Zeitschrift fr junge Religionswissenschaft|Vol.

7 (2012)

New Religious Movements in Global Perspective: A Systems Theoretical Approach

Moritz

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%er &rti'el liefert eine s(ste)theoretische *ers+e'ti,e auf -ie laufen-e %e.atte zu) /egriff 0#ew Religious Mo,e)ent1 (#RM). #ach 'urzer Vorstellung eini2 ger grun-legen-er &s+e'te -er 3(ste)theorie nach #i'las !uh)ann i-entifiziert -er &ufsatz -rei *ro.le)e -es /egriffs -er #RMs4 ge'n+ft an -ie -rei /estan-2 teile 0new14 0religious1 un- 0)o,e)ent1. 5) 6olgen-en wir- -ann ,ersucht4 -ie -rei /estan-teile neu un- sch7rfer zu fassen. %er &rti'el schl7gt -azu eine s(s2 te)theoretische Re8%efinition -es /egriffes -er #RMs als religi9se Variante soge2 nannter #euer 3ozialer /ewegungen ,or. %iese %efinition l9st -ie zu,or geschil2 -erten *ro.le)e4 in-e) sie #RMs als .eson-eren :(+en sozialer 3(ste)e (Mo,e2 )ent) fasst4 -er seine 6or) -urch -ie Mo.ilisierung ,on o))uni'ation fr reli2 gi9se 0*ro.le)e1 (Religious) gewinnt. 6erner )ssen #RMs als s+ezifisch )o-er2 nes *h7no)en sowohl i) onte;t als auch als "rge.nis -er fun'tional -ifferen2 zierten <esellschaft (#ew) ,erstan-en wer-en. 5) letzten :eil wir- -ie Rolle -er so neu -efinierten #RMs als 0glo.alise- glo.aliser1 fr -as weltgesellschaftliche 6un'tionss(ste) Religion e,aluiert (#i'las !uh)ann=Ru-olf 3tichweh). #RMs '9nnen -e)nach als 6olge sowie als :rie.'raft -er <lo.alisierung ,on Religion in -er >eltgesellschaft ,erstan-en wer-en. Mit -ieser theoretisch8argu2 )entati,en &nal(se soll -er &rti'el neue 6orschungs+ers+e'ti,en s'izzieren sowie -as )9gliche *otential -er 3(ste)theorie fr -ie religionswissenschaftliche "rforschung ,on #RMs aufzeigen. :his essa( +ro,i-es a s(ste)s theoretical +ers+ecti,e on the contentious -e.ate on the ter) 0#ew Religious Mo,e)ent1 (#RM). /ase- on the s(ste)s theor(4 accor-ing to #i'las !uh)ann a)ongst others4 the essa( anal(ses the general +ro.le)s of -efining #RMs. 5t i-entifies three -ifferent +ro.le)s4 in for) of the

Dieses Werk wird unter den Bedingungen einer Creative-Commons-Lizenz (NamensnennungKeine kommerzielle NutzungKeine Bearbeitung 3. Deuts!"land# ver$%%entli!"t. Weitere &n%ormationen zu dieser Lizenz %inden si!" unter "tt'())!reative!ommons.org)li!enses)b*-n!-nd)3. )de). +er$%%entli!"t von( ,m'%o"lene -itierweise( -./ -eits!"ri%t %0r .unge /eligionswissens!"a%t ) &11N 2345-6334 7/L( "tt'())z.r-online.net8 7/N( urn(nbn(de( 549-23456334-: Klenk8 ;oritz. 5 25. <New /eligious ;ovements in =lobal >ers'e!tive( ? 1*stems @"eoreti!al ?''roa!".A Zeitschrift fr junge Religionswissenschaft 9(B -63. 7/N( urn(nbn(de( 549-5 25 B-klenk-4

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in-eter)inac( of the three +arts of the ter)4 na)el( 0new14 0religious1 an- 0)o,e2 )ent1. 3ee'ing to sol,e these +ro.le)s the essa( argues in fa,our of a s(ste)s theoretical -efinition of #RM as a religious ,ariation of a s+ecial t(+e of social s(ste)4 calle- #ew 3ocial Mo,e)ent. :his -efinition sol,es the -iscusse- issues of the ter) .( re8-efining #RM as a s+ecial t(+e of co))unication s(ste) (Mo,e2 )ent) that gets its for) .( a +articular for) of )o.ilisation of co))unication for religious issues (Religious). 6urther)ore4 #RMs )ust .e seen as a +ro-uct of the functional -ifferentiate- societ( e,ol,ing fro) the late 17 th centur( (#ew). :he last section4 finall(4 +uts the new -efinition into a wi-er conte;t of glo.alisation .( ta'ing the theor( of >orl- 3ociet( (#i'las !uh)ann=Ru-olf 3tichweh) into account. 5t -iscusses #RMs as 0glo.alise- glo.alisers14 which )eans as a +ro-uct of the glo.alise- >orl- 3ociet( that at the sa)e ti)e re8affects the +rocesses of glo.alisation the)sel,es an- there.( can .e seen as a glo.alising -ri,ing force of a worl- religion s(ste). >ith its anal(tical an- theoretical anal(sis the essa( see's to outline new +ossi.ilities for further research an- in-icates the .enefits of the s(s2 te)s theoretical a++roach for the scientific stu-( of religion with s+ecial regar- to #RMs.

Inhaltsbersicht
5ntro-uction Religion an- the e)ergence of >orl- 3ociet( #ew Religious Mo,e)ents :he +ro.le) of -efinition >or'ing -efinition? a s(ste)s theoretical a++roach #RMs an- the e)ergence of >orl- 3ociet( #RMs as glo.alise- religion #RMs as glo.aliser @onclusion

Intro uction
G2 &n t"e 1tud* o% /eligion t"e '"enomenon o% New /eligious ;ovements (N/;s# "as be!ome in!reasingl* 'o'ular8 'aralleled b* t"e revived so!ial awareness o% reliC gion itsel%. New %orms o% religiosit*8 religious organisations and religious-laden disC !ourses seem to arise all over t"e world. @"ere%ore8 almost !onseDuentiall*8 t"ese '"enomena are dis!ussed in relation to globalisation. Eowever8 sur'risingl* enoug"8 t"ese '"enomena are rarel* 'ut into a greater !onteFt o% globalisation t"eories (wit" a %ew eF!e'tions8 e.g. Warburg 5 3#. /eligion remains dis!ussed as some"ow outside o% so!iet* and o''osed or onl* related to globalisation. &n t"is essa*8 "owever8 we s"all argue t"at8 in %a!t8 t"ere is a !lose interrelations"i' betC ween t"e rise o% new %orms o% religion and t"e globalisation o% so!iet*. ;ore 'reC !isel*8 t"e t"esis "olds t"at 2# religion must be seen as a global %un!tion s*stem
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within t"e World 1o!iet* and 5# t"at N/;s are not onl* 'rodu!ts but at t"e same time !ru!ial to t"e )o)entu) o% t"e 'ro!ess o% globalisation o% religion. &n order to s"ow t"is8 we s"all %irstl* 'rovide a s"ort introdu!tion to globalisation %rom a s*stems t"eoreti!al 'ers'e!tive. @"en we will s"ed some lig"t on t"e rat"er !on%uC sing !ommon de%initions o% N/; to suggest a narrow but more 're!ise alternaC tive. Hinall*8 'utting t"ese as'e!ts toget"er8 we s"all s"ow t"e role o% #RMs as glo2 .alise- religion as well as glo.alisers.

