229
SYNOPSIS
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Soil a Review
Wolfgang Wilcke1*
1
Institute of Soil Science and Soil Geography, University of Bayreuth, D-95440 Bayreuth, Germany
Accepted 23 March 2000
Summary Zusammenfassung
PAHs are mainly produced by combustion processes and consist
of a number of toxic compounds. While the concentrations of
individual PAHs in soil produced by natural processes (e.g.,
vegetation fires, volcanic exhalations) are estimated to be around
110 mg kg1, recently measured lowest concentrations are
frequently 10 times higher. Organic horizons of forest soils and
urban soils may even reach individual PAH concentrations of
several 100 mg kg1. The PAH mixture in temperate soils is often
dominated by benzofluoranthenes, chrysene, and fluoranthene. The
few existing studies on tropical soils indicate that the PAH
concentrations are relatively lower than in temperate soils for most
compounds except for naphthalene, phenanthrene, and perylene
suggesting the presence of unidentified PAH sources. PAHs
accumulate in C-rich topsoils, in the stemfoot area, at aggregate
surfaces, and in the fine-textured particle fractions, particularly the
silt fraction. PAHs are mainly associated with soil organic matter
(SOM) and soot-like C. Although the water-solubility of PAHs is
low, they are encountered in the subsoil suggesting that they are
transported in association with dissolved organic matter (DOM).
The uptake of PAHs by plants is small. Most PAHs detected in
plant tissue are from atmospheric deposition. However, earthworms
bioaccumulate considerable amounts of PAHs in short periods. The
reviewed work illustrates that there is a paucity of data on the
global distribution of PAHs, particularly with respect to tropical
and southern hemispheric regions. Reliable methods to characterize
bioavailable PAH pools in soil still need to be developed.
Key words: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons / PAHs / soil
contamination / global distribution
1 Introduction
PAHs are a class of several hundred individual compounds
containing at least two condensed rings. They are produced
by the incomplete combustion of compounds containing C
and H, and diagenesis (Sims and Overcash, 1983; Baek et al.,
1991). Today, anthropogenic combustion of fossil fuels is
the by far most important source of PAH inputs to the
environment (Baek et al., 1991). Once emitted, they are
distributed atmospherically and deposited onto terrestrial,
lacustrine, and marine surfaces. Wild and Jones (1995)
estimated that at least 90% of the environmental PAH
* Correspondence: PD Dr. W. Wilcke; E-mail: wolfgang.wilcke@uni-
bayreuth.de
J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. (2000), 163, 229248 (2000)  WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH, D-69451 Weinheim, 2000
Polyzyklische aromatische Kohlenwasser-
stoffe (PAK) in Bden eine bersicht
PAK entstehen vor allem durch Verbrennung; die Stoffklasse
enthlt eine Reihe toxischer Verbindungen. Whrend die durch
natrliche Prozesse (z.B. Vegetationsbrnde, Vulkanausbrche)
verursachten Hintergrundgehalte von einzelnen PAK in Bden auf
110 mg kg1 geschtzt werden, liegen die heute gemessenen
niedrigsten Gehalte oft um den Faktor 10 hher. Organische
Waldbodenauflagen und urbane Bden knnen sogar mehrere
100 mg kg1 an einzelnen PAK enthalten. Das PAK-Spektrum in
Bden der gemigten Breiten wird oft von den Benzofluoranthe-
nen, Chrysen und Fluoranthen dominiert. Die wenigen vorliegenden
Arbeiten zu tropischen Bden deuten an, dass ihre PAK-Gehalte
im Vergleich zu Bden der gemigten Breiten bis auf die
Naphthalin-, Phenanthren- und Perylen-Gehalte niedrig sind. Fr
Letztere werden bislang unbekannte Quellen in den Tropen
vermutet. PAK akkumulieren in C-reichen Oberbden, im Stamm-
fubereich, auf Aggregatoberflchen und in den feineren Korn-
grenklassen, v.a. im Schluff. PAK sind vor allem mit organischer
Substanz und ruartigem C assoziiert. Obwohl die Wasserlslich-
keit von PAK gering ist, findet man sie im Unterboden, was darauf
hindeutet, dass PAK in Verbindung mit gelster organischer
Substanz transportiert werden. Die Pflanzenaufnahme von PAK
aus dem Boden ist gering. Die meisten PAK, die in Pflanzenge-
webe gefunden werden, stammen aus der Atmosphre. Regen-
wrmer sind allerdings in der Lage, in kurzer Zeit erhebliche PAK-
Mengen zu akkumulieren. Diese bersichtsarbeit macht deutlich,
dass es einen Mangel an Information ber die globale PAK-
Verteilung gibt. Dies gilt insbesondere fr Bden der Tropen und
der sdlichen Hemisphre. Standardmethoden zur Charakterisierung
bioverfgbarer PAK-Pools mssen noch entwickelt werden.
burden in Great Britain is stored in soil. This estimate
excluded contaminated sites like the gaswork sites, petro-
leum refineries, or wood preservation plants.
PAHs have received much attention since they were found
in soils for the first time by Blumer (1961). The reason is the
toxicity to humans and their possible harmful effect on soil
organisms and plants (Menzie et al., 1992; Marquardt and
Schfer, 1994). First reviews on the fate of PAH in soil-plant
systems have been presented by Edwards (1983) and Sims
and Overcash (1983). In the early eighties some book
publications dealt with the state-of-the-art in analyzing
PAHs and summarized the knowledge of their occurrence
and fate in the environment (Hutzinger, 1980; Lee et al.,
1981; Bjrseth, 1983; Grimmer, 1983; Bjrseth and
Ramdahl, 1985). A review of Venkatesan (1988) informed
1436-8730/00/0306-0229 $17.50+.50/0
230 Wilcke

about sources and fate of perylene in sediments. Reviews of
Nikolaou et al. (1984), Baek et al. (1991), and Menichini
(1992) summarized sources and fate of PAHs in the
atmosphere; the latter with particular respect to the urban
atmosphere. Cerniglia (1984) gave an overview of the
mammalian and microbial metabolism of PAHs.
The objective of this review is to summarize the present
state of knowledge on the distribution of PAHs in soils and
the processes affecting it on a global scale.
2 Concentrations and distribution of PAHs in soils
2.1 Concentration levels in soils
Individual PAH concentrations in soils produced by natural
processes like vegetation fires and volcanic exhalations have
been estimated to be in the range of 110 mg kg1 (Edwards,
1983). In the most remote areas like the arctic benzo(a)pyr-
ene concentrations range between 0.8 and 4.3 mg kg1 and
thus are still near preindustrial concentration levels (Knoche
et al., 1995). At present, even the lowest measured PAH
concentrations in temperate soils are about 10 times higher
than the concentrations assumed to have been present prior
to industrialization and thus already include an anthropo-
genic contribution (Edwards, 1983; Sims and Overcash,
1983). Generally, PAH concentrations in soils increase with
increasing impact of industry, traffic, and domestic heating
(Sims and Overcash, 1983; Jones et al., 1989c; Reinirkens,
1993). PAH concentrations in topsoils increase in the order
arable soils < mineral soils under forest < permanent
grassland < urban soils < specifically contaminated sites
(Reinirkens, 1993, Knoche et al., 1995).
2.2 Deposition from the atmosphere
Most PAHs reach the soil via deposition from the
atmosphere. Fhr et al. (1986) estimated the PAH emissions
of the western part of Germany to be in the range of 500 to
1000 t a1 which would correspond to deposition rates of 20
40 g ha1 a1. Wild and Jones (1995) estimated emissions of
11 PAH to the UK atmosphere to total about 700 t a1 and the
average deposition rate to be 8.4 g ha1 a1. Further estimates
of deposition rates are given in Tab. 1.
The flux of PAHs to soil is largely influenced by their
concentrations in the atmosphere. In the atmosphere, PAH
concentrations vary depending on time of the year, weather
conditions, time of the day and properties of the study site. In
winter, PAH concentrations in the atmosphere of the
temperate region are higher because of increased domestic
heating, reduced thermal and photo-decomposition, and less
atmospheric mixing due to more inversion situations
(Masclet et al., 1986; De Raat and Meijere, 1991; Menichini,
1992).

Table 1: Deposition rates of PAHs to soil and water surfaces.

Tabelle 1: Depositionsraten von PAK auf Boden und Wasseroberflchen.

Johnston and Matzner, 1984b Wickstrm and Jones Sanders et Wild and
Harrison, 1984a Tolonen, et al., al., Jones,
1987c 1989cd 1995e 1995f
Next to Back- Bulk Through-
highway ground fall
g ha1 a1

Naphthalene 0.081.26
Acenaphthylene 1.2
Acenaphthene 0.1 0.091.46g
Fluorene 1.45
Phenanthrene 0.011.00 2.0 0.593.29 2.03
Anthracene 1.2 < 0.001 0.060.97 0.08
Fluoranthene 5.87.9 < 0.001 0.250.69 0.581.00 0.012.8 4.6 0.386.44 1.47
Pyrene 0.011.7 4.0 0.144.48 0.89
Benz(a)anthracene 2.53.0 0.04 0.010.76 2.9 0.112.61h 0.48h
Chrysene 0.012.7i 3.0
Benzo(b)fluoranthene 3.13.8 0.19 6.7 0.095.43 0.68
Benzo(k)fluoranthene 1.11.5 0.08 6.8 0.021.89
Benzo(e)pyrene 0.013.10 3.8
Benzo(a)pyrene 2.32.5 0.05 0.020.11 0.120.21 0.012.60 3.6 0.051.33 0.73
Perylene 0.5
Indeno(1,2,3cd)pyrene 0.070.36 0.270.43 2.5
Dibenz(a, h)anthracene 0.7
Anthanthrene 1.0
Benzo(ghi)perylene 0.100.41 0.360.66 1.6 0.042.65 0.62
Coronene 0.5 ndj0.55
a
UK soils 198283. bGerman forest soils 198081. cNet fluxes to four rural Finnish lakes 17551985. dNet fluxes to a rural UK soil 18811980. eNet fluxes
to a rural UK peat ca. 17801989. fTwo urban UK soils (sampling time unknown). gIncludes fluorene. hIncludes chrysene. iIncludes triphenylene. jNot
detected.
PAHs in soil a review 231

Generally, concentrations of PAHs in soil decrease studies, correlations between organic C and PAH concen-
exponentially with increasing distance from a point source trations in soils have been reported (e.g. Jones et al., 1989d;
(Vogt et al., 1987; Van Brummelen et al., 1996a; Wilcke et Wilcke et al., 1999, b). Pathirana et al. (1994) observed a
al., 1996b). The transport distance of individual PAHs from correlation between PAH and lipid concentrations in soils
the emission sources depends principally on PAH half-lives next to a road near Brisbane (Australia). Correlations
in the atmosphere where PAHs may be degraded by thermal between PAH concentrations and those of other organic
or photo-decomposition and reaction with O3, SO2, SO3, pollutants such as the polychlorinated biphenyls have also
NOx or OH radicals (Butler and Crossley, 1981; Nikolaou et been reported and interpreted as indication of joint sources
al., 1984). The transformation of PAHs in the atmosphere is (Weiss et al., 1994). As traffic exhausts are a source for PAH
reduced when they are sorbed to particles. Depending on the and Pb some authors observed correlations between PAH
nature of the particles, transformation and degradation may and Pb concentrations in soil (Thomas et al., 1984; Boos et
even be completely inhibited. The sorption to soot particles al., 1990; Schulte, 1996). In the vicinity of an industrial area
allows for long-distance transport of unaltered PAHs of Linz (Austria), the PAH concentrations also correlated
(Nikolaou et al., 1984). The extent to which a PAH is with those of other heavy metals such as Cd, Cu, Hg, and Zn
sorbed to atmospheric particles increases with decreasing (Boos et al., 1990; Schulte, 1996).
volatility (Meharg et al., 1998). Yang et al. (1991) and
Meharg et al. (1998) observed that the transport distance
decreased with increasing molecular weight because the
proportion associated with fast settling atmospheric particles
increased. Gaseous PAHs, in contrast, may be distributed
over longer distances.
In forests, the canopy throughfall contains higher PAH
concentrations than the precipitation, because of the washout
of dry depositions. This effect is more pronounced in
coniferous than in deciduous forest (Matzner, 1984;
Blessing, 1996). Additionally, litter fall increases soil PAH
inputs in forests due to sorbed gaseous and particulate PAHs.
Snow and fog seem to have a particularly high scavenging
efficiency for atmospheric PAHs (Hartmann, 1995; Bless-
ing, 1996; Pichler et al., 1996). When PAH depositions
result from long-distance atmospheric transport, concen-
trations increase with increasing altitude (Korff et al., 1980;
Wilcke and Zech, 1997). However, this is not generally true
because Weiss (1998) did not detect a relationship between
altitude and PAH concentrations in organic layers of remote
Alpine forest soils in Austria.

2.3 PAH patterns in soils from temperate zones

Frequently, most individual PAH concentrations in soils
are strongly correlated with each other (e.g., Weiss et al.,
1994, Wilcke et al., 1997, Sauerwein, 1998), because PAH
patterns in soils are similar throughout the temperate zone.
The most abundant individual PAHs include the ben-
zo(b+j+k)fluoranthenes, chrysene, fluoranthene, and pyrene
(e.g., Jones et al., 1989d; Weiss and Riss, 1992; Berset and
Holzer, 1995; Tab. 2, Fig. 1). Jones et al. (1989a) explained
the similarity in PAH patterns with their weathering, i.e.
transformation during atmospheric transport. Due to the
similarity of the PAH patterns benzo(a)pyrene concentra-
tions may be used to estimate total PAH concentrations (i.e.
the sum of the 16 EPA PAHs, e.g., Hellmann, 1982; Tebaay
et al., 1993; Wilcke et al., 1997). The relationship between
benzo(a)pyrene concentrations and those of the sum of the
16 EPA PAHs is different for organic and mineral horizons
(Figures 2ac). The correlation is weaker for B than for A
horizons because of the chromatographic effect during PAH
leaching to greater soil depth (Hartmann, 1995; Guggen-
berger et al., 1996; Wilcke et al., 1996b). In a range of
Figure 1: Mean PAH patterns in soils of a) different temperate sites and b)
different tropical sites. The results in a) are from 3 A horizons of forest
soils in Slovakia (Wilcke et al., 1996b), 9 A horizons of forest soils in the
Czech Republic (Wilcke and Zech, 1997), 6 urban topsoils in Stephans-
kirchen (Wilcke et al., 1997), and 25 urban topsoils in Bayreuth
(Eusterbrock, 1999). The results in b) are from 30 urban topsoils in
Bangkok, 4 rural topsoils in Ghana (Wilcke et al., 1999b), 18 urban topsoils
in Uberlandia, Brazil, and 3 rural topsoils in the Brazilian savanna (Wilcke
et al., 1999a). Abbreviations are explained in Table 4.
Abbildung 1: Mittlere PAK-Muster in Bden von a) verschiedenen
Standorten der gemigten Breiten und b) verschiedenen tropischen
Standorten. Die Ergebnisse in a) sind von 3 A-Horizonten von Waldbden
in der Slowakei (Wilcke et al., 1996b), 9 A-Horizonten von Waldbden in
Tschechien (Wilcke and Zech, 1997), 6 urbanen Oberbden in Stephans-
kirchen (Wilcke et al., 1997) und 25 urbanen Oberbden in Bayreuth
(Eusterbrock, 1999). Die Ergebnisse in b) sind von 30 urbanen Oberbden
in Bangkok, 4 lndlichen Oberbden in Ghana (Wilcke et al., 1999b), 18
urbanen Oberbden in Uberlandia, Brasilien und 3 lndlichen Oberbden in
der brasilianischen Savanne (Wilcke et al., 1999a).
Table 2: Range, arithmetic mean, and median of PAH concentrations in temperate topsoils.

