Reactive Power and Voltage

Control
Chapter 5
Introduction
To make sure an efficient and reliable operation of power
systems, the control of voltage and reactive power should
satisfy the following objectives:

Voltage magnitudes at the terminals of all equipment
are within the acceptable limits (usually 5-6%).

System stability, especially voltage stability, is
enhanced to maximize the utilization of the
transmission system.

Reactive power flow is minimized so as to reduce both
real and reactive power losses in the transmission lines
and reactive power losses in the transformers to a
practical minimum.
Introduction
Maintaining bus voltages within the required limits is not
easy, as the reactive power transmission become difficult
at the stressed conditions.
Reactive power need to be supplied by the generating
stations.
As the system approaches the maximum loading point,
the reactive power losses increase exponentially.
Reactive power transmission becomes very difficult.

Therefore,
Reactive power: easy to produce but difficult to transmit
Real power: difficult to produce but easy to transmit
Reactive power cannot be effectively
transmitted across long distances due
to high I
2
X losses.
Transmitting Reactive Power
Introduction
Ref.: A Tariff for Local Reactive Power Supply. IEEE PES T&D Conference, April 24, 2008
Introduction
Because of these reasons, the voltage control has to be
carried out using special devices dispersed throughout
the system and/or reactive power should be provided
locally instead of transmitting this from a long
distance.
This is in contrast to the control of frequency, which
depends on the overall active power balance.

The proper selection and coordination of equipment for
controlling reactive power and voltage are some of the
major challenges in power system operation and control.

Production and Absorption of
Reactive Power
Synchronous generator:
Can generate or absorb reactive power.
If it is over-excited, it supplies reactive power, if
not, under-excited, absorb reactive power.
However, capability of continuous supply or
absorption limited by the field current, armature
current and end-region heating limit.
A synchronous generator is normally equipped with
automatic voltage regulator or AVR, which
continually adjusts the excitation system so as to
control the armature voltage.

Production and Absorption of
Reactive Power
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
250
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
LINE LOADING (MVA)
L
O
S
S
E
S

(
M
W

a
n
d

M
V
A
R
)
REACTIVE LOSS
REAL LOSS
345-kV line 230-kV line
Tline
Ref.: A Tariff for Local Reactive Power Supply. IEEE PES T&D Conference, April 24, 2008
For a Slight Change in PF, there is a Big
Change in kVAR Capacity
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
KVar
P
F
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
K
V
a
r
/
K
V
A
PF
Inc KVAR/Inc KVA
Ref.: A Tariff for Local Reactive Power Supply. IEEE PES T&D Conference, April 24, 2008
Production and Absorption of
Reactive Power
Synchronous generators capability curve:

End region heating limit
Armature current limit
Field current limit
Over
excited
Q (p.u.)
P (p.u.)
Under
excited
Production and Absorption of
Reactive Power
Synchronous Generator and Inverter Reactive Power Limit

Ref.: A Tariff for Local Reactive Power Supply. IEEE PES T&D Conference, April 24, 2008
Load Shedding
Active and Reactive Power Control
Minimum
Excitation
Rotor Instability Line
Operating
Minimum
Turbine Maximum
P
Q-Lag Q-Lead
Maximum Excitation
(Rotor Heating)
MVA-circle
(Stator Heating)
Minimum
PF-Leading
Minimum
PF-lagging
Display Generator Capability Diagram
Ref.: ABB
Over-head Lines:
Depending on the load current, either absorb or supply
reactive power.
At loads below the natural often referred to as
surge impedance load, the line produce net reactive
power, this happens due to the shunt capacitive
elements along the line.
The surge impedance load of a transmission line is
defined as the power delivered by a transmission line
when it is terminated by its surge impedance (lossless
line) is know as the natural load or surge impedance
load (SIL):


2 2
0 0
c
V V
SIL MW
Z
L
C
= =
Production and Absorption of
Reactive Power
Production and Absorption of
Reactive Power
Over-head Lines:
Voltage profile of a transmission line for various
loads, above, below and equal to SIL:

Receiving end
Voltage
V
R
No Load
=V
S
/cos(|l)
V
R
Full Load
Sending end
Production and Absorption of
Reactive Power
Underground Cable:

Due to their high capacitance, have high natural loads.