Religion an the emergence o! "orl Society

G5 &n toda*Is so!ial s!ien!es t"e notions o% globalisation8 =lobal or World 1o!iet* "ave be!ome in!reasingl* 'o'ular. ;an* dis!i'lines8 most o% all 'oliti!al s!ien!e and so!iolog*8 began to !onsider !ontem'orar* Jso!ietiesK in some wa* stronger interrelated and interde'endent. &n t"is !onteFt di%%erent t"eories o% globalisation emerged and s"a'ed8 in @"omas 1. Ku"nIs words8 a new J'aradigmK o% so!ial s!ien!e (Ku"n 2:498 5:#. @o date8 t"e %ield o% globalisation t"eories is multi%arious and o%ten t"e di%%erent a''roa!"es are mutuall* in!om'atible. G3 Hor reasons o% s'a!e8 t"is essa* !annot 'rovide a sound introdu!tion into gloC balisation t"eories8 but "as to !on%ine itsel% to a s"ort outline o% onl* one a''roa!". Hurt"ermore8 !on!erning t"e %o!us on N/;s8 we agree wit" ;argit Warburg
<t"at w"at seems to be needed in t"e stud* o% new religions and globalisation is not so mu!" new general t"eories on globalisationL it is rat"er a !riti!al develo'ment o% models8 !on!e'ts and met"ods t"at build on eFisting globalisation t"eories but are s'e!i%i!all* dire!ted towards t"e 1tud* o% /eligion8 and in 'arti!ular new religions %rom a globalisation 'ers'e!tive.A (Warburg 5 38 B9#

GB G6

&n m* view8 t"e t"eor* t"at is needed !an be %ound in s*stems t"eor* o% Niklas Lu"mann and /udol% 1ti!"we".2 &n "is book <Die Weltgesells!"a%tA (@"e World 1o!iet*# 1ti!"we" (1ti!"we" 5 3a# anal*sed t"e emergen!e and !ontem'orar* %orms o% globalisation. ?!!ordC ing to Lu"mann8 "e de%ines Jso!iet*K b* co))unication as well as b* a,aila.ilit(( so!iC et*8 as an* ot"er so!ial s*stem8 !onsists in !ommuni!ation8 i.e. its o'erations are !ommuni!ations. &t must be understood as an auto'oieti!all* 58 o'erationall* !losed8 sel%-re%erential s*stem (Lu"mann 2::68 24-B2L 294-5 :#. 1o!iet*8 a!!ordC ingl*8 neit"er !onsists o% grou's nor o% !ommunities or larger !olle!tives o% "uman beings8 but 'urel* in and o% its o'erations8 co))unication8 alone. 3ociet( as s'e!ial t*'e o% so!ial s*stems is t"e so!ial s*stem t"at !onsists o% t"e totalit( of all co))unications that are a,aila.le for each other . &n its %inal !onseDuen!e8 t"is "owever

2 Hor a 'ro%ound introdu!tion into so!iologi!al s*stems t"eor* !%. Lu"mann 2::6L Lu"mann 5 3L %ort"!oming( Lu"mann %ort"!oming )) 5 22. 5 W"i!" means( sel%-re'rodu!ing out o% itsel%8 see also( ;aturana8 +arela8 and Beer 2:3 L ;aturC ana8 and +arela 2::3L Lu"mann 2::68 3533L ,s'osito 5 3.

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leads to t"e !on!lusion t"at to-a( there is onl( one social s(ste) that can .e -escri.e- as societ(4 na)el( the >orl- 3ociet( (1ti!"we" 5 3d8 5B4#. G4 @"is modern >orl- 3ociet(8 %urt"ermore8 !an be observed as %un!tionall* di%%erC entiated( b* di%%erentiation so!iet* develo'ed s'e!ial su.8s(ste)s8 ea!" serving an eF!lusive function for societ(. Hor eFam'le 'oliti!s 'rovides binding de!isions8 law disC tinguis"es legal %rom illegal a!tions and e!onom* o'erates t"e a!!umulation o% di%%erent %orms o% !a'ital. ?s one o% several di%%erent %un!tion s*stems8 religion serves to 'rovide %inal answers to ultimate 'aradoFi!al 'roblems o% !ommuni!aC tion (w"i!" means8 o% so!iet*# (!%. Lu"mann 5 58 226-2B9L es'e!iall* 239#. 6unc2 tional -ifferentiation8 %urt"ermore8 integrates societ( in a !om'letel* new %orm( so!iet* no longer is integrated b* religion as it "ad been in 're-modern times or b* moralC it* as ,mile Durk"eim (Durk"eim 2:3B8 Lu"mann 5 3# t"oug"t it was. &n !onC trast8 t"e di%%erent sub-s*stems and 'arts o% so!iet* are integrated merel* b* t"eir di%%eren!e( t"e %un!tional eF!lusiveness o% ea!" s*stem ensures t"e inter!onne!C tedness o% t"e subs*stem and t"e so!iet* as well as it %rees ot"er s*stems %rom t"e im'ossible task o% %ul%illing all %un!tions at on!e. @"e e;clusi,e -ifference o% subs*sC tems itsel%8 t"ere%ore8 guarantees t"e unit* o% t"e se'arate s*stems (!%. Lu"mann 2::38 4 28 4 B-4 38 424-423#. @"is %un!tional di%%erentiation be!ame t"e 'rimar* %orm o% di%%erentiation o% World 1o!iet*.3 /udol% 1ti!"we"8 %o!using on t"e 'oliti!al and s!ien!e s*stem (1ti!"we" 5 3!8 1ti!"we" 5 3b#8 'rovides man* eFam'les and anal*ses o% 'ro!esses o% globalisaC tion o% t"ese %un!tion s*stems. @"e role o% religion8 "owever8 is almost !om'letel* negle!ted. &n general8 at least until 5 228 religion "as o%ten been negle!ted wit"in globalisation t"eories.B 7n%ortunatel*8 t"is led to a la!k o% t"eor* o% religion in World 1o!iet*. 6 ?s %irst 'art o% a solution8 t"e %ollowing 'art will t"ere%ore tr* to s"ed lig"t on t"e !ontentious task o% de%ining t"e term JN/;K and to suggest a new and more 're!ise de%inition %rom a s*stems t"eoreti!al 'ers'e!tive.

G9

3 ?!!ording to Lu"mann8 so!iet* does not ne!essaril* "ave to "ave a dominant %orm o% di%%erenC tiation8 but i% su!" a %orm on!e be!omes establis"ed8 it determines t"e 'ossible evolution and a%%e!ts %ollowing di%%erentiation8 sel%-des!ri'tions or stru!tures o% eF'e!tations (norms# o% so!iC et* (Lu"mann 2::38 422#. B @"e reasons %or t"at 'robabl* !ould be %ound in t"e dominant notion o% se!ularisation t"eor* wit"in so!iolog* o% religion or in t"e re.e!tion o% abstra!t and generalising grand t"eories wit"in t"e 1tud* o% /eligion (in its attem't to eman!i'ate itsel% %rom t"eolog* and so!iolog* o% religion at t"e same time#L see also( Klenk 5 2 8 B9. 6 We are aware o% t"e work o% >eter Be*er (!%. %or eFam'le( Be*er 5 4L Be*er 2::3L Be*er 2::B#8 "owever8 %or reasons we !annot dis!uss "ere but dis!ussed elsew"ere (Klenk 5 22#8 "is a''li!aC tion o% s*stems t"eor* o% religion remains sel%-!ontradi!tor*8 la!king t"e !om'leFit* o% Lu"C mannMs anal*sis and t"eor* o% religion as %un!tion s*stem. Hor eFam'le8 Be*er !riti!izes Lu"C mannMs notion o% t"e !ode o% religion as too C"ristian and seeks to re'la!e it b* a variet* o% di%%erent !odes %or di%%erent religions. Ee8 t"ereb*8 overlooks t"e essential %a!t t"at Lu"mannIs anal*sis o% t"e !ode o% religion is in%ormed b* t"e !al!ulus o% indi!ation o% =eorge 1'enC !er-Brown (1'en!er-Brown 2:::#. @"e !ode8 a!!ordingl*8 must not be misunderstood as t"eoC logi!al !on!e't but must be !on!eived as eti! terms observing t"e %ounding 'roblem o% religion itsel% (see below#.

