Sie sind auf Seite 1von 48






















8WLOL]DGLVWLQWDVIRUPDVGHODHFXDFLyQGHXQDUHFWD



 &RPSHWHQFLDVGLVFLSOLQDUHVEiVLFDV
 ƒ &RQVWUX\H H LQWHUSUHWD PRGHORV PDWHPiWLFRV PHGLDQWH OD DSOLFDFLyQ GH SURFHGLPLHQWRV DULWPpWLFRV
 DOJHEUDLFRV JHRPpWULFRV \ YDULDFLRQDOHV SDUD OD FRPSUHQVLyQ \ DQiOLVLV GH VLWXDFLRQHV UHDOHV
KLSRWpWLFDVRIRUPDOHV
 ƒ ([SOLFD H LQWHUSUHWD ORV UHVXOWDGRV REWHQLGRV PHGLDQWH SURFHGLPLHQWRV PDWHPiWLFRV \ ORV FRQWUDVWD
 FRQPRGHORVHVWDEOHFLGRVRVLWXDFLRQHVUHDOHV
 ƒ $UJXPHQWD OD VROXFLyQ REWHQLGD GH XQ SUREOHPD FRQ PpWRGRV QXPpULFRV JUiILFRV DQDOtWLFRV R
 YDULDFLRQDOHVPHGLDQWHHOOHQJXDMHYHUEDOPDWHPiWLFR\HOXVRGHODVWHFQRORJtDVGHODLQIRUPDFLyQ\
ODFRPXQLFDFLyQ
 ƒ $QDOL]D ODV UHODFLRQHV HQWUH GRV R PiV YDULDEOHV GH XQ SURFHVR VRFLDO R QDWXUDO SDUD GHWHUPLQDU R
 HVWLPDUVXFRPSRUWDPLHQWR
 ƒ &XDQWLILFDUHSUHVHQWD\FRQWUDVWDH[SHULPHQWDORPDWHPiWLFDPHQWHODVPDJQLWXGHVGHOHVSDFLR\ODV
 SURSLHGDGHVItVLFDVGHORVREMHWRVTXHORURGHDQ
ƒ ,QWHUSUHWDWDEODVJUiILFDVPDSDVGLDJUDPDV\WH[WRVFRQVtPERORVPDWHPiWLFRV\FLHQWtILFRV

 8QLGDGGHFRPSHWHQFLD
 ƒ &RQVWUX\HHLQWHUSUHWDPRGHORVDX[LOLiQGRVHGHGLVWLQWDVIRUPDVGHODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWDDOUHVROYHU
 SUREOHPDVGHULYDGRVGHVLWXDFLRQHVUHDOHVKLSRWpWLFDVRWHyULFDV
 ƒ ,QWHUSUHWDWDEODVJUiILFDV\H[SUHVLRQHVVLPEyOLFDVUHODFLRQDGDVFRQGLIHUHQWHVIRUPDVGHODHFXDFLyQ
 GHODUHFWD
ƒ $UJXPHQWDODSHUWLQHQFLDGHXWLOL]DUXQDIRUPDHVSHFtILFDGHODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWDGHSHQGLHQGRGH
 ODQDWXUDOH]DGHODVLWXDFLyQEDMRHVWXGLR

 $WULEXWRVDGHVDUUROODUHQHOEORTXH

 ([SUHVDLGHDV\FRQFHSWRVPHGLDQWHUHSUHVHQWDFLRQHVOLQJtVWLFDVPDWHPiWLFDVRJUiILFDV
 6LJXHLQVWUXFFLRQHV\SURFHGLPLHQWRVGHPDQHUDUHIOH[LYDFRPSUHQGLHQGRFyPRFDGDXQRGHVXV
SDVRVFRQWULEX\HDODOFDQFHGHXQREMHWLYR
 &RQVWUX\HKLSyWHVLV\GLVHxD\DSOLFDPRGHORVSDUDSUREDUVXYDOLGH]
 8WLOL]DODVWHFQRORJtDVGHODLQIRUPDFLyQ\FRPXQLFDFLyQSDUDSURFHVDUHLQWHUSUHWDULQIRUPDFLyQ
 (OLJHODVIXHQWHVGHLQIRUPDFLyQPiVUHOHYDQWHVSDUDXQSURSyVLWRHVSHFtILFR\GLVFULPLQDHQWUHHOODVGH
 DFXHUGRDVXUHOHYDQFLD\FRQILDELOLGDG
'HILQHPHWDV\GDVHJXLPLHQWRDVXVSURFHVRVGHFRQVWUXFFLyQGHFRQRFLPLHQWRV
3URSRQHPDQHUDVGHVROXFLRQDUXQSUREOHPD\GHVDUUROODXQSUR\HFWRHQHTXLSRGHILQLHQGRXQFXUVR
GHDFFLyQFRQSDVRVHVSHFtILFRV
$SRUWDSXQWRVGHYLVWDFRQDSHUWXUD\FRQVLGHUDORVGHRWUDVSHUVRQDVGHPDQHUDUHIOH[LYD
$VXPHXQDDFWLWXGFRQVWUXFWLYDFRQJUXHQWHFRQORVFRQRFLPLHQWRV\KDELOLGDGHVFRQORVTXHFXHQWD
GHQWURGHGLVWLQWRVHTXLSRVGHWUDEDMR
7LHPSRDVLJQDGRKRUDV




6HFXHQFLDGLGiFWLFD
)RUPDVGHODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWD

,QLFLR  


 $FWLYLGDG
 
 /HHFRQFXLGDGRORVVLJXLHQWHVSUREOHPDV\UHDOL]DORTXHVHSLGH
 
  2EVHUYDODVLJXLHQWHJUiILFDSDUDUHVSRQGHUFDGDLQFLVR
 
 D ¢&XiOHVODSHQGLHQWH"
 
 < 
10
 
9
 E ¢&XiOHVODDEVFLVD\RUGHQDGDHQHORULJHQ"
8
 
7 

6 

5 

 4 F 5HSUHVHQWDDODUHFWDFRQVXHFXDFLyQHQODIRUPDSHQGLHQWH
 3 RUGHQDGDHQHORULJHQTXHGHVFULEH
 2 
 1 ; 
 
 −2 −1−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 
 −2 
 −3 
 −4 
 −5

 
−6
 
  8QDOEDxLOVDEHTXHERWHVGHDUHQD\ERWHVGHJUDYDKDFHQXQDEXHQDPH]FOD6L´[µUHSUHVHQWDHO
 Q~PHURGHERWHVGHDUHQD\´\µGHJUDYDFRPSOHWDODVLJXLHQWHWDEOD\GHVDUUROODORTXHVHSLGHHQORV
 LQFLVRVSRVWHULRUHV
 
 [        
 \        
 
 
 D 5HDOL]DODJUiILFD
 
 11 <
 10
9

8
 7
 6
 5
 4
 3
 2
1 ;

 −3 −2 −1−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
 −2

 87,/,=$',67,17$6)250$6'(/$(&8$&,Ð1'(81$5(&7$



 $FWLYLGDG
 
 E 6LVHH[WHQGLHUDODJUiILFDHQWRGRVORVQ~PHURVUHDOHV¢FXiOVHUtDODSHQGLHQWH\OD
 RUGHQDGDHQHORULJHQ"
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F &DOFXODODSHQGLHQWH
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G (VFULEHODHFXDFLyQHQVXIRUPDSHQGLHQWHRUGHQDGDHQHORULJHQ
 
 
 













(YDOXDFLyQ
(YDOXDFLyQ
$FWLYLGDG 3URGXFWR(MHUFLFLRV 3XQWDMH
6DEHUHV
6DEHUHV
&RQFHSWXDO
&RQFHSWXDO 3URFHGLPHQWDO
3URFHGLPHQWDO $FWLWXGLQDO
$FWLWXGLQDO
,GHQWLILFDORVHOHPHQWRVOD 7UD]DODJUiILFDGHODUHFWD\FDOFXOD 0XHVWUDGLVSRVLFLyQDOUHDOL]DUOD
JUiILFD\ODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWD ORVHOHPHQWRV\HFXDFLyQGHOD DFWLYLGDG
PLVPD
& 0& 1& &DOLILFDFLyQRWRUJDGDSRUHO
$XWRHYDOXDFLyQ 
   GRFHQWH

%/248( 



'HVDUUROOR

&RQ OR DSUHQGLGR HQ ORV EORTXHV DQWHULRUHV \ HQ OD DVLJQDWXUD GH 0DWHPiWLFDV  VH SXHGH GHILQLU D OD OtQHD UHFWD
GHVGHWUHVSHUVSHFWLYDV

 *HRPpWULFDPHQWHXQDUHFWDHVODGLVWDQFLDPiVFRUWDHQWUHGRVSXQWRV
 *UiILFDPHQWHVHSXHGHYHUFRPRXQFRQMXQWRGHSXQWRVXQRGHWUiVGHRWURGHWDOPDQHUDTXHVLVHWRPDQ
GHOOXJDUJHRPpWULFRGRVSXQWRVFXDOHVTXLHUD 3 [  \  \ 3 [   \  ODSHQGLHQWH´PµVLHPSUHHVODPLVPD
 $QDOtWLFDPHQWHVHUHSUHVHQWDFRPRXQDHFXDFLyQGHSULPHUJUDGRROLQHDOFRQGRVYDULDEOHVGHODIRUPD
$[ + %\ + & =  
<D VH KDQ DERUGDGR ODV GRV SULPHUDV SHUVSHFWLYDV DKRUD VH UHTXLHUH REWHQHU ODV GLIHUHQWHV IRUPDV DQDOtWLFDV SDUD
XWLOL]DUODVHQGLYHUVDVDSOLFDFLRQHVVREUHWRGRTXHpVWDRIUHFHSUHGHFLUFRQH[DFWLWXGRWURVSXQWRVTXHHVWpQVREUHOD
OtQHDUHFWD

'HDFXHUGRDORVGDWRVSURSRUFLRQDGRVVHSXHGHQXWLOL]DUGLIHUHQWHVIRUPDVGHODHFXDFLyQORVFXDOHVVHGHVDUUROODQ
DFRQWLQXDFLyQ

)RUPDSXQWRSHQGLHQWH

6LVHWLHQHFRPRLQIRUPDFLyQXQSXQWRFXDOTXLHUD\ODSHQGLHQWHGHXQDUHFWDVHSXHGHHQFRQWUDUODH[SUHVLyQTXHVH
FRQRFHFRPRIRUPDSXQWRSHQGLHQWH\SDUDHOORVHWRPDODVLJXLHQWHJUiILFD