232
Tabelle 2: Spanne, arithmetischer Mittelwert und Median der PAK-Gehalte in Oberbden der gemigten Breiten.

Arablea Grasslandb Forestc Urband

PAH Range Mean Median n Range Mean Median n Range Mean Median n Range Mean Median n
mg kg1

Naphthalene* nde20 5.7 4.0 14 nd25 4.0 3.0 33 1.6156 33 20 42 nd269 39 17 47

Acenaphthylene* nd220 17 2.0 14 nd23 2.3 nd 33 nd30 3.4 1.6 43 nd406 16 nd 73
Acenaphthene* nd51 9.6 nd 14 nd54 22 20 33 nd17 2.0 1.2 44 nd1800 57 1.2 73
Fluorene* nd5.0 1.1 nd 10 nd5.0 1.4 1.0 8 nd71 6.9 2.8 54 nd550 23 1.8 63
Phenanthrene* 6.067 26 17 14 7.067 19 14 33 3.2329 60 29 55 nd2809 190 37 108
Anthracene* nd11 2.4 1.6 14 nd4.3 1.6 1.5 33 nd75 8.6 3.4 54 nd1400 58 18 94
Fluoranthene* 3.0230 62 49 20 8.0350 51 34 37 0.1693 118 59 62 nd14200 805 273 138
Pyrene* 5.0134 39 28 15 6.080 25 23 33 0.4453 72 36 54 nd11900 593 155 117
Benz(a)anthracene* 3.0230 39 17 15 3.0100 26 23 33 nd402 43 15 54 nd7734 437 92 118
Chrysenef* 5.082 22 10 10 7.082 21 10 8 nd1123 117 43 54 nd-3556 278 53 106
Benzo(b)fluoranthene* 5.0100 33 30 19 4.0290 34 17 37 nd692 158 80 38 nd9700 456 80 91
Benzo(k)fluoranthene* nd38 10 10 15 2.081 20 11 12 nd2064 186 56 43 nd4224 236 30 81
Benzo(b + j + k)fluorantheneg 6.0100 43 42 20 9.8371 40 18 37 nd2064 243 114 60 1713600 762 190 116
Benzo(e)pyrene 39 39 1 nd775 87 39 42 nd6400 437 140 71
Benzo(a)pyrene* 2.085 18 14 20 3.0170 19 10 37 nd252 39 16 61 nd6461 350 88 138
Perylene 6.97.0 6.9 6.9 2 nd59 8.8 5.1 40 nd2300 93 9.4 59
Indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene* 5.035 15 8.0 11 6.035 14 9.0 8 0.4825 82 35 48 nd8000 387 76 90
Dibenz(a, h)anthracene* nd73 11 4.5 14 nd190 10 4.0 33 nd126 15 5.0 44 nd822 55 12 94
Anthanthrene 1.69.2 4.0 3.6 21
Benzo(ghi)perylene* 5.048 19 18 15 nd96 28 23 33 nd523 62 29 48 nd8370 370 91 130
Coronene nd5600 176 50 69
EPA-PAHsh 328 216 284 194 904 410 4420 1103
a
Data from Michels and Siegfried (1985), Jones et al. (1989a, d), Tebaay et al. (1993), Berset and Holzer (1995), Schulz (1995), Wilcke et al. (1997). bData from Jones et al. (1989d), Tebaay et al. (1993), Berset
and Holzer (1995). cData from Matzner (1984), Sullivan and Mix (1985), Fleischmann and Wilke (1991), Weiss and Riss (1992), Mnch (1993), Tebaay et al. (1993), Berset and Holzer (1995), Hartmann (1995),
Pichler (1995), Blessing (1996), Van Brummelen et al. (1996a), Wilcke et al. (1996a, b), Wilcke and Zech (1997), Krau et al. (2000). dData from Butler et al. (1984), Michels and Siegfried (1985), Jones et al.
(1989d), Kasperowski and Frank (1989), Boos et al. (1990), Weiss and Riss (1992), Felix-Henningsen et al. (1993), Joneck and Prinz (1993), Tebaay et al. (1993), Wilcke et al. (1997), Eusterbrock (1999). eNot
detected. fData frequently contains triphenylene. gSum of the benzo(b, j, and k)fluoranthenes. hSum of the means/medians, EPA-PAHs marked with an asterisk.

Wilcke
PAHs in soil a review
Figure 2: Relationship between the benzo(a)pyrene concentrations and the
sum of the concentrations of the 16 EPA PAHs in a) A horizons, b) B
horizons, and c) Oa horizons (Data from the same sources as in Tab. 2).
Abbildung 2: Beziehung zwischen den Benzo(a)pyren-Gehalten und den
Summengehalten der 16 EPA-PAK in a) A-Horizonten, b) B-Horizonten
und c) Oh-Horizonten (Daten aus den gleichen Quellen wie in Tab. 2).
2.4 PAH concentrations in differently used soils from
temperate zones
2.4.1 Agricultural soils
Besides the deposition from the atmosphere, the type of
land use influences the PAH concentrations and patterns in
soil. Therefore, the specific findings for a given land-use
type will be discussed in the following. Of course it must be
considered that distinctions between the various land-use
types may sometimes not be sharp because e.g., agricultural
or forest soils may be located in an urban area.
233
Arable topsoils typically contain around 200 mg kg1 for the
sum of the 16 EPA PAHs (Hellmann, 1982; Brne, 1986;
Berset and Holzer, 1995; Tab. 2). The low values are
attributable to the location in rural areas and to the dilution
with uncontaminated subsoil material by plowing (Bierl et
al., 1984; Brne, 1986). In permanent grassland soils, the
lack of dilution causes a stronger accumulation near the soil
surface (Brne, 1986; Hembrock-Heger et al., 1992). Soils
of river valleys often exhibit elevated PAH concentrations
following the distribution of fine textured sediment rich in
organic matter (e.g., Tebaay et al., 1993; Schulte, 1996;
Linke et al., 1997).
Concentrations of PAHs in agricultural soils may be
substantially and persistently increased when sewage sludge
(Wild et al., 1990, 1991a, b; Knoche et al., 1995), farmyard
manure (Wild et al., 1990; Schulz, 1995), compost (Brne,
1986) or composted waste-sewage sludge mixtures (Knig et
al., 1987) are applied. Wild et al. (1990, 1991b) detected 30
years after sewage sludge application still 3 times higher
PAH concentrations than in unamended control soils,
particularly of the less biodegradable higher molecular
PAHs. In their review on PAH concentrations in sewage
sludges, Drescher-Kaden et al. (1990) pointed out that PAHs
are present in all sewage sludges often at 10 times or more
higher concentrations than in soil. The application of sewage
sludge also changes soil chemical and biological properties.
The addition of sewage sludge increases the biological
activity, introduces microorganisms adapted to degrade
PAHs, and enhances the leaching of PAHs associated with
DOM, all together resulting in faster disappearance rates. In
contrast, the organic matter additions may cause a stronger
sorption of PAHs and thus inhibit degradation and leaching
(Beck et al., 1996).
2.4.2 Forest soils
Many publications show that PAH concentrations in the
organic layers of forest soils are substantially higher than in
the mineral soil (e.g., Matzner, 1984; Berteigne et al., 1988;
Hartmann, 1995). As the density of the organic layer is
much lower than that of the mineral horizon, the difference
in PAH storage between mineral and organic horizons is
smaller (Hartmann, 1995).
In general, PAH concentrations increase in the order Oi <
Oe < Oa which is explained by the faster mineralization of
organic matter than of PAHs and by preferential leaching
and degradation of the lower molecular PAHs (e.g.,
Berteigne et al., 1988; Hartmann, 1995; Pichler et al.
1996; Fig. 3). Matzner et al. (1981) assumed that the large
surface area of the Oa horizons may increase PAH sorption.
Wilcke et al. (1996b) found highest PAH concentrations in
organic layers heavily polluted by the emissions of an Al
smelter in the Oe horizon. The authors assumed that either
organic matter mineralization was reduced due to the high
pollutant load or PAH inputs from the atmosphere were
larger than PAH leaching and degradation. However,
Eschenbach et al. (1991) did not observe a reduction of
the microbial activity in highly PAH-contaminated soils.
The occurrence of maximum PAH concentrations in the Oe
horizon in some soils is reflected by the highest arithmetic
234
Figure 3: Depth distribution of average benzo(a)pyrene concentrations in
organic layers of forest soils. (Data from the same sources as in Table 2).
Abbildung 3: Tiefenverteilung mittlerer Benzo(a)pyren-Gehalte in der
organischen Auflage von Waldbden (Daten aus den gleichen Quellen wie
in Tabelle 2).
mean of the Oe horizons included in Fig. 3 while the
medians follow the order Oi < Oe < Oa. At sites covered by
mull, PAH concentrations were highest in the A horizon
probably because of fast biological mixing of degraded litter
and the mineral soil (Guggenberger et al., 1996).
Some authors assume that the PAH pattern resembles that
of the atmospheric deposition in the Oi horizon but is
gradually transformed with increasing soil depth (Hartmann,
1995; Wilcke and Zech, 1997). Increasing transformation of
organic matter and PAHs is reflected by decreasing
proportions of lower molecular (and thus more easily
degradable, more volatile, and more water-soluble) PAHs
in the order Oi > Oe > Oa (Berteigne et al., 1988; Pichler et
al., 1996; Wilcke and Zech, 1997). These differences in PAH
patterns were found to be smaller in heavily polluted organic
layers than in less polluted ones, probably because at high
input rates, PAHs are transported from Oi to Oa horizons
without transformation (Van Brummelen et al., 1996a).
In the mineral soil, the sum of PAH concentrations
decreases and the contribution of lower molecular PAHs to
the sum of PAH concentrations increases with increasing
depth (Guggenberger et al., 1996; Wilcke et al., 1996b;
Cousins et al., 1999). The concentration ratios of individual
PAHs in the B horizon to those in the Oa horizon are related
with the octanol-water partition coefficient (KOW, Fig. 4).
The leaching rate of a PAH increases with increasing water
solubility. The reduced dependence of the B/Oa ratios of
higher molecular PAHs on KOW may be due to the
increasing importance of DOM-associated transport. The
affinity of PAHs to DOM is positively correlated with the
KOW (Marschner, 1999).
Deschauer (1995) studied the impact of compost applica-
tion to nutrient-poor forest soils. He found two years after
application of up to 100 m3 compost significantly higher
PAH concentrations only in the Oi horizons although the
compost contained a 10 times higher PAH concentration
than the soil.
Wilcke
2.4.3 Urban soils
PAH concentrations in urban soils have received more
attention. Hembrock-Heger et al. (1992) observed increasing
PAH concentrations in soils with increasing population
density. Schulte (1996) found highest PAH concentrations in
urban soils of Leipzig in the inner city center. However, high
PAH concentrations have also been found in a rural village
in southern Germany without industry mainly because of
domestic heating and traffic on a national road (Wilcke et al.,
1997).
Pollutant concentrations in urban soils are highly variable
and strongly depend on the kind and content of technogenic
substrates and on kind and duration of land-use (Blume,
1996). Particularly, technogenic additions may increase
PAH concentrations in urban soils (Meuser, 1996). Typical
for cities which were heavily destroyed during the second
world war are soils containing partly burnt rubble which is
frequently highly PAH-contaminated (Smettan et al., 1993;
Smettan and Ehrig, 1995; Renger and Mekiffer, 1997).
In general, PAH concentrations in urban soils decrease
exponentially with increasing depth (Hembrock-Heger et al.,
1992; Schulte, 1996). However, particularly at abandoned
industrial sites, high PAH concentrations may occur in
deeper horizons because of sequential depositions of differ-
ently contaminated material (Tebaay et al., 1993; Schulte,
1996).
There is a number of studies reporting increased PAH
concentrations in soils next to roads (e.g., Butler et al., 1984;
Tebaay et al., 1993; Pathirana et al., 1994). The sources
of these PAHs include tar which may contain up to 1 g
benzo(a)pyrene kg1 (Borneff and Kunte, 1987), road and
tire abrasion (Tebaay et al., 1993), and street dust which
often has higher PAH concentrations than soil (Smith et al.,
Figure 4: Average relationship between the octanol-water partition
coefficient (KOW) and the ratio of PAH concentrations in the 1520 cm
layer to those in the Oa horizon of 16 north Bavarian Norway spruce (Picea
abies (L.) Karst.) sites (Krau et al., 2000). Abbreviations are explained in
the footnote of Table 4.
Abbildung 4: Mittlerer Zusammenhang zwischen dem Oktanol-Wasser-
Verteilungskoeffizienten (KOW) und dem Verhltnis zwischen den PAK-
Gehalten in der 1520 cm-Schicht des Mineralbodens und im Oh-Horizont
auf 16 Fichten-Standorten (Picea abies (L.), Karst.) in Nordbayern (Krau
et al., 2000).
PAHs in soil a review
1995). Generally, PAH concentrations decrease with
increasing distance from the road (e.g., Butler et al., 1984;
Yang et al., 1991; Pathirana et al., 1994).
The transport distance of PAH from the road ranges
between 35 m (Mnch, 1992, 1993) and 8 m (Tebaay et al.,
1993). Near a highway in England, Johnston and Harrison
(1984) and Harrison and Johnston (1985) found that most
PAHs were deposited within the first 3.8 m from the road.
However, they recorded an influence of the road still at a
distance of 70 m. A budget estimate of Hewitt and Rashed
(1990) for PAHs near a major English highway revealed that
PAH accumulation in soils near the road is higher than
estimated from deposition measurements. This was due to
the scavenging effect of the vegetation and because the PAH
inputs associated with street dusts were more important than
atmospheric deposition at their study site. They also stated
that between 70 and 95% of PAHs in car exhausts are far
distributed and thus contribute to the diffuse background
concentration. As lower traffic speed and frequent gear
changing result in higher PAH emissions, soils next to roads
in urban areas often contain higher PAH concentrations than
soils next to roads out of urban areas (Kasperowski and
Frank, 1989; Joneck and Prinz, 1993; Wilcke et al., 1997).
Much work has been addressed to abandoned industrial
sites. Highly contaminated sites include those of coke ovens,
gasworks, petroleum refineries, and wood conservation
plants (Wilson and Jones, 1993). The PAH contamination
of soils at gaswork sites results from tar, oil, coal, and ashes
remaining as waste (Yu et al., 1990; Wilson and Jones,
1993). The contamination of industrial sites is characterized
by its high spatial variability and often reaches great soil
depths mainly because of the burial of contaminated
material (Ifland et al., 1993; Tselmann, 1997). Weigand
et al. (1997) showed that the distribution of PAH sources and
sorbents in soil may be adequately described with a
stochastic model indicating that there is no systematic
PAH distribution in such heavily polluted soils. Ifland et al.
(1993) assigned typical PAH patterns to specific production
processes during coal coking and gas production. Partic-
ularly high PAH concentrations (up to 476 mg kg1) were
found in Reductosols in the city of Berlin (Germany) derived
from municipal waste containing tar paper and from loam of
coking sites (Renger and Mekiffer, 1997). Frequently, PAH-
contaminated industrial substrates were used for land-
scaping. This may be one reason why Gierse (1997) found
that more than half of the playgrounds in the city of
Wuppertal were substantially polluted with PAHs.
Garden soils are often highly contaminated with PAHs (e.g.
Tebaay et al., 1993; Lenz et al., 1997; Eusterbrock, 1999). A
recent review on the PAH contamination of garden soils has
been presented by Crmann and Wstemann (1998). The
reasons for high PAH concentrations include additions of
composts, garden wastes, ashes, slag, rubble, tar paper, or
the burning of vegetation (Crmann, 1992; Tebaay et al.,
1993; Lenz et al., 1997). Ash from coal combustion for
domestic heating was assumed to be the major source of
PAHs in garden soils of Bremen as derived from the
similarity of the PAH patterns (Lenz et al., 1997). However,
the PAH patterns in their study are not distinctly different
235
from the average PAH pattern of European soils. Gardens on
formerly industrially used land may contain particularly
high PAH concentrations (Crmann and Wstemann,
1995).
PAHs are accumulated in soils used to clean waste water by
trickling which may be found near some large German cities
(Felix-Henningsen et al., 1993; Bechmann and Grunewald,
1995). Such soils may contain up to 30 mg PAHs kg1; the
contamination may reach depths > 1 m (Felix-Henningsen et
al., 1993).
2.5 PAHs in soils from arid zones
There are few studies on PAH concentrations in soils near
oil- and gas-exploitation sites in arid regions. Davani et al.
(1986) and Gennadiyev et al. (1990) have shown that oil and
gas industry has caused significant soil contaminations with
PAHs. Davani et al. (1986) also demonstrated that PAHs are
mobile in these soils because they were detected several tens
of meters from a pit used for produced water in New Mexico.
Gennadiyev et al. (1990) found up to 100fold elevated PAH
concentrations at a distance of 6 km from a gaswork in
Astrakhan which significantly inhibited biological activity.
2.6 PAHs in soils from tropical and subtropical zones
Connell et al. (1999) reported in their review that PAH
concentrations in environmental materials of tropical
regions are lower than in polar regions. Similar observations
were made by Smith et al. (1995) who compared PAH
concentrations in soils and street dusts of the cities of
Birmingham/UK and Lahore/Pakistan. The PAH concen-
trations in both materials were lower in Lahore than in
Birmingham. The authors assumed faster microbial degra-
dation and photo-oxidation and enhanced volatilization to be
the reasons. The work of Wilcke et al. (1999a, b, 2000)
in Bangkok/Thailand, Ghana, Uberlandia/Brazil, and the
Amazonas basin also indicates that PAH concentrations in
tropical soils, on average, are lower than in temperate soils
under similar land use, although recent PAH emissions by
traffic, industrial activities, and vegetation fires are not
likely to be lower (Tab. 3).
The results of Wilcke et al. (1999a, b) also demonstrate that
the PAH pattern is markedly different between tropical and
temperate soils. In the tropical soils under study, naphtha-
lene, phenanthrene, and perylene dominate (Fig. 1b). If it is
assumed that, similar to the temperate environment, the PAH
pattern is weathered in the atmosphere, a typical PAH
pattern would be different in tropical than in temperate soils.
The abundance of the volatile and most easily degraded
PAHs (naphthalene and phenanthrene), however, is surpris-
ing and suggests that there are specific sources for these
compounds in the tropical environment.
2.7 Pedogenetic influence on PAH distribution in soils
Hartmann (1995), Guggenberger et al. (1996), and Wilcke
et al. (1996a) reported that in Podzols the spodic horizon
serves as subsoil sink of PAHs (Fig. 5a). Blessing (1996) and
Pichler (1995) found substantial perylene concentrations in
Table 3: Range, arithmetic mean, and median of PAH concentrations in tropical topsoils.