They are always loaded below their natural loads, and
hence generate reactive power under all operating
conditions.

Production and Absorption of
Reactive Power
Transformers:

Always absorb reactive power regardless of their
loading levels, including no load (due to the shunt
magnetizing reactance).

At the full load condition, reactive power absorbed by
the series leakage inductance is higher than that
absorbed by shunt-magnetizing component.

Production and Absorption of
Reactive Power
Loads:

Generally, absorb reactive power.

Various composite characteristics are normally
absorbs reactive power.

Both the active and reactive power of the composite
loads varies as a function of voltage magnitudes.

Loads at low lagging power factors causes excessive
voltage drops in transmission network and are
uneconomical to supply.
Production and Absorption of
Reactive Power
Compensation Devices:
are usually added to supply or absorb reactive power
and thereby control the reactive power balance in a
desired manner.

Shunt and series capacitors and reactors are early
compensation device have been used in the system
since long.

FACTS controllers are the latest arrival in
compensation devices, which are quite expensive
compared to the capacitors or inductors.
Method of Voltage Control
The control of voltage level is accomplished by
controlling the production, absorption and flow of
reactive power at all levels in the system.

Recall the fact that there is a strong correlation between
reactive power and voltage.

The generating units provide the basic means of voltage
control; the automatic voltage regulators control field
excitation to maintain a schedule voltage level at the
terminals of the generators.
Method of Voltage Control
Generator Voltage Control:

The exciter delivers DC power to the field winding on
the rotor of a synchronous generator.
At the beginning, generators were equipped with
exciter consists of a DC generator driven by the rotor.
Generators now are supplied with static or
brushless exciters.
In the case of a static exciter, AC power is obtained
directly from the generator terminals nearby station
service bus.
In brushless exciters, AC power is obtained form an
inverted synchronous generator whose three-phase
armature windings are located on the main generator
rotor and filed windings are located on the stator.
Method of Voltage Control
Generator Voltage Control:
Voltage
Regulator
Exciter Generator
Stabilizing
Compensator
V
t
-
V
ref
+
AV
V
t

Method of Voltage Control
Generator Voltage Control:

Voltage Regulator: Processes and amplifies input
control signals.
Exciter: Provide DC power to the synchronous
machine filed winding.
Power System Stabilizer: Provide an additional input
signal to the regulator to damp power system
oscillation
Generator:
There can be other two blocks, namely Terminal
voltage transducer and load compensation and
Limiters and Protective Circuits.

Method of Voltage Control
Generator Voltage Control:

Terminal Voltage Transducer and Load
Compensation
Senses generator terminal voltage, rectifies, and filters it to dc
quantity.
Line-drop compensation
Hold constant voltage at some point electrically remote from
the generator terminal.

Limiters and Protective Circuits
Field current limiters, maximum excitation limiters, terminal
voltage limiter, under-excitation limiters.
Volts-per-Hz regulators and protection.
Various other protections.
Method of Voltage Control
Voltage Control Elsewhere:

Additional means are usually required to control
voltage throughout the system.
Various device used for this purpose can be classified
as follows:

Source or sinks of the reactive power depending on whether
the voltages need to be increased or decreased.
Line reactance compensators, such as series capacitors.
Regulating transformers, such as tap-changing transformers
and boosters.
Method of Voltage Control
Voltage Control Elsewhere:

Shunt capacitors and reactors, and series capacitors
are passive compensation device.
They are either permanently connected to the
transmission and distribution system, or switched.
They contribute to voltage control by modifying the
network characteristics.
Synchronous compensators and FACTS devices, both
shunt and series provide active compensation.

Shunt Capacitors:

Connection of shunt capacitors is probably the simplest,
widely used and the most economical form of
compensation.

Consider the figure 5.4 in the lecture notes.