<
P /DIyUPXODGHSHQGLHQWHFRQRFLGRVGRVSXQWRVHV

\ − \
P=  
[  − [
3 [ \

6L VH FRQRFH HO SXQWR 3 \ OD SHQGLHQWH P HQWRQFHV XQ SXQWR
3 [  \  3 [ \ FXDOTXLHUD GH OD UHFWD VH SXHGH UHODFLRQDU FRQ OD SHQGLHQWH \ VH
H[SUHVDFRPR

\ − \
P= 
; [ − [

<GHVSHMDQGRVHREWLHQHODIRUPDSXQWRSHQGLHQWH

\ − \  = P ([ − [  ) 


'LUHFWDPHQWHVHSXHGHXWLOL]DUHVWDIRUPD\REWHQHUODHFXDFLyQJHQHUDOGHODUHFWD

(MHPSOR
(QFXHQWUDODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWDTXHSDVDSRUHOSXQWR 3  −  \WLHQHFRPRSHQGLHQWH P =  

&RQ ORV GDWRV SURSRUFLRQDGRV HV UHFRPHQGDEOH JUDILFDU OD UHFWD SDUD YLVXDOL]DU HO OXJDU JHRPpWULFR 3DUD WUD]DU OD
JUiILFD HV QHFHVDULR UHFRUGDU TXH SULPHUR VH XELFD HO SXQWR HQ HO SODQR FDUWHVLDQR \ SRVWHULRUPHQWH VH WRPD OD
SHQGLHQWH\VHYLVXDOL]DQORVFDPELRVTXHKD\HQHOQXPHUDGRU\HOGHQRPLQDGRUSDUDHVWHFDVRODSHQGLHQWHVH
FRQYLHUWH HQ IUDFFLyQ FRORFDQGR XQ  HQ HO GHQRPLQDGRU \ D SDUWLU GHO SXQWR VH FDPLQD  KDFLD DUULED \ XQR D OD
GHUHFKD\DVtVHHQFXHQWUDHOVLJXLHQWHSXQWRFRQHOTXHVHWUD]DODUHFWD

3DUDHQFRQWUDUODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWDVHVXVWLWX\HQORVYDORUHVGHOSXQWR\ODSHQGLHQWHHQODIRUPDSXQWRSHQGLHQWH
\VHUHDOL]DQORVFiOFXORVQHFHVDULRVSDUDGHVDUUROODUODHFXDFLyQ\SUHVHQWDUODHQVXIRUPDJHQHUDO

 87,/,=$',67,17$6)250$6'(/$(&8$&,Ð1'(81$5(&7$


3  −  = ([  \  ) 
 ∆\  XQLGDGHV KDFLD DUULED
P==
 ∆[  XQLGDG D OD GHUHFKD 

< 
6 \ − \  = P ([ − [  ) 
5 
4 
\ − (−  ) =  ([ − )
3
\ +  =  [ − 
2 
\ +  −  [ +  = 
1
;
−  [ + \ +  = 
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 
−1

−2
3 
−3 
−4


−5


/DHFXDFLyQSHUPLWHFRPSUREDUVLORVSXQWRVVREUHODUHFWDODVDWLVIDFHQDVtFRPRWDPELpQSHUPLWHHQFRQWUDURWURV
SXQWRVTXHHVWpQHQHOOD

3DUDFRPSUREDUTXHODHFXDFLyQHVFRUUHFWDVHVXVWLWXLUiHOSXQWRHQFRQWUDGRDSDUWLUGHODSHQGLHQWHHQODHFXDFLyQ

−  [ + \ +  = 
− ( ) + ( ) +  = 

−  +  +  = 
=

(MHPSOR

(QFRQWUDUODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWDTXHSDVDSRUHOSXQWR $ (− ) \VXSHQGLHQWHHV P = − 

$ − = ([  \  ) 
 − ∆\  XQLGDGHV KDFLD DEDMR
P=− =
  ∆[  XQLGDGHV D OD GHUHFKD 
 6 <
 5
\ − \  = P ([ − [  )
4
−
3 \ − = [[ − (− )]

2
$  (\ − ) = −([ +  ) 
1 ;  \ −  = − [ − 
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 [ + \ +  = 
−1

 −2

 −3
 −4

−5



%/248( 



(MHPSOR
(QFRQWUDUODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWDTXHSDVDSRU %(−  − ) \HVSDUDOHODDODUHFWD  [ −  \ +  =  
3DUD UHVROYHU HVWH HMHPSOR HV QHFHVDULR REWHQHU OD SHQGLHQWH SDUD HOOR VH GHEH FRQVLGHUDU TXH HV SDUDOHOD D RWUD
UHFWDSRUORWDQWRWLHQHODPLVPDSHQGLHQWHGHODUHFWDGDGD

3DUDJUDILFDUODUHFWD  [ −  \ +  =  VHGHEHHQFRQWUDUVXSHQGLHQWH\ODRUGHQDGDHQHORULJHQ
& $
E=− P=−
% %
 
E=−   P=− 
− −
 
E= P=
 

6 <
 5 [²\ 

4

 3
 2
 1 ;

 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
 −1
 −2
 −3

−4

 −5


(VWDPLVPDSHQGLHQWHVHXWLOL]DSDUDHQFRQWUDUODJUiILFD\ODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWDTXHSDVDSRU % − −  
3RUHOORODJUiILFD\ODHFXDFLyQTXHGD

5
< 
% − −  = ([  \  ) 
4
 
[²\  3
P =

2 
1 \ − \  = P ([ − [  )
;

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 \ − (−  ) = [[ − (− )]
−1 
−2  (\ +  ) = ([ + ) 
−3 [²\²   \ +  =  [ + 
−4  = [ −  \ − 
% 
−5

−6








 87,/,=$',67,17$6)250$6'(/$(&8$&,Ð1'(81$5(&7$


(MHPSOR
(QFRQWUDUODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWDTXHSDVDSRUHORULJHQ\HVSHUSHQGLFXODUDODUHFWD [ +  \ +  =  
3ULPHURVHJUDILFDODUHFWDGDGD

& $
E=− P=−
% %
 
E=−  P=−
 
E = −

 <
3

 2

 1
;

 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1

 −2

 −3
 −4
 −5

−6

 [\ 
−7
 −8

/DSHQGLHQWHDXWLOL]DUGHEHVHUUHFtSURFD\GHVLJQRFRQWUDULRSRUTXHVRQSHUSHQGLFXODUHVDVtTXHODSHQGLHQWHTXH
VHWRPDUiSDUDHQFRQWUDUODUHFWDTXHSDVDSRUHORULJHQHV P =  

< 
4
2   = ([  \  ) 
3 P = 
[²\ 
2 
1 
;
2 \ − \  = P ([ − [  )
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3 4 5
\ − () =  ([ −  )

−2 \ = [
−3  = [ − \
−4


−5

−6 
[\ 
−7 


'HQWUR GH OD IRUPD SXQWRSHQGLHQWH HVWi HO FDVR GH SHQGLHQWHRUGHQDGD HQ HO RULJHQ FRPR VH PXHVWUD D
FRQWLQXDFLyQ
/DRUGHQDGDHQHORULJHQJHQHUDHOSXQWR  E = ([  \  ) \ODSHQGLHQWHHV P .
\ − \  = P ([ − [  )
\ − E = P ([ −  ) 
\ = P[ + E


%/248( 



6LVHFRQRFHQGRVSXQWRVSRUORVTXHSDVDODUHFWD\VHGHVHDHQFRQWUDUODHFXDFLyQTXHODUHSUHVHQWDSULPHURVH
GHEHREWHQHUODSHQGLHQWH\SRVWHULRUPHQWHWRPDUXQRGHORVSXQWRVSDUDXWLOL]DUODIRUPDSXQWRSHQGLHQWH

(MHPSOR
(QFRQWUDUODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWDTXHSDVDSRUORVSXQWRV $ −  \ %  −  
/DJUiILFDQRWLHQHODPHQRUFRPSOHMLGDG\DTXHVHJUDILFDQORVSXQWRV\GLUHFWDPHQWHVHWUD]DODUHFWD

8QRGHORVSURFHGLPLHQWRVSDUDHQFRQWUDUODHFXDFLyQFRQVLVWHHQREWHQHUSULPHURODSHQGLHQWHGHODUHFWD
\ − \
P= 
[  − [
−−
P= 
+
−
P=

6HSXHGHXWLOL]DUFXDOTXLHUDGHORVGRVSXQWRVSDUDHQFRQWUDUODHFXDFLyQHQHVWHFDVRVHXWLOL]DUDHOSXQWR$
< 
6 $ − = ([  \  ) 
5 −
P= 
4 
3 \ − \  = P ([ − [  )
−
2
\−= ([ − (− ))
1 
;
(\ −  ) = −([ +  ) 
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7  \ −  = − [ − 
−1

−2
 [ + \ −  = 
−3

−4


−5



(MHPSOR
8QDUDGLRGLIXVRUDFREUDGyODUHVSRUWUDQVPLWLUORVSULPHURVVSRWVFRPHUFLDOHV\SRUFDGDVSRWDGLFLRQDOFREUD
GyODUHV
D &RQVWUXLUODHFXDFLyQTXHGHVFULEHHOFRVWRGHORVVSRWV
3DUDHQFRQWUDUODHFXDFLyQVHWRPDHOSXQWR   HOFXDOGHVFULEHHQVXSULPHUDFRRUGHQDGDHOQ~PHURGH
VSRWV \ HQ VX VHJXQGD FRRUGHQDGD HO FRVWR GH ORV VSRWV 7DPELpQ SRU FDGD VSRW DGLFLRQDO VH FREUD 
GyODUHVORFXDOGHVFULEHODSHQGLHQWHGHODHFXDFLyQFRPRVHREVHUYDHQODJUiILFD
10
&R VWR 
(Q pVWD VH REVHUYD FyPR FRLQFLGH OD LQIRUPDFLyQ GDGD \ VH OH SXHGH
9
DVLJQDUODYDULDEOH´\µDOFRVWRGHORVVSRWV\ODYDULDEOH´[µDOQ~PHURGH
8
VSRWV
7
$   = ([  \  ) 
6
5 P =  
4 \ − \  = P ([ − [  )
3 \ −  =  ([ − )
2 
\ −  =  [ − 
1 6S R W V
 =  [ − \ − 
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 6H SXHGH UHHVFULELU OD HFXDFLyQ SDUD H[SUHVDUOD VLQ GHFLPDOHV
−1
−2 PXOWLSOLFiQGRODSRU
−3 [ − \ −  =  
−4