236
Tabelle 3: Spanne, arithmetischer Mittelwert und Median der PAK-Gehalte in Oberbden aus den Tropen.

Urban soils in Bangkoka Urban soils in Forest soils in the Rural agricultural and
Uberlandiab Amazonas basinc forest soils in Ghanaa
PAH Range Mean Median n Range Mean Median n Range Mean Median n Range Mean Median n
mg kg1

Naphthalene* 1.7145 17 9.8 30 3.030 13 12 18 3.0356 110 45 6 5.024 16 18 4

Acenaphthylene* 0.14.0 1.0 0.6 30 0.03.1 0.6 0.5 18 0.22.2 0.6 0.2 6 0.11.6 0.8 0.8 4
Acenaphthene* 0.16.1 1.0 0.5 30 0.13.8 0.8 0.5 18 0.22.0 0.8 0.6 6 0.40.8 0.6 0.6 4
Fluorene* 0.24.5 1.2 0.7 30 0.23.9 1.1 0.8 18 0.57.0 3.4 3.3 6 1.32.4 1.7 1.5 4
Phenanthrene* ndd61 10 5.0 30 0.648 11 7.9 18 7.735 22 22 6 7.311 9.0 8.8 4
Anthracene* 0.15.0 1.2 0.7 30 0.06.2 1.0 0.8 18 0.32.6 0.8 0.4 6 1.31.9 1.5 1.4 4
Fluoranthene* nd45 10 6.2 30 0.556 10 8.3 18 0.44.9 2.5 2.1 6 3.54.8 4.3 4.4 4
Pyrene* 0.348 11 5.7 30 0.439 7.6 5.6 18 0.32.3 1.3 1.3 6 3.14.1 3.6 3.5 4
Benz(a)anthracene* 0.135 5.0 2.6 30 0.125 4.2 2.1 18 0.00.2 0.1 0.1 6 0.91.1 1.0 1.0 4
Chrysene/Triphenylene* 0.330 8.5 6.5 30 0.332 7.6 5.4 18 0.00.6 0.4 0.4 6 2.73.5 2.9 2.8 4
Benzo(b+j+k)fluorantheneg 0.850 14 10 30 0.456 16 12 18 0.11.3 0.4 0.3 6 5.76.6 6.1 6.1 4
Benzo(e)pyrene 0.625 8.2 6.5 30 0.222 6.2 4.8 18 0.00.3 0.2 0.1 6 3.03.8 3.4 3.4 4
Benzo(a)pyrene* 0.222 5.5 3.6 30 0.125 5.2 3.6 18 0.01.0 0.3 0.2 6 1.92.2 2.0 1.9 4
Perylene 0.1136 14 3.2 30 0.238 5.4 3.3 18 0.511 2.6 1.0 6 1.619 7.1 3.7 4
Indeno(1,2,3cd)pyrene* 0.428 8.4 5.9 30 0.264 13 8.2 18 0.00.2 0.1 0.1 6 2.22.7 2.4 2.5 4
Dibenz(a, h)anthracene* nd42 1.3 0.9 30 0.114 2.9 1.9 18 0.00.2 0.1 0.1 6 0.20.5 0.4 0.4 4
Benzo(ghi)perylene* 0.759 12 7.5 30 0.460 12 7.9 18 0.00.2 0.1 0.1 6 1.31.9 1.6 1.6 4
EPA-PAHse 11347 107 67 30 6.5361 106 85 18 15397 143 84 6 1518 16 16 4
a
Wilcke et al. (1999b). bWilcke et al., (1999a). cWilcke et al. (2000). dNot detected. eSum of the means/medians, EPA-PAHs marked with an asterisk.

Wilcke
PAHs in soil a review
Figure 5: Depth distribution of the sum of the 16 EPA PAHs in a)
a Podzol (Hartmann, 1995) and b) a Gleysol (Blessing, 1996). In b),
additionally the perylene concentration is shown.
Abbildung 5: Tiefenverteilung der Summengehalte der 16 EPA-PAK in a)
einem Podsol (Hartmann, 1995) und b) einem Gley (Blessing, 1996). In b)
sind zustzlich die Perylen-Gehalte dargestellt.
the reduced subsoil horizons of Gleysols hitherto only
reported to occur in marine and lacustrine sediments because
of biological production (Venkatesan, 1988, Fig. 5b).
2.8 Small-scale distribution on PAHs in soils
In general, only a portion of the total PAH concentration is
bioavailable or may be leached (Kelsey et al., 1997). The
size of this reactive PAH pool in soils depends on kind and
location of PAH binding. Recent work demonstrated that
PAHs are not evenly distributed in soil (Guggenberger et al.,
1996; Wilcke et al., 1996a, b, 1997).
Studies in the northern Czech Republic, in Slovakia, and in
urban soils of Rosenheim have shown that, similar to heavy
metals (Koenies, 1985), PAH concentrations are higher in
soils at the stemfoot of beech trees (Fagus sylvatica L.) than
away from the stems (Wilcke et al., 1996b; Wilcke and Zech,
1997; Wilcke et al., 1997). These results demonstrate that
PAHs in the rain water collected by the canopy are washed
down associated with particles without interaction with the
bark.
PAHs deposited from the atmosphere or leached from
overlying horizons are preferentially sorbed to aggregate
surfaces (Wilcke et al., 1996a, b). The higher the PAH load
of soils along a deposition gradient in central Slovakia was,
237
Figure 6: Differences in the sum of 20 PAH concentrations between
aggregate core and surface fractions expressed in % of the cores
concentration along a deposition gradient in central Slovakia. Positive
values indicate enrichment, negative ones depletion in the surface fraction
(Wilcke et al., 1996b).
Abbildung 6: Differenz der Summengehalte von 20 PAK zwischen
Aggregatkern und Aggregatschale ausgedrckt in % der Gehalte im Kern.
Positive Werte bedeuten eine Anreicherung, negative Werte eine
Abreicherung in der Aggregatschale (Wilcke et al., 1996b).
Figure 7: Mean enrichment factors of the sum of the concentrations of 20
PAHs in particle-size separates normalized to the PAH concentrations in
bulk soil. Error bars represent standard deviations, n = 28 (Wilcke et al.,
1997 and own unpublished data).
Abbildung 7: Mittlerer Anreicherungsfaktor der Summengehalte von 20
PAK in Korngrenfraktionen normiert auf die PAK-Gehalte im
Gesamtboden. Die Fehlerbalken reprsentieren die Standardabweichung,
n = 28 (Wilcke et al., 1997 und eigene unverffentlichte Daten).
the more pronounced was the accumulation of PAHs at
aggregate surfaces (Wilcke et al., 1996b; Fig. 6).
In SOM research, theoretically defined reactive soil pools
are approached by physical soil fractions including particle-
size and density separates. These pools are characterized by
substantial differences in quantity and quality of organic
matter (Christensen, 1992; Schulten and Leinweber, 2000).
The close association of organic contaminants with soil
238
organic matter consequently results in a heterogeneous PAH
distribution among particle-size fractions (Guggenberger et
al., 1996; Pichler et al., 1996; Wilcke et al., 1996b, 1997).
In organic horizons of forest soils, Pichler et al. (1996)
found increasing PAH concentrations with decreasing
particle size. The concentrations of the less reactive highly
condensed PAHs increased more strongly than those of the
more easily degradable lower molecular PAHs. This
indicates an increasing alteration of the PAH mixture from
coarse to fine particles. At the same time, the C/N ratios
decreased with decreasing particle size. Thus, increasing
alteration of the PAH mixture goes along with increasing
SOM alteration. This conclusion is further supported by the
finding that the increase in PAH concentrations in the fine
fractions from the Oi via the Oe to the Oa horizon is higher
than in the coarse fractions.
In a range of studies, highest PAH concentrations in the
mineral soil have been observed in the silt-sized fraction
(Guggenberger et al., 1996; Mller et al., 1997; Wilcke et al.,
1997). Possible explanations of these results are the high
affinity of PAHs for aromatic structures in soil organic
matter (Gauthier et al., 1987; Chiou et al., 1998) which also
show highest concentrations in the silt fraction (Baldock et
al., 1992) and the deposition of PAHs associated with silt-
sized aerosols which persist unchanged in soil. The results of
Wilcke et al. (1996b) also show that at sites where PAH
deposition rates are high, the fresh particulate organic matter
of the sand fraction has high PAH concentrations which are
correlated with the deposition rate. However, when all
available data are pooled, it becomes evident that the
average accumulation of PAH in the silt and clay fractions is
similar and higher than in the sand fractions (Fig. 7). Thus, in
some soils the high surface area and organic matter content
of the clay fraction seems to be more important than SOM
quality of the silt fraction or particle-size of deposited
aerosols.
Similar to the findings for organic horizons, the proportion
of high molecular weight PAHs increases while that of low
molecular weight PAHs decreases with decreasing particle
size again indicating the advanced state of alteration of the
PAH mixture in the finer fractions (Guggenberger et al.,
1996; Wilcke et al., 1996a, b, 1997).
2.9 Soil solution
Deschauer (1995) found between 3.3 and 736 ng l1
of the sum of 13 PAHs (naphthalene, fluorene, pyrene,
phenanthrene, fluoranthene, benzo(a)anthracene, chry-
sene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, ben-
zo(a)pyrene, dibenz(a,h)anthracene, benzo(ghi)perylene,
and indeno(1,2-cd)pyrene) in litter leachates of a forested
Podzol. On average, the most abundant PAHs were
naphthalene (60% of the sum of 13 PAH concentrations,
the concentration ranged from 1.7 to 694 ng l1) >
phenanthrene (15%, nd-35 ng l1) > fluorene (5%, nd-20
ng l1). All other PAHs, on average, accounted for less than
5% of the 13 PAHs. There were no differences in PAH
concentrations of soil solutions in control plots and plots
treated with organic waste. Blessing (1996) extracted soil
Wilcke
Figure 8: Temporal course of estimated deposition rates to subaquatic
limnic sediments (Christensen and Zhang, 1993; Sanders et al., 1993) and
to peat (Sanders et al., 1995) between the second half of the 18th century
and present. Note that the data of Sanders et al. (1993) are magnified
10fold.
Abbildung 8: Zeitlicher Verlauf geschtzter Depositionsraten in subaqua-
tische limnische Sedimente (Christensen und Zhang, 1993; Sanders et al.,
1993) und in Moor (Sanders et al., 1995) zwischen der zweiten Hlfte des
18. Jahrhunderts und heute. Die Daten von Sanders et al. (1993) sind
10fach berhht.
solution from Alpine Gleysols with stainless-steel tubes. The
soil solution only contained low molecular weight PAHs
(naphthalene accounted for 5560%, phenanthrene for 20
25% of the sum of 20 PAHs (i.e. the 16 EPA PAHs,
triphenylene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, benzo(e)pyrene, and
perylene)).
2.10 Temporal trends
To determine the temporal trend of PAH depositions,
archived soil samples, dated peat cores, or dated marine and
lacustrine sediment cores have been used. Publications on
the retrospective analysis of dated peat cores (Sanders et al.,
1995) and of archived soil material are scarce, the latter up to
now being restricted to the Rothamsted soil archive (Jones et
al., 1989a, b, c; Wild et al., 1990). However, there is a range
of work on the depth distribution of PAHs in dated sediment
which may be used to trace back the historical PAH
deposition rates (e.g., Christensen and Zhang, 1993; Sanders
et al., 1993; Simcik et al., 1996). Jones et al. (1989a, b, c,),
Wild and Jones (1990), and Wild et al. (1991a) observed a
continuous increase in rural topsoil PAH concentrations,
particularly of higher molecular PAHs during this century,
indicating that losses were and still are smaller than the
deposition from the atmosphere.
To trace the temporal trend of depositions to sediments no
changes in PAH concentrations may occur after sorption to
the sediment, which has been shown to be the case, and PAH
concentrations have to be corrected for compaction and so-
called sediment focussing, i.e. the mixing of sediment
(Readman et al., 1987; Simcik et al., 1996; Ns and Oug,
1997).
While with the help of sediment cores taken near industrial
activities the history of the emissions caused by these
activities may be traced back, remote lakes without
PAHs in soil a review 239