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New Religious Movements

G3 ?s long as t"ere "ave been so!iologi!al studies o% religion8 t"e Duestion o% de%iC ning di%%erent (organisational# %orms o% religion "as been an essential task. Hor eFam'le8 ;aF Weber distinguis"ed between church and sect in order to understand and !lassi%* di%%erent %orms o% religion (!%. Weber 2:338 522#. Eowever8 t"ese terms8 alt"oug" t"e* mig"t "ave been !onsidered as Job.e!tiveK so!iologi!al terms at WeberIs time8 nowada*s "ave be!ome value-laden and t"ere%ore 'roblemati!. ?not"er8 more re!ent suggestion is t"e distin!tion between sects and cults(
<@o sum u'8 se!ts are breeds o% a !ommon s'e!ies. @"at is8 se!ts are deviant reli C gious movements t"at remain wit"in a nondeviant religious tradition. Cults are a di%C %erent s'e!ies and o!!ur b* mutation or migration. @"at is8 !ults are deviant religious movements wit"in a deviant religious tradition.A (1tark8 and Bainbridge 2:368 54#

G:

@"e use o% t"ese terms b* anti-!ult literature o% !"ur!"-bound a!ademi!s8 "owever8 made t"is t*'olog* Duestionable as well (!%. Barker 5 38 26L 1aliba 2::68 222L C"r*ssides 2::B#. @"is indeed !an be understood as a 'roblem o% t"e %ield rat"er t"an a 'roblem o% !ertain terms and !ategories(
<@"ere are8 moreover8 numerous vested interests8 bot" religious and se!ular8 t"at make an* drawing o% 're!ise boundaries a !ontentious and risk* eFer!ise.A (Barker 2:3:8 2B4#

G2

@"e in!reasing 'o'ularit* o% t"e term JN/;K8 t"ere%ore8 !an be understood as an attem't o% a neutral terminolog* %or an Job.e!tiveK stud* o% t"ose %orms o% reli C gion (!%. Eo!k 5 58 2 22 5#. Eowever8 to use t"e term JN/;K reDuires a 're!ise understanding o% t"e i)+lications o% t"e term as well as it reDuires li)itationalit(4 o% de%inition. The problem o! e!inition

G22 Hirst o% all8 t"e term JN/;K is used b* JinsidersK as term o% sel%-des!ri'tion8 b* JoutsiderK non a!ademi!s (su!" as anti-!ult movementsL !%. C"r*ssides 2::B# and b* a!ademi!s. &n t"e latter usage8 a!!ording to No"n ?. 1aliba8 one !an distinguis" t"ree t*'es o% de%initions8 namel* t"eologi!al8 's*!"ologi!al and so!iologi!al de%iC nitions (!%. 1aliba 2::6#.9 W"ilst insider and ot"er non-a!ademi! de%initions o% JN/;K o%ten !an "ave a derogative im'li!ation 3 or 'ositive !onnotations (Barker 2:3:8 2B4#8 t"e aca-e)ic -efinitions tr( to a,oi- the nor)ati,e tra+. 1in!e t"is essa* is written wit"in t"e !onteFt o% t"e 1tud* o% /eligion8 w"i!" understands itsel% as 'art o% so!ial s!ien!e8 we !an leave t"e !ontentious %ield o% de%inition be*ond so!ial s!ien!e aside8 noti!ing and being aware o% t"e issues w"i!" !ould arise.
4 !i)itationalit( must be regarded as elementar* %eature o% s!ienti%i! o'erations8 i.e. it must be observable w"at a term e;clu-es and w"at t"en still remains 'ossible (see( Lu"mann 5 68 3:5 B 4#. 9 Hor anal*ti!al 'ur'oses8 "owever8 sometimes 's*!"ologi!al and so!iologi!al a''roa!"es get !ombined in order to understand t"e emergen!e o% N/;s more dee'l* (see( Bainbridge and 1tark 5 3#. 3 Hor eFam'le8 i% JmovementK is understood as <not real religionsA (Barker 2:3:8 2B62B4#8 altC "oug" in t"e beginning JmovementK was a te!"ni!al term %rom so!iolog*.

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G25

Hor a so!iologi!al observer t"e term !onsists o% t"ree 'arts8 namel* JNewK8 J/eligiousK and J;ovementK. @"e %irst term re%ers to w"at =eorge D. C"r*ssides in "is de%inition des!ribes as <re!entA (C"r*ssides 2::B#. Eowever8 "e "as to admit t"at t"is leads to a <somew"at vague natureA o% t"e term. Oet8 "e does not see a 'roblem wit" it. Nevert"eless8 t"e Duestion remains( "ow JnewK does a religious movement need to be8 in order to !ount as #/;P JNewK !learl* must be seen as a relative term in relation to JoldK. Hurt"ermore it !"anges over time( t"e %ormer JnewK on!e be!omes JoldK and 'robabl* "as to %a!e new New /eligions (N/s#)N/;s. Considering t"e reDuirement o% li)itationalit(( "ow use%ul !an su!" a vague term beP 0Religious14 !om'ared to t"e %irst and t"e t"ird 'art8 seems relativel* %amiliar. ?ltC "oug" being %ar awa* %rom rel*ing on a !onsensual de%inition o% JreligionK8 de%ining JreligionK is t"e !lassi!al and !onstituting 'roblem o% t"e 1tud* o% /eligion as a disC !i'line. ? 1tud* o% /eligion 'ers'e!tive8 t"ere%ore8 "as to o't %or its own wa* o% de%ining JreligionK. @"ere are some s!"olars o% t"e dis!i'line8 w"o avoid or re.e!t de%ining #religionK at allL ot"ers tend to give onl* a working de%inition o% JreligionK as a kind o% a "euristi! tool %or s!ienti%i! resear!". But "ow !ould we stud* N/;s i% we are not !lear about w"at we mean b* JreligiousKP &n ot"er words8 w"at is !alC led JreligiousK "as to be observable8 de%inable and distinguis"able as JreligiousK. @"e last 'art8 0Mo,e)ent18 originall* stems %rom so!iolog* and again seems to be o'en %or !om'eting de%initions. 1imilar to WeberIs de%inition o% Jse!tK8 JmovementK !an mean t"at one "as to a!tivel* !onvert to it to be!ome a member. Eowever8 t"is is not distin!tive enoug" sin!e toda* !onversion to an* !"ur!" or religion "as be!ome more 'o'ular. &n a more loose understanding t"e term JmovementK !an re%er to a less co)+le; organisational structure or grou' organisation. @"en8 "owever8 t"e term !an "ardl* be distinguis"ed %rom terms like Jgrou'K or J!ommunit*K t"emC selves. Hinall*8 in so!ial movement t"eor*8 so!ial movements normall* are anal*sed wit" s'e!ial %o!us on t"eir 'oliti!al im'li!ation and mass mobilisation (!%. %or eFam'le( ;!?dam8 @arrow8 and @ill* 2::4#. &n lig"t o% t"ese 'roblems wit" t"e !ategor* o% N/;s8 we suggest a more limited *et 're!ise de%inition. "or$ing e!inition: a systems theoretical approach