 87,/,=$',67,17$6)250$6'(/$(&8$&,Ð1'(81$5(&7$


E 7UD]DUODJUiILFDFRUUHVSRQGLHQWH
/DJUiILFDGHODHFXDFLyQREWHQLGDSDUDWRGRVORVQ~PHURVUHDOHVVHUtD
<
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1 ;

−2 −1−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

−2
−3


F 6LVHVROLFLWDQVSRWVDODUDGLRGLIXVRUD¢FXiQWRVHWHQGUiTXHSDJDU"
(VGHFLUSDUD[ FXDQWRHTXLYDOGUtDHQ´\µ
3DUDHOORVHWRPDODHFXDFLyQ\VHVXVWLWX\HHOYDORUGHHQ´[µSRVWHULRUPHQWHVHGHVSHMD´\µ

[ − \ −  = 
( ) −  \ −  = 
−  \ =  −  
− 
\=
−
\ = 
3DJDUtDGyODUHVSRUORVVSRWV

 $FWLYLGDG
 
 (VFULEHHQODOtQHDODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWDTXHFRUUHVSRQGD
<

<
 5
6

4
 5
 3 4

2 3

 1 2
 ;
1
 ;
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
 −1 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
 −1
 −2
−2

−3 −3



 
 



%/248( 




  $FWLYLGDG FRQWLQXDFLyQ 
$FWLYLGDG FRQWLQXDFLyQ 
 
 < <
5 7
 6
 4
5

3 4

 3
2
 2
 1
1 ;
;

 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3 4 5 6
 −1
−2

−2 −3

 −3
−4
 −5
 −4 −6
 −7
−5

 
 
  
< <

 5 5
 4 4

3 3

 2 2
 1 1
 ; ;
 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
 −1 −1

−2 −2

 −3 −3
 −4 −4

−5 −5

 −6 −6


 

 


(YDOXDFLyQ
YDOXDFLyQ
3URGXFWR,QWHUSUHWDFLyQGH
$FWLYLGDG 3XQWDMH
JUiILFDV
6DEHUHV
6DEHUHV
&RQFHSWXDO
&RQFHSWXDO 3URFHGLPHQWDO
3URFHGLPHQWDO $FWLWXGLQDO
$FWLWXGLQDO
8ELFDORVHOHPHQWRVQHFHVDULRV &RQVWUX\HODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWDD $SUHFLDODJUDILFDFLyQFRPRXQD
HQODJUiILFDGHXQDUHFWDSDUD SDUWLUGHVXJUiILFD KHUUDPLHQWDTXHSURSRUFLRQDOD
REWHQHUVXHFXDFLyQ HFXDFLyQGHXQDUHFWD
& 0& 1& &DOLILFDFLyQRWRUJDGDSRUHO
$XWRHYDOXDFLyQ 
   GRFHQWH

 87,/,=$',67,17$6)250$6'(/$(&8$&,Ð1'(81$5(&7$



 $FWLYLGDG

 
 *UDILFD\HQFXHQWUDODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWDTXHFXPSOHFRQORVLJXLHQWH
  3DVDSRU  \VXiQJXORGHLQFOLQDFLyQHVGHž
 <
8

7

6

5
 4
 3
 2
 1 ;

 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 −2
 −3
 −4
 −5
 −6
 −7
 −8
 
  3DVDSRU ² \P 
<
 8
 7
 6
 5
 4
 3
 2
 1 ;

 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 −2
 −3
 −4
 −5
 −6
 −7
 −8
 
  3DVDSRU ² \P ²
<
 8
 7
 6
 5
 4
 3
 2
 1 ;

 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
−1
 −2
 −3
 −4

%/248( 




 $FWLYLGDG FRQWLQXDFLyQ 
 
  3DVDSRU  \VXSHQGLHQWHHVFHUR
 <
8

7

6

5
 4
 3
 2
 1 ;

 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 −2
 −3
 −4
 −5
 −6
 −7
 −8
 
  3DVDSRU  \QRWLHQHSHQGLHQWH
<
 8
 7
 6
 5
 4
 3
 2
 1 ;

 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 −2
 −3
 −4
 −5
 −6
 −7
 −8
 
  3DVDSRU ² \  
<
 8
 7
 6
 5
 4
 3
 2
 1 ;

 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
−1
 −2
 −3
 −4


 87,/,=$',67,17$6)250$6'(/$(&8$&,Ð1'(81$5(&7$



 $FWLYLGDG FRQWLQXDFLyQ 
 
  3DVDSRU ² \  
 <
8

7

6

5
 4
 3
 2
 1 ;

 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 −2
 −3
 −4
 −5
 −6
 −7
 −8
 
  3DVDSRU ² \  
<
 8
 7
 6
 5
 4
 3
 2
 1 ;

 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 −2
 −3
 −4
 −5
 −6
 −7
 −8
 
  (VPHGLDWUL]GHOVHJPHQWRGHH[WUHPRV ²² \  
<
 8
 7
 6
 5
 4
 3
 2
 1 ;

 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
−1
 −2
 −3
 −4
 −5 

%/248( 




  $FWLYLGDG FRQWLQXDFLyQ 
$FWLYLGDG FRQWLQXDFLyQ 
 
  (VSDUDOHODD  [ −  \ +  =  \SDVDSRU ² 
 <
8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1 ;

 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 −2
 −3
 −4
 −5
 −6
 −7
 −8
 





(YDOXDFLyQ
(YDOXDFLyQ
$FWLYLGDG 3URGXFWR(MHUFLFLRV 3XQWDMH
6DEHUHV
6DEHUHV
&RQFHSWXDO
&RQFHSWXDO 3URFHGLPHQWDO
3URFHGLPHQWDO $FWLWXGLQDO
$FWLWXGLQDO
5HFRQRFHODVFRQGLFLRQHVGHOD &DOFXODODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWDD ([SUHVDVXVGXGDV\UHFWLILFDVXV
UHFWDSDUDHQFRQWUDUODHFXDFLyQ SDUWLUGHFLHUWDVFRQGLFLRQHV\WUD]D HUURUHVHQODFRQVWUXFFLyQGHOD
TXHODGHVFULEH VXJUiILFD HFXDFLyQGHODUHFWD\VXJUiILFD
& 0& 1&
&DOLILFDFLyQRWRUJDGDSRUHO
$XWRHYDOXDFLyQ 
   GRFHQWH




)RUPDVLPpWULFD

(VWDIRUPDWDPELpQHVXQFDVRSDUWLFXODUGHODIRUPDSXQWRSHQGLHQWHHQODFXDOVHGHMDQH[SOtFLWDVODVLQWHUVHFFLRQHV
FRQORVHMHVFRRUGHQDGRV

/DVLQWHUVHFFLRQHVFRQORVHMHVVRQODVTXHVHFRQRFHQFRPRDEVFLVD\RUGHQDGDHQHORULJHQ

/DDEVFLVDHQHORULJHQHV (D  ) 
/DRUGHQDGDHQHORULJHQHV ( E ) 
/DSHQGLHQWHREWHQLGDHV
\  − \
P=
[  − [

E− E
P= =−
−D D

 87,/,=$',67,17$6)250$6'(/$(&8$&,Ð1'(81$5(&7$


6HVXVWLWX\HQORVSXQWRV\ODSHQGLHQWHHQODIRUPDSXQWRSHQGLHQWH
\ − \  = P ([ − [  )
E
\ −E= − ([ − )
D
D(\ − E ) = −E[ 
D\ − DE = −E[
E[ + D\ = DE
$KRUDVHGLYLGHHQWUH´DEµDDPERVODGRVGHODHFXDFLyQVyORVL D E ≠  
E[ D\ DE
+ = 
DE DE DE

[ \
+ = 
D E

(MHPSOR
(QFRQWUDUODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWDFX\DDEVFLVDHQHORULJHQHV\FX\DRUGHQDGDHQHORULJHQHV²
< D=
4
E = − 
3 [ \
+ =
2 D E
1
;
[ \
+ = 
 −
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
−1 [ \
− =
−2  
/D IRUPD DQWHULRU HV OD VLPpWULFD \ GH HOOD VH SXHGH JHQHUDU OD HFXDFLyQ
−3
JHQHUDO PXOWLSOLFDQGR SRU HO PtQLPR FRP~Q P~OWLSOR FRPR VH PXHVWUD D
−4 FRQWLQXDFLyQ
−5 §[ \ ·
¨ − = ¸()
−6 ©  ¹
−7 [ \
− =  
−8  
−9  [ −  \ = 
 [ −  \ −  = 



(MHPSOR
9 <
(QFRQWUDUODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWDVLODLQWHUVHFFLyQFRQHOHMH;HV²\OD
LQWHUVHFFLyQFRQHOHMH<HV 8
D = −  7
E=
6
[ \
+ = 5
D E
4
[ \
+ =  3
− 
[ \ 2
− + =
  1
;

 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1

 −2

%/248( 



0XOWLSOLFDQGRSRUHOPtQLPRFRP~QP~OWLSORDDPERVODGRVVHWLHQH

§ [ \ ·
¨ − + = ¸()
©   ¹
[ \
− + = 
 
− [ + \ = 
− [ + \ −  = 

'DGDODHFXDFLyQXQRGHORVXVRVPiVIUHFXHQWHVGHODIRUPDVLPpWULFDFRQVLVWHHQHQFRQWUDUORVSXQWRVGRQGHOD
UHFWDLQWHUVHFDDORVHMHVFRPRVHPXHVWUDHQHOVLJXLHQWHHMHPSOR

(MHPSOR
(QFRQWUDUORVSXQWRVGHLQWHUVHFFLyQGHORVHMHVFRRUGHQDGRVGHODUHFWD  [ − \ +  =  
(QHVWHFDVRHVFRQYHQLHQWHHPSH]DUSRUHQFRQWUDUODIRUPDVLPpWULFD\DTXHXQDYH]REWHQLGDVHSXHGH WUD]DUOD
JUiILFD

6HWRPDODHFXDFLyQ\VHYDPROGHDQGRKDFLDODIRUPDVLPpWULFDSULPHURKD\TXHHQYLDUHOWpUPLQRLQGHSHQGLHQWH & 
DOVHJXQGRPLHPEURGHODHFXDFLyQHVGHFLUDOODGRGHUHFKRGHODPLVPD

