Introduction

The earth can be divided into three concentric layers:

1. Crust 2. Mantle 3. Core

LAYERS OF THE EARTH

The crust is the solid outermost layer. It is also called the lithosphere. It is relatively thin layer. The upper part of the crust is called continental crust (about 35 km thick) and the lower part is called oceanic crust (about 10 km/6.2 mi thick). The oceanic crust mostly consists of basaltic types of rock and the continental crust is largely made of granite and is more complex in its structure. The continental crust comprises of silica (si) and alumina (al) and is called sial whereas the oceanic crust is made up of silica (Si) and magnesium (Ma) and is called sima. The average density of the crust is about 3.0 g per cubic cm. The outer crust has soil and it also us with most of the minerals.

Crust

Just beneath the crust is a 2,900 km thick layer called the mantle. It lies between the crust and the core and accounts for 82% of the Earth's volume. The mantle is subdivided into three shells: 1. The upper mantle that extends to 400 km/250 mi beneath the surface; 2. The transition zone 400-650 km/250-400 mi down; 3. The lower mantle 650-2,900 km/400-1,800 mi down. It is made up of dense and heavy materials such as iron and magnesium. It is separated from the crust by the Mohorovicic discontinuity, and from the core by the Gutenberg discontinuity. The average density ranges between 3.5 g to 5.5 g per cubic cm. The temperature in the mantle is very high. Magma is found in this layer.

Core
The core lies below the mantle and around the centre of the

earth. It is also called barysphere. It is divided into an inner core, the upper boundary of which is 1,700 km/1,060 mi from the center, and an outer core, 1,820 km/1,130 mi thick. The average radius of the core is about 3,500 km. It is made up of heavy metals, such as nickel and iron. Therefore, it is called nife (Ni stands for nickel and Fe for iron). The temperature of this layer varies between 2,200 C and 5,000 C. The average density ranges between 5.0 g and 13.0 g per cubic cm. Evidence for the nature of the core comes from seismology (observation of the paths of earthquake waves through the Earth), and calculations of the Earth's density.

The lithosphere is made up of rocks and mineral. Rock is composed of mineral particles and/or materials of organic. Minerals are naturally formed inorganic substance with a particular chemical composition and a regularly repeating internal structure.

ROCKS

 On

the basis of the mode of formation, there are three major types of rocks: 1. Igneous rocks 2. Sedimentary rocks 3. Metamorphic rocks

Igneous Rocks
The word, igneous, has been derived from the Latin word ignis meaning fire. They are formed from cooling magma or lava, and solidifying from a molten state. Thee rocks are classified according to their crystal size, texture, chemical composition, or method of formation. They are largely composed of silica (SiO2) and they are classified by their silica content into groups: 1. Acid (over 66% silica) 2. Intermediate (55%-66%) 3. Basic (45%-55%) 4. Ultra basic (under 45%) Igneous rocks that crystallize below the Earth's surface are called plutonic or intrusive, depending on the depth of formation and those extruded at the surface are called extrusive or volcanic.

Characteristics of Igneous Rocks

These rocks are hard and compact. These rocks do not occur in distinct beds or stratas. These rocks do not have remains of animals or plants. These rocks do not allow water to percolate through them. Valuable minerals such as iron, gold, silver, aluminium are found in these rocks.

IGNEOUS ROCKS

Sedimentary rocks are formed by the accumulation and cementation of deposits that have been laid down by water, wind, ice, or gravity. These rocks cover more than two-thirds of the Earth's surface and comprise three major categories: 1. Clastic - Clastic sediments are the largest group and are composed of fragments of pre-existing rocks; they include clays, sands, and gravels. 2. Chemically precipitated - Chemical precipitates include some limestone and evaporated deposits such as gypsum and halite (rock salt). 3. Organic (or biogenic) - Coal, oil shale, and limestone made of fossil material are examples of organic sedimentary rocks. Most sedimentary rocks show distinct layering (stratification), caused by alterations in composition or by changes in rock type. These strata may become folded or fractured by the movement of the Earths crust and the process is known as deformation.

These rocks are softer than igneous rocks. These rocks have horizontal layers, arranged one above the other. These rocks are mostly formed under water and have marks of waves and mud cracks. These rocks also contain remains of animals and plants, called fossils, between the layers. The important examples are sandstone, limestone and coal.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are altered in structure and composition by pressure, heat, or chemically active fluids after original formation. (If heat is sufficient to melt the original rock, technically it becomes an igneous rock upon cooling.) The term was coined in 1833 by Scottish geologist Charles Lyell (17971875). The mineral assemblage present in a metamorphic rock depends on the composition of the starting material (which may be sedimentary or igneous) and the temperature and pressure conditions to which it is subjected. Most metamorphism involves little change in bulk chemistry except for loss or gain of water and other volatiles; chemical changes may, however, occur owing to the action of fluids. Very high-grade metamorphism can cause a rock to melt, and some granites appear to have been formed in this way. There are three types of metamorphism: 1. Thermal metamorphism - It involves mainly heat changes as in rocks adjacent to an igneous body 2. Dynamic metamorphism It occurs with changes in stress as in a fault 3. Regional metamorphism - It involves both heat and pressure and is associated with rock deformation taking place at convergent plate boundaries (see plate tectonics).

Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks

These rocks after changes remain in their original position. They are very hard and have a high specific gravity. These rocks do not have empty spaces in them. Gems can be found in these rocks. Most important examples are limestone to marble, shale into slate, granite into gneiss, sandstone into quartzite.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Uses of Rocks and Minerals

In ancient times, rocks were used to make tools and weapons. Rocks are widely used in the construction of roads, houses and buildings. Minerals like coal and petroleum provide the sources of power. Chemicals found in some sedimentary rocks are used to make fertilizers. Soil is formed from rocks.