G23

2BG

G26 Based on a s*stems t"eoreti!al a''roa!" we suggest distinguis"ing between JNew /eligionsK (N/s# and JNew /eligious ;ovementsK (N/;s#8 a task t"e 'reviousl* mentioned de%initions o%ten %ail to a!!om'lis" (!%. Barker 2:3:8 2B4#. Qr in t"e words o% >eter Be*er(
<R;Sost o% t"ose t"ings !ommonl* !alled religious movements in t"e so!iologi!al literature8 es'e!iall* t"e new religious movements8 are in %a!t not so!ial movements RTS8 but rat"er organizations.A (Be*er 5 48 2 :-22 #

G24

Con!erning t"e %a!t t"at movement is a so!iologi!al term8 we must t"ere%ore go ba!k to t"e so!iologi!al terminolog* in order to render it more 're!isel*. ?!!orC ding to Niklas Lu"mann (Lu"mann 2::4#8 we suggest to !on%ine t"e term JN/;K
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to a certain t(+e of social s(ste)8 namel* t"e 0(+rotest) )o,e)ent1 (also !%. Na'' 2:::#. @"ese so-!alled JNew 1o!ial ;ovementsK (Lu"mann 2::38 3B9-3B:# !an be seen as a fourth t(+e of social s(ste)sC. G29 Mo,e)ents -efine the)sel,es8 di%%erentl* to organisations8 not b* members"i' but b* !ommitment8 i.e. .( )o.ilisation itself . @"e movement gets its %orm b* its for) of )o.ilisation. Q%ten t"is %orm is 'rotest8 w"i!" is w"* Lu"mann used bot" terms mostl* s*non*mousl*. Eowever8 <RsSo!ial movements do not "ave to be moveC ments o% 'rotestA (Be*er 5 48 63#. @"e* <!entre on issues8 on t"emes o% !ommu C ni!ation8 t"e* do not a''ear to be dealt wit" elsew"ere.A (ibid.# ;ovements8 t"us8 get t"eir %orm as !losed !ommuni!ation s*stems b* t"eir )o.ilisation for +articular +ro.le)s. @"is8 "owever8 normall* makes !ertain %orms o% organisation as +art of the )o,e)ent ne!essar*L ot"erwise t"e movement !ould onl* eFist but not intera!t wit" ot"er s*stems o% so!iet* (Lu"mann 2::38 3B9-3B:#. N/;s as social s(ste)s reDuire anot"er s'e!i%i!ation8 namel* t"eir JreligiousK !"aC ra!ter. J/eligiousK in t"is sense does not ne!essaril* mean t"at t"e* identi%* t"emC selves wit" a !ertain religion8 but t"at t"e* a--ress the religious constituting +ro.le)8 namel* t"e 'roblem o% !ommuni!ational 'aradoFes (Lu"mann 5 58 226-2B9L es'e!iall* 239#. Hrom a s*stems t"eoreti!al 'ers'e!tive religion must be underC stood as %un!tion s*stem o% so!iet*8 i.e. as an auto'oieti!8 sel%-re%erential8 o'eratioC nall* !losed !ommuni!ation s*stem. &n order to o'erate8 t"e religion s*stem uses t"e !ode trans!enden!e)immanen!e as a 'rimar* distin!tion. @"e terms o% t"e !ode "ave !aused mu!" !ontradi!tion and !ritiDue and o%ten "ave been misunderC stood as t"eologi!al !on!e'ts2 . &nstead8 t"e distin!tion o% trans!enden!e)immanC en!e 'oints towards t"e !atal*st !ommuni!ation 'roblem o% religion8 namel* t"e distin!tion between t"e observable)unobservable. @"e eF!lusive %un!tion o% reliC gion %or so!iet* is to eFem'laril* treat t"e %undamental 'aradoF o% !ommuni!aC tion8 namel* t"e unit* o% t"e distin!tion and t"e distin!t or t"e unit* o% t"e obserC vable)unobservable t"at !an 'ossibl* o!!ur in an* !ommuni!ation 22 and %ind %orms b* w"i!" t"e 'aradoF be!omes o'erable. &n ot"er words8 religious are t"ose %orms t"at 'oint ba!k towards t"e unit* o% t"e distin!tion observable)unobservC able and %ind %orms (names# %or it (Lu"mann 5 58 36#. @"ereb*8 religion trans%ers undeterminable !om'leFit* into determinable !om'leFit* and relie%s ot"er s*stems
: ?mongst t"e !lassi!al t"ree t*'es o% s*stems8 namel* interaction8 organisation and societal s(ste)s (!%. %or eFam'le Lu"mann 2::38 3B9-3B:L Be*er 5 48 34-39L B:-63#. ?lt"oug" it still remains !onC troversial8 w"et"er it reall* !ounts as own t*'e or not (!%. %ootnote 3L Be*er 5 48 34#. 2 Hor a 'rominent eFam'le !%. Be*er 5 48 es'e!iall* 9:-:9. Qt"ers misunderstood it as .ust a new %orm o% Durk"eimIs distin!tion between sa!red)'ro%aneL "owever8 t"is again is wrong sin!e t"e sa!red8 alread*8 must be seen as a re-entr* o% t"e trans!endent into t"e immanent ratC "er t"an t"e trans!endent itsel% (!%. Lu"mann 5 58 259#. 22 Eowever8 t"is does not mean t"at it ne!essaril* "as to o!!ur. &n !ontrast8 most !ommuni!ation "as its own wa*s o% m*sti%*ing t"e 'aradoF o% observation. 1imilarl*8 all %un!tion s*stems "ave to deal wit" %urt"er 'aradoFes o% !ommuni!ation and t"e* do so b* !reating own me!"anisms to un%old t"ese 'aradoFes. Eowever8 t"e ultimate and most %undamental 'aradoF o% observaC tion8 as it can o!!ur in an* !ommuni!ation8 %inds its ultimate JsolutionK in t"e %un!tion s*stem o% religion.

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%rom t"e ne!essit* o% 'roviding last answers to %undamental 'roblems o% ('ossibl* an*# !ommuni!ation (!%. Lu"mann 5 58 63234#. Hurt"ermore8 religion8 in order to distinguis" itsel% %rom its environment8 uses 'rogrammes 25 observing t"e !omC muni!ations o% t"e s*stem and allo!ating t"em towards t"e values o% t"e !ode. &n !on!lusion8 an* !ommuni!ation t"at emerges b* and %un!tions %or t"e auto'oiesis o% t"e religion s*stem !an be observed as religious !ommuni!ation. G2: >utting t"ese 'arts toget"er8 a working de%inition !an be(
N/;s are a !ertain t*'e o% co))unication s(ste)s t"at get t"eir %orm b* a 'arti!ular %orm o% )o.ilisation of co))unication for religious issues.