 [ − \ = − 
$KRUDVHWLHQHTXHGLYLGLUODHFXDFLyQHQWUH − SDUDKDFHUHOODGRGHUHFKRLJXDOD

([ − \ = − ) ÷ (−  ) 
[ \ −
− = 
− − −
<VHH[SUHVDGHGLIHUHQWHPDQHUD
[ \
− =
− −
   <
[ \ 8
+ =
−  7
/DLQWHUVHFFLyQFRQHOHMH;HV −  \FRQHOHMH<HVODJUiILFDTXHGD 6
GHODVLJXLHQWHPDQHUD 5
 4
 3
 2

1 ;

 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
 −1
 −2
 −3

(MHPSOR
6DQWLDJR DEULy XQD FXHQWD GH DKRUUR \ QR KD KHFKR QLQJ~Q GHSyVLWR GHVGH VX DSHUWXUD OD HFXDFLyQ
 [ +  \ −  =  SURSRUFLRQD ODVFRPLVLRQHVTXHVHGHVFXHQWDQDVX FDSLWDOSRU PDQHMRGHFXHQWD HQWUHRWURV
DVSHFWRVGRQGH´\µHVHOFDSLWDOHQSHVRV\´[µHOWLHPSRWUDQVFXUULGRHQPHVHV&DOFXODUODFDQWLGDGGHGLQHURTXH
6DQWLDJRGHSRVLWySDUDDEULUODFXHQWD\HOWLHPSRTXHWDUGDUiSDUDSHUGHUVXFDSLWDOSRUFRPSOHWR

/RTXHVHSLGHHQHVWHSUREOHPDVRQODVLQWHUVHFFLRQHVFRQORVHMHVHQHOFDVRGHFDOFXODUHOGHSyVLWRLQLFLDOVHUtDOD
RUGHQDGDHQHORULJHQ\HOWLHPSRTXHWUDQVFXUUHSDUDTXHVXFDSLWDOVHSLHUGDHVODDEVFLVDHQHORULJHQDVtTXHVH
UHVROYHUtDHQFRQWUDQGRODHFXDFLyQHQVXIRUPDVLPpWULFDFRPRVHPXHVWUDDFRQWLQXDFLyQ

 87,/,=$',67,17$6)250$6'(/$(&8$&,Ð1'(81$5(&7$


<
 1500
 [ +  \ −  = 
 [ +  \ = 
1200
 [ \ 
+ = 
  
[ \ 900
+ =
 
 600
/D DEVFLVD HQ HO RULJHQ HV D =   \ OD RUGHQDGD HQ HO RULJHQ HV
E =  
/R DQWHULRU VLJQLILFD TXH HQ  PHVHV  DxRV  OD FDQWLGDG TXH 300
GHSRVLWyLQLFLDOPHQWH  ODSHUGHUiSRUFRPSOHWR
 ;
 −60 −30 30 60 90 120 150 180


−300

 $FWLYLGDG
 
 
 (VFULEHHQODOtQHDODIRUPDVLPpWULFDGHODUHFWDTXHFRUUHVSRQGDDFDGDJUiILFD
 <
4
4 <
 3
 3 2
 1 ;
 2
 −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3 4 5 6
 1
; −2
 −3
 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 −4
 −1 −5

−6
 −2
−7


−3   −8 

 


  
 

6 < 9 <

5 8

4 7

 3 6

 2 5

 1 ; 4
 3
−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
 −1 2
 −2 1 ;
 −3
−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
 −4 −1
 −5 −2
  
 
 




%/248( 



(YDOXDFLyQ
(YDOXDFLyQ
3URGXFWR,QWHUSUHWDFLyQGH
$FWLYLGDG 3XQWDMH
JUiILFDV
6DEHUHV
6DEHUHV
&RQFHSWXDO
&RQFHSWXDO 3URFHGLPHQWDO
3URFHGLPHQWDO $FWLWXGLQDO
$FWLWXGLQDO
$SUHFLDODJUDILFDFLyQFRPRXQD
,GHQWLILFDORVSDUiPHWURVD\E &RQVWUX\HODIRUPDVLPpWULFDGHOD
KHUUDPLHQWDTXHSURSRUFLRQDOD
GHODJUiILFDGHXQDUHFWD UHFWDDSDUWLUGHODJUiILFD
HFXDFLyQVLPpWULFDGHODUHFWD
& 0& 1&
&DOLILFDFLyQRWRUJDGDSRUHO
$XWRHYDOXDFLyQ 
   GRFHQWH





 $FWLYLGDG
 
 ([SUHVD OD IRUPD VLPpWULFD \ OD JUiILFD GH OD UHFWD TXH FXPSOH FRQ FDGD XQD GH ODV
 FRQGLFLRQHVVLJXLHQWHV
 
 
  ,QWHUVHFDDORVHMHV;\<HQORVSXQWRV\²UHVSHFWLYDPHQWH
 
 <
6
 5
 4

3

2

1 ;

 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6
 
 
  /DDEVFLVDHQHORULJHQHV²\VXRUGHQDGDHQHORULJHQHV
 
 <
 6

 5

 4

 3
 2
 1 ;

−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
 −1
 −2
 −3
 −4
 −5
 −6
 





 87,/,=$',67,17$6)250$6'(/$(&8$&,Ð1'(81$5(&7$



 $FWLYLGDG FRQWLQXDFLyQ 

 
  (OFRUWHFRQHOHMH;HV\FRQHOHMH<HV
 <
4

 3

2

 1
;

 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
 −1

−2

 −3

−4
 
  3DVDSRUORVSXQWRV ² \  
 <
 4

3

 2

1
 ;

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
 −1

 −2
 −3

 −4
 
 3DVD SRU HO SXQWR ² ²  \ HV SDUDOHOD D OD UHFWD TXH LQWHUVHFD D ORV HMHV ; H < HQ  \ 

UHVSHFWLYDPHQWH

<
 8
 7
6
 5
 4
 3
2
 1 ;

 −9 −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
 −2
−3
 −4
 −5
 −6
−7
 −8
 −9 
 
 





%/248( 





$FWLYLGDG FRQWLQXDFLyQ 
 
  3DVDSRUHOSXQWR  \HVSHUSHQGLFXODUDODUHFWDFX\DDEVFLVDHQHORULJHQHV\FX\D
 RUGHQDGDHQHORULJHQHV²
<
 8
 7

6

 5

 4
 3
 2
 1 ;

 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 −1
 −2
 −3 
 





(YDOXDFLyQ
(YDOXDFLyQ
$FWLYLGDG 3URGXFWR(MHUFLFLRV 3XQWDMH
6DEHUHV
6DEHUHV
&RQFHSWXDO
&RQFHSWXDO 3URFHGLPHQWDO
3URFHGLPHQWDO $FWLWXGLQDO
$FWLWXGLQDO
5HFRQRFHODVFRQGLFLRQHVGHOD &DOFXODODIRUPDVLPpWULFDGHOD ([SUHVDVXVGXGDV\UHFWLILFDVXV
UHFWDSDUDHQFRQWUDUODIRUPD UHFWDDSDUWLUGHFLHUWDVFRQGLFLRQHV HUURUHVHQODFRQVWUXFFLyQGHOD
VLPpWULFD \WUD]DVXJUiILFD HFXDFLyQGHODUHFWD\VXJUiILFD
& 0& 1& &DOLILFDFLyQRWRUJDGDSRUHO
$XWRHYDOXDFLyQ 
   GRFHQWH




)RUPDQRUPDOGHODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWD

$KRUDVHFRQVLGHUDDODUHFWDFRQRWURVHOHPHQWRVFRPRVHPXHVWUDHQODVLJXLHQWHJUiILFD

<\
/D UHFWD TXH VH REVHUYD VH FRQRFH FRPR OD UHFWD QRUPDO pVWD HV
SHUSHQGLFXODUDOVHJPHQWRTXHHVWiDQFODGRHQHORULJHQ\TXHODWRFDHQHO
SXQWR3 [\ GLFKRVHJPHQWRWLHQHORQJLWXG ρ \iQJXORGHLQFOLQDFLyQ ω 

(OUDQJRGHOiQJXOR ω HVGHDž
3 [\  
ρ 
ω 
;[ 







 87,/,=$',67,17$6)250$6'(/$(&8$&,Ð1'(81$5(&7$


$KRUD VH UHDOL]DUiQ ORV FiOFXORV QHFHVDULRV SDUD OOHJDU D OD IRUPD QRUPDO GH OD UHFWD DX[LOLiQGRVH GH ODV IXQFLRQHV
WULJRQRPpWULFDVSDUDHOORVHXELFDHOWULiQJXORUHFWiQJXORTXHVHIRUPDFRQODVFRRUGHQDGDVGHOSXQWR\HOVHJPHQWR
SHUSHQGLFXODUFRPRVHPXHVWUDDFRQWLQXDFLyQ

<\ <\






ρ 
\ ρ

ω ω \
[  
;[ [  ;[






8WLOL]DQGRIXQFLRQHVWULJRQRPpWULFDVVHWLHQHTXH
[
&RV ω =  
ρ
\
6HQ ω =  
ρ
'HVSHMDQGRODVFRRUGHQDGDVVHWLHQH

[  = ρ&RV ω   \  = ρ6HQ ω 

$ODSHQGLHQWHGHODUHFWDVHOHQRPEUD P Q \DODSHQGLHQWHGHOVHJPHQWR P ρ 
8WLOL]DQGRODIyUPXODGHSHQGLHQWHGDGRVGRVSXQWRVODSHQGLHQWHGHOVHJPHQWRHV

\ −  \
Pρ =  = 
[ −  [

6XVWLWX\HQGRORVYDORUHVGHODVFRRUGHQDGDVGHOSXQWRVHREWLHQHFRPRSHQGLHQWHGHOVHJPHQWR

ρ6HQω
Pρ =
ρ&RVω

6HQω
Pρ =
&RVω

&RPRODUHFWD\HOVHJPHQWRVRQSHUSHQGLFXODUHVODSHQGLHQWHGHODUHFWDTXHGDGHODVLJXLHQWHPDQHUD

PQ = −


PQ = − 
6HQω
&RVω
&RVω
PQ = −
6HQω

%/248( 



(QWRQFHVWRPDQGRHQFXHQWDODVFRRUGHQDGDVGHOSXQWR\ODSHQGLHQWHGHODUHFWDODHFXDFLyQTXHGDUtD

[  = ρ&RV ω 
\ − \  = P([ − [  )
\  = ρ6HQ ω 
&RVω
&RVω \ − ρ6HQ ω = − ([ − ρ&RVω)
PQ = −  6HQ ω
6HQω 6HQ ω(\ − ρ6HQ ω) = −&RVω([ − ρ&RV ω)