industrial sewage additions and without commercial or
leasure motorboat activity may be used to analyze the
background temporal trend. Most studies on PAH
concentrations in sediment cores of both industrially or
traffic-influenced and remote lakes show that PAH concen-
trations in sediments increased in the second half of the 19th
century (e.g. Wickstrm and Tolonen, 1987; Cranwell and
Koul, 1989; Simcik et al., 1996; Fig. 8). Cranwell and Koul
(1989), Sanders et al. (1993), and Simcik et al. (1996)
reported decreasing deposition rates since the mid seventies
because of a change in fuel consumption from coal to oil and
gas. This coincides with the decrease in PAH concentrations
of urban air after 1970 (Menichini, 1992; Jacob et al., 1993).
The data indicate that recent PAH deposition rates are still
markedly higher compared to the beginning of industriali-
zation. Wickstrm and Tolonen (1987) found that PAH
concentrations continuously increased since about 1850 in
the sediments of three remote lakes in Finland. Readman et
al. (1987) also reported continuously increasing PAH
concentrations in sediments of the Tamar Estuary (UK)
since 1940 correlating with the increase in traffic.
Like in soils, the PAH pattern is similar in all sediment
cores of the temperate region. All studies show that PAH
patterns changed from being dominated by perylene of
biological origin in deep sediment layers (Venkatesan, 1988)
to other PAHs in more recent sediment layers.
2.11 Source identification
The sources of PAHs are discussed in a range of reviews
(e.g. Sims and Overcash, 1983; Nikolaou et al., 1984; Baek
et al., 1991). Briefly, the major PAH source is incomplete
combustion of organic material. This occurs naturally in
vegetation fires, volcanic activity, and diagenetic processes.
However, it is believed that by far most PAHs in temperate
regions are released into the environment by anthropogenic
combustion of wood and fossil fuels. The way and extent of
PAH formation during combustion of organic matter
depends on local temperature and mixing conditions in the
flame. Therefore, the PAH pattern in emissions of the same
source may be highly variable (Ramdahl et al., 1982;
Colmsj et al., 1986; Masclet et al., 1987). Generally, the
lower combustion temperatures are the more PAHs will be
released. At high temperatures more highly condensed PAHs
are produced than at low temperatures; low temperatures
favor the formation of alkyl homologues (Masclet et al.,
1987; Gonzales-Vila et al., 1991).
In addition to combustion processes, there is some evidence
for biological PAH formation. Perylene is believed to be
produced biologically from pigments of fungi, insects, and
marine organisms which e.g., contain 4,9-dihydroxipery-
lene-3,10-quinone as possible perylene precursor under
anaerobic conditions in subaquatic sediments (Venkatesan,
1988), in soils (Blessing, 1996; Guggenberger et al., 1996;
Wilcke et al., 1999b), and in termite nests (Wilcke et al.,
2000). From the occurrence of phenanthrene, methyl-
phenanthrene and methyl-anthracene in preindustrial lake
sediments, Wickstrm and Tolonen (1987) suspected that
these compounds may be produced biologically. Similar
conclusions had already been drawn by Laflamme and Hites
(1978) who detected the phenanthrene homologues retene
(1-methyl-7-iso-propylphenanthrene) and pimanthrene (1,7-
dimethyl-phenanthrene) in noncontaminated remote soils
and sediments and assumed that these compounds result

Table 4: Ratios of individual PAHs in emissions of specific fuels and aerosols affected by specific fuels (Freeman and Cattell, 1990; Jacob et al., 1993;
Aboul-Kassim and Simoneit, 1995; Khalili et al., 1995).
Tabelle 4: Verhltnisse einzelner PAK in Emissionen spezifischer Brennstoffe bzw. in Aerosolen, die von spezifischen Emissionen betroffen sind
(Freeman and Cattell, 1990; Jacob et al., 1993; Aboul-Kassim and Simoneit, 1995; Khalili et al., 1995).

FLUA PYR CHRY B(BJK) B(A)P FLUA PYR B(A)A CHRY B(A)P DIBE B(GHI) PHEN/ B(A)A/ B(E)P/ IND/
/B(E)P /IND (ANTH+PHEN) (B(A)A+ (B(E)P+ (IND+
CHRY+TRI) B(A)P) B(GHI))

Lignite 8 5 3 4 1.7
Hard coal 7 6.5 2.2 3 1
Diesel 7 8 1 2 0.5
Petrol 20 35 3 1 1
Oil 80 25 30 4 0.2 0.98 0.16 0.87
Used motor 0.78 0.50 0.64 0.25
oil
Car 0.3 0.9 0.1 1.0 0.77 0.53 0.18
emissions,
gasoline
Coal soot 0.30 0.56
Coke oven 0.67 0.43 0.23
emission
Vegetation 2.2 2.0 0.9 2.0 0.6 0.1 0.3
fire 13.3 19.5 3.9 10.0 10.0 0.7 0.8