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B* mobilising !ommuni!ation %or JreligiousK issues (as de%ined above# N/;s !ontribute to t"e auto'oiesis o% t"e religion s*stem and t"ereb* !an be observed as religious. @"e realisation o% t"e mobilisation8 "owever8 !an take varied s"a'esL N/;s !an8 %or eFam'le8 "ave t"e %orm o% +rotest )o,e)ents8 re,italisation )o,e)ents8 in-i,i-ualisation )o,e)ents8 gnostic )o,e)ents8 refor)ation )o,e)ents or miFed %orms.23 1till8 one 'roblem o% de%inition "as remained unsolved( t"e Duestion o% recent2 ness. Considering t"e above mentioned s*stems t"eoreti!al anal*ses o% modern World 1o!iet*8 we suggest !on%ining #/; to religious movements t"at arose as -irect conseEuence of4 or within the functionall( -ifferentiate- societ( . @"is de%inition "as t"e advantage to bind t"e re!entness to a radi!al s"i%t in so!ial stru!ture. W"et"er or not a !ertain movement !ould be des!ribed as JnewK8 t"ere%ore8 no longer de'ends on someoneIs !"anging lo!us in time or !ulture8 but on Job.e!tiveK (i.e. em'iri!al observable8 stru!tural# !riteria. ?!!ordingl*8 one !ould also !all N/;s J;odern /eligious ;ovementsK. Eowever8 be!ause o% t"e alread* eFisting !on%usion8 !ontiC nuit* o% terms seems 're%erable over sel%-eF'li!abilit*. Hinall*8 t"e term must be distinguis"ed %rom t"e term JNew /eligionK (N/#. Hrom a s*stems t"eoreti!al 'ers'e!tive one !ould des!ribe N/s as religions in t"eir own rig"t8 i.e. co))unication s(ste)s t"at are auto'oieti!all* !losed8 sel%-re'rodu!ing su.8s(ste)s of the worl- religion s(ste) . @"e* distinguis" t"emselves %rom ot"er religiC ons b* t"eir 'arti!ular realisation o% t"e !ode o% trans!enden!e)immanen!e. @"is !ould be a!"ieved in %orm o% !ertain -og)ata8 rituals8 ta.oos8 %orms of inclusion=e;clu2 sion8 b* w"i!" religious !ommuni!ations %rom one religion be!ome relativel* in!om'atible wit" !ommuni!ations %rom anot"er religion. &n !ontrast to N/;s8 w"i!" mobilise !ommuni!ation on religious issues8 N/s must be !onsidered as

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25 >rogrammes8 %or eFam'le8 !an be Eol* 1!ri'tures8 'ro!laimed revelations8 t"e inter'retations o% a s'irit medium8 et!. Hurt"ermore8 'rogrammes must be understood as !om'lementar* to t"e !ode itsel%L onl* b* 'rogrammes %un!tion s*stems !an distinguis" t"emselves %rom t"eir environment and t"ereb* use t"e distin!tion o% sel%-re%eren!e and ot"er-re%eren!e %or %urt"er di%%erentiation o% t"e s*stem. 23 Q% !ourse8 t"is is not an eF"austing listL t"ere !ould and s"ould be done more resear!" on a 'ossible t*'olog* o% N/;s. We are !onvin!ed8 "owever8 t"at t"is de%inition 'rovides t"e basis %or a substantial !ontribution in t"is %ield8 enabling %urt"er sound t"eorisation.

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religious sub-s*stems t"at in elementar* (s*stem de%ining# regards a!"ieved o+era2 tional in-e+en-ence and .eca)e a seg)entar( +art of the worl- religion s(ste).2B G53 B* t"is de%inition o% JN/;K we !ertainl* leave out various new %orms o% reliC gion in modern so!iet*. Eowever8 limitationalit* o% terms does not limit but !onC traril* ena.le scientific +rogress (Lu"mann 5 68 3:B-3:6#. ?lt"oug"8 t"ere%ore8 %inding a 're!ise de%inition is a valuable a!!ount8 one !ertainl* !annot sto' "ere. B* de%iniC tion )o-ern8 N/;s are '"enomena o% t"e functionall( -ifferentiate- >orl- 3ociet(. Eowever8 t"e relation between (t"e emergen!e o%# N/;s and t"e globalisation o% t"e World 1o!iet*8 res'e!tivel* t"e world religion s*stem8 so %ar8 is onl* !laimed b* t"e de%inition. @"e Duestion8 t"ere%ore8 is( how are t"ese '"enomena interrelatedP ?n* new a''roa!" or de%inition in t"e stud* o% N/;s8 t"ere%ore8 must also 'roC vide eF'lanations o% t"is interrelation in order to 'rovide more t"an .ust a 'oint o% view situated in time and s'a!e. @"e %ollowing %inal eF'lanations s"ould be understood as "*'ot"esis8 w"i!" !an indi!ate and !ertainl* reDuire %urt"er em'iriC !al resear!".

NRMs an the emergence o! "orl Society

NRMs as globalise religion G5B We would %irst like to argue t"at N/;s must be understood as glo.alise- %orms o% a worl- religion s(ste). Qne !an observe t"is on various levels. G56 Qn t"e organisational level it is evident t"at some N/;s !an be regarded as globalised religions. Qver time8 and in res'onse to con-itions of >orl- 3ociet(4 some %ormerl* lo!alised or even unorganised movements develo' %orms o% global orgaC nisation. @"e* be!ome s"a'ed b* t"e inter!onne!tedness o% !ommuni!ations8 t"e develo'ment o% tele!ommuni!ation and t"e &nternet8 b* t"e im'rovements o% mobilit* and t"e in!reasing 'ossibilit* o% global migration. @o a !ertain eFtent8 t"ose organisations re%le!t t"e !urrent !onditions o% World 1o!iet*. &n World 1o!iet*8 organisations serve t"e %un!tion to distinguis" between members and nonmembers8 insiders and outsiders8 (Corsi 5 3L Lu"mann 5 48 32255L Lu"mann 2::38 3543B9# in order to de%ine addressabilit* wit"in t"e movement. @"ereb*8 organisation !an be understood as inclusion )echanis) in a global !onteFt. Hor eFamC 'le t"e 6alun <ong movement8 b* now8 "as be!ome a globall* o'erating8 organised movement8 w"i!" even "as a growingl* global 'oliti!al mission (!%. C"an 5 BL =entz 5 22#.26 @"ose develo'ments !ertainl* must be understood as a%%e!ted and

2B Hor a more detailed anal*sis o% religions as subs*stems o% t"e religion %un!tion s*stem o% so!iet* !%. Lu"mann 5 5L K$tt 5 3L Be*er 5 4. 26 7nderstanding Halun =ong as N/; does not im'l* t"at it !ould not be!ome a %ull* establisC "ed N/. Eowever8 given t"e de%inition above8 Halun =ong still seems to s"ow t"e !"ara!teriC sti!s o% a movement rat"er t"an an own o'erationall* !losed sub-s*stem o% t"e world religion s*stem.