\6HQ ω − ρ6HQ  ω = − [&RV ω + ρ&RV  ω

 [&RV ω + \6HQ ω − ρ6HQ  ω − ρ&RV  ω = 


(
[&RV ω + \6HQ ω − ρ 6HQ  ω + &RV  ω =  )

&RPR 6HQ  ω + &RV  ω =  HQWRQFHVODIRUPDQRUPDOGHODUHFWDVHH[SUHVDGHODVLJXLHQWHIRUPD

[&RVω + \6HQω − ρ =  

(VWDIyUPXODVLUYHSDUDREWHQHUODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWDGDGRHOVHJPHQWRTXHSURSRUFLRQDODGLVWDQFLDHQWUHHOOD\HO
RULJHQDVtFRPRHOiQJXORGHLQFOLQDFLyQGHOPLVPR

$KRUD VH UHTXLHUH WUDQVIRUPDU GH OD HFXDFLyQ JHQHUDO D OD IRUPD QRUPDO GH OD HFXDFLyQ GH OD UHFWD SDUD HOOR VH
FRPSDUDQORVFRHILFLHQWHVGHDPEDVIRUPDV

$[ + %\ + & =  
[&RVω + \6HQω − ρ =  
6LDPEDVFRUUHVSRQGHQDODPLVPDUHFWDVXVFRHILFLHQWHVFRUUHVSRQGLHQWHVGHEHQVHUSURSRUFLRQDOHVSRUORWDQWR

&RVω = N$
6HQω = N% 
− ρ = N&

(OHYDQGRDOFXDGUDGR\VXPDQGRODVGRVSULPHUDVHFXDFLRQHVVHWLHQH
 
&RV  ω + 6HQ  ω = (N$ ) + (N% )

(
= N  $  + % )
'HVSHMDQGRNVHREWLHQH

N =
$  + %


N=  $  + % ≠ 
± $  + %
6XVWLWX\HQGRHOYDORUGHNVHREWLHQHODIRUPDQRUPDODSDUWLUGHODHFXDFLyQJHQHUDO

[&RVω + \6HQω − ρ =  
N$[ + N%\ − N& =  

$ % &
[+ \+ = 
   
± $ +% ± $ +% ± $  + %

(OVLJQRGHOUDGLFDOVHHOLJHGHODVLJXLHQWHIRUPD
D 6L & ≠  HOVLJQRHVFRQWUDULRDOGH&
E 6L & =  \ % ≠  HOVLJQRHVLJXDODOGH%
F 6L & =  \ % =  HOVLJQRHVLJXDODOGH$

 87,/,=$',67,17$6)250$6'(/$(&8$&,Ð1'(81$5(&7$


(MHPSOR
(QFXHQWUDODIRUPDQRUPDOGHODHFXDFLyQ  [ +  \ −  =  
(VFRQYHQLHQWHJUDILFDUSULPHURSDUDYLVXDOL]DUODUHFWD
$ &
P=− E=−
% %

 − 
P=− E=−
 

E=

(QWRQFHVDSDUWLUGHODRUGHQDGDHQHORULJHQ\ODSHQGLHQWHVHWUD]DODJUiILFD

<
7

1
;

−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
−1

−2


3DUDHQFRQWUDUODIRUPDQRUPDOHVQHFHVDULRLGHQWLILFDUORVFRHILFLHQWHV$%\&GHODHFXDFLyQJHQHUDO\VXVWLWXLUODHQ
ODHFXDFLyQFRUUHVSRQGLHQWH
 [ +  \ −  =  
$=
$ % &
%=       [+ \+ =
   
& = − ± $ +% ± $ +% ± $  + %
  −
[+ =
\+
   
±  + ±  + ±  + 
&RPRHOVLJQRGH&HVQHJDWLYRHQWRQFHVVHHOLJHHOVLJQRSRVLWLYRSDUDHOUDGLFDO
  −
[+ \+ =
 +   +   +  
  − 
[+ \+ =
  


(MHPSOR
(QFXHQWUDODGLVWDQFLDTXHKD\HQWUHODUHFWD  [ +  \ −  =  \HORULJHQ
3ULPHURVHJUDILFDUiODHFXDFLyQSDUDWHQHUXQDLGHDGHORTXHVHDQGDEXVFDQGR

 [ +  \ −  =  

$ &
P=− E=−
% %

 − 
P=− E=−
 
E=

%/248( 




<
8
7
6
5
4
3
ρ
2
1 ;

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
−1
−2
−3 


/D GLVWDQFLD TXH VH GHVHD HQFRQWUDU HV OD ORQJLWXG ρ  HVWR VH SXHGH KDFHU FRQ OD IyUPXOD −ρ = N&  GRQGH

N= SRUORWDQWR
± $ + %


−&
ρ= 
± $  + % 'HEHVUHFRUGDUTXH
 HOVLJQRGHOUDGLFDOHV
− (− ) FRQWUDULRDOGHOGH&
$= ρ=
%=         
± () + ( ) 

& = − ρ=




(MHPSOR
8QDPRVFDYXHODSRUXQDKDELWDFLyQ\0DUWtQHVSHUDDTXHHVWpDVXDOFDQFHSDUDPDWDUODFRQSHULyGLFR/DPRVFD
OOHYDXQDWUD\HFWRULDGHVFULWDSRUODHFXDFLyQ [ −  \ −  =  VLHOEUD]RGH0DUWtQMXQWRFRQHOSHULyGLFRPLGHP
¢SRGUiSHJDUOHDODPRVFD"

6LVHXELFDD0DUWtQHQHORULJHQ\VHJUDILFDODWUD\HFWRULDGHODPRVFDVHWLHQHODVLJXLHQWHJUiILFD

 87,/,=$',67,17$6)250$6'(/$(&8$&,Ð1'(81$5(&7$


<

1
;

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3

−1

−2

−3

−4


'HEHUiFDOFXODUVHODGLVWDQFLDPtQLPDHQWUH0DUWtQ\ODPRVFDVLpVWDHVPHQRUTXHVXEUD]R\HOSHULyGLFRHQWRQFHV
0DUWtQWHQGUiODSRVLELOLGDGGHPDWDUDODPRVFD


/DGLVWDQFLDTXHVHGHVHDFDOFXODUGHODVLJXLHQWHIRUPD
−&
ρ= 
± $  + %

− (− )
$ = ρ=
 
± () + (−  )
% = −           

& = − ρ= = 


0DUWtQQRSRGUiDOFDQ]DUDODPRVFD\DTXHVXEUD]RMXQWRFRQHOSHULyGLFRPLGHP\ODGLVWDQFLDGHODPRVFDD
0DUWtQHVGHP

(MHPSOR
8QEDUFROOHYDXQDWUD\HFWRULDUHSUHVHQWDGDSRUODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWD  [ − \ +  =  PHGLGDHQ.P VL$QJHOLQDOR
REVHUYD GHVGH HO PXHOOH FRQVLGHUD TXH HO PXHOOH HVWi HQ HO RULJHQ  ¢FXiO HV OD GLVWDQFLD PtQLPD HQWUH HO EDUFR \
$QJHOLQD"¢&XiOHVHOiQJXORGHLQFOLQDFLyQGHOVHJPHQWRPiVFRUWRHQWUHHOEDUFR\HOOD"

<
 4

 3

 2

1
 ω
ρ ;

 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3

−1

 −2



%/248( 



(QHOGLEXMRVHREVHUYDTXHHOiQJXORTXHVHGHVHDHQFRQWUDUHV ω \ODGLVWDQFLDHV ρ .
/DVIyUPXODVTXHVHXVDUiQVRQ

$ −&
&RVω =      ρ= 
 
± $ +% ± $  + %
$=
% = − 
& = 

&RVω = −
− () 
+ (−  )
 ρ=
− () + (− )

&RVω = − 
      ρ= 

§  ·
ω = &RV − ¨ − ¸ ρ = 
¨ ¸
©  ¹
ω =  R

/DGLVWDQFLDPiVFRUWDHQWUHHOEDUFR\$QJHOLQDHV.P\HOiQJXORGHLQFOLQDFLyQGHOVHJPHQWRPiVFRUWRHQWUH
HOORVHVGHž




 $FWLYLGDG
 
 'HVDUUROODORTXHVHSLGH
 
  8QD UHFWD HV WDQJHQWH D XQD FLUFXQIHUHQFLD FRQ FHQWUR HQ HO RULJHQ \ UDGLR LJXDO D  VL HO
 SXQWRGHWDQJHQFLDHV  GHWHUPLQDODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWDWDQJHQWHHQVXIRUPDQRUPDO
 
7 <

6

5

4

3

2

1 ;

 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 −2
 −3
 −4
 −5
 −6
 −7 
 









 87,/,=$',67,17$6)250$6'(/$(&8$&,Ð1'(81$5(&7$



 $FWLYLGDG FRQWLQXDFLyQ 

 
  (QFXHQWUD OD IRUPD QRUPDO GH OD HFXDFLyQ GH OD UHFWD TXH HV SDUDOHOD D OD UHFWD
  [ − \ +  =  \SDVDSRUHOSXQWR ² 
 7 <
 6
 5
 4
 3
 2
 1 ;
 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 −1

 −2
−3

−4

−5

−6

−7 
 
  (QFXHQWUDODIRUPDQRUPDOGHODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWDTXHHVSDUDOHODDODUHFWD [ + \ +  =  \SDVD

 SRUHOSXQWR  
7 <

6

5

4

3
 2
 1 ;

 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 −2
 −3
 −4
 −5
 −6
 −7 
  (QFXHQWUDODIRUPDQRUPDO GHODHFXDFLyQ GHODUHFWD FX\DGLVWDQFLD PtQLPD DORULJHQHV GH  \HO
 iQJXORTXHFRUUHVSRQGHDOVHJPHQWRGHGLFKDGLVWDQFLDHVž
 7 <
 6
 5
 4
 3
 2
 1 ;

−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 −1
 −2
 −3
 −4
 −5
 −6

 −7 



%/248( 




  $FWLYLGDG FRQWLQXDFLyQ 
$FWLYLGDG FRQWLQXDFLyQ 
 
  (QFXHQWUDHOiQJXORGHLQFOLQDFLyQ\ODORQJLWXGGHOVHJPHQWRSHUSHQGLFXODUTXHXQHDORULJHQ
 FRQODUHFWDFX\DHFXDFLyQHV  [ − \ −  =  
 7 <
 6
 5
 4
 3
 2
 1 ;
 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