Thevenin equivalent as seen by the load (i.e. the left of
the dotted line in figure 5.4) has the following emf and
reactance
E
X B B
X
E
l c
th
) ( 1 +
=
Voltage Control Elsewhere
X B B
X
X
l c
th
) ( 1 +
=
Shunt Capacitors:



The maximum power deliverable for constant
power factor cos(|) and the corresponding load
voltage:

X
E
X B B X
E
P
l c th
th
2 sin 1
cos
) ( 1
1
2 sin 1
cos
2 2
max
|
|
|
|
+ +
=
(

+
=
Voltage Control Elsewhere
Voltage Control Elsewhere
Shunt Capacitors:



At quick glance, we can see that with an increase in
shunt compensation, both the P
max
and V
max
increase
by the same percentage.

) sin 1 ( 2
) ( 1
1
) sin 1 ( 2
max
| | +
+
=
+
=
E
X B B
E
V
l c
th
P
Voltage Control Elsewhere
Shunt Reactors:

Shunt reactors are used to compensate for the effects of
line capacitance, particularly to limit the voltage rise
during the open circuit or lightly loaded conditions.

Shunt reactors are usually required for EHV overhead
lines longer than 200 km.

A shorter overhead line may also require shunt reactors if
the line is supplied from a weak system.
A shunt reactor of sufficient size must be permanently
connected to the line to limit fundamental-frequency
temporary over-voltages.

Voltage Control Elsewhere
Shunt Reactors:

Such line-connected reactors also serve to limit
energization over-voltages, especially switching
transients.
Additional shunt reactors required to maintain normal
voltage under lightly loaded conditions.
These may be may be connected to the EHV bus, or to
tertiary windings of adjacent transformers.
During heavy loaded conditions some of the reactors may
have to be disconnected.
For shorter lines supplied from strong systems, there may
not be a need for reactors connected to the line
permanently.

Voltage Control Elsewhere
Series Capacitors:

These are connected in series with the transmission lines
and are used to reduce the inductive reactance of the
transmission lines.

Major drawback is the high over-voltage produced when
a short-circuit current flows through the capacitor, and
special protective devices need to be incorporated, such
as spark gaps and nonlinear resistors.
Voltage Control Elsewhere

Relative Advantage of Series Compensation:
Series capacitors are inherently self-regulating; a control
system is not needed.
For equivalent performance, series capacitors are often
less expensive than their shunt counterparts, like FACTS;
losses are very low.
For voltage stability, series capacitors lower the critical or
collapse voltage.
Series capacitors have significant time-overload
capability.
Series capacitors and switched series capacitors can be
used control loading of parallel lines to minimize active
and reactive losses.


Voltage Control Elsewhere
Some disadvantages of series compensation are

To reinforce an established grid, many parallel lines may
have to be series compensated.

Series capacitors are line connected; compensation is
removed for outages, and capacitors in parallel lines may
be overloaded.
During heavy loading (outage of parallel lines), the
voltage on one side of the series capacitors may be out-
of-range.

Shunt reactors may be needed for light load
compensation.
Subsynchronous resonance possible may need expensive
countermeasures.
Voltage Control Elsewhere
FACTS Controllers

Synchronous Compensators

Regulators
Secondary Voltage Regulation (SVR)
System is divided into several zones, one Pilot bus is
selected in each zone.

SVR controls the voltage at the pilot bus by adjusting the
neighboring generator set points.

Usually this is done every 10 seconds.

SVR does not command the normal means of controlling
the voltages using shunt capacitors and tap changers.

The SVR scheme was first introduced in France in 1970.
Secondary Voltage Regulation (SVR)
There are several other countries adopting SVR for
voltage control such as Italy, Brazil.

Interactions could happen between zones.

That case the SVR algorithm should be modified to avoid
or minimized the interactions.
Tertiary Voltage Control (TVC)
TVC Optimizes the voltage over the whole region using
a reactive optimal power flow.

TVC runs at a regular intervals, e.g. every 15 min., or on
dispatches request, following a disturbance.

It commands all the voltage control means and provide
parameters to SVR (pilot voltages).