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in%luen!ed b* t"e broader 'ro!ess o% globalisation. Eowever8 not onl* on t"e organisational level N/;s !an be !onsidered as globalised religion. N/; and t"e global World Culture G54 N/;s are o%ten !"ara!terised b* a 'arti!ular inclusi,e -octrine( in terms o% World 1o!iet* t"is 'oints towards somet"ing one !ould 'ossibl* !all worl- culture (1ti!"C we" 5 3e8 5 53#. +arious N/;s8 alt"oug" t"e* mig"t s"ow lo!al idios*n!rasies8 tend to o'en t"emselves u' to a wider8 global "orizon o% meaning. &deas and !onC !e'ts t"emselves are taken over %rom ot"er religions or !ultural !onteFts %rom di%C %erent 'arts o% t"e world8 or are 'resented in a wa*8 w"i!" s"ows "ow similar8 "ow analogue or !om'arable (even !ombinable# t"ose !on!e'ts are wit"in a global !ulC tural !onteFt. Hor eFam'le in man* Western -en-Budd"ist s!"ools (e.g. t"e =erC man Willigis NUger 1!"ool8 re!entl* se'arated itsel% %rom t"e Na'anese 1anC bVk*Vdan24 s!"oolL !%. West-Wstli!"e Weis"eit8 Willigis NUger 1ti%tung 5 22b# 'reC sent ?sian '"iloso'"* in a wa* t"at em'"asises t"e 'arallels to ,uro'ean m*stiC !ism (!%. %or eFam'le( West-Wstli!"e Weis"eit8 Willigis NUger 1ti%tung 5 22aL >ora. 5 4#. Qn t"e do!trinal level8 t"ere%ore8 N/;s !an be seen as in!reasingl* s"a'ed b* a global !ultural !onteFt. N/;s as lo!al ada'tation)a''li!ation o% global !ultural ideas)as'e!ts G59 Besides glo.alise- organisations and inclusi,e -octrines t"ere also is anot"er im'ortant as'e!t o% N/;s as globalised religion. ?s alread* mentioned8 o%ten N/;s8 altC "oug" in!lusive and globalised on t"e one "and8 on t"e ot"er "and seem to be lo!all* s'e!i%i! at t"e same time. @"is8 "owever8 !an not be understood as !ountereviden!e against globalisation t"eories. &n !ontrast8 it is onl* !om're"ensible i% one kee's t"e global !onteFt in mind( globalised do!trines and organisations )ust8 in order to make a di%%eren!e wit"in so!iet*8 mani%est in s'a!e and time. &n ot"er words8 t"e global religion s*stem o% World 1o!iet* ne!essaril* must %ind its %orms in !on!rete lo!al !onteFts. ?!!ording to s*stems t"eor* wit" its %o!us on !ommuC ni!ation s*stems t"ere is no !ontradi!tion( in World 1o!iet* t"e single !ommuni!aC tional a!t alwa*s "as a glo.al as well as a local conte;t=horizon of )eaning 8 w"i!" means t"e elements do not onl* "ave eit"er lo!al or global re%eren!e but bot" at t"e same time (!%. 1ti!"we" 5 3e8 24-29#. @"is be!omes !learer i% one looks at t"e ver* same religious movements t"at s"ow globalised in!lusive do!trines. Hor eFam'le t"e -en-Budd"ist s!"ool o% Willigis Naeger8 based at W0rzburg8 =erman*8 altC "oug" almost do!trinall* all-embra!ing in!lusive and "aving its roots in Na'anese 1anbVk*Vdan -en-s!"ool8 %ound its !on!rete lo!al %orm( based in a %ormer BeneC di!tineIs !loister building (JBenediktus"o%K#8 it establis"ed !lose !onta!ts to t"e JWurzburg s!"ool o% !ontem'lationK (1'irituelle Wege e.+. 5 2 #8 to t"e world %amous Benedi!tine monaster* ;unster-1!"warza!"8 but also to lo!al 'eo'le
24 1ee also below.

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(non-believers# and in%rastru!tural servi!es. Hor eFam'le it is not 'ossible to 'roC vide an a'artment %or ever* em'lo*ee (!ook8 gardener8 .anitor8 et!.# at t"e JBeneC diktus"o%K itsel%. @"ere%ore8 t"e small village around be!omes stru!turall* related b* t"e ver* %a!t o% t"eir new members o% !ommunit*. ?lt"oug"8 %or various reaC sons8 su!" a Js*mbiosisK !ould be 'roblemati! i% it was not a!!e'ted b* all 'arties involved8 t"e JBenedi!tus"o%K "as been su!!ess%ul in maintaining good relations to t"e village (Eolzkir!"en8 near Wurzburg#. 29 +ia t"ese stru!tural relations8 t"e N/; itsel% also !"anges( %or eFam'le t"e* establis" a !lose !onne!tion between t"e JBenediktus"o%K and t"e lo!al Cat"oli! C"ur!" !ommunit*L lo!al %estivals and tradiC tional events o%ten take 'la!e on t"e site o% t"e JBenediktus"o%KL t"e !a%X and t"e book s"o' regularl* get visited b* 'eo'le %rom t"e village and are used %or reli C gious and non-religious !"ats8 et!. Hor t"ose d*nami! stru!tural relations N/;s as )o.ilisation )o,e)ents 'rovide t"e 'er%e!t %orm to be!ome globalised as well as lo!aC lised at t"e same time. G53 @"ese eFam'les s"ow t"at N/;s in t"eir globalised organisational stru!ture8 t"eir in!lusive do!trines and in t"eir lo!alised %orms o% !on!rete eFisten!e !an be understood as concrete for)s of the glo.alise- worl- religion s(ste) . Eowever8 t"e anal*sis !annot end "ere. N/;s are not sim'l* a 'rodu!t o% globalisation .ut at the ,er( sa)e ti)e one of its )ain -ri,ing forces.

NRMs as globaliser G5: N/;s as !"allenges( new !on!e'ts and solutions8 new stru!tures o% eF'e!tations &n t"eir stru!ture and %un!tion ver* similar to 'rotest movements8 N/;s !an 'reC sent a serious !"allenge to religions wit"in t"e world religion s*stem( Kee'ing t"e above-given de%inition in mind8 N/;s raise attention and mobilise !ommuni!aC tion on religious issues. &% su!!ess%ul8 t"ose movements and t"eir so!ial visibilit* o%ten !annot be ignored b* religions8 denominations or religious organisations. ?n eFam'le o% t"is !an be %ound wit"in t"e &slamist ?l-Yaida movement. ,F'loiting ,iolence as !ertain t*'e o% !ommuni!ation (!%. Bae!ker 2::4L Hu!"s 5 6#8 t"is movement !laimed to seek .usti!e in t"e name o% &slam. /elativel* s"ortl* a%ter t"e terrorist atta!ks in Was"ington D.C. and New Oork Cit* on :)228 5 28 one !ould observe "ow e%%e!tive t"is strateg*)met"od reall* was. @"e ?meri!an ?dministraC tion almost immediatel* des!ribed it as an a!t o% war8 and one or two da*s a%ter t"e atta!ks a signi%i!ant 'ortion o% t"e 'o'ulation o% t"e 71? rea!ted b* dis'la*C ing s*mbols8 a 'er%orman!e o% rituals of soli-arit( (Collins 5 B#. &n t"is !onteFt it is o% 'arti!ular interest t"at es'e!iall* J&slami! loo'ingK 'eo'le (e.g. bearded8 turC ban-wearing 1ik" taFi-drivers# "ave been J%or!edK to demonstrate and dis'la* t"eir "armlessness or non-&slami! !"ara!ter (Collins 5 B8 42L s*mbols in <'rote!tive
29 1our!e( interview wit" Doris -$lls8 one o% t"e !urrent s'iritual leaders o% t"e !ommunit* (5 ) :)5 :8 &nterviewer( ;oritz Klenk#.