−7 
  5HSUHVHQWDODUHFWDTXHVHREVHUYDHQODJUiILFDHQVXIRUPDQRUPDO
 <
 2
 1
;

 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
 −1
 −2
 −3

 −4

 −5
 −6

−7

 

(YDOXDFLyQ
(YDOXDFLyQ
$FWLYLGDG 3URGXFWR(MHUFLFLRV 3XQWDMH
6DEHUHV
6DEHUHV
&RQFHSWXDO
&RQFHSWXDO 3URFHGLPHQWDO
3URFHGLPHQWDO $FWLWXGLQDO
$FWLWXGLQDO
LWXGLQDO
,GHQWLILFDODVFRQGLFLRQHVGHOD $SDUWLUGHFLHUWDVFRQGLFLRQHV 9LVXDOL]DODLPSRUWDQFLDGH
UHFWDSDUDHQFRQWUDUVXIRUPD FRQVWUX\HODIRUPDQRUPDOGHOD FRQRFHUODIRUPDQRUPDOGHOD
QRUPDO UHFWD\WUD]DVXJUiILFD UHFWDSDUDREWHQHURWURVGDWRV
UHODFLRQDGRVFRQODPLVPD
& 0& 1& &DOLILFDFLyQRWRUJDGDSRUHO
$XWRHYDOXDFLyQ 
   GRFHQWH


 6LWLRV:HEUHFRPHQGDGRV
 
 (QWUDDHVWRVVLWLRVSDUDTXHUHIXHUFHVWXVFRQRFLPLHQWRV(Q
 HO SULPHU VLWLR HQFRQWUDUiV JUDILFDGRUHV \ HQ HO VHJXQGR KD\
 YDULRVHMHUFLFLRVTXHSXHGHVUHDOL]DU\FRPSUREDU
 KWWSQOYPXVXHGXHVQDYWRSLFBWBKWPO
 KWWSZZZHPDWHPDWLFDVQHWHFUHFWDSODQRSKS"D  SRW 
 


 87,/,=$',67,17$6)250$6'(/$(&8$&,Ð1'(81$5(&7$


&RQYHUVLyQGHODHFXDFLyQJHQHUDOGHODUHFWDDVXVGLVWLQWDVIRUPDV

(QHOFXUVRGH0DWHPiWLFDV\HQEORTXHVDQWHULRUHVVHKDPHQFLRQDGRODIRUPDJHQHUDOGHODUHFWDODFXDOHV
$[ + %\ + & =  
(QWRGDVODVIRUPDVTXHVHKDQPDQHMDGRGHODUHFWDVHKDREWHQLGRVXIRUPDJHQHUDO

&XDQGRVHFRQRFHODIRUPDJHQHUDOGH OD UHFWDpVWD SXHGHVHUPRGLILFDGDGH ODPLVPDIRUPD TXHODV DQWHULRUHV\
REWHQHUDVtWDQWRORVHOHPHQWRVGHODUHFWDFRPRVXJUiILFD

$FRQWLQXDFLyQVHUHWRPDUiORYLVWRHQORVRWURVWHPDVSDUDUHVXPLUHOSURFHGLPLHQWRTXHVHOHGHEHGDUDODHFXDFLyQ
JHQHUDOFRQHOILQGHHQFRQWUDUORVHOHPHQWRV\ODJUiILFDGHODUHFWD

7UDQVIRUPDFLyQGHODIRUPDJHQHUDODODVGLIHUHQWHVIRUPDVGHODUHFWD
<

(E)
$[ + %\ + & = 
$ &
)RUPDSHQGLHQWH \=− [−
% %
RUGHQDGDHQHO 
$ &
RULJHQ P=− E=−
% %
P
\ = P[ + E


<

(E)
$[ + %\ + & = 
$[ + %\ = −&
$[ %\ − &
+ =
−& −& −&
[ \
+ =
)RUPDVLPpWULFD −& −& 
$ %
& &
(D )
D=− E=−
$ % ;

[ \
+ =
D E

%/248( 



$[ + %\ + & =  <\
[&RV ω + \6HQω − ρ = 
&RVω = N$
6HQω = N%  $[%\& 
− ρ = N&

N=  $  + % ≠  ρ
 
)RUPD1RUPDO ± $ +% ω
$ % & ;[
[+ \+ =
± $  + % ± $  + % ± $  + % R

(OVLJQRGHOUDGLFDOVHHOLJHGHODVLJXLHQWHIRUPD
D 6L & ≠  HOVLJQRHVFRQWUDULRDOGH&
E 6L & =  \ % ≠  HOVLJQRHVLJXDODOGH% 
F 6L & =  \ % =  HOVLJQRHVLJXDODOGH$



 $FWLYLGDG
 
 &RPSOHWDODVLJXLHQWHWDEODUHDOL]DQGRODVFRQYHUVLRQHV\ODVJUiILFDVFRUUHVSRQGLHQWHV
 )RUPD

 SHQGLHQWH
SHQGLHQWH )RUPD
 )RUPDQRUPDO
)RUPDQRUPDO *UiILFD
*UiILFD
 RUGHQDGDHQHO VLPpWULFD
VLPpWULFD
)RUPDJHQHUDO
)RUPDJHQHUDO
JHQHUDO
 RULJHQ
RULJHQ
<

6
 5
 4
 3
 2
 1 ;
 [ − \ −  =     
 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 −2
 −3
 −4
 −5
 −6
 −7 
 <
 6
 5
 4
 3
 2
 1 ;

  \=− [  
 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

 −2

 −3

 −4

 −5

 −6

 −7 


 87,/,=$',67,17$6)250$6'(/$(&8$&,Ð1'(81$5(&7$



 $FWLYLGDG FRQWLQXDFLyQ 
 


 <
6

5

4

3
 2
 1 ;
 [ \
   − + =   −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
  −1
 −2
 −3
 −4
 −5
 −6
 −7 
 



 <
 6
 5
 4
 3
 2
 1 ;
    R R
[6HQ + \&RV −  =   −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 −1
−2

−3

−4

−5

−6
 −7 
 



 <
4
 3
 2
 1 ;

−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 −1
−2

    −3

−4
 −5
 −6
 −7
 −8

 −9

 


%/248( 




(YDOXDFLyQ
(YDOXDFLyQ
3URGXFWR&RPSOHPHQWDFLyQGHOD
$FWLYLGDG 3XQWDMH
WDEOD
6DEHUHV
6DEHUHV
&RQFHSWXDO
&RQFHSWXDO 3URFHGLPHQWDO
3URFHGLPHQWDO $FWLWXGLQDO
$FWLWXGLQDO
5HODFLRQDODVGLIHUHQWHVIRUPDV 7UDQVLWDHQWUHODVGLYHUVDVIRUPDV\ 9DORUDODLPSRUWDQFLDGHSRGHU
GHUHSUHVHQWDUODHFXDFLyQGH UHSUHVHQWDFLRQHVGHODHFXDFLyQGH WUDQVLWDUHQWUHGLYHUVDVRSFLRQHV
XQDUHFWD ODUHFWD VLPEyOLFDVSDUDUHSUHVHQWDUXQD
UHFWDDVtFRPRVXUHODFLyQFRQOD
JUiILFD
& 0& 1& &DOLILFDFLyQRWRUJDGDSRUHO
$XWRHYDOXDFLyQ 
   GRFHQWH

&LHUUH

 $FWLYLGDG
 
 5HVXHOYHORVVLJXLHQWHVSUREOHPDV
 
  'RVFDPLRQHV$\%VDOHQDOPLVPRWLHPSRGHVGHGRVFLXGDGHVGLIHUHQWHVUXPERDOPLVPR
 FHQWUR GH GLVWULEXFLyQ OD WUD\HFWRULD GH $ OD GHILQH OD UHFWD W + G −  =   \ OD GH % HV
 −W − G +  =   G HV OD GLVWDQFLD DO FHQWUR GH GLVWULEXFLyQ PHGLGD HQ NLOyPHWURV \ W HO
 WLHPSRWUDQVFXUULGRPHGLGRHQKRUDV 
 
 D 'LEXMDODWUD\HFWRULDGHORVGRVFDPLRQHVHQHOPLVPRSODQRFDUWHVLDQR
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 E ¢$TXpGLVWDQFLDVHHQFRQWUDEDQDOPRPHQWRGHVXSDUWLGD"
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F ¢4XpFDPLyQOOHJDUiSULPHURDVXGHVWLQR"
 
 
 
 
 
 
 


 87,/,=$',67,17$6)250$6'(/$(&8$&,Ð1'(81$5(&7$



 $FWLYLGDG FRQWLQXDFLyQ 

 G ¢4XpYHORFLGDGWLHQHFDGDXQRGHHOORV"
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H ¢(QTXpSDUWHGHODJUiILFDSXHGHQVHUYLVXDOL]DGRVORVHOHPHQWRVGHORVWUHVLQFLVRVDQWHULRUHV"
 
 
 
 
 
  $EHOLQVWDODUiXQDUHSLVDHVTXLQHUDSDUDFRORFDUXQWHOHYLVRUGHSDQWDOODSODQDGHSOJGHODHVTXLQDGH
 ODSDUHGWLHQHSOJKDFLDXQODGR\SOJKDFLDHORWURSDUDSRGHUFRORFDUODVLXWLOL]DHVWDVGLVWDQFLDVSDUD
 GLVHxDUOD
 D 5HDOL]DODJUiILFDFRUUHVSRQGLHQWH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 E ¢&XiOHVODSURIXQGLGDGGHODUHSLVDHVGHFLUODGLVWDQFLDPHQRUGHODHVTXLQDDOERUGHGHODUHSLVD"
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F 6L ORV WHOHYLVRUHV VH PLGHQ SRU OD GLDJRQDO ¢FDEH OD WHOHYLVLyQ HQ OD UHSLVD" 5HDOL]D ORV FiOFXORV
 QHFHVDULRV
 
 
 
 







%/248( 




 $FWLYLGDG FRQWLQXDFLyQ 
 
  $OJXQDVGHODVJDQDQFLDVGHXQDHGLWRULDOVHHVWDEOHFHQHQODVLJXLHQWHWDEODVLHODXPHQWR
 SHUPDQHFHFRQVWDQWHFRPSOHWDODWDEOD\UHVSRQGHORTXHVHSLGHHQORVLQFLVRVSRVWHULRUHV
 