Abbreviations: ACEN = acenaphthene, ACENY = acenaphthylene, ANTH = anthracene, B(A)A = benz(a)anthracene, B(A)P = benzo(a)pyrene, B(BJK) =
benzo(b+j+k)fluoranthenes, B(E)P = benzo(e)pyrene, B(GHI) = benzo(ghi)perylene, CHRY = chrysene, DIBE = dibenz(a,h)anthracene, FLUA =
fluoranthene, FLUO = fluorene, IND = indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene, NAPH = naphthalene, PERY = perylene, PHEN = phenanthrene, PYR = pyrene, TRI =
triphenylene.
240
from the reduction of abietic and pimaric acid which occur
e.g., in Pinus species. Wilcke et al. (1999a, b, 2000) found
substantial phenanthrene concentrations in tropical soils and
also assumed biological phenanthrene sources. Furthermore,
naphthalene was detected in Magnolia flowers (Azuma et al.,
1996), forehead hair of deer (Gasset et al., 1997), and termite
nests (Chen et al., 1998a, b; Wilcke et al., 2000) which also
points at biological production. Initial results of Wilcke et al.
(2000) indicate that in tropical regions the naphthalene
production in termite nests and woody plants may be
considerable.
Although transformation processes during atmospheric
transport, deposition, and in soils result in similar PAH
patterns in temperate soils, diffences in the mixture of the
more persistent highly condensed PAHs may give hints at
possible sources of PAHs in soils (Wilcke et al., 1997, 1999a,
b). Methods to trace PAH sources include the comparison of
ratios among individual PAHs with those of specific sources.
Statistical methods such as cluster and principal component
analyses have been used to identify the sources of PAHs
sorbed to aerosols (Aceves and Grimalt, 1993; Aboul-Kassim
and Simoneit, 1995) and in soils (Wilcke et al., 1997, 1999a,
b). To distinguish between PAHs from traffic exhausts and
other sources the benzo(ghi)perylene to indeno(1,2,3-
cd)pyrene ratio is most suitable as benzo(ghi)perylene is
considered as particular marker for traffic exhausts (Kasper-
owski and Frank, 1989; Freeman and Cattell, 1990;
Menichini, 1992). Lee et al. (1990) used the PAH/Pb ratio
to distinguish between domestic fire and traffic emissions.
However, with increasing use of unleaded gasoline the
correlation between PAHs and Pb from traffic exhausts will
disappear. Statistical methods have been used to separate
soils contaminated by a specific emitter, e.g., an Al smelter
from uncontaminated soils (Soft Independent Modeling of
Class Analogy SIMCA, Vogt et al., 1987) or to elucidate
the impact of Al and Mn smelters on the PAH composition in
marine sediments (Ns and Oug, 1997). Khalili et al. (1995)
proposed the Chemical Mass Balance Receptor Model
which allows for the calculation of the contributions of
various known sources to the PAH pattern found in aerosols.
As the model does not take into account possible trans-
formations of the PAH pattern between the emitter and the
receptor its use for soils is limited. Tab. 4 summarizes some
source-related ratios of individual PAHs.
3 Processes in soil
3.1 Sorption
Sorption and desorption are crucial processes for PAH
bioavailability and PAH transport in soil. The literature
about sorption of PAHs to soil has been reviewed by
Dzombak and Luthy (1984) and recently by Marschner
(1999). Therefore, only the most important results on PAH
sorption are briefly presented.
SOM is the most important sorbent of PAHs (Means et al.,
1980; Sims and Overcash, 1983; Dzombak and Luthy, 1984).
However, Gustafsson et al. (1997) have shown that soot-
like C or black C in soil resulting from vegetation fires and
soot deposition from the atmosphere is also capable of
Wilcke
sorbing PAHs strongly. Sorption of PAHs has been shown to
resemble the partitioning of PAHs among water and an
organic solvent. The most important observations from PAH
sorption experiments include that there is no curvature of the
sorption isotherms up to 50% saturation of the sorbent, PAH
sorption is rapid and endogenous indicating that it is an
entropy-driven process (Chiou et al., 1979; Means et al.,
1980; Chiou et al., 1983, 1998). While early work on PAH
sorption indicated that there were no competitive effects in
the sorption of certain aromatic compounds to soil (Chiou et
al., 1983) recent experiments have shown strong interactions
e.g., between phenanthrene and pyrene (White and Pigna-
tello, 1999). Two phases of PAH sorption take place. The
first is a rapid one probably corresponding to the sorption to
sites near the surface of organic macromolecules. The
second process is slow (aging) and may be explained by the
diffusion of PAHs to internal binding sites (Weissenfels et
al., 1992).
While early work did not consider the influence of organic
matter quality on PAH sorption (Means et al., 1980; Sullivan
and Mix, 1985), in recent work there are indications that soil
organic matter (SOM) quality influences PAH sorption.
Schoone et al. (1997) observed an increasingly stronger
sorption of pyrene the less polar SOM is. In their study,
polarity was measured as the ratio of carboxyl-C+O-alkyl-C
to aryl-C+alkyl-C. However, in the same work no relation-
ship between the sorption of phenanthrene and any SOM
property was observed. Chiou et al. (1998) found a more
pronounced sorption of PAHs to sediments than to soils and
assumed that sediment organic matter is less polar.
Raber and Kgel-Knabner (1995) determined desorption
isotherms and found a rapid linear desorption. The PAH
concentrations in the water used for the desorption experi-
ment reached 90% of the equilibrium concentrations after
14 hours and 100% after 24 hours. Desorption may be
enhanced by dissolution of organic matter serving as PAH
carrier or by the presence of organic solvents like anthracene
oil which is found at many industrially contaminated sites
(Tebaay et al., 1991; 1992).
Simmleit and Herrmann (1987b) found that the sorption of
PAHs to the residual silicate material of limestone weath-
ering was ten times lower than to an A horizon; the sorption
of PAHs to dolomite powder was 10100 times lower.
Leichtle and Totsche (1997) reported that PAHs were sorbed
to all of almost C-free sea sand, goethite-covered sand, and
montmorillonite. Sorption to these materials depends on the
specific surface area and increases in the order sand <
goethite-covered sand < montmorillonite. The sorption
isotherms are not linear, sand and montmorillonite show a
saturation curve, goethite exhibits cooperative sorption. The
sorption to all materials is completely reversible.
Sorption of PAHs has been described by the partition
coefficient (K) normalized to the organic carbon fraction
(fOC, Equation 1):
KOC = K/fOC (1)
The KOC may be estimated from the octanol-water partition
coefficient KOW and from the water solubility of the liquid or
subcooled liquid compounds (SW). In the literature a range
PAHs in soil a review
of equations have been proposed to estimate KOC from KOW
or SW (Equations 27).
log KOC = log KOW 0.317 (Means et al., 1980) (2)
log KOC = 0.989 log KOW 0.346 (Karickhoff, 1984) (3)
log KOC = 0.54 log SW + 0.44 (Karickhoff et al., 1979) (4)
log KOC = 0.686 log SW + 4.273 (Means et al., 1980) (5)
log KOC = 0.729 log SW + 0.001 (Chiou et al., 1983) (6)
log KOC = 0.57 log SW + 5.19 (Nielsen et al., 1997) (7)
SW is in mol l-1 except for equations (6) and (7) (mg l-1).
Miller et al. (1985) have shown that the log-log plot of KOW
versus SW of PAHs is linear with a slope of 0.8. However,
the authors doubt that octanol is a suitable SOM surrogate.
Dzombak and Luthy (1984) summarize possibilities to
estimate the KOW from molecular properties.
3.2 Transport
Although PAHs are strongly sorbed in soil they are found at
greater soil depth indicating leaching (Wild and Jones, 1995;
Wilcke et al., 1996b; Krau et al., 2000). Based on the
analysis of archived soil samples, Jones et al. (1989b)
estimated PAH leaching rates of 0.0090.14 mg m1 a1. In
their study, the leaching rate did not decrease with increasing
molecular weight to the extent one would expect from water
solubilities of the individual compounds. This indicated
DOM-mediated or particle-associated PAH transport of the
high molecular weight PAHs. Deschauer (1995) calculated
field KOC values for the Oa horizon using PAH concen-
trations in soil solution. The KOC values of the low molecular
weight PAHs (up to four fused rings) were higher than KOC
values determined in the laboratory, those of the high
molecular weight PAHs were lower or equal. Possible
reasons for lower field KOC than laboratory KOC include
nonequilibrium conditions, lateral flow, and desorption
hysteresis. Enhanced solubility of the higher molecular
PAHs may be caused by association with DOM (Gauthier
et al., 1987; Maxin and Kgel-Knabner, 1995; Chin et al.,
1997).
Simmleit and Herrmann (1987a, b) detected substantial
PAH concentrations in a Karst source following snow
melting. Their results indicated that almost no PAHs were
transported as truly dissolved solute but associated with
particulate matter. Comparison of the PAH output with the
source water and PAH input data suggested that 99% of the
input is retained in the uppermost 2 m of soil. In contrast,
Blessing (1996) reported that about 50% of the input left a
small Alpine catchment with surface flow after having
passed through the soils. The similarity of the PAH mixtures
in the rainwater and in the surface water suggested that
PAHs were transported along preferential flow paths without
much interaction with soil solid phase.
To describe the transport of PAHs, a model which
considers the solid, the dissolved, and the particle-/colloid-
associated phase is widely used (McCarthy and Zachara,
1989; Johnson and Amy, 1995; Totsche, 1995). Particularly
DOM may act as PAH carrier thus increasing PAH mobility.
DOM interacts with the soil solid phase and may be
microbially altered, produced or consumed resulting in
changing DOM quality over time and space (Kaiser, 1996;
Totsche et al., 1997).
241
Several authors observed a mobility-increasing effect of
PAHs by a synthetic polysaccharide (Bengtsson et al., 1987)
and complex natural organic macromolecules (Enfield et al.,
1989; Kan and Tomson, 1990; Magee et al., 1991) in water-
saturated soil columns containing < 2 g kg1 organic C. The
effect is more pronounced for high molecular weight PAHs
(e.g., pyrene, benzo(a)pyrene) than for low molecular weight
PAHs (e.g., anthracene, Enfield et al., 1989; Johnson and
Amy, 1995). However, in soil columns containing either C-
poor or C-rich material which was not water-saturated, the
presence of DOM may also reduce PAH mobility because of
the sorption of the carrier to soil solid phase (cosorption of
PAHs, Totsche et al., 1997). Subsoil horizons rich in Fe
oxides, like spodic horizons, may act as barrier for PAH
transport because DOM is strongly retained (Guggenberger
et al., 1996; Wilcke et al., 1996a; Totsche et al., 1997). In a
column experiment, Marschner (1995) studied the effect of
varying pH on the transport of benzo(a)pyrene in a trickle-
field soil leached with distilled water. It was found that
acidification from pH 5.7 to 3.3 resulted in increased DOM
but in reduced benzo(a)pyrene leaching, probably because
the released DOM mainly consisted of hydrophilic acids
having low affinity for PAHs.
Furthermore, the partitioning of PAHs among soil solid
phase, soil water, and DOM is crucial for PAH leaching. The
sorption of PAHs to DOM may be studied with various
methods. Among the most frequently used are solubility
enhancement (Gauthier et al., 1987; Chin et al., 1997),
fluorescence quenching (Gauthier et al., 1986), dialysis
(McCarthy and Jimenez, 1985), and solid phase extraction
(C18 columns, reverse phase HPLC, Landrum et al., 1984;
Maxin and Kgel-Knabner, 1995). The results have been
summarized by Marschner (1999). Methodological prob-
lems of the various methods are discussed in Gauthier et al.
(1986) and in Maxin (1992). Briefly, the sorption process to
DOM is similar to that of solid phase organic matter, it is a
linear, fast, and reversible partitioning process which may be
described with the partition coefficient normalized to
dissolved organic C (KDOC). The partition coefficient KDOC
is related with KOC according to Equation 8.
KOCeff = KOC (1+CDOC x KDOC)1 (8)
where KOCeff is the apparent partition coefficient between
soil organic C and soil solution and CDOC is the concen-
tration of dissolved organic C in soil solution.
There is evidence that the quality of DOM and solution
properties such as pH and ionic composition are much more
important for PAH-DOM than for PAH-solid organic matter
association. The association of PAHs with DOM depends on
the polarity, molecular size, configuration, and chemical
composition of the carrier molecule. It has been shown that
large molecules containing nonpolar domains such as humic
acids have a higher capacity to bind organic contaminants
than the more polar fulvic acids (Chiou et al., 1983, 1986).
Gauthier et al. (1986, 1987) and McCarthy et al. (1989) have
shown that increasing aromaticity increases KDOC of PAHs.
While Gauthier et al. (1986) for pyrene and Nielsen et al.
(1997) for a range of PAHs found increasing KDOC with
decreasing pH, Jones and Tiller (1999) reported increasing
KDOC for phenanthrene with increasing pH at low ionic
242
strength (0.001 M) and no effect of pH on KDOC of
phenanthrene at ionic strengths between 0.001 and 0.01 M.
Jones and Tiller (1999) also demonstrated that KDOC for
phenanthrene increases with decreasing ionic strength
probably because of a more open configuration of the
DOM molecules and less cation bridging. The latter
assumption is further supported by the finding that KDOC
for phenanthrene decreases with increasing valence of the
cation in soil solution at constant ionic strength. After
sorption of the humic acids used as DOM surrogate to clay
minerals KOC for phenanthrene is reduced compared with
the dissolved state. The remaining dissolved fraction of the
humic acids has a lower capacity to sorb phenanthrene. The
valence of the cations in soil solution at constant ionic
strength affects phenanthrene sorption to clay mineral-
sorbed humic acids in the same way as sorption to the
dissolved humic acids, i.e. KOC decreases with increasing
valence.
3.3 Volatilization
Volatilization may be an important pathway of PAH loss,
particularly for low molecular weight compounds. However,
volatilization of PAHs is still poorly understood and
warrants further research (Wild and Jones, 1995). This
includes the development of methods which allow for
distinguishing appropriately between the various abiotic
disappearence rates (Park et al., 1990a). The volatilization
rate is presumed to depend on the Henry coefficient, wind
speed, atmospheric turbulence, and temperature (Sims and
Overcash, 1983). Ophoff et al. (1996) assumed that soil
moisture had an indirect influence on volatilization rates of
fluoranthene via soil water evaporation. These authors
furthermore found a diurnal fluctuation of the volatilization
rates of fluoranthene and concluded that air temperature had
a major influence on volatilization rates.
Park et al. (1990b) reported 30% volatilization loss of the
naphthalene spiked to two C-poor soils which were held at a
moisture content of about 60% of the field capacity within
2 days. In contrast, only < 0.1% of three-ring PAHs
(anthracene and phenanthrene) are volatilized in the same
time period. Goodin and Webber (1995) found about 0.2%
volatilization loss of anthracene spiked to soil grown with
rye grass, soybean, and cabbage after 14 weeks and no
detectable volatilization loss of benzo(a)pyrene. Ophoff et
al. (1996) observed a loss of 12.433.6% of the radioactivity
of surface-applied 14C-labeled fluoranthene within 14 d in a
wind tunnel experiment. They found that 8990% of the
volatilized radioactivity was the original fluoranthene; only
minor amounts of metabolites were detected. When the
fluoranthene was incorporated into the soils only between
1.4 and 1.8% of the applied radioactivity were lost by
volatilization. The volatilization rates were highest during
the first days after application. After about 4 days lower
constant rates were observed. The volatilization of PAHs
may also depend on soil redox potential. Volatilization
losses of acenaphthene, acenaphthylene, fluorene, and
anthracene under denitrifying conditions are considerably
lower than under aerobic conditions (Leduc et al., 1992). The
Wilcke
PAHs were spiked to a sandy soil, amended with a mineral
medium, and continuously stirred in a bioreactor. Mackay
and Leinonen (1975) found surprisingly high volatilization
rates from open water bodies even for higher molecular
PAHs. Wilcke et al. (1999b) suspected that low PAH
concentrations in urban soils of Bangkok may partly be
explained with volatilization possibly enhanced by frequent
soil water saturation, high temperatures, and frequent
drying-rewetting cycles. However, this hypothesis needs
further substantiation. Up to now, nothing is known about
volatilization rates of field-aged PAHs. In all published
research work on volatilization rates, PAHs were spiked to
the studied soil prior to the measurement of volatilization
rates.
3.4 Transfer soil biosphere
Soil PAHs may be transferred to plants and to animals and
humans directly by soil ingestion or indirectly via plants
(Knoche et al., 1995). The bioavailability of PAHs, i.e. the
potential to be transferred from soil to living organisms
depends on their hydrophilicity and on their binding in soil
(Alexander, 1995; Beck et al., 1996). The more water-
soluble a PAH is, the higher is the uptake by plants
(Crmann, 1992) while the reverse is true for the uptake by
earthworms (Van Brummelen et al., 1996b) or in the
gastrointestinal tract of cows (Beck et al., 1996). With
increasing residence time of PAHs in soils their extract-
ability, degradability, and toxicity decrease due to aging
(Alexander, 1995; Hatzinger and Alexander, 1995; Beck
et al., 1996). The solubility enhancement of PAHs by
association with DOM may not result in increased bioavail-
ability (McCarthy et al., 1989).
Transfer (or bioconcentration) factors (TFs or BCFs) are
calculated as a measure for the extent of PAH transfer from
soil to plants or animals (Equation 9).
TF = cbiomass/csoil (9)
where cbiomass is the PAH concentration in plants or animals
and csoil that in the soil. TF is unitless.
Transfer factors for plants are small and range between
0.001 and 0.4 with the majority being lower than 0.01
(Edwards, 1983; Crmann, 1992; Goodin and Webber,
1995). The determination of the TFs is complicated by the
fact that PAHs enter plants not only from soil but also from
the atmosphere (Beck et al., 1996) and from soil particles
adhering to the plant tissue as a consequence of splash due to
rain drop impact (Delschen et al., 1999). In animals and
plants, PAH metabolism may also affect the determination
of TFs (Edwards, 1983; Pathirana et al., 1994; Van
Brummelen et al., 1996b). This may explain the weak
correlations between soil and plant/animal PAH concen-
trations (e.g. Hembrock-Heger et al., 1992; Pathirana et al.,
1994; Van Brummelen et al., 1996b). Nevertheless, the
uptake of PAHs by plants from soil has been shown to be
likely using 14C-marked compounds (Knoche et al., 1995;
Schnder, 1995). However, with this approach it may not be
ruled out completely that the 14C activity in plants is related
with degradation products but not the originally spiked
PAHs. Furthermore, these experiments have been conducted
PAHs in soil a review
with spiked soil where PAHs will be more bioavailable than
in soils with aged PAH contamination. Crmann (1992)
found increasing PAH concentrations in plants with
increasing concentrations in soil.
The most important source of PAHs for plants is the
atmosphere from where PAHs may enter plants via the
gaseous phase or deposit bound to particles on plant surfaces
(Sims and Overcash, 1983; Hembrock-Heger et al., 1992;
Knoche et al., 1995). This is reflected by higher PAH
concentrations in plants with large surface areas and by
similar PAH patterns in different plant compartments (Jones
et al., 1989a; Hembrock-Heger et al., 1992; Wild et al.,
1992). Wild et al. (1992) also reported a higher similarity
between PAH patterns of airborne particles and gaseous
PAHs in the atmosphere and plant compartments than
between soil PAH patterns and those in plants. However,
airborne PAH patterns were not identical to those in the
plants which may indicate that PAHs in plants result from
both atmospheric and to a smaller extent soil uptake,
although the air samples in the study of Wild et al. (1992)
were from another, more urban, location than the plant
samples. Shoots and leaves, above-ground plant parts, and
root surfaces generally contain larger PAH concentrations
than seeds, below-ground plant parts, and root interior parts
(Sims and Overcash, 1983; Jones et al., 1989a; Hembrock-
Heger et al., 1992). Fluoranthene has been reported to
dominate the PAH pattern in plants of the temperate zone
(Jones et al., 1989a; Crmann, 1992; Wild et al., 1992).
While PAH concentrations in plants generally are small,
earthworms accumulate PAHs to a substantial extent in short
periods (Ma et al., 1998). This renders earthworms suitable
organisms to test the bioavailability of PAHs in soil.
Methods for the determination of the bioavailable PAH
pool are currently being developed. First results of experi-
ments conducted with PAH-spiked soil indicate that n-
butanol may be used to predict the proportion of phenan-
threne available to earthworms and microorganisms (Kelsey
et al., 1997). Thiele and Brmmer (1997) used 1 M NH4NO3
to assess plant-available PAHs and found a close correlation
between NH4NO3-extractable PAHs and PAH concentra-
tions in spinach (n = 9, r = 0.73). There is still an urgent need
to develop suitable methods for the prediction of the
bioavailability of PAHs particularly when aged in soils.
4 Conclusions
This review shows that there is considerable information
about PAH concentrations in soils of the temperate regions
of the northern hemisphere. Much less information is
available on PAHs in soils from tropical, southern hemi-
spheric and polar zones. There are strong indications that in
the tropical environment large and up to now unknown PAH
sources exist. Thus, to understand the global distribution of
PAHs much more scientific attention should be addressed to
the PAH burdens and dynamics in the tropical environment.
There is evidence that climate substantially influences
PAH patterns in soils because soil temperature and soil
moisture influence PAH decomposition and volatilization.
243
However, up to now little is known about the climatic effect
on the PAH patterns on a global scale.
The bioavailability and mobility of PAHs depend on PAH
sorption and sequestration in soils. Although much research
has been addressed to the partitioning of organic contam-
inants between soil solution and soil solid phase, still little is
known about the binding types and mechanisms and about
the influence of SOM quality and soil solution composition
on PAH sorption.
It is well known that only part of the total PAH
concentrations in soil is available to organisms and leaching.
However, there are still no reliable methods to characterize
PAH pools differing with respect to their bioavailability.
Furthermore, it has been shown that PAHs are unevenly
distributed among various soil pools. Further research is
necessary to address the influence of the heterogeneous
distribution of PAHs in soil on PAH bioavailability and
reactivity.
Literature
Aboul-Kassim, T. A. T., and B. R. T. Simoneit (1995): Aliphatic and
aromatic hydrocarbons in particulate fallout of Alexandria, Egypt:
sources and implications. Environ. Sci. Technol. 29, 24732483.
Aceves, M., and J. O. Grimalt (1993): Seasonally dependent size
distribution of aliphatic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban
aerosols from densely populated areas. Environ. Sci. Technol. 27,
28962908.
Alexander, M. (1995): How toxic are toxic chemicals in soil? Environ. Sci.
Technol. 29, 27132717.
Azuma, H., M. Toyota, Y. Asakawa, and S. Kawano (1996): Naphthalene
a constituent of Magnolia flowers. Phytochem. 423, 9991004.
Baek,S. O., R. A. Field, M. E. Goldstone, P. W. Kirk, J. N. Lester, and
R. Perry (1991): A review of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydro-
carbons: sources, fate, and behavior. Water Air Soil Pollut. 60, 279300.
Baldock, J. A., J. M. Oades, A. G. Waters, X. Peng, A. M. Vassallo, and
M. A. Wilson (1992): Aspects of the chemical structure of soil organic
materials as revealed by solid-state 13C NMR spectroscopy. Biogeo-
chem. 16, 142.
Bengtsson, G., C. G. Enfield, and R. Lindqvist (1987): Macromolecules
facilitate the transport of trace organics. Sci. Tot. Environ. 67, 159164.
Bechmann, W. and K. Grunewald (1995): Organische Schadstoffe in Bden
und Substraten des Rieselfeldgebietes sdlich Berlin. Z. Pflanzenernhr.
Bodenkd. 158, 543548.
Beck, A. J., D. L. Johnson, and K. C. Jones (1996): The form and
bioavailability of non-ionic organic chemicals in sewage sludge-
amended agricultural soils. Sci. Tot. Environ. 185, 125149.
Berset, J. D., and R. Holzer (1995): Organic micropollutants in Swiss
agriculture: distribution of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)
and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) in soil, liquid manure, sewage
sludge, and compost samples; a comparative study. Intern. J. Environ.
Anal. Chem. 59, 145165.
Berteigne, M., Y. Lefvre, and C. Rose (1988): Accumulation de polluants
organiques (H.P.A.) dans les horizons humifres des sols. Eur. J. For.
Path. 18, 310318.
Bierl, R., W. Kaa, and W. Thomas (1984): Spatial and temporal
concentration gradients of PAH (fluoranthene, benzo(a)pyrene, -BHC,
and 2,4-D in samples of soil, soil water, and groundwater in agricultural
research area. Fresenius Z. Anal. Chem. 319, 172179.
Bjrseth, A. (1983): Handbook of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons.
Marcel Dekker, New York and Basel, 727 p.
244
Bjrseth, A., and T. Ramdahl (1985): Handbook of Polycyclic Aromatic
Hydrocarbons. Vol. 2. Emission Sources and Recent Progress in
Analytical Chemistry. Marcel Dekker, New York and Basel, 416 p.
Blessing, U. (1996): Kennzeichnung der PAK-Dynamik zweier Kleinein-
zugsgebiete im Flysch (Tegernseer Alpen). Bayreuther Bodenkundl. Ber.
50, 96 p.
Blume, H.-P. (1996): Bden stdtisch-industrieller Verdichtungsrume. In:
Blume H.-P., P. Felix-Henningsen, W. R. Fischer, H.-G. Frede, R. Horn,
and K. Stahr (eds.): Handbuch der Bodenkunde. ecomed-Verlag,
Landsberg.
Blumer, M. (1961): Benzyprenes in soil. Science 134, 474475.
Boos, R., F. Wurst, K. Scheidl, T. Prey, and J. Lueger (1990): Ermittlung
der Bodenbelastung mit organischen und anorganischen Schadstoffen im
Raum der Stadtgemeinde Steyregg. VDI-Berichte 837, 457473.
Borneff, J., and H. Kunte (1987): Polycyclische aromatische Kohlenwas-
serstoffe: Vorkommen, Bedeutung und Analytik. In: Aurand, K., U.
Hsselbarth, G. von Nieding, W. Schumacher, and W. Steuer (eds.): Die
Trinkwasserverordnung, 259266.
Brne, H. (1986): Schadstoffeintrag in Bden durch Industrie, Besiedlung,
Verkehr und Landbewirtschaftung. VDLUFA-Schriftenreihe 16 (Kon-
greband, 1985), 85102.
Butler, J. D., and P. Crossley (1981): Reactivity of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons adsorbed on soot particles. Atmosph. Environ. 15, 9194.
Butler, J. D., V. Butterworth, S. C. Kellow, and H. G. Robinson (1984):
Some observations on the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)
content of surface soils in urban areas. Sci. Tot. Environ. 33, 7585.
Cerniglia, C. E. (1984): Microbial metabolism of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons. Adv. Appl. Microbiol. 30, 3171.
Chen, J., G. Henderson, C. C. Grimm, S. W. Lloyd, and R. A. Laine (1998a):
Termites fumigate their nests with naphthalene. Nature 392, 558.
Chen, J., G. Henderson, C. C. Grimm, S. W. Lloyd, and R. A. Laine
(1998b): Naphthalene in Formosan subterranean termite carton nests. J.
Agric. Food Chem. 46, 23372339.
Chin, Y.-P., G. R. Aiken, and K. M. Danielsen (1997): Binding of pyrene to
aquatic and commercial humic substances: the role of molecular weight
and aromaticity. Environ. Sci. Technol. 31, 16301635.
Chiou, C. T., L. J. Peters, and V. H. Freed (1979): A physical concept of
soil-water equilibria for nonionic organic compounds. Science 206,
831832.
Chiou, C. T., P. E. Porter, and D. W. Schmedding (1983): Partitioning
equilibria of nonionic organic compounds between soil organic matter
and water. Environ. Sci. Technol. 17, 227231.
Chiou, C. T., R. L. Malcolm, T. I. Brinton, and D. E. Kile (1986): Water
solubility enhancement of some organic pollutants and pesticides by
dissolved humic and fulvic acids. Environ. Sci. Technol. 20, 502508.
Chiou, C. T., S. E. McGroddy, and D. E. Kile (1998): Partition
characteristics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on soils and
sediments. Environ. Sci. Technol. 32, 264269.
Christensen, B. T. (1992): Physical fractionation of soil and organic matter
in primary particle-size and density fractions. Adv. Soil Sci. 20, 190.
Christensen, E. R., and X. Zhang (1993): Sources of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons to Lake Michigan determined from sedimentary records.
Environ. Sci. Technol. 27, 139146.
Colmsj, A. L., Y. U. Zebhr, and C. E. stman (1986): Polynuclear
aromatic compounds in flue gases and ambient air in the vicinity of a
municipal incineration plant. Atmosph. Environ. 20, 22792282.
Connell, D. W., G. J. Miller, M. R. Mortimer, G. R. Shaw, and S. M.
Anderson (1999): Persistent lipophilic contaminants and other chemical
residues in the southern hemisphere. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol.
29, 4782.
Cousins, I. T., B. Gevao, and K. C. Jones (1999): Measuring and modelling
the vertical distribution of semi-volatile organic compounds in soils:
I: PCB and PAH soil core data. Chemosphere 39, 25072518.
Wilcke
Cranwell, P. A., and V. K. Koul (1989): Sedimentary record of polycyclic
aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons in the Windermere catchment.
Water Res. 23, 275283.
Crmann, G. (1992): Polycyclische aromatische Kohlenwasserstoffe in
Bden und Pflanzen Ein Beitrag zur Gefhrdungsabschtzung bei
Altlasten, Band II Untersuchungsergebnisse, Kommunalverband
Ruhrgebiet (KVR), Essen, 70 p.
Crmann, G., and M. Wstemann (1995): Belastungen in Haus- und
Kleingrten durch organische Stoffe mit Schdigungspotential
Sachstandsdokumentation. Umweltbundesamt, Texte 11/95, Berlin, Teil
I, Bden und Komposte, 1138.
Davani, B., K. Lindley, and G. A. Eiceman (1986): Polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons in soil at groundwater level near an earthen pit for
produced water in the Duncan oil field. Intern. J. Environ. Anal. Chem.
25, 299311.
Delschen, T., A. Hembrock-Heger, J. Leisner-Saaber, and D. Sopczak
(1999): Verhalten von PAK im System Boden/Pflanze PAK-Belastung
von Kulturpflanzen ber den Luft-/Bodenpfad. Z. Umweltchem. kotox.
11, 7987.
De Raat, W. K., and F. A. de Meijere (1991): Polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations in ambient airborne particles from
local traffic and distant sources; variation of the PAH profile. Sci. Tot.
Environ. 103, 117.
Deschauer, H. (1995): Eignung von Bioabfallkompost als Dnger im Wald
Untersuchungen zu den Auswirkungen einer Bioabfalldngung auf den
Elementumsatz, die Schwermetalldynamik und das Verhalten von
polyzyklischen aromatischen Kohlenwasserstoffen in einem humus-
und nhrstoffarmen Kiefernbestand. Bayreuther Bodenkundl. Ber. 43,
169 p.
Drescher-Kaden, U., R. Brggemann, M. Matthies, and B. Matthes (1990):
Organische Schadstoffe im Klrschlamm Vorkommen, Bewertung,
Vorschriften. Angewandter Umweltschutz, ecomed-Verlag, Landsberg/
Lech, 319 p.
Dzombak, D. A., and R. G. Luthy (1984): Estimating adsorption of
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on soils. Soil Sci. 137, 292308.
Edwards, N. T. (1983): Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the
terrestrial environment a review. J. Environ. Qual. 12, 427441.
Enfield, C. G., G. Bengtsson, and R. Lindqvist (1989): Influence of
macromolecules on chemical transport. Environ. Sci. Technol. 23,
12781286.
Eschenbach, A., P. Gehlen, and R. Bierl (1991): Untersuchungen zum
Einflu von Fluoranthen und Benzo(a)pyren auf Bodenmikroorganismen
und zum mikrobiellen Abbau dieser Substanzen. Mitteilgn. Dtsch.
Bodenkundl. Gesellsch. 63, 9194.
Eusterbrock, L. (1999): Polyzyklische aromatische Kohlenwasserstoffe
(PAK) und polychlorierte Biphenyle (PCB) in urbanen Bden
Bayreuths. Bayreuther Bodenkundl. Ber. 66, 100 p.
Felix-Henningsen, P., A. Wilbers, and G. Crmann (1993): Polyzyklische
aromatische Kohlenwasserstoffe (PAK) in den Bden der Rieselfelder
der Stadt Mnster (Westfalen). Z. Pflanzenernhr. Bodenkd. 156,
115121.
Fleischmann, S., and B.-M. Wilke (1991): PAKs in Straenrandbden.
Mitteilgn. Dtsch. Bodenkundl. Gesellsch. 63, 99101.
Freeman, D. J., and F. C. R. Cattell (1990): Woodburning as a source of
atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Environ. Sci. Technol.
24, 15811585.
Fhr, F., B. Scheele, and G. Kloster (1986): Schadstoffeintrge in den
Boden durch Industrie, Besiedlung, Verkehr und Landbewirtschaftung
(organische Stoffe). VDLUFA-Schriftenreihe 16 (Kongreband 1985),
7384.
Gassett, J. W., D. P. Wiesler, A. G. Baker, D. A. Osborn, K. V. Miller, R. L.
Marchington, and M. Novotny (1997): Volatile compounds from the
forehead region of male white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). J.
Chem. Ecol. 23, 569578.
PAHs in soil a review
Gauthier, T. D., E. C. Shane, W. F. Guerin, W. R. Seitz, and C. L. Grant
(1986): Fluorescence quenching method for determining equilibrium
constants for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons binding to dissolved
humic materials. Environ. Sci. Technol. 20, 11621166.
Gauthier, T. D., W. R. Seitz, and C. L. Grant (1987): Effects of structural
and compositional variations of dissolved humic materials on pyrene
KOC values. Environ. Sci. Technol. 21, 243248.
Gennadiyev, A. N., I. S. Kozin, Y. I. Shurubor, and T. A. Teplitskaya (1990):
Dynamics of soil contamination by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
and evaluation of the status of soil ecosystems. Pochvovedeniye 10, 75
85 (translated in Sov. Soil Sci. 23 (5), 1323).
Gierse, R. (1997): Schadstoffbelastung auf Spielpltzen in Wuppertal.
Mitteilgn. Dtsch. Bodenkundl. Gesellsch. 85, 11391142.
Gonzales-Vila, F. J., J. L. Lopez, F. Martin, and J. C. del Rio (1991):
Determination in soils of PAH produced by combustion of biomass
under different conditions. Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 339, 750753.
Goodin, J. D., and M. D. Webber (1995): Persistence and fate of anthracene
and benzo(a)pyrene in municipal sludge treated soil. J. Environ. Qual.
24, 271278.
Grimmer, G. (1983): Environmental Carcinogens: PAH Chemistry,
Occurrence, Biochemistry, Carcinogenicity. CRC Press, Boca Raton,
Florida, USA.
Guggenberger, G., M. Pichler, R. Hartmann, and W. Zech (1996):
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in different forest soils: mineral
horizons. Z. Pflanzenernhr. Bodenkd. 159, 565573.
Gustafsson, ., F. Haghseta, C. Chan, J. Macfarlane, and P. M.
Geschwend (1997): Quantification of the dilute sedimentary soot phase:
implications for PAH speciation and bioavailability. Environ. Sci.
Technol. 31, 203209.
Harrison, R. M., and W. R. Johnston (1985): Deposition fluxes of lead,
cadmium, copper, and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) on the
verges of a major highway. Sci. Tot. Environ. 46, 121135.
Hartmann, R. (1995): Polyzyklische aromatische Kohlenwasserstoffe
(PAK) in Waldbden. Bayreuther Bodenkundl. Ber. 44, 117 p.
Hatzinger, P. B., and M. Alexander (1995): Effect of aging of chemicals in
soil on their biodegradability and extractability. Environ. Sci. Technol.
29, 527545.
Hellmann, H. (1982): Polycyclische aromatische Kohlenwasserstoffe in
Acker- und Waldbden und ihr Beitrag zur Gewsserbelastung. Dtsch.
Gewsserkundl. Mitteilgn. 26, 6369.
Hembrock-Heger, A., A. Rothkranz, and M. Wilkens (1992): Untersuchun-
gen zur Istbelastung von Bden und Nutzpflanzen mit PAK und PCB.
In: Landesanstalt fr kologie, Landschaftsentwicklung und Forstpla-
nung Nordrhein-Westfalen (LLF) (ed.): Beurteilung von PCB und
PAK in Kulturbden. Materialien zur Ermittlung und Sanierung von
Altlasten, 7, 147172.
Hewitt, C. N., and M. B. Rashed (1990): An integrated budget for selected
pollutants for a major rural highway. Sci. Tot. Environ. 93, 375384.
Hutzinger, O. (1980): Handbook of Environmental Chemistry. Springer,
Berlin, Germany.
Ifland, K., D. A. Hiller, and R. H. Tebaay (1993): Produktionsstttenbe-
dingte Verteilungsmuster von PAK in Bden ehemaliger Kokerei- und
Gaswerkstandorte des Ruhrgebietes. Mitteilgn. Dtsch. Bodenkundl.
Gesellsch. 72, 943946.
Jacob, J., G. Grimmer, and A. Hildebrandt (1993): The use of passive
samplers for monitoring polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient
air. Sci. Tot. Environ. 139/140, 307321.
Johnson, W. P., and G. L. Amy (1995): Facilitated transport and enhanced
desorption of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by natural organic
matter in aquifer sediments. Environ. Sci. Technol. 29, 807817.
Johnston, W. R., and R. M. Harrison (1984): Deposition of metallic and
organic pollutants alongside the M6 motorway. Sci. Tot. Environ. 33,
119127.
245
Joneck, M., and R. Prinz (1993): Inventur organischer Schadstoffe in
Bden Bayerns. Bayerisches Geologisches Landesamt, Mnchen, GLA-
Fachbericht 9, 155 p.
Jones, K. C., G. Grimmer, and A. E. Johnston (1989a): Changes in the
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon content of wheat grain and pasture
grassland over the last century from one site in the U.K. Sci. Tot.
Environ. 78, 117130.
Jones, K. C., J. A. Stratford, P. Tidridge, K. S. Waterhouse, and A. E.
Johnston (1989b): Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in an agricultural
soil: long-term changes in profile distribution. Environ. Pollut. 56, 337
351.
Jones, K. C., J. A. Stratford, K. S. Waterhouse, E. T. Furlong, W. Giger, R.
A. Hites, Ch. Schaffner, and A. E. Johnston (1989c): Increases in the
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon content of an agricultural soil over
the last century. Environ. Sci. Technol. 23, 95101.
Jones, K. C., J. A. Stratford, K. S. Waterhouse, and N. B. Vogt (1989d):
Organic contaminants in Welsh soils: polynuclear aromatic hydro-
carbons. Environ. Sci. Technol. 23, 540550.
Jones, K. D., and C. L. Tiller (1999): Effect of solution chemistry on the
extent of binding of phenanthrene by a soil humic acid: a comparison of
dissolved and clay bound humic. Environ. Sci. Technol. 33, 580587.
Kaiser, K. (1996): Sorption gelster organischer Substanzen in Waldbden.
Bayreuther Bodenkundl. Ber. 49, 141 p.
Kan, A. T., and M. B. Tomson (1990): Groundwater transport of
hydrophobic organic compounds in the presence of dissolved organic
matter. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 9, 253263.
Karickhoff, S. W. (1984): Organic pollutant sorption in aquatic systems. J.
Hydraulic Engineering 110, 707734.
Karickhoff, S. W., D. S. Brown, and T. A. Scott (1979): Sorption of
hydrophobic pollutants on natural sediments. Water Res. 13, 241248.
Kasperowski, E., and E. Frank (1989): Boden- und Vegetationsuntersu-
chungen im Bereich der Scheitelstrecke der Tauernautobahn. Umwelt-
bundesamt Wien, Monographien 15, 126 p.
Kelsey, J. W., B. D. Kottler, and M. Alexander (1997): Selective chemical
extractants to predict bioavailability of soil-aged organic chemicals.
Environ. Sci. Technol. 31, 214217.
Khalili, N. R., P. A. Scheff, and T. M. Holsen (1995): PAH source
fingerprints for coke ovens, diesel and gasoline engines, highway tunnels
and wood combustion emissions. Atmosph. Environ. 29, 533543.
Knoche, H., M. Klein, W. Krdel, U. Wahle, K. Hund, J. Mller, and W.
Klein (1995): Literaturstudie zur Ableitung von Bodengrenzwerten fr
polyzyklische aromatische Kohlenwasserstoffe (PAK). Umweltbundes-
amt, Texte 71, Berlin, 63 p.
Koenies, H. (1985): ber die Eigenart der Mikrostandorte im Fubereich
der Altbuchen unter besonderer Bercksichtigung der Schwermetallge-
halte in der organischen Auflage und im Oberboden. Berichte des
Forschungszentrums Waldkosysteme/ Waldsterben 9, Gttingen, 288 p.
Knig, W., U. Wittkter, and A. Hembrock (1987): Gehalte an
anorganischen und organischen Schadstoffen in Bden und Pflanzen
des Humusanreicherungsversuchs Berrenrath nach langjhriger Dn-
gung mit Klrschlamm und Mll-Klrschlamm-Kompost. VDLUFA-
Schriftenreihe 23 (Kongreband 1987), 533546.
Korff, H. C., E. Schrimpff, I. Brandner, and F. Janocha (1980): Einflu der
Orographie auf die rumliche Verteilung von Schadstoffen im
Steigerwald und Fichtelgebirge. Bayreuther Geowissenschaftliche
Arbeiten 1, 3956.
Krau, M., W. Wilcke, and W. Zech (2000): Polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in forest
soils: depth distribution as indicator of different fate. Environ. Pollut., in
press.
Laflamme, R. E., and R. A. Hites (1978): The global distribution of
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in recent sediments. Geochim.
Cosmochim. Acta 42, 289303.
246
Landrum, P. F., S. R. Nihart, B. J. Eadle, and W. S. Gardner (1984):
Reverse-phase separation method for determining pollutant binding to
Aldrich humic acid and dissolved organic carbon of natural waters.
Environ. Sci. Technol. 18, 187192.
Leduc, R., R. Samson, B. Al-Bashir, J. Al-Hawari, and T. Cseh (1992):
Biotic and abiotic disappearence of four PAH compounds from flooded
soil under various redox conditions. Water Sci. Technol. 26, 5160.
Lee, H. K., Wright, G. J., and Swallows, W. H. (1990): The identification of
sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) by using concen-
tration ratios of total PAH and Pb. Intern. J. Environ. Stud. 36, 273277.
Lee, M. I., M. V. Novotny, and K. D. Bartle (1981): Analytical Chemistry of
Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds. Academic Press, New York, USA.
Leichtle, K., and K. U. Totsche (1997): Sorption polyzyklischer
aromatischer Kohlenwasserstoffe an mineralische Oberflchen: ein
wichtiger Steuerungsproze der PAK-Mobilitt in Unterbden. Mit- Menzie, C. A., B. B. Potocki, and J. Santodonato (1992): Exposure to
teilgn. Dtsch. Bodenkundl. Gesellsch. 85, 15331536.
Lenz, H., L. Pamperin, and E. Pluquet (1997): PAK in Kleingartenbden
Eingrenzung mglicher Belastungsursachen mit Hilfe von PAK-
Profilen. Mitteilgn. Dtsch. Bodenkundl. Gesellsch. 85, 737740.
Linke, V., J. Kobza, M. vec, P. Ilka, P. Pavlenda, G. Barankov, and
L. Matkov (1997): Soil monitoring of the Slovak Republic present Michels, K., and R. Siegfried (1985): Bestimmung polycyclischer
state of the monitored soil properties. Soil Fertility Research Institute,
Bratislava, Slovakia, 128 p.
Ma, W. C., A. van Kleunen, J. Immerzeel, and P. G.-J. de Maagd (1998):
Bioaccumulation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by earthworms:
assessment of equilibrium partitioning theory in in-situ studies and water
experiments. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 17, 17301737.
Mackay, D., and P. J. Leinonen (1975): Rate of evaporation of low-
solubility contaminants from water bodies to atmosphere. Environ. Sci.
Technol. 9, 11781190.
Magee, B. R., L. W. Lion, and A. T. Lemley (1991): Transport of dissolved
organic macromolecules and their effect on the transport of phenan-
threne in porous media. Environ. Sci. Technol. 25, 323331.
Marschner, B. (1995): Bodenchemische und -biologische Einflufaktoren
der Freisetzung von PAK und PCB in einem Rieselfeldboden. Mitteilgn.
Dtsch. Bodenkundl. Gesellsch. 76, 365368.
Marschner, B. (1999): Sorption von polyzyklischen aromatischen Kohlen-
wasserstoffen (PAK) und polychlorierten Biphenylen (PCB) im Boden.
Z. Pflanzenernhr. Bodenkd. 162, 114.
Marquardt, H., and S. G. Schfer (1994): Lehrbuch der Toxikologie, Vol. I.
Wissenschaftsverlag, Mannheim, Leipzig, Wien, Zrich, 1004 p.
Masclet, P., G. Mouvier, and K. Nikolaou (1986): Relative decay index and
sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Atmosph. Environ. 20,
439446.
Masclet, P., M. A. Bresson, and G. Mouvier (1987): Polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons emitted by power stations, and influence of combustion
conditions. Fuel 66, 556562.
Matzner, E. (1984): Annual rates of deposition of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons in different forest ecosystems. Water Air Soil Pollut. 21,
425234.
Matzner, E., D. Hbner, and W. Thomas (1981): Content and storage of
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in two forested ecosystems in
northern Germany. Z. Pflanzenernhr. Bodenkd. 144, 283288.
Maxin, C. (1992): Sorption polyzyklischer aromatischer Kohlenwasser-
stoffe (PAK) an die wasserlsliche organische Substanz in Bden
(WOBS). Bayreuther Bodenkundl. Ber. 25, 94 p.
Maxin, C. R., and I. Kgel-Knabner (1995): Partitioning of polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) to water-soluble organic matter. Eur. J.
Soil Sci. 46, 193204.
McCarthy, J. F., and B. D. Jimenez (1985): Interactions between polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons and dissolved humic material: binding and
dissociation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 19, 10721076.
McCarthy, J. F., and J. M. Zachara (1989): Subsurface transport of
contaminants. Environ. Sci. Technol. 23, 496502.
Wilcke
McCarthy, J. F., L. E. Roberson, and L. W. Burrus (1989): Association of
benzo(a)pyrene with dissolved organic matter: prediction of KDOM from
structural and chemical properties of the organic matter. Chemosphere
19, 19111920.
Means, J. C., S. G. Wook, J. J. Hassett, and W. L. Banwart (1980): Sorption
of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons by sediments and soils. Environ.
Sci. Technol. 14, 15241528.
Meharg, A. A., J. Wright, H. Dyke, and D. Osborn (1998): Polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) dispersion and deposition to vegetation
and soil following a large-scale chemical fire. Environ. Pollut. 99,
2936.
Menichini, E. (1992): Urban air pollution by polycyclic aromatic hydro-
carbons: levels and sources of variability. Sci. Tot. Environ. 116,
109135.
carcinogenic PAHs in the environment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 26,
12781283.
Meuser, H. (1996): Schadstoffpotential technogener Substrate in Bden
urban-industrieller Verdichtungsrume. Z. Pflanzenernhr. Bodenkd.
159, 621628.
aromatischer Kohlenwasserstoffe in Bodenproben, Futtermitteln und
Pflanzenmaterial. Landwirtsch. Forsch. (Kongreband 1984), 505514.
Miller, M. M., S. P. Wasik, G.-L. Huang, W.-Y. Shiu, and D. Mackay
(1985): Relationships between octanol-water partition coefficient and
aqueous solubility. Environ. Sci. Technol. 19, 522529.
Mller, S., N. Kanchanakool, W. Zech, and W. Wilcke (1997):
Polyzyklische aromatische Kohlenwasserstoffe (PAK) und polychlor-
ierte Biphenyle (PCB) in Korngren- und Dichtefraktionen urbaner
Bden Bangkoks. Mitteilgn. Dtsch. Bodenkundl. Gesellsch. 85, 753
756.
Mnch, D. (1992): Waldbodenbelastung an einer Strae durch Zink, Blei,
Cadmium und Benzo(a)pyren. AFZ 14, 756757.
Mnch, D. (1993): Concentration profiles of arsenic, cadmium, chromium,
copper, lead, mercury, nickel, zinc, vanadium, and polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAH) in forest soil beside an urban road. Sci. Tot.
Environ. 138, 4755.
Ns, K., and E. Oug (1997): Multivariate approach to distribution patterns
and fate of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediments from smelter-
affected Norwegian fjords and coastal waters. Environ. Sci. Technol. 31,
12531258.
Nielsen, T., K. Siigur, C. Helweg, O. Jrgensen, P. E. Hansen, and U. Kirso
(1997): Sorption of polycyclic aromatic compounds to humic acid as
studied by high-performance liquid chromatography. Environ. Sci.
Technol. 31, 11021108.
Nikolaou, K., P. Masclet, and G. Mouvier (1984): Sources and chemical
reactivity of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in the atmosphere
a critical review. Sci. Tot. Environ. 32, 103132.
Ophoff, H., A. Stork, W. Veerkamp, and F. Fhr (1996): Volatilization and
mineralization of [3-14C]fluoranthene after soil incorporation and soil
surface application. Intern. J. Environ. Anal. Chem. 64, 97109.
Park, K. S., R. C. Sims, and R. R. Dupont (1990a): Transformation of PAHs
in soil systems. J. Environ. Eng. 116, 632640.
Park, K. S., R. C. Sims, R. R. Dupont, W. J. Doucette, and J. E. Matthews
(1990b): Fate of PAH compounds in two soil types: influence of
volatilization, abiotic loss and biological activity. Environ. Toxicol.
Chem. 9, 187195.
Pathirana, S., D. W. Connell, and P. D. Vowles (1994): Distribution of
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in an urban roadway system.
Ecotox. Environ. Safe. 28, 256269.
Pichler, M. (1995): Polyzyklische aromatische Kohlenwasserstoffe (PAK)
in Partikelgrenfraktionen von Waldbden. Untersuchungen zur
Verteilung und Dynamik an Standorten unterschiedlicher biologischer
Aktivitt. Bayreuther Bodenkundl. Ber. 46, 123 p.
PAHs in soil a review
Pichler, M., G. Guggenberger, R. Hartmann, and W. Zech (1996):
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in different forest humus
types. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 3, 2431.
Raber, B., und I. Kgel-Knabner (1995): Desorption von PAK aus Bden
unter dem Einflu von gelster organischer Substanz. Mitteilgn. Dtsch.
Bodenkundl. Gesellsch. 76, 421424.
Ramdahl, T., I. Alfheim, S. Rustad, and T. Olsen (1982): Chemical and
biological characterization of emissions from small residential stoves
burning wood and charcoal. Chemosphere 6, 601611.
Readman, J. W., R. F. C. Mantoura, and M. M. Rhead (1987): A record of
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) pollution obtained from
accreting sediments of the Tamar estuary, U. K.: evidence for non-
equilibrium behaviour of PAH. Sci. Tot. Environ. 66, 7394.
Reinirkens, P. (1993): Landesweite Erhebung von PAK-Gehalten in Bden
Nordrhein-Westfalens. Mitteilgn. Dtsch. Bodenkundl. Gesellsch. 72,
10331036.
Renger, M., and B. Mekiffer (1997): Belastung durch polyzyklische
aromatische Kohlenwasserstoffe. In: Blume, H. P., and U. Schleu
(eds.): Bewertung anthropogener Stadtbden. Institut fr Pflanzener-
nhrung und Bodenkunde, Universitt Kiel, Schriftenreihe 38, 148171.
Sanders, G., K. C. Jones, J. Hamilton-Taylor, and H. Drr (1993):
Concentrations and deposition fluxes of polynuclear aromatic hydro-
carbons and heavy metals in the dated sediments of a rural English lake.
Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 12, 15671581.
Sanders, G., K. C. Jones, J. Hamilton-Taylor, and H. Drr (1995): PCB and
PAH fluxes to a dated UK peat core. Environ. Pollut. 89, 1725.
Sauerwein, M. (1998): Polyzyklische aromatische Kohlenwasserstoffe
(PAK) und Schwermetalle in Bden der Grosiedlung Halle-Neustadt
vertikale Verteilung und Muster als Indikatoren der stdtischen
Bodengenese. Petermanns Geograph. Mitteilgn. 142, 321338.
Schnder, F. (1995): Das Verhalten von 14C-Fluoranthen und -Benzo(a)-
pyren sowie 14C-PCB 28 und -PCB 52 im Agrokosystem. Diss. Univ.
Bonn, 163 p.
Schoone, M., M. W. I. Schmidt, and I. Kgel-Knabner (1997): Sorptions-
verhalten von PAK in Oberbden mit unterschiedlicher Zusammenset-
zung der organischen Substanz. Mitteilgn. Dtsch. Bodenkundl.
Gesellsch. 85, 345348.
Schulte, G. (1996): Stadtbden Schadstoffbelastung und Schadstoffmo-
bilitt. Umweltforschungszentrum Halle/Leipzig, UFZ-Bericht 11, 96 p.
Schulten, H.-R., and P. Leinweber (2000): New insights into organic-
mineral particles: composition, properties, and models of molecular
structure. Biol. Fertil. Soils 30, 399432.
Schulz, E. (1995): Verhalten ausgewhlter Vertreter der Gruppe der
polyzyklischen aromatischen Kohlenwasserstoffe (PAK) in Bden unter
(Quasi-) Freilandbedingungen. Mitteilgn. Dtsch. Bodenkundl. Gesellsch.
76, 445448.
Simcik, M. F., S. J. Eisenreich, K. A. Golden, S.-P. Liu, E. Lipiatou, D. L.
Swackhamer, and D. T. Long (1996): Atmospheric loading of polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons to Lake Michigan as recorded in the sediments.
Environ. Sci. Technol. 30, 30393046.
Simmleit, N., and R. Herrmann (1987a): The behaviour of hydrophobic
organic micropollutants in different Karst water systems. I. Transport of
micropollutants and contaminant balances during the melting of snow.
Water Air Soil Pollut. 34, 7995.
Simmleit, N., and R. Herrmann (1987b): The behaviour of hydrophobic
organic micropollutants in different Karst water systems. II. Filtration
capacity of Karst systems and pollutant sinks. Water Air Soil Pollut. 34,
97109.
Sims, R. C., and M. R. Overcash (1983): Fate of polynuclear aromatic
compounds (PNAs) in soil-plant systems. Res. Rev. 88, 168.
Smettan, U., and C. Ehrig (1995): Transfer von Schwermetallen und PAK
von urbanen Schuttbden in anstehende Sedimente? Mitteilgn. Dtsch.
Bodenkundl. Gesellsch. 76, 453456.
Smettan, U., C. Ehrig, and J. Gerstenberg (1993): Belastungen von Bden
mit As, Pb und PAK in zwei Berliner Bezirken. Mitteilgn. Dtsch.
Bodenkundl. Gesellsch. 73, 12591262.
247
Smith, D. J. T., E. C. Edelhauser, and R. M. Harrison (1995): Polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations in road dust and soil samples
collected in the United Kingdom and Pakistan. Environ. Technol. 16,
3553.
Sullivan, T. J., and M. C. Mix (1985): Persistence and fate of polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbons deposited on slash burn sites in the cascade
mountains and coast range of Oregon. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.
14, 187192.
Tebaay, R. H., G. Welp, and G. W. Brmmer (1991): Sorptionsverhalten
von PAK in Bden Einflu von Stoffbestand und Lsungsvermittlern
Mitteilgn. Dtsch. Bodenkundl. Gesellsch. 66, 419422.
Tebaay R. H., G. Welp, G. W. Brmmer, and U. Necker (1992):
Untersuchungen zur mikrobiellen Toxizitt sowie zur Adsorption und
Lslichkeit von PAK und PCB in Bden. In: Landesanstalt fr kologie,
Landschaftsentwicklung und Forstplanung Nordrhein-Westfalen
(LLF): Beurteilung von PCB and PAK in Kulturbden. Materialien
zur Ermittlung und Sanierung von Altlasten 7, 1169.
Tebaay, R. H., G. Welp, and G. W. Brmmer (1993): Gehalte an
polyzyklischen aromatischen Kohlenwasserstoffen (PAK) und deren
Verteilungsmuster in unterschiedlich belasteten Bden Z. Pflanzener-
nhr. Bodenkd. 156, 110.
Thiele, S., and G. W. Brmmer (1997): Kennzeichnung des Einflusses der
Bodenfeuchte auf die Verfgbarkeit von PAK in belasteten Bden
mittels chemischer Extraktionsverfahren. Mitteilgn. Dtsch. Bodenkundl.
Gesellsch. 85, 78184.
Thomas, W., . Rhling, and H. Simon (1984): Accumulation of airborne
pollutants (PAH, chlorinated hydrocarbons, heavy metals) in various
plant species and humus. Environ. Pollut. (Series A) 36, 295310.
Totsche, K. U. (1995): Co-Transport and Co-Sorption in Bden:
Experimentelle Befunde Modellentwicklung Numerische Simula-
tion. Bayreuther Bodenkundl. Ber. 38, 145 p.
Totsche, K. U., J. Danzer, and I. Kgel-Knabner (1997): Dissolved organic
matter-enhanced retention of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soil
miscible displacement experiments. J. Environ. Qual. 26, 10901100.
Tselmann, J. (1997): Charakterisierung der Verteilung von polyzyklischen
aromatischen Kohlenwasserstoffen (PAK) in zwei Bden auf einem
Kokerei-Altstandort. Mitteilgn. Dtsch. Bodenkundl. Gesellsch. 85, 785
788.
Van Brummelen, T. C., R. A. Verweij, S. A. Wedzinga, and C. A. M. Van
Gestel (1996a): Enrichment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in
forest soils near a blast furnace plant. Chemosphere 32, 293314.
Van Brummelen, T. C., R. A. Verweij, S. A. Wedzinga, and C. A. M. Van
Gestel (1996b): Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in earthworms and
isopods from contaminated forest soils. Chemosphere 32, 315341.
Venkatesan, M. I. (1988): Occurrence and possible sources of perylene in
marine sediments a review. Mar. Chem. 25, 127.
Vogt, N. B., F. Brakstad, K. Thrane, S. Nordenson, J. Krane, E. Aamot,
K. Kolset, K. Esbensen, and E. Steinness (1987): Polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons in soil and air: statistical analysis and classification by the
SIMCA method. Environ. Sci. Technol. 21, 3544.
Weigand, H., K. U. Totsche, B. Huwe, and I. Kgel-Knabner (1997):
Rumliche Variabilitt der PAK-Belastung und der Sorptionsmatrix an
einem kontaminierten Standort. Mitteilgn. Dtsch. Bodenkundl.
Gesellsch. 85, 385387.
Weiss, P. (1998): Persistente organische Schadstoffe in Hintergrund-
Waldgebieten sterreichs. Umweltbundesamt Wien, Monographien 97,
242 p.
Weiss, P., and A. Riss (1992): Schadstoffe im Raum Linz. Umweltbun-
desamt Wien, Monographien 20, 275 p.
Weiss, P., A. Riss, E. Gschmeidler, and H. Schentz (1994): Investigation of
heavy metal, PAH, PCB patterns and PCDD/F profiles of soil samples
from an industrialized urban area (Linz, Upper Austria) with multi-
variate statistical methods. Chemosphere 29, 22232236.
248
Weissenfels, W. D., H.-J. Klewer, and J. Langhoff (1992): Adsorption of
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) by soil particles: influence on
biodegradability and biotoxicity. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 36,
689696.
White, J. C., and J. J. Pignatello (1999): Influence of bisolute competition
on the desorption kinetics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soil.
Environ. Sci. Technol. 33, 42924298.
Wickstrm, K., and K. Tolonen (1987): The history of airborne polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and perylene as recorded in dated lake
sediments. Water Air Soil Pollut. 32, 155175.
Wilcke, W., and W. Zech (1997): Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
in forest floors of the northern Czech mountains. Z. Pflanzenernhr.
Bodenkd. 160, 369378.
Wilcke, W., R. Bumler, H. Deschauer, M. Kaupenjohan, and W. Zech
(1996a): Small-scale distribution of Al, heavy metals, and PAHs in an
aggregated Alpine Podzol. Geoderma 71, 1930.
Wilcke, W., W. Zech, and J. Kobza (1996b): PAH pools in soils along a
PAH deposition gradient. Environ. Pollut. 92, 307313.
Wilcke, W., W. Amelung, and W. Zech (1997): Heavy metals and polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in a rural community leewards of a waste
incineration plant. Z. Pflanzenernhr. Bodenkd. 160, 369378.
Wilcke, W., J. Lilienfein, S. d. C. Lima, and W. Zech (1999a):
Contamination of highly weathered urban soils in Uberlandia, Brazil.
J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 162, 539548.
Wilcke, W., S. Mller, N. Kanchanakool, C. Niamskul, and W. Zech
(1999b): Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in hydromorphic
soils of the tropical metropolis Bangkok. Geoderma 91, 297309.
Wilcke, W., W. Amelung, C. Martius, M. V. B. Garcia, and W. Zech (2000):
Biological sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the
Amazonian rain forest. J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 163, 2730.
Wilcke
Wild, S. R., and K. C. Jones (1995): Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in
the United Kingdom environment: a preliminary source inventory and
budget. Environ. Pollut. 88, 91108.
Wild, S. R., K. S. Waterhouse, S. P. McGrath, and K. C. Jones (1990):
Organic contaminants in an agricultural soil with known history of
sewage sludge amendments: polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons.
Environ. Sci. Technol. 24, 17061711.
Wild, S. R., M. L. Berrow, S. P. McGrath, and K. C. Jones (1991a):
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in crops from long-term field
experiments amended with sewage sludge. Environ. Pollut. 76, 2535.
Wild, S. R., J. P. Obbard, C. I. Munn, M. L. Berrow, and K. C. Jones
(1991b): The long-term persistence of polynuclear aromatic hydro-
carbons (PAHs) in an agricultural soil amended with metal-contaminated
sewage sludges. Sci. Tot. Environ. 101, 235253.
Wild, S. R., M. L. Berrow, S. P. McGrath, and K. C. Jones (1992):
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in crops from long-term field
experiments amended with sewage sludge. Environ. Pollut. 76, 2532.
Wilson, S. C., and K. C. Jones (1993): Bioremediation of soil contaminated
with polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs): a review. Environ.
Pollut. 81, 229249.
Yang, S. Y. N., D. W. Connell, D. W. Hawker, and S. I. Kayal (1991):
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in air, soil, and vegetation in the
vicinity of an urban roadway. Sci. Tot. Environ. 102, 229240.
Yu, X., X. Wang, R. Bartha, and J. D. Rosen (1990): Supercritical fluid
extraction of coal tar contaminated soil. Environ. Sci. Technol. 24,
17321738.
[P5496B]