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useA#. @"is8 "owever8 was not limited to New Oork8 not even to t"e 71?. ?ll around t"e world ;uslim !ommunities J%eltK t"e need to re.e!t and !ondemn t"e atta!k8 or more 're!isel*( to !ondemn t"e JabuseK o% t"e label o% J&slamK (!%. Z1e'C tember22News.!om - &nternational rea!tion[L Z1tatements %rom Leading &nternaC tional ?!ademi! Qrganisations %or t"e ?!ademi! 1tud* o% &slam8 /eligion8 and ;iddle ,ast[L and even ten *ears a%ter t"e atta!k Ba\ 5 22#. G3 ;ore re!entl*8 t"e ?rabi! u'rising movements !an also be seen in t"is lig"t and !onteFt( various ;uslim movements (N/;s# su!" as8 %or eFam'le8 t"e ;uslim Brot"er"ood (Clarke 5 4# be!ame 'art o% t"e u'rising and entered t"e 'oliti!al 'rotest and revolution wit" distin!tl* religious-'oliti!al agendas8 namel* to estaC blis" an &slami! state. ?s 'oliti!al 'rotests t"ose movements !learl* a%%e!t 'oliti!s8 but also less 'oliti!al !ommunities and &slami! t"eologians "ad to take a stand wit"in t"is !on%li!t. Qn a di%%erent level8 besides terrorism and religious violen!e8 N/;s also !"alC lenge JtraditionalK23 religions and t"eologies b* 'roviding new religious !on!e'ts)do!trines (solutions#. /e%orm movements and ot"er N/;s (su!" as ?%roameri!an s*n!retisti! !ults and movements in Latin ?meri!a su!" as t"e ;aria-Lionza !ult#8 not onl* in t"eir lo!al setting 'rovide new !"allenges and 'roC blems %or religions. @aking s*n!retisti! N/;s in 1out" ?meri!a as an eFam'le8 one !an s"ow t"at t"e u'rising and t"e su!!ess o% t"ose movements "eavil* !"alC lenge t"e Cat"oli! C"ur!" (>inn8 Hinle*8 and ?leFander 5 :8 FFv8 2:5#. N/;s8 be!ause o% t"eir Dualities as )o,e)ents4 are able to mobilise !ommuni!ations in lo!al settings wit" a wider global !onnotation and e%%e!t. Qn!e !ommuni!ation and disC !ourses are mobilised8 t"e JtraditionalK religions and !"ur!"es %ind t"emselves obliC ged to rea!t. Heedba!k and t"e !ontestations o% t"e !ategor* G35 Closel* linked to t"e !"allenging e%%e!t N/;s "ave8 t"e* !an also be regarded as t"ereb* irritating and fee-ing .ac' t"eir JnewK !on!e'ts and solutionsL related and !onne!ted to a worl- culture as a 'ool o% !on!e'ts and s*mbols8 N/;s also %eed t"eir own JnewK s*n!retisms8 !ombinations8 !on!e'ts and ideas ba!k into t"is worlculture. @"ereb*8 new religious %orms be!ome available %or ot"er religions and reliC gious movements. @"ose cultural fee-.ac's !an be observed on almost ever* level and a%%e!t almost ever* kind o% religion or religious %orm in World 1o!iet*. ?gain using t"e eFam'le o% 1out" ?meri!a8 one !ould !ertainl* link t"e u'rising o% s*nC !retisti! N/;s and t"eir role in and %or t"e so!ial net o% t"eir so!ial !onteFt to t"e develo'ments o% Cat"oli!ism8 in 'arti!ular t"e liberation t"eolog* and its 'oliti!al im'li!ations. N/;s8 alt"oug" o%ten outside o% so !alled JWorld /eligionsK t"emselC
23 @"e term JtraditionalK religions re%ers to establis"ed religions8 i.e. subs*stems o% t"e religious %un!tion s*stem8 t"at "ave 're!ursors in 're-modern times. @"e term also im'lies t"at t"e JreliC giousnessK o% t"ese religions o%ten seems to be be*ond doubt8 w"i!" is rat"er a se!ond order observation o% t"e 1tud* o% /eligion 'ers'e!tive t"an a substantial argument.

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ves8 !reate eF'e!tations and demands t"at8 on!e t"e* are establis"ed8 be!ome releC vant also %or ot"er religions and denominations. Hurt"ermore8 t"ose stru!tures o% eF'e!tations in World 1o!iet* easil* !an be!ome de-territorialised( via t"e &nternet and ot"er %orms o% new media8 su!!ess%ul attem'ts o% new religious %orms and !on!e'ts easil* get s'read into t"e world and t"ereb* be!ome de-!onteFtualised8 i.e. globalised. N/;s in t"is !onteFt %un!tion as -ri,ing force and inno,ator o% globaliC sation o% t"e worl- religion s(ste) and its !on!rete8 as well as its general stru!tures and %orms. G33 ?not"er "el'%ul eFam'le is t"e Na'anese 1anbVk*Vdan -en s!"ool8 w"i!" itsel% <!laimRsS to be an aut"enti! -en re%orm movement8 rat"er t"an a new religion.A (1"ar% 2::68 B6B# @"is movement8 alt"oug" marginal in Na'an8 "as gained "uge in%luen!e on t"e Western re!e'tion and ada'tation o% -en and even more im'ortantl* on the stereot*'i!al Western imagination o% J :he (Na'anese# -en Budd"ismK. 1anbVk*Vdan is a -en Budd"ist movement8 w"i!" strongl* %o!uses on t"e eF'erien!e o% 'enshG. B* losing large 'arts o% Budd"ist do!trines and ot"er !ulC tural s'e!i%i! 'arts o% -en 'ra!ti!e8 1anbVk*Vdan s"a'ed a new %orm o% -en BudC d"ism8 w"i!" was a''li!able to di%%erent religious and !ultural !onteFts (1"ar% 2::6#. @"e great im'a!t and su!!ess t"e movement "as "ad in t"e West8 "owever8 toda* rea!t u'on Na'anese religions t"emselves. @"is be!omes even !learer i% one looks at t"e interrelations between t"e lo!al-global-lo!al !onteFts( 1anbVk*Vdan8 alt"oug" it em'"asises t"e universal a''li!abilit* o% its %orm o% -en Budd"ism !ontinues a Na'an-!entred stru!ture (tea!"ers must be aut"orised and ordained b* t"e Na'anese s'iritual leader in a !eremon*8 based and "eld in Na'an#. B* t"at t"e movement stru!turall* links t"e globalised and universalised %orm o% t"e moveC ment wit" t"e Na'anese !onteFt o% religion and o'ens !"annels %or %eedba!k e%%e!ts. ;an* %urt"er eFam'les !ould "ave been given (su!" as 1"aku 1oen and 1uzuki Daisetsu and t"eir role at t"e 'arliament o% worldIs religions in 23:3L !%. Boru'L @"om'son 5 6L Clarke 2::9#L %or reasons o% s'a!e8 "owever8 t"ese %ew eFam'les "ave to su%%i!e8 onl* indi!ating w"at !an be regarded as a more general %eature o% N/;s.

G3B

%onclusion
G36 &n t"is essa* we soug"t to 'rovide a new 'ers'e!tive on t"e to'i! o% N/;s. We argued t"at in !ontem'orar* so!iet* one alwa*s must !onsider religion (and a!!orC dingl* N/;s# in terms o% globalisation and t"e !onteFt o% >orl- 3ociet(. 34G Hrom t"is 'ers'e!tive8 we t"en dis!ussed t"e 'roblems o% de%ining JN/;K and 'rovided an alternative8 in%ormed b* a s*stems t"eoreti!al 'ers'e!tive. ?!!ording to t"is8 N/;s must be understood as )o-ern religious )o,e)ents8 w"i!" mobilise !ommuni!ation %or religious issues. @"e* gain t"eir 'arti!ular %orm as movement b* t"eir t*'e o% mobilisation (revolutionar*8 re%ormative8 'rotest8 revitalisation8
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individualisation8 'oliti!isation8 et!.#. @aking t"is new de%inition8 we soug"t to s"ow "ow it !an be a''lied to t"e 1tud* o% /eligion in world so!iet* and im'rove our understanding o% N/;s wit"in t"e !onteFt o% globalisation. @"is new a''roa!" led to t"e %inal "*'ot"esis t"at N/;s not onl* must be !onsidered as glo.alise- but also as glo.alising religion. @"is8 in turn8 %urt"er s'e!i%ies t"e de%inition itsel% b* anal*sing t"e modern8 JnewK !"ara!ter o% N/;s in t"e relation to t"e emergen!e o% t"e world religion s*stem. G39 Qn t"e basis o% a %ew eFam'les we identi%ied %ive relevant me!"anisms( (2# N/;s are globalised as t"e* be!ome glo.all( organise-. (5# N/;s o%ten rel* and make use o% glo.alise- cultural conce+ts and s().ols8 available in a 'ool o% worl- culture. (3# N/;s must be understood as t"e local realisation o% religious %orms (ideas and !on!e'ts# o% a glo.al religion s(ste). (B# N/;s !an su!!ess%ull* mobilise !ommuni!aC tion to religious issues. B* t"at N/;s !an be a serious !"allenge to JtraditionalK religions and religious !ommunities8 w"i!"8 t"ereb*8 be!ome %or!ed to rea!t wit"in t"e new global !onteFt. (6# N/;s 'rovide new solutions and o%%ers o% meaning as well as t"e* !an establis" stru!tures t"at fee- .ac' to ot"er religions8 w"i!"8 t"ereb*8 be!ome globalised t"emselves. @"is essa* !ertainl* leaves man* Duestions unanswered. Eowever8 t"e de%inition given above8 and t"e new 'ers'e!tive as well as t"e indi!ated "*'ot"esis !an and s"ould be understood as starting 'oint %or %urt"er resear!". &n t"is !onteFt8 surel* more resear!" will be ne!essar*8 es'e!iall* sin!e t"e %ield o% N/;s in World 1o!iet* !ontinuousl* in!reases in diversit* as well as in !om'leFit*8 but also t"e %orm o% di%%erentiation o% so!iet* toda* eF'erien!es ma.or !"anges (Bae!ker 5 9#.

G33

The author:

Moritz len' stu-ie- 0cultural stu-ies with a s+ecial focus on religion1 (/&) an- 0religious stu2 -ies1 in /a(reuth (M&) an- "-in.urgh (M3c). 3ince 2011 he wor's as a lecturer an- resear 2 cher (0>issenschaftlicher Mitar.eiter1) at the -e+art)ent of 03ociolog( of @ulture an- Religion1 at the Hni,ersit( of /a(reuth. Iis s+ecial interests are sociological s(ste)s theor(4 religion an+olitics4 sociolog( of conflict4 sociolog( of science4 theor( of religion4 new )e-ia4 an- theor( of ne;t societ(. @ontact? )oritz.'len'Juni8.a(reuth.-e

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Re!erences
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2f%

]]]. 5 3. <?rbeitsteilung und ;oral( Durk"eims @"eorie.A &n %ie Moral -er <esellschaft. ,dited b* Detle% Eorster. 2. ed.8 95B. su"rkam' tas!"enbu!" wissens!"a%t 2392. Hrank%urt am ;ain( 1u"rkam'. ]]]. 5 3. "infhrung in -ie 3(ste)theorie. B. ed. ,dited b* Dirk Bae!ker. 1ozialwissens!"a%ten. Eeidelberg( ?uer. ]]]. %ort"!oming )) 5 22. 5ntro-uction to s(ste)s theor( R,in%0"rung in die 1*stemt"eorieS. Cambridge( >olit* >ress. @ranslated b* >eter =ilgen. ;aturana8 Eumberto /.8 and Hran!is!o N. +arela. 2::3. :he tree of 'nowle-ge? :he .iological roots of hu)an un-erstan-ing. /ev. ed.8 Rre'rintS. Boston( 1"amb"ala. ;aturana8 Eumberto /.8 Hran!is!o N. +arela8 and 1ta%%ord Beer. 2:3 . &uto+oiesis ancognition? :he realization of the li,ing. Boston studies in t"e '"iloso'"* o% s!ien!e B5. Dordre!"t( /eidel. ;!?dam8 Doug8 1idne* @arrow8 and C"arles @ill*. 2::4. Z@o ma' !ontentious 'oliti!s.[ Mo.alization? &n 5nternational Mournal 2 (2#( 293B. >inn8 ?nt"on* B.8 1te'"en C. Hinle*8 and @orin ?leFander. 5 :. &frican &)erican religious cultures. 1anta Barbara8 C?( ?BC-CL&Q.
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>ora.8 ?leFander. 5 4. <Der Begri%% der &!"-1truktur in der ;*stik ;eister ,!k"arts und im -en-Budd"imus( ,ine verglei!"ende 7ntersu!"ung.A &naugural-Dissertation8 @"eologis!"e HakultUt8 ?lbert-Ludwigs-7niversitUt. ?!!essed ;ar!" 5B8 5 22. "tt'())www.%reidok.uni-%reiburg.de)vollteFte)5962)'d%)dissertation_'ora..'d%. 1aliba8 No"n ?. 2::6. *ers+ecti,es on new religious )o,e)ents. London( =eo%%re* C"a'man. 1"ar%8 /obert E. 2::6. <1anbVk*Vdan( -en and t"e wa* o% t"e New /eligions.A Ma+anese Mournal of Religious 3tu-ies 55 (3-B#( B29B63. 1'en!er-Brown8 =eorge. 2:::. !aws of for)? <esetze -er 6or). 5. ed. Lei'zig( Bo"meier. 1'irituelle Wege e.+. 5 2 . <W0rzburger 1!"ule der Kontem'lation (W1dK#( cber ?llem.A ?!!essed ;ar!" 568 5 22. "tt'())www.wsdk.de)de%ault."tm. 1tark8 /odne*8 and William 1. Bainbridge. 2:36. :he future of religion? 3ecularization4 re,i,al4 an- cult for)ation. Berkele*( 7niv. o% Cali%ornia >ress. 1ti!"we"8 /udol%. 5 3a. %ie >eltgesellschaft? 3oziologische &nal(sen. 2. ed.8 Rre'rintS. su"rkam' tas!"enbu!" wissens!"a%t 26 . Hrank%urt am ;ain( 1u"rkam'. ]]]. 5 3b. <=lobalisierung der Wissens!"a%t und die /egion ,uro'a.A &n %ie >eltgesellschaft? 3oziologische &nal(sen. 2. ed.8 Rre'rintS8 2 325:. su"rkam' tas!"enbu!" wissens!"a%t 26 . Hrank%urt am ;ain( 1u"rkam'. ]]]. 5 3!. <=lobalisierung der Wissens!"a%t und die /olle der 7niversitUt.A &n %ie >eltgesellschaft? 3oziologische &nal(sen. 2. ed.8 Rre'rintS8 23 2B6. su"rkam' tas!"enbu!" wissens!"a%t 26 . Hrank%urt am ;ain( 1u"rkam'. ]]]. 5 3d. <-ur =enese der Weltgesells!"a%t( &nnovationen und ;e!"anismen.A &n %ie >eltgesellschaft? 3oziologische &nal(sen. 2. ed.8 Rre'rintS8 5B6549. su"rkam' tas!"enbu!" wissens!"a%t 26 . Hrank%urt am ;ain( 1u"rkam'. ]]]. 5 3e. <-ur @"eorie der Weltgesells!"a%t.A &n %ie >eltgesellschaft? 3oziologische &nal(sen. 2. ed.8 Rre'rintS8 93 . su"rkam' tas!"enbu!" wissens!"a%t 26 . Hrank%urt am ;ain( 1u"rkam'. @"om'son8 No"n ;. 5 6. <>arti!ular and universal( >roblems 'osed b* 1"aku 1oends d-end.A ?!!essed ;ar!" 548 5 22. "tt'())www.aarm*sti!ism.org)do!uments)@"om'son.'d%. Warburg8 ;argit. 5 3. </eligion and globalisation8 or globalisation and religionPA &n #ew religions an- glo.alization. ,dited b* ?rmin W. =eertz8 ;argit Warburg8 and Dort"e /. C"ristensen8 B36:. ?ar"us8 Denmark8 Lan!aster( ?ar"us 7niv. >ressL =azelle RdistributorS. Weber8 ;aF. 2:33. <esa))elte &ufs7tze zur Religionssoziologie. @0bingen( N.C.B. ;o"r (>aul 1iebe!k#.
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West-Wstli!"e Weis"eit8 Willigis NUger 1ti%tung. 5 22a. <West-Wstli!"e Weis"eit( Wo"in ge"en wirPA "tt'())www.west-oestli!"e-weis"eit.de)zen)wir-ueber-uns)wo"in-ge"enwir."tml. ]]]. 5 22b. <West-Wstli!"e Weis"eit( Wer sind wir.A ?!!essed ;ar!" 5B8 5 22. "tt'())www.west-oestli!"e-weis"eit.de)zen)wir-ueber-uns)wer-sind-wir."tml.

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