 $xR    
 JDQDQFLD    
 D ([SUHVDODHFXDFLyQJHQHUDOTXHPRGHODHOFRPSRUWDPLHQWRGHODJDQDQFLDDOWUDQVFXUULUORVDxRV
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 E ¢&XiOVHUiODJDQDQFLDHQHODxR"
 
 
 
 
 
 F 6LODHPSUHVDLQLFLyHQHODxR¢FXiOIXHVXJDQDQFLDLQLFLDO"
 
 
 
 
 
 G ¢&XiOVHUiODJDQDQFLDDDxRVGHVXDSHUWXUD"
 
 
 
 H 5HDOL]DODJUiILFDFRUUHVSRQGLHQWH
 
 
 
 
 













 87,/,=$',67,17$6)250$6'(/$(&8$&,Ð1'(81$5(&7$



 $FWLYLGDG FRQWLQXDFLyQ 
 
  8QDYLyQGHVSHJyGHOSXQWR  \VXWUD\HFWRULDIRUPDXQiQJXORGHžFRQODKRUL]RQWDO
 D ¢&XiOHVODHFXDFLyQGHVXWUD\HFWRULDHQVXIRUPDJHQHUDO\QRUPDO"
 E 5HDOL]DODJUiILFDFRUUHVSRQGLHQWH
 
 
 
 
 


































(YDOXDFLyQ
(YDOXDFLyQ
$FWLYLGDG 3URGXFWR3UREOHPDVGHDSOLFDFLyQ 3XQWDMH
6DEHUHV
6DEHUHV
&RQFHSWXDO
&RQFHSWXDO 3URFHGLPHQWDO
3URFHGLPHQWDO $FWLWXGLQDO
$FWLWXGLQDO
'HGLIHUHQWHVIRUPDVGHOD $SOLFDODVGLIHUHQWHVIRUPDVGHOD $SUHFLDODDSOLFDFLyQGHODV
HFXDFLyQUHFRQRFHDTXHOODTXH HFXDFLyQGHODUHFWDSDUDUHVROYHU GLIHUHQWHVIRUPDVGHODUHFWDHQOD
OHSXHGHVROXFLRQDUXQSUREOHPD SUREOHPDVGHODYLGDFRWLGLDQD VROXFLyQGHSUREOHPDV
DSOLFDGR
& 0& 1& &DOLILFDFLyQRWRUJDGDSRUHO
$XWRHYDOXDFLyQ 
   GRFHQWH



%/248( 



6HFXHQFLDGLGiFWLFD
&DOFXODGLVWDQFLDV

,QLFLR  


 $FWLYLGDG
 
 (Q HTXLSR OHDQ FRQ FXLGDGR ODV LQGLFDFLRQHV \ GHQ UHVSXHVWD D ODV VLWXDFLRQHV
 SUREOHPiWLFDVTXHVHOHVSODQWHDQ
 
 
  &DOFXODODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWDTXHSDVDSRUHORULJHQ\FX\DSHQGLHQWHHV  


 
 
 








 
 
 
 
 
  (QFXHQWUDODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWDTXHSDVDSRUHOSXQWR (  ) \HVSHUSHQGLFXODUDODUHFWDREWHQLGDHQ
 HOSUREOHPDDQWHULRU
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  (QFXHQWUDODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWDTXHSDVDSRUHOSXQWR (  ) \HVSHUSHQGLFXODUDODUHFWDREWHQLGDHQ
 HOSUREOHPD
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 87,/,=$',67,17$6)250$6'(/$(&8$&,Ð1'(81$5(&7$




$FWLYLGDG FRQWLQXDFLyQ 
 
  &DOFXODODGLVWDQFLDGHODVUHFWDVREWHQLGDVHQORVSUREOHPDV\DORULJHQ
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  ¢&yPR HQFXHQWUDV OD GLVWDQFLD TXH KD\ HQWUH ODV UHFWDV REWHQLGDV HQ ORV SUREOHPDV  \ " ¢$ FXiQWR
 HTXLYDOHGLFKDGLVWDQFLD"
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  *UDILFDODVUHFWDVGHORVSUREOHPDV\HQHOPLVPRSODQRFDUWHVLDQR\UHSUHVHQWDFRQXQVHJPHQWR
 SXQWHDGRODVGLVWDQFLDVTXHVHVROLFLWDQ
<
 7

6

 5

 4
 3

2

 1
;

−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
 −1

−2

 −3
 −4

 

(YDOXDFLyQ
(YDOXDFLyQ
$FWLYLGDG 3URGXFWR(MHUFLFLRV 3XQWDMH
6DEHUHV
6DEHUHV
&RQFHSWXDO
&RQFHSWXDO 3URFHGLPHQWDO
3URFHGLPHQWDO $FWLWXGLQDO
$FWLWXGLQDO
([SUHVDODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWD &DOFXODODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWD\VX 3URSRQHIRUPDVFUHDWLYDVGH
\VXGLVWDQFLDDORULJHQ GLVWDQFLDDORULJHQ VROXFLRQDUORVSUREOHPDV
& 0& 1& &DOLILFDFLyQRWRUJDGDSRUHO
&RHYDOXDFLyQ 
   GRFHQWH

%/248( 



'HVDUUROOR

'LVWDQFLDGHXQSXQWRDXQDUHFWD

(Q OD VHFXHQFLD DQWHULRU VH DERUGy OD IRUPD QRUPDO GH OD UHFWD HQWUH RWUDV DVt FRPR OD GLVWDQFLD GHO RULJHQ D XQD
UHFWD
−&
ρ= 
± $  + %


<

 $[ + %\ + & = 





 ρ



 ;






5HFRUGDQGRTXHHOVLJQRGHOUDGLFDOVHWRPDGHDFXHUGRDHVWRVFULWHULRV
D 6L & ≠  HOVLJQRHVFRQWUDULRDOGH&
E 6L & =  \ % ≠  HOVLJQRHVLJXDODOGH%
F 6L & =  \ % =  HOVLJQRHVLJXDODOGH$

(MHPSOR
&DOFXODUODGLVWDQFLDGHODUHFWD  [ +  \ −  =  DORULJHQ

<
− (− ) 10
ρ=
 
± ( ) + ( ) 9
$=
 8
% =        ρ= 
 7
& = −
ρ =  6

 5
 4
 3

2
 ρ
 1
;

 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−1

−2

 −3


 87,/,=$',67,17$6)250$6'(/$(&8$&,Ð1'(81$5(&7$


$KRUDVHXWLOL]DUiHVWDIyUPXODSDUDHQFRQWUDUODGLVWDQFLDGHXQSXQWRFXDOTXLHUDDXQDUHFWDSDUHHOORVHFRQVLGHUDQ
GRVUHFWDVSDUDOHODV/\/DGHPiVGHOSXQWR3 [\ TXHSHUWHQHFHDODUHFWD/FRPRVHREVHUYDHQODVLJXLHQWH
JUiILFD
$
6LODUHFWD/WLHQHFRPRHFXDFLyQ $[ + %\ + & =  HQWRQFHVVXSHQGLHQWHHV P = − 
%
3DUD FRQRFHU OD HFXDFLyQ GH OD UHFWD / DGHPiV GHO SXQWR 3 TXH VH HQFXHQWUD HQ HOOD VH QHFHVLWD VX SHQGLHQWH
FRPRODUHFWD/HVSDUDOHODDODUHFWD/VHSXHGHXWLOL]DUODPLVPDSHQGLHQWH

$
3 [\    P=− 
%

\ − \  = P ([ − [  )
$
\ − \ = − ([ − [  )
% 
%(\ − \  ) = − $ ([ − [  )
%\ − %\  = − $[ + $[ 
$[ + %\ − $[  − %\  = 

$[ + %\ + (− $[  − %\  ) = 

<



 $[ + %\ + & = 
 $[ + %\ + (− $[  − %\  ) = 



 G
 3 




 ;
 / 

/ 


1RKD\TXHSHUGHUGHYLVWDTXHHOSURSyVLWRGHHVWHSURFHVRHVHQFRQWUDUODIyUPXODGHODGLVWDQFLD G GHOSXQWR3D
ODUHFWD $[ + %\ + & =  
&RPRVHSXHGHREVHUYDUHQODJUiILFDODGLVWDQFLD´GµHVODGLIHUHQFLDHQWUHODVGLVWDQFLDVGHDPEDVUHFWDVDORULJHQ

6L ρ  HVODGLVWDQFLDGH/DORULJHQ\ ρ  HVODGLVWDQFLDGH/DORULJHQHQWRQFHV

G = ρ  − ρ 









%/248( 




3DUD/ 3DUD/
$[ + %\ + (− $[  − %\  ) =  $[ + %\ + & = 
− (− $[  − %\  ) −&
ρ =  ρ = 
± $  + % ± $  + %
$[  + %\ 
ρ = 
± $  + %

G = ρ  − ρ 

−& $[  + %\ 
G= − 
± $  + % ± $  + %
− & − $[  − %\ 
G= 
± $  + %
(− )(& + $[  + %\  )
G= 
± $  + %
(− ) (& + $[  + %\  )
G= 
 
± $ +%

$[  + %\  + &
G= 
± $  + %


(MHPSOR
&DOFXODODGLVWDQFLDGHOSXQWR3  DODUHFWD − [ +  \ +  =  . <
7

6
$ = −
$[  + %\  + & 5
%=       G=
4
& =  ± $  + %
3
G
[ =  (− )() + ()() +  2
      G=
\ =  
± (−  ) + ( )
 1 ;

−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
 −1
G=
− + −2
−3

G=  −4
−  −5

G=

G ≈ 






 87,/,=$',67,17$6)250$6'(/$(&8$&,Ð1'(81$5(&7$


(MHPSOR
&DOFXODUODDOWXUDTXHSDUWHGHOYpUWLFH&KDFLDHOODGRRSXHVWR$%HQHOWULiQJXOR$%&FX\RVYpUWLFHVVRQORVSXQWRV
$ ( − )  %(  ) \ &(−   ) 
<
 8
 7
 & 6

5
 %
4

 3

 2
K
 1 ;

 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 $
−2

 −3

 −4
 −5


/DDOWXUD´KµHVODGLVWDQFLDGHOYpUWLFH&DODUHFWDTXHSDVDSRUORVSXQWRV$%DVtTXHSDUDUHVROYHUORSULPHURVH
GHEHREWHQHUODHFXDFLyQGHODUHFWD$%

+
$ ( − )  P=
−
%(  ) 

