say the whole physical world is
really a manifestation of energy.
The characteristics of the various forms of energy can be identified. We could say
for example that heat energy flows due to a temperature difference or express
the internal energy of a material in terms of the activity of its atoms, but this
brings us no nearer to answering the question: What is energy?
The fact is that we do not really know the answer. Most scientific and
technological subjects commence with an acceptance of the concept of energy
and treat the various forms of energy and mass as the stuff of the universe.
Questions regarding the basic nature and existence of energy are more
appropriate to the fields of philosophy and religion. Science cannot give
reasons for the existence of energy or the presence of the physical universe. We
ourselves are part of this physical universe, part of the energy which we seek
to understand and due to this it may be inherently impossible for us to
comprehend the existence of energy.
However, this daunting thought need not deter us from studying the various
characteristics of energy.. Man has largely progressed to his present state of
civilization by gleaning knowledge about it.
About Energy (2)
The idea and concept of energy appears and is considered in several scientific
disciplines (mechanics, electrical engineering etc.), mainly in the context of the
universal energy conservation law.
Real energy transformations are always followed by dissipation phenomena (in

the sense of energy degradation, its devaluation, diffusion or scattering, i.e.
diminishing of useful forms of energy). Most often these are caused by friction,
which by its final effects isnt different from the process in which the
temperature of the system is rising caused by supplying heat to the considered
system.
Therefore, each transformation of energy is connected with thermal phenomena.

Thermodynamics is the science in which this topic and many other issues
concerning energy are studied in the most complete form.
Thermodynamics is the science that deals with the relationship of heat and
mechanical energy and conversion of one into the other
Concept of Energy in Thermodynamics
The Three Thermal Science Disciplines

Some Applications (1)

1. Engine
2. Engine shaft and flexible coupling
3. Reduction gear box
4. Shaft generator
5. Stern tube with bearing
6. Propeller shaft
7. Propeller
The Propulsion System

Cutaway view of boiler showing
gas-or oil-fired burners on the
right wall. Liquid water flowing
through the tubes is heated by
the hot combustion products.
The steam produced resides in
the steam drum (tank) at the top
left. The boiler has a nominal
8-m width, 12-in height, and
IO-m depth.
Boiler
(2)

1. piston
2. cylinder
3. cylinder head
4. entablature with cooling space
5. inlet / outlet valves
6. crankshaft
7. balancing weight
8. connectingrod
9. turbo charger
10. exhaust ducting
11. scavenging air duct
12. generator
13. flexibel mountings
14. water cooler
15. air cooler
Diesel generator
(3)

Turbojet engine
(4)

Schematic diagram of a shipboard nuclear propulsion system
(5)

(6)
Selected Areas of Application for Thermal Systems Engineering

Automobile and ship engines
Turbines
Compressors, pumps
Fossil- and nuclear-fueled power stations
Propulsion systems for aircraft, and rockets
Combustion systems
Cryogenic systems, gas separation, and
liquefaction
Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning
systems
Vapor compression and absorption
refrigeration
Heat pumps
Alternative energy systems
Fuel cells
Thermoelectric and thermionic devices
Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converters
Solar-activated heating, cooling, and power
generation
Geothermal systems
Ocean thermal, wave, and tidal power
generation
Physical Frameworks for Analisys
The direct object of study is thermodynamic system, distinguished from the surroundings,
and defined by the control boundary.
Thermodynamic studies solely the systems in which, when they are isolated from the
surroundings, in due time the state of macroscopic equilibrium is restored which can be
disturbed only by activating a certain interaction between the system and its surroundings.
Also, when it is isolated, the system is not allowed to change its basic properties (what
would happen e.g. if isolation were applied to biological systems). These constraints or
limitations represent the content of the so-called BASIC POSTULATE OF
THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamic system, surroundings and control boundary
Types of Systems
Two basic kinds of systems are distinguished in this course. These are referred to, respectively,
as closed systems and control volumes. A closed system refers to a fixed quantity of matter,
whereas a control volume is a region of space through which mass may flow.
A closed system is defined when a particular
quantity of matter is under study. A closed
system always contains the same matter.
There can be no transfer of mass across its
boundary.
A special type of closed system that does not
interact in any way with its surroundings
is called an isolated system.
Figure shows a gas in a pistoncylinder assembly. When the valves are closed, we can
consider the gas to be a closed system. The boundary lies just inside the piston and cylinder
walls, as shown by the dashed lines on the figure. The portion of the boundary between the
gas and the piston moves with the piston. No mass would cross this or any other part of the
boundary.
Closed Systems
Control Volumes
In subsequent sections of this course, thermodynamic analyses are made of devices such as
turbines and pumps through which mass flows. These analyses can be conducted in principle
by studying a particular quantity of matter, a closed system, as it passes through the device. In
most cases it is simpler to think instead in terms of a given region of space through which mass
flows. With this approach, a region within a prescribed boundary is studied. The region is
called a control volume. Mass may cross the boundary of a control volume.
Example of a control volume (open system). An automobile engine.
Property, State and Process
To describe a system and predict its behavior requires knowledge of its properties and how
those properties are related. A property is a macroscopic characteristic of a system such as
mass, volume, energy, pressure, and temperature to which a numerical value can be assigned
at a given time without knowledge of the previous behavior (history) of the system. Many other
properties are considered during the course of our study.
The word state refers to the condition of a system as described by its properties. Since there are
normally relations among the properties of a system, the state often can be specified by
providing the values of a subset of the properties. All other properties can be determined in
terms of these few.
When any of the properties of a system change, the state changes and the system is said to have
undergone a process. A process is a transformation from one state to another.
Steady State, Thermodinamic Cycle,
Extensive and Intensive Properties
However, if a system exhibits the same values of its properties at two different times, it is in
the same state at these times. A system is said to be at steady state if none of its properties
changes with time.
A thermodynamic cycle is a sequence of processes that begins and ends at the same state. At
the conclusion of a cycle all properties have the same values they had at the beginning.
Thermodynamic properties can be placed in two general classes: extensive and intensive. A
property is called extensive if its value for an overall system is the sum of its values for the
parts into which the system is divided. Mass, volume, energy, and several other properties
introduced later are extensive. Extensive properties depend on the size or extent of a system.
The extensive properties of a system can change with time.
Intensive properties are not additive in the sense previously considered. Their values are
indenpendent of the size or extent of a system and may vary from place to place within the
system at any moment. Thus, intensive properties may be functions of both position and time,
whereas extensive properties vary at most with time.
Density, Specific Volume, Phase and Pure Substance
The term phase refers to a quantity of matter that is homogeneous throughout in both
chemical composition and physical structure. Homogeneity in physical structure means that
the matter is all solid, or all liquid, or all vapor (or equivalently all gas). A system can
contain one or more phases. For example, a system of liquid water and water vapor (steam)
contains two phases. When more than one phase is present, the phases are separated by
phase boundaries.
A pure substance is one that is uniform and invariable in chemical composition. A pure
substance can exist in more than one phase, but its chemical composition must be the same
in each phase. For example, if liquid water and water vapor form a system with two phases,
the system can be regarded as a pure substance because each phase has the same
composition. A uniform mixture of gases can be regarded as a pure substance provided it
remains a gas and does not react chemically.
The density, or local mass per unit volume, is an intensive property that may vary from
point to point within a system.
The specific volume is defined as the reciprocal of the density, v=1/. It is the volume per
unit mass.
=m/V
Dimensions and Units
Mass
Lengt
h
Tim
e
Temperatur
e
SI Units
The system of units called SI, takes mass, length, and time as primary dimensions and regards
force as secondary. SI is the abbreviation for Systeme International dUnites (International
System of Units), which is the legally accepted system in most countries. The conventions of
the SI are published and controlled by an international treaty organization. The SI base units
for mass, length, and time are listed in the Table. The SI base unit for temperature is the
kelvin, K.
SI units for other physical quantities are also derived in terms of the SI base units.
Conversion Factors (1)
(2)
Pressure
( ) Pa
m
N
2

1
]
1
A
F
p
_
F F fo
r
(1)
t
t
t
t
t
t+t
t
t
Relationships among the absolute, atmospheric, gage, and vacuum pressures.

(2)
Pressure measurement by a Bourdon tube gage.
Pressure sensor with automatic data acquisition.
(3)
gL p p +
atm
gL p p
atm
atm
p
L
atm
p p
atm
p
p
(4)
Temperature
The idea of temperature introduces the ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS, as
an operational definition of this quantity, and of its measurement principle
The third system plays here the role of thermometer, which is necessarily in thermal
equilibrium with the medium, the temperature of which is being measured
Two systems that are, each for itself, in a thermal
equilibrium with a third system are in thermal
equilibrium among themselves, too.
Illustration of the Zeroth Law of
thermodynamics
(1)
P versus T plots of the experimental data obtained
from a constant-volume gas thermometer using four
different gases at different (but low) pressures.
Comparison of
temperature scales.
(2)
Temperature Measurement
Liquid-in-
glass
termometer
Infrared
thermometer
Battery-powered
digital
thermometer
[ ] [ ] 22 C
2
2
F +

T T
(1)
Iron-constantan thermocouple with reference junction
in an ice water bath connected to a potentiometer
(2)
p-v-T Surface
p-v-T surface for a substance
that expands on freezing.
(1)
p-v-T surface for a substance
that contracts on freezing
(2)
Vaporation of Water
sat
T
sat
T
Constant-pressure change from liquid to vapor phase for a pure supstance
Vaporation of Water at Diferent Pressures
Critical point
Constant-pressure change from liquid to vapor phase for a pure supstance
in p-v coordinates
v
A - Liquid
B - Saturated liquid
C - Wet vapor
D - Saturated vapor
E - Superheated vapor
v
Transition from liquid to vapor for two diferent
pressures
Critical
point
( ) [ ] kPa
22 , 222
22 , 3333
2222 , 22 exp
22
2
,
_
+

T
T p
sat
[ ] % 22 , 2 , t error C T

CP
T
v
const T
const pv
Lines of T=const on p-v diagram
const T
const p
v
p-v diagram for the two-phase liquid-vapor region to
show
the concept of quality
p
. .P C
(3)
For a two-phase liquidvapor mixture, the ratio
of the mass of vapor present to the total
mass of the mixture is its quality x.
(4)
Sketch of a Tv diagram for water used to discuss locating states in the tables.
Critical point
p-v diagram for water showing temperature and quality lines
Phase Diagram
Sketch of the phase diagram for water used
to discuss the structure of the superheated
vapor and compressed liquid tables (not to
scale).
Saturated Water
Saturated Water
Example
Have a basic idea of what thermodynamics is and the kinds of engineering problems to which it
applies.
Be able to distinguish between a system and a control volume.
Have an understanding of and be able to state the formal definitions of thermodynamic properties,
states, processes, and cycles.
Understand the distinction between primary dimensions and derived dimensions, and the
distinction between dimensions and units.
Be able to convert units of force, mass, energy, and power to other units, and vice versa.
Be familiar with the following basic thermodynamic properties: pressure, temperature, specific
volume and density.
Know the common temperature scales and be proficient at conversions among them.
Be proficient at obtaining thermodynamic properties for liquids and gases from printed tables.
Be able to explain in words and write out mathematically the meaning of the thermodynamic
property quality.
Be able to draw and identify on p-v diagram: saturated liquid line, saturated vapor line, critical
point, compressed liquid region, liquid-vapor region, and superheated vapor region.
Learning objectives. Student should:

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Mechanical

Marine engineering is a field that encompasses a variety of thermal machines

In this regard, students should be trained in the proper basic knowledge of

Taking into account the fundamental principles of thermodynamics, this

Furthermore, Einstein showed at the beginning of the twentieth century that it is

Real energy transformations are always followed by dissipation phenomena (in

Therefore, each transformation of energy is connected with thermal phenomena.

Be able to distinguish between a system and a control volume.

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