 P=


6HWRPDUiHOSXQWR$\ODSHQGLHQWHSDUDREWHQHUODHFXDFLyQ

$ ( − )           
\ − (− ) = ([ −  )
 
P= 
 (\ + ) = ([ −  )
  \ +  =  [ − 
 −  [ +  \ +  = 


$SOLFDQGRODIyUPXODGHGLVWDQFLDGHXQSXQWRDXQDUHFWDVHREWLHQHODDOWXUD
$ = − $[  + %\  + &
%=         K= 
± $  + %
& = 
[  = − (− )(− ) + ()( ) + 
K=
\ =   
± (−  ) + ( )

 
K=
 − 

 
K=
 
 K ≈ 


%/248( 



 $FWLYLGDG
 
 5HDOL]DORVFiOFXORVQHFHVDULRVSDUDUHVSRQGHUORTXHVHWHSLGH\ODJUiILFD
 FRUUHVSRQGLHQWH
 

 (QFXHQWUDODGLVWDQFLDGHOSXQWR (  ) DODUHFWD [ + \ −  =  

7 <

 6
 5
 4

3

2

 1 ;

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
 −1
 −2

−3

−4

 −5
 −6
 −7 
  &DOFXODODGLVWDQFLDGHORULJHQDODUHFWD  [ −  \ +  =  
 7 <

6

5

 4
 3
 2

1 ;

 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
 −1

 −2
 −3
 −4

−5

−6

 −7 
  'HWHUPLQDODGLVWDQFLDGHOSXQWR (− ) DODUHFWD  [ −  \ =  
 <
4

 3
 2
 1
;

 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
 −1
 −2
 −3

−4


 87,/,=$',67,17$6)250$6'(/$(&8$&,Ð1'(81$5(&7$


 $FWLYLGDG FRQWLQXDFLyQ 
 
  (QFXHQWUDODGLVWDQFLDGHOSXQWR (−   ) DODUHFWD [ −  =  
 <
9
 8
 7
 6
 5

 4
3

2
 1 ;

−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 −1
 −2

 −3
−4

−5
 −6
 −7
 −8

 −9 
  +DOODODGLVWDQFLDGHOSXQWR ( −  ) DODUHFWD \ +  =  
 7 <
 6
 5

4

 3
 2
 1 ;

 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1

−2

 −3
 −4
 −5
 −6


−7 
 &DOFXODODGLVWDQFLDGHOSXQWR (  ) DODUHFWD  [ − \ +  =  

9 <

8
 7
 6
 5
 4
 3

 2

 1 ;

 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
−1

−2
 −3
 −4
 −5
 −6
 −7

 −8

%/248( 




 $FWLYLGDG FRQWLQXDFLyQ 
 
 
  (QFXHQWUDODGLVWDQFLDGHOSXQWRDODUHFWDTXHPXHVWUDODVLJXLHQWHJUiILFD
7 <

 6
 5
 4

3

2

 1 ;

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
 −1
 −2

−3

−4


 
−5
 
  &DOFXODODGLVWDQFLDTXHH[LVWHHQWUHODLQWHUVHFFLyQGHODVUHFWDV [ −  \ +  =  \  [ + \ −  =  DOD

UHFWD  [ − \ −  =  

8 <

 7
 6
 5
 4

3

2

 1 ;

 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−1
 −2

−3

 −4

 −5
 −6

 


(YDOXDFLyQ
(YDOXDFLyQ
$FWLYLGDG 3URGXFWR(MHUFLFLRV 3XQWDMH
6DEHUHV
6DEHUHV
&RQFHSWXDO
&RQFHSWXDO 3URFHGLPHQWDO
3URFHGLPHQWDO $FWLWXGLQDO
$FWLWXGLQDO
,GHQWLILFDORVHOHPHQWRVSDUD &DOFXODODGLVWDQFLDGHXQSXQWRD 0XHVWUDGLVSRVLFLyQSDUDUHDOL]DU
REWHQHUODGLVWDQFLDGHXQSXQWR XQDUHFWDGDGD ODDFWLYLGDGH[SUHVDUVXVGXGDV\
DXQDUHFWD FRUUHJLUVXVHUURUHV
& 0& 1& &DOLILFDFLyQRWRUJDGDSRUHO
$XWRHYDOXDFLyQ 
   GRFHQWH





 87,/,=$',67,17$6)250$6'(/$(&8$&,Ð1'(81$5(&7$


'LVWDQFLDHQWUHGRVUHFWDVSDUDOHODV

2WURGH ORVXVRVGHODGLVWDQFLD HQWUHXQSXQWR DXQDUHFWDHVHQFRQWUDUODGLVWDQFLDHQWUH GRV UHFWDV SDUDHOORVH
GHEH ORFDOL]DU XQ SXQWR TXH SHUWHQH]FD D XQD GH HOODV SDUD DVt SRGHU XVDU OD IyUPXOD FRPR VH PXHVWUD D
FRQWLQXDFLyQ

(MHPSOR
(QFRQWUDUODGLVWDQFLDTXHH[LVWHHQWUHODVUHFWDV  [ +  \ −  =  \  [ +  \ +  =  
6HJUDILFDQDPEDVUHFWDVXWLOL]DQGRODSHQGLHQWH\RUGHQDGDHQHORULJHQ

 [ +  \ −  =           [ + \ +  =  
 −  
P=−  E=− =       P=−  E=− = − 
   

<
 8
 7
 6
 

5

4

 3
 G 2
 1 ;

 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

−2

 −3
[\ 
 −4
 −5

6LVHWRPDODUHFWD  [ +  \ +  =  \HOSXQWR (  ) ODGLVWDQFLDTXHGD
$=
$[  + %\  + &
%=         G=
&= ± $  + %

[ =  ()() + ()() + 
         G=
\ =  
± () + ( )



G=
− 

G= 
−

G=

G ≈ 







%/248( 



(MHPSOR
(QFRQWUDUODDOWXUDGHOWUDSHFLRIRUPDGRSRUODVUHFWDV  [ − \ −  =   [ −  \ +  =   [ + \ −  =   [ −  \ =  

$OJUDILFDUVHODVUHFWDVVHREWLHQHHOVLJXLHQWHGLEXMR




/D DOWXUD TXH VH WRPDUi HV OD GLVWDQFLD GH OD UHFWD [ −  \ +  =   D OD UHFWD [ −  \ =   SDUD HOOR VH VXVWLWXLUi HQ OD
IyUPXODGHGLVWDQFLDORVFRHILFLHQWHVGHODUHFWD [ −  \ +  =  \HORULJHQ\DTXHpVWHSHUWHQHFHDODUHFWD [ −  \ =  

$ =
$[  + %\  + &
% = −          G=
&= ± $  + %

[ =  ()() + (− )() + 
         G=
\ =  
± () + (−  )


 
 G=
 − 
$HVWHSURFHVR
  VHOHFRQRFH
G=
  FRPR
 UDFLRQDOL]DFLyQ
  
G= ⋅ HOFXDOFRQVLVWH
   HQTXLWDUHO

  UDGLFDOGHO
 G= =  GHQRPLQDGRU
 









 87,/,=$',67,17$6)250$6'(/$(&8$&,Ð1'(81$5(&7$


&LHUUH

 $FWLYLGDG
 
 5HVXHOYHORVVLJXLHQWHVSUREOHPDV
  'HWHUPLQDHOYDORUGHNSDUDTXHODGLVWDQFLDGHORULJHQDODUHFWD (N − )[ + N\ −  =  VHD

  
<
 7

 6

 5

 4

 3

 2
 1 ;

−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
 −1
 −2
 −3
 −4
 −5
 −6
 −7 
  (QFXHQWUDODDOWXUDTXHSDUWHGHOYpUWLFH0DOODGR/1GHOWULiQJXORFX\RVYpUWLFHVVRQ / ( −  )  0(  ) \
 1 (−  −  ) 

7 <

6

5

4

3

 2

 1 ;
 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
 −1

 −2
 −3
 −4
 −5
 −6
 −7 
  &DOFXODODGLVWDQFLDHQWUHODVUHFWDV  [ −  \ +  =  \ − [ +  \ +  =  
 7 <
 6
 5
 4

3

2

1 ;

 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−1

−2

−3

 −4

 −5

%/248( 




 $FWLYLGDG FRQWLQXDFLyQ 
 
  8Q VXEPDULQR XELFDGR HQ ODV FRRUGHQDGDV (  )  GHWHFWD XQ QDYtR HQHPLJR TXH WLHQH XQD
 WUD\HFWRULD UHSUHVHQWDGDSRUODHFXDFLyQ  [ −  \ +  =  ¢&XiOHVODGLVWDQFLDPtQLPDHQWUH
 HOVXEPDULQR\HOQDYtR"
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  'RVDYLRQHVHVWDEOHFHQVXVWUD\HFWRULDVSDUDUHDOL]DUSUXHEDVGHDFUREDFLDHOORVYRODUiQHQOtQHDUHFWD
 EDMR ODV HFXDFLRQHV  [ +  \ +  =   \  [ +  \ −  =   ¢$ TXp GLVWDQFLD YRODUiQ XQR GHO RWUR
 FRQVLGHUDQGRTXHODVXQLGDGHVVHGDQHQPHWURV"
 




















(YDOXDFLyQ
(YDOXDFLyQ
$FWLYLGDG 3URGXFWR3UREOHPDVGHDSOLFDFLyQ 3XQWDMH
6DEHUHV
6DEHUHV
&RQFHSWXDO
&RQFHSWXDO 3URFHGLPHQWDO
3URFHGLPHQWDO $FWLWXGLQDO
$FWLWXGLQDO
5HFRQRFHORVHOHPHQWRVSDUD 5HVXHOYHSUREOHPDVFRWLGLDQRVHQ $SUHFLDODXWLOLGDGGHODIyUPXOD
FDOFXODUODGLVWDQFLDGHXQSXQWR ORVTXHVHSLGHFDOFXODUODGLVWDQFLD GHODGLVWDQFLDHQWUHXQSXQWR\
DXQDUHFWDDVtFRPROD GHXQSXQWRDXQDUHFWDDVtFRPR XQDUHFWDSDUDODVROXFLRQDU
GLVWDQFLDHQWUHGRVUHFWDV ODGLVWDQFLDHQWUHGRVSXQWRV SUREOHPDV
SDUDOHODV
& 0& 1& &DOLILFDFLyQRWRUJDGDSRUHO
$XWRHYDOXDFLyQ 
   GRFHQWH


 87,/,=$',67,17$6)250$6'(/$(&8$&,Ð1'(81$5(&7$

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen