Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
V T T
P U B L I C A T I O N S
Accuracy and
functionality
of hand held wood
moisture content meters
ESPOO 2000
Revised edition
Forsn, Holger & Tarvainen, Veikko. Accuracy and functionality of hand held wood moisture
content meters. Espoo 2000. Technical Research Centre of Finland, VTT Publications 420. 79 p.
+ app. 17 p.
Keywords
Abstract
The main task of VTT in this EU project was to test and improve the reliability
and performance of wood moisture content meters. A total of 16 resistance type
and 6 capacitance type hand-held moisture meters were included in the test
series.
Test samples of the most important European species (pine, spruce, birch, oak,
beech, alder, larch) were obtained from all over Europe. Altogether a total of
about 2,700 specimens were used for comparative testing. The specimens were
conditioned to three different moisture content levels (8 - 10%, 12 - 14% and 16
- 18%). The moisture gradients of the test materials were low due to the
extensive conditioning period of at least 1 year.
The effects of various factors such as moisture content, species, and temperature
on the electrical resistance of conditioned wood were studied. The resistance
moisture content curves for different species from different countries were
determined for the conditioned wood material in the laboratory. The regression
model used for the resistance moisture content curves in this work was as
follows:
log log( R + 1) = a u + b
where a and b are constants for the given type of wood.
The species-specific corrections (resistance curves) are quite similar for
different countries. Only the resistance curve of Maritime Pine differs clearly
from the other resistance curves for the pine species originating from the
different countries.
where
ucorr
a, b
The wood temperature corrections are about 0.1 - 0.15%-units/C which has to
be considered when the moisture content of wood is measured at temperatures
other than 20 C.
The other properties of wood such as sapwood/heartwood and density does not
have a significant impact on the resistance values. There were no significant
resistance differences due to type of the electrodes, distances between
electrodes and the different measuring directions.
The commercial instruments for the determination of wood moisture content
were tested with respect to accuracy, reliability and ergonomy. The moisture
meters were tested both under laboratory and industrial conditions. Most of the
resistance meters showed a systematic deviation from the actual moisture
content because of incorrect MC-resistance curves. When the MC was lower
than 10%, the readings of all the resistance meters tended to creep. The
accuracy of the MC meters (95% confidence interval) in laboratory tests with
well-conditioned test material is about 1.5 2.5% units for the resistance
meters and about 2.5% 4.0% units for the capacitance meters. The
corresponding accuracy of MC meters in industry test is about 2.0% 5.0%
units for the resistance meters and about 3.0% 5.0% units for the
capacitance meters. Other factors affecting the accuracy of the moisture meters
were also studied for this report. Resistance type moisture meters have to be
compensated for variation caused by wood species and wood temperature. The
readings of capacitance type moisture meters have to be compensated for wood
species and are influenced by the varying density of the wood species.
Preface
The project "Testing and improvement of the performance of MC measuring
instruments for drying quality control" is a part of the EU project IMCOPCO
"Improvement of Moisture Content Measuring Systems and Testing Strategies
to Enable Precise Process and Quality Control of Kiln Dried Timber", which
belongs to EC's 4th framework programme (SMT4-CT95-2023). The research
work has been financed by EC and Centre for Metrology and Accreditation
(MIKES) and Technical Research Centre of Finland (VTT). Their financial
support is gratefully acknowlegded.
The EC contact person was Mrs. I. de Froidmont-Grtz. The participants in the
IMCOPCO-project were follows:
Partner 1
Partner 2
Partner 3
Partner 4
Johannes Welling
(project coordinator)
Jan Buchter
Sverre Tronstad
Sjur H. Fltaker
Bjrn Esping
Partner 5
Holger Forsn
Veikko Tarvainen
Partner 6
Daniel Aleon
Partner 7
Wolfgang Gard
Michel Riepen
Helmuth Resch
Partner 8
Parner 9
Arnold Brookhuis
Pieter Rozema
Bundesforschungsanstalt fr
Forst- und Holzwirtschaft
Danish Technological Institute
Norwegian Institute of Wood
Technology
Swedish Institute for Wood
Technology
Technical Research centre of
Finland, Building Technology
(D)
(DK)
(N)
(S)
(FIN)
(F)
(A)
(NL)
(NL)
The Imcopco project is subdivided into 5 task programmes. This report deals
with task 3 of the IMCOPCO-project.
The most common commercial moisture content meters that are available and
used by the European woodworking industry and timber trade were tested in this
project. All partners in the IMCOPCO Group have sent test specimens for the
project from their respective countries. The tests were performed both at VTT's
laboratory and at sawmills.
We wish to express our sincere thanks to all the persons involved in this project.
Holger Forsn
Veikko Tarvainen
Contents
Abstract................................................................................................................. 3
Preface .................................................................................................................. 7
1. Introduction and aim of the task ................................................................... 11
2. Instruments, test material and measuring conditions.................................... 12
2.1 Measuring instruments ......................................................................... 12
2.1.1 Resistance measuring instruments ............................................ 12
2.1.2 Moisture content meters............................................................ 13
2.2 Test material and conditioning............................................................. 15
2.2.1 Procuring of the test material .................................................... 15
2.2.2 Preparation and conditioning .................................................... 18
2.2.3 Conditions in laboratory and industrial testing......................... 22
2.2.4 Laboratory tests......................................................................... 22
2.2.5 Industrial tests ........................................................................... 22
3. Effect of different factors on the electrical resistance of wood ................... 24
3.1 Effect of the species and species correction......................................... 24
3.2 Effect of temperature............................................................................ 28
3.3 Resistance values of sapwood and heartwood ..................................... 30
3.4 Effect of the type of electrodes ............................................................ 31
3.5 Resistance values at different distances between the electrodes.......... 33
3.6 Resistance values in different measuring directions ............................ 34
3.7 Effect of the density on electrical resistance........................................ 35
4. Confidence intervals for MC resistance regression curves .......................... 36
5. Capasitance type moisture content meter ..................................................... 42
5.1 Dielectric principles ............................................................................. 42
5.2 Dielectric properties of wood............................................................... 44
5.2.1 Effect of moisture content......................................................... 44
5.2.2 Effect of temperature ................................................................ 45
5.2.3 Effect of density........................................................................ 46
5.3 Dielectric moisture meters ................................................................... 47
10
11
The electrical resistance of wood was measured with Hewlett Packards high
resistance meter model 4329A with a resistance measuring range of 5 x 10^5
2 x 10^16 ohm. The measuring specifications were as follows:
Electrode type: insulated steel needles (type Gann)
Measuring voltage: 10 Volts
Measuring temperature: 20 C (excluding point 3.2)
Measuring delay: about 3 - 5 seconds depending on the the resistance stability
time
Measuring depth: 10 - 25 mm (a third of the thickness of the wood)
Measuring direction: mostly parallel to the grain.
Measured
values
9.9409 KOhm
100.159 KOhm
0.99849 KOhm
9.9826 MOhm
102.013 MOhm
1.04018 GOhm
12
Aqua Boy
BES Bollmann combo 200
CSA electronic, Delta - 8N
Delmhorst RDM-2S
FMD moisture meter
FME moisture meter
Gann Hydromette RTU600
Gann Hydromette M2050
Protimeter Timbermaster S
Protimeter Timberlogger
Timber Test FM510
WALTTERI
Vanicek VIVA 12
WSAB Lignomat mini X
WSAB Lignomat (pocket)
WSAB Lignomat TESTER
Capacitance meters:
13
All the resistance meters were checked with the checkbox (see Table 1) every
2nd month to ensure the repeatability of the measurements. All resistance MC
meters have their own (built-in) resistance curves for different species. The
resistance curves are different for different species depending on the electrical
properties of wood. Figure 1 shows an example of the built-in resistance curves
for different wood species for one of the MC-meters.
100000
Resistance (MOhm)
10000
1000
100
Pine
Spruce
Beech
Birch
Larch
Oak
10
0,1
0
10
15
20
25
30
14
100000
MC meter A
MC meter B
10000
Resistance (MOhm)
MC meter C
MC meter D
1000
MC meter E
100
10
0,1
0
10
15
20
25
30
Only two of the capacitance MC meters provided for the tests could be
calibrated. They were calibrated according to the manufacturer's instructions
using calibration blocks supplied with the instruments.
Test samples of the most important European species (pine, spruce, birch,
beech, oak, alder and larch) were collected from different places all over Europe
in order to include different provenances for each species. The participating
countries delivered samples as follows:
15
The test material was collected from different places in the said countries. A
total of about 3000 pieces of wood were used for testing. The test material was
conditioned to three different moisture content levels (8 - 10%, 12 - 14% and
16 - 18%). Table 2 presents the number of specimens of the different species
according to the origin. All the instruments were tested with the different
species.
16
Table 2. Species, origin, number and target moisture content of the test specimens.
MC
Species
Pine
Spruce
Birch
Beech
Oak
Alder
Larch
Origin
Germany Denmark
Norway
Sweden
Finland
90
38
80
12
90
38
16
90
30
12
16
Austria
France
Total
80
30 *
288
80
80
30 *
288
38
80
80
30 *
288
41
30
80
103
22
306
30
41
30
80
103
22
306
30
41
30
80
103
22
306
40
58
98
12
40
58
98
16
40
58
98
19
20
39
12
19
20
39
16
19
20
39
50
20
30
100
12
50
20
30
100
16
50
20
30
100
40
40
12
40
40
16
40
40
21
21
12
21
21
16
21
21
Total
567
306
204
720
* Maritime pine
17
723
66
90
2676
The tested species were pine, spruce, birch, oak, beech, alder and larch. The
wood samples were divided into three parallel groups which were conditioned to
8 - 10%, 12 - 14% and 16 - 18% moisture content levels. All test material was
green or previously air dried. At first all the test material was dried at a
temperature of 40 C close to the target moisture contents. Then the test material
was conditioned in different climate rooms. The conditions were 20 C/RH 40
% 5 %, 20 C/RH 65 % 5 % and 20 C/RH 85 % 5 %. The moisture
gradients of the test materials were low due to the long conditioning period of at
least 1 year. The average moisture contents and standard deviations for different
moisture classes are presented in Table 3.
18
Table 3. Moisture contents and moisture gradients of the test specmens after conditioning.
Origin of
test
specimen
Moisture class 8 - 10 %
Moisture class 12-14 %
Moisture class 16 - 18 %
Moisture
Moisture
Moisture
Moisture
Moisture
Moisture
gradient
gradient
gradient
AVE Stdev AVE Stdev AVE Stdev AVE Stdev AVE Stdev AVE Stdev
Pine
Finland
9.5
Sweden
9.6
Norway
9.5
Germany 9.7
France
9.9
Nordic
9.5
Spruce
Finland
9.9
Sweden 10.0
Norway
9.8
Denmark 9.7
Germany 10.0
Austria
9.4
Nordic
9.9
Central
9.9
Europe
Birch
Finland
9.1
Sweden
9.0
Nordic
9.0
Oak
Denmark 9.8
Germany 9.7
France
9.9
Central
9.8
Europe
Beech
Denmark 9.1
Germany 9.4
Central
9.3
Europe
Alder
Sweden
8.9
Larch
Denmark 9.9
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.5
0.3
0.41
0.22
0.48
0.32
0.56
0.34
0.29
0.14
0.26
0.31
0.31
0.25
12.8
13.1
12.8
13.3
13.5
12.9
0.3
0.5
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.53
0.29
0.60
0.51
0.63
0.43
0.49
0.23
0.43
0.33
0.32
0.39
17.5
17.3
17.4
17.6
17.8
17.4
0.8
0.5
0.8
0.9
0.5
0.7
0.71
0.73
0.49
0.36
0.69
0.69
0.38
0.42
0.29
0.27
0.35
0.39
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.38
0.28
0.29
0.34
0.19
0.41
0.33
0.32
0.31
0.53
0.18
0.24
0.17
0.21
0.40
0.22
13.4
13.6
13.2
14.0
14.2
13.6
13.4
13.4
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.4
0.56
0.27
0.70
0.28
0.56
0.89
0.44
0.48
0.50
0.26
0.30
0.24
0.25
0.29
0.41
0.34
18.0
18.0
18.1
18.4
18.2
18.4
18.0
18.0
0.4
0.3
0.7
0.8
0.3
0.7
0.4
0.4
1.10
0.80
0.89
0.63
0.45
0.80
0.96
0.63
0.56
0.39
0.85
0.42
0.29
0.54
0.54
0.42
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.21
0.28
0.24
0.12
0.21
0.17
12.3
12.4
12.3
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.26
0.49
0.38
0.18
0.33
0.28
18.2
19.1
18.6
1.2
0.6
1.1
0.82
1.82
1.24
0.71
0.61
0.71
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.34
0.32
0.40
0.35
0.22
0.15
0.18
0.18
13.1
13.5
13.0
13.3
0.6
0.3
0.2
0.4
0.16
0.46
0.19
0.27
0.12
0.21
0.07
0.20
17.6
17.3
17.2
17.3
0.9
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.58
1.02
0.58
0.73
0.40
0.30
0.30
0.38
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.31
0.26
0.28
0.19
0.22
0.20
13.1
13.8
13.4
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.21
0.27
0.24
0.19
0.15
0.17
17.9
17.4
17.6
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.73
0.89
0.81
0.38
0.31
0.34
0.2
0.44
0.18
12.1
0.2
0.39
0.31
16.4
0.4
0.50
0.34
0.3
0.28
0.16
13.5
0.3
0.51
0.41
17.3
0.4
0.63
0.48
19
The standard deviation for all test specimen groups was mostly very low. The
average moisture gradients, the MC difference between the surface and centre of
a test sample, are less than 0.5%.
The average density of all test specimens was measured. Both weight and
volume were determined at the same MC (actual density). Then the actual
density was recalculated into other densities. The following density expressions
were used (Kollman & Ct 1968):
20
Species
Country
Average
Standard
deviation
Average
Standard
deviation
Average
Standard
deviation
Pine
Finland
Sweden
520
496
62
62
433
413
51
51
0.464
0.443
0.055
0.055
Norway
458
58
381
48
0.391
0.049
Germany
511
68
425
57
0.456
0.061
France
624
61
519
51
0.557
0.054
Nordic
500
65
416
54
0.443
0.060
Finland
463
49
387
41
0.413
0.044
Sweden
477
40
399
33
0.426
0.035
Norway
448
42
374
35
0.400
0.038
Denmark
449
68
376
57
0.401
0.060
Germany
461
68
385
57
0.411
0.061
Austria
452
39
378
32
0.404
0.035
Nordic
465
46
389
38
0.416
0.041
Central
Europe
Finland
454
62
379
52
0.405
0.056
629
38
517
31
0.562
0.034
Sweden
649
48
533
39
0.580
0.043
Nordic
638
43
524
36
0.569
0.039
Denmark
680
36
564
30
0.607
0.032
Germany
656
51
544
42
0.586
0.046
France
749
30
621
25
0.669
0.027
Central
Europe
Denmark
689
59
571
49
0.615
0.053
706
35
569
28
0.630
0.031
Germany
678
40
547
32
0.606
0.036
693
40
558
32
0.618
0.035
Alder
Central
Europe
Sweden
512
35
422
29
0.457
0.031
Larch
Denmark
485
52
405
44
0.433
0.047
Spruce
Birch
Oak
Beech
21
Variations in density in the one and same piece of sawn timber can by quite high
due the unhomogeneity of wood. The standard deviation was about 50 kg/m3
which is quite normal.
2.2.3 Conditions in laboratory and industrial testing
The effect of different factors on the electrical resistance of wood was studied
with conditioned test material. The "basic" resistance measurement at a constant
temperature (20 C) was performed on all test specimens. The "special"
resistance measurement (temperature, sapwood/heartwood, type of electrodes,
distances between electrodes, measuring direction, density) was performed on
Scots pine using at least 16 specimens for every moisture class (8 - 10%, 12 14% and 16 - 18%).
In the laboratory, the accuracy and reliability of all moisture meters (both
resistance and capacitance type moisture meter) were tested with conditioned
test material. With the resistance moisture meters, at least 20 measurements
were made in every origin, species, and moisture class group. The capacitance
meters were tested with all the test materials because this method is very quick.
Moisture meter readings were compared with the actual moisture content of
wood which was determined by oven dry method. The measuring temperature of
both the moisture meters and the test material was 20 C. The electrodes were
inserted in the direction of the grain. The measurements were conducted in
complieance with the manufacturer's instructions.
2.2.5 Industrial tests
All moisture content meters were tested also under industrial conditions. The
material for this test (a total of 300 pieces) was provided in the form of 10
packages supplied by sawmills. The measurement position was chosen on the
22
outer face of the sawn timber. The measurement depth with resistance MC
meters should be 0.3 times the thickness of sawn timber, at a distance of 0.3
meters from either end and at a distance of 0.3 times the width from one edge
according to prEN 13183-2 (European standard prEN 13183-2). With the
capacitance MC meters, the moisture content measurement was made according
to the manufacturer's instructions. Under industrial conditions, the variables
were as follow:
Species:
Thickness of sawn timber:
Width of sawn timber:
Moisture content:
Wood temperature
Kiln types:
The test material was unconditioned. Different ranges of moisture content and
temperatures were considered. The storage time from drying to moisture
measurement varied from 1 day to 3 month.
23
log(log R + 1) = a u + b
(1)
R = 10 (10 (a u + b) 1
(2)
or rewritten
Curve fitting was carried out with the SPSS software package, which calculated
the coefficients a and b. By setting the coefficients a and b in the equation (2),
the moisture content value can be calculated using the measured resistance.
Figures 3a, 3b and 3c show, by way of an example, the resistance curves and
measuring points for pine from Nordic countries, for spruce from Central
Europe, and for oak from Central Europe. The resistance curves for pine,
spruce, birch, beech, alder and larch from different countries are presented in
Appendix A and summarised in Table 5.
24
100000
R = 10^(10^(ax+b)-1)
a = - 0.039
b = 1.061
2
r = 0.967
n = 596 pcs
Resistance (MOhm)
10000
1000
100
10
0,1
0
10
15
20
25
30
25
30
100000
R = 10^(10^(ax+b)-1)
a = - 0.036
b = 1.040
2
r = 0.922
n = 277 pcs
Resistance (MOhm)
10000
1000
100
10
0,1
0
10
15
20
25
100000
R=10^(10^(ax+b)-1)
a= - 0.047
b=1.079
2
r = 0.975
n = 300 pcs
Resistance (Mohm)
10000
1000
100
10
0,1
0
10
15
20
25
30
In all regression curves the coefficient of determination r2 is very high, over 0.9.
The deviation of the measured resistance values around the regression curve is
considerable because of the large variation in the electrical properties of wood.
At higher moisture contents of wood the deviation decreases.
In Table 5, the resistance curves for pine and spruce seem to be identical for
different countries whereas Maritime pine (France) clearly stand out. When
comparing resistance curves calculated by VTT with the curve from Trtek
(Samuelsson 1990), a minor difference can be detected. In practice, the
difference means that when the resistance is 10 M the moisture content
difference is about 1.0% while at 10 000 M the difference is 0.6%.
26
Resistance
10 MOhm 1 000 MOhm 10 000 MOhm
Species
Country
Pieces
r2
Pine
Finland
240
-0.038
1.052
0.958
19.8
11.8
9.3
Sweden
240
-0.039
1.062
0.981
19.5
11.8
9.3
Norway
116
-0.040
1.079
0.964
19.4
11.9
9.5
Germany
270
-0.036
1.015
0.951
19.8
11.5
8.8
France
90
-0.045
1.147
0.973
18.8
12.1
10.0
-0.040
1.055
18.8
11.3
8.9
-0.039
1.061
19.5
11.8
9.3
by Trtek
Nordic
Spruce
596
Finland
309
-0.038
1.080
0.980
20.5
12.6
10.0
Sweden
240
-0.037
1.047
0.985
20.2
12.0
9.4
Norway
90
-0.038
1.072
0.987
20.3
12.4
9.8
Denmark
123
-0.035
1.004
0.891
20.1
11.5
8.7
Germany
90
-0.036
1.043
0.974
20.6
12.2
9.6
Austria
66
0.977
20.5
12.8
10.3
19.5
11.8
9.3
by Trtek
Birch
Oak
0.967
-0.039
1.100
-0.039
1.063
Nordic
639
-0.038
1.067
0.981
20.2
12.2
9.7
Central
Europe
Finland
279
-0.034
1.014
0.892
21.0
12.1
9.3
176
-0.039
1.035
0.961
18.8
11.1
8.6
Sweden
120
-0.038
1.029
0.976
19.2
11.2
8.7
Nordic
296
-0.039
1.032
0.968
18.7
11.0
8.5
Denmark
60
-0.048
1.085
0.975
16.3
10.1
8.0
Germany
150
-0.047
1.081
0.978
16.6
10.2
8.1
France
90
-0.046
1.069
0.979
16.7
10.2
8.0
Central
Europe
Denmark
300
-0.047
1.079
0.975
16.6
10.1
8.1
60
-0.045
1.116
0.963
18.1
11.4
9.3
Germany
57
-0.047
1.123
0.965
17.5
11.1
9.0
117
-0.046
1.119
0.962
17.8
11.2
9.1
Alder
Central
Europe
Sweden
120
-0.044
1.131
0.971
18.9
12.0
9.8
Larch
Denmark
63
-0.042
1.112
0.976
19.3
12.1
9.8
Beech
27
(3)
where
R is resistance in MOhm
u is moisture content (%)
T is wood temperature (C).
The MC-resistance curves for Pine at the test temperatures are shown in
Figure 4.
28
1000000
data, T = -10 C, n=48 pcs
data, T = 5 C, n=48 pcs
data, T = 20 C, n=243 pcs
data, T = 40 C, n=108 pcs
data, T = 60 C, n=108 pcs
data, T = 70 C, n=48 pcs
regr., T=-10
regr., T=5
regr., T=20
regr., T=40
regr., T=60
regr., T=70
100000
Resistance (Mohm)
10000
1000
100
10
1
0,1
0
10
15
20
25
30
Figure. 4. The moisture content - resistance curves for Pine at different temperatures.
29
(4)
where
ucorr
100000
heartwood
M = lg10(lg10(R)+1)
M = ax+b
a = -0.037
b = 1.062
r2 = 0.962
n = 87 pcs
Resistance (MOhm)
10000
1000
Measured heartwood
Calculated heartwood
sapwood
100
Measured sapwood
M = lg10(lg10(R)+1)
M = ax+b
a = -0.034
b = 1.014
r2 = 0.962
n = 87 pcs
10
Calculated sapwood
1
0
10
15
20
25
30
Figure 5. Measured MC resistance values and calculated regression curves for Pine sapwood and
heartwood.
a) Moisture content, %
Sapwood
Heartwood
10 MOhm
21.0
20.6
1000 MOhm
12.1
12.4
10000 MOhm
9.3
9.8
Moisture
b) Resistance, MOhm
content
Sap wood
Heart wood
8%
33200
68300
12 %
1100
1400
16 %
90
90
31
Type A
Type B
Type C
Type D
Type E
Figure 6 shows the most usual types of electrodes. All the tested electrodes were
insulated. The top of the different electrode types seems to have the strongest
effect on the resistance values. The measurement results are shown in graphic
form in Figure 7.
100000
Resistance (MOhm)
10000
1000
Electrode type A
100
Electrode type B
10
Electrode type C
Electrode type D
Electrode type E
0,1
0
10
15
20
32
25
30
The B electrodes with a long and sharp top differ most from the other electrodes
in Figure 7. The biggest difference between the different electrodes is about 3%
points at highest tested MC (16 - 18%). With high resistance values at lower
moisture contents the difference decreases. For the other electrodes the
differences are not significant. Because the shape of the electrodes has the same
effect on the measured resistance value, it is highly recommended that a
MCmeter only be used with the electrode type provided by the supplier of the
meter.
100000
Resistance (MOhm)
10000
1000
100
10
1
6
10
12
14
16
18
Figure 8. Effect of measuring distance between electrodes 20 mm, 30 mm, 60 mm, and 120 mm.
33
The distance had no effect on the moisture content value (see Figure 8). The
four calculated regression curves do not differ from one another. The results are
equivalent to NTI (Apneseth & Hay 1992). In principle, the distance between
the electrodes can theoretically be as large as technically feasible. Of course,
with normal pin distance, the MC is measured only locally. As the MC in the
wood varies, the measured value is somewhere between the minimum and
maximum MC value in the wood between the electrodes.
100000
Resistance (MOhm)
10000
1000
100
10
1
6
10
12
14
16
18
Figure 9. Resistance curves by measuring in two directions: parallel and perpendicular to grain.
34
100000
Resistance (MOhm)
10000
1000
Density (12,12) < 450 kg/m3
Density (12,12) 450-550 kg/m3
Density (12,12) > 550 kg/m3
100
10
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Figure 10. Resistance curves for Nordic Pine in different density classes.
35
The assumptions concerning the distribution and the variance of the residuals
are particularly important for the calculation of the confidence intervals.
The variable used, x = log(logR + 1), satisfies these assumptions. One deviation
curve is shown by way of an example in Figure 11.
36
80
60
40
Frequency
20
Std. Dev = 1.00
Mean = 0.00
N = 582.00
3.
2.
2.
1.
1.
25
75
25
75
25
5
.7
.2
.7
.2
.7
.2
.7
5
.2
5
-.2
5
-.7
-1
-1
-2
-2
-3
-3
Figure 11. Deviation of standardized residuals in the regression model used for Nordic Pine at a
moisture content of 8 - 20 %. Resistance values are transformed by using the transformation x =
log(log(R)+1).
37
4
3
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-2.5
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-.5
0.0
.5
1.0
1.5
The scatter of residuals is not fully perfect, but good enough too make it
possible to use the calculated confidence intervals for the accuracy analysis of
MC resistance values.
On the basis of the measured MC-resistance values, the upper and lower limit
curves of a confidence level of 95 % for the calculated resistance curves were
calculated and plotted for some species in Figures 13a - 13c. The confidence
intervals for all the resistance curves given in Table 5 are presented in Table 7.
38
1000000
Resistance (MOhm)
100000
10000
1000
100
model
2.5 % conf. interval
97.5 conf. interval
data
10
1
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Figure 13a. Relationship between moisture content and wood resistance for Nordic Pine at 95%
confidence limits.
1000000
Resistance (MOhm)
100000
10000
1000
100
model
2.5 % conf. interval
97.5 % conf. interval
data
10
1
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Figure 13b. Relationship between moisture content and wood resistance for Central European Spruce
at 95% confidence limits.
39
10000
Resistance (MOhm)
1000
100
10
model
2.5 % conf.interval
97.5 % conf. interval
data
1
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Figure 13c. Relationship between moisture content and wood resistance for Central European Oak at
95% confidence limits.
Table 7. Confidence intervals for the MC resistance curves (Table 5) of the tested species.
Species
Origin
Pine
Nordic
Germany
France
Spruce
Nordic
Central Europe
0.9
2.0
Birch
Nordic
1.4
Oak
Central Europe
1.0
Beech
Central Europe
1.3
Alder
Sweden
1.1
Larch
Denmark
1.0
40
95 % confidence
intervals,
% units
1.2
1.4
1.1
41
Figure 14. Schematic diagram illustrating charge accumulation on two plates each with an area A, and
distance d apart showing: a) a voltage Vv in vacuum, b) a lower voltage Vw with a wood dielectric (Skaar
1988).
42
(5)
where
A is area of the plates
d is distance between the plates
ew is dielectric constant of wood.
The dielectric constant ew of a wood specimen can be calculated from equation
(5) if Cw can be measured. It is difficult to measure Cw for wood using direct
current techniques, and therefore alternating current measurements are generally
used.
The dielectric constant is a measure of the polarization of atoms and molecules
in the wood under the influence of an applied voltage V or voltage gradient E.
At least four different kinds of polarization may occur in wood, each of which
may contribute to the dielectric constant, depending on the frequency f of
measurement. These are electronic, atomic, dipole and interfacial polarizations.
The first two are of interest primarily from the viewpoint of optical and infrared
spectroscopy, respectively. The last two are generally measured using electrical
methods. The dipole mechanism involves the use of permanent dipoles while the
other three are caused by induced polarization.
Figure 15 shows how the dielectric constant of an idealized material varies with
the frequency (log scale). The two regions of most importance for measuring the
moisture content of wood, and also for heating wood electrically, are those in
which the dipole and interfacial mechanisms are dominant.
43
Figure 15. Diagram showing the dielectric constant and loss tangent as functions of applied frequency
(log scale) from power to optical frequencies, for a dielectric material (Skaar 1988).
44
Figure 16. Dielectric constant (') and loss factor (tan ), of European spruce at 20 C, as a function of
frequency (log scale) at several wood moisture contents (Skaar 1988).
Figure 17. Curves of dielectric constant ' and of tan in relation to the logarithm of frecuency at
several temperatures, for wood of Tanagi (Salix jessoensis) at 15% moisture conent (Skaar 1988).
45
It is clear that the dispersion peaks shift to higher frequencies with an increase
in temperature. The loss factor is not a simple function of temperature. It can
both increase and decrease with increasing temperature depending on the
frequency and moisture content.
5.2.3 Effect of density
The dielectric constant of the gross wood also increases with moisture content,
but not to the same extent as that of the cell wall. The increase is greater for
more dense than for less dense woods, as Figure 18 indicates. For example, from
Figure 18, ' doubles between 0% and 25%. moisture content for wood whose
oven-dry specific gravity G0 is 0.1, but quadruples over the same moisture range
for wood G0 = 0.6, at 1 MHz. This is because the cell wall volume is greater for
the more dense woods, and therefore the relative contribution of the cell wall is
greater than for the low density woods.
Figure 18. Curves showing increase of dielectric constant ' with increasing wood moisture content and
specific gravity (Skaar 1988).
46
It has been established that the loss tangent (tan ) of wood also increases with
increasing wood density. Its variation with wood moisture content is more
complex, however, as Figure 19 indicates. This shows that tan increases with
wood moisture content in general. However, at 16 MHz, it peaks near the 12%
moisture content before resuming the normal increasing pattern. This is
probably due to the proximity of a region of anomalous dispersion at this
combination of frequency, moisture content, and temperature.
Figure 19. Loss tangent (tan ) curves in relation to wood moisture content M for three different
frequencies (Skaar 1988).
47
48
In connection with the resistance measurements (section 3.1), the accuracy and
the reliability of all hand-held moisture meters (both resistance and capacitance
type moisture meters) were tested with conditioned test material. The tests were
carried out at a room temperature of 20 C.
Figure 20 shows an example, the regression line between the actual MC (oven
dry method) and the MC results obtained with one MC meter. In this example
the species is birch.
Figure 21 shows the moisture content resistance curve obtained with the same
resistance meter for birch. The other curve is the moisture content resistance
determined by VTT for this study.
49
30
Y = ax+b
a = 1.109
b = 0.028
2
r = 0.966
n = 120 pcs
25
20
15
10
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Figure 20. Regression between actual moisture content and values measure with a moisture meter.
100000
Resistance (MOhm)
10000
1000
100
10
1
VTT
one resistance MC meter
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Figure 21. Moisture content resistance curves for birch according to VTTs measurements and a
resistance type MC meter.
50
Most meters show a systematic deviation from the actual moisture content.
Many resistance type meters generate incorrect MC resistance curves. For
example, when comparing the resistance curve for birch produced by one
moisture meter with the resistance curve for birch determined by VTT (see
Figure 21), we see that the moisture meter readings is 1 - 2% points higher than
the actual values.
With capacitance type MC meters, the effect of wood density is very high. Thus
the biggest problem with the capacitance meters is that the correct density of the
wood to be measured is not known. For one capacitance type meter, the meter
readings were corrected with the measured wood densities. Figures 22 and 23
show the correlation between the actual MC and moisture meter readings with
and without density compensation.
30
Y = ax+b
a = 0.711
b =3.472
2
r = 0.678
n = 486 pcs
25
20
15
10
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Figure 22. Moisture meter readings of a capacitance type meter without density compensation
compared with the actual moisture content values.
51
30
Y = ax+b
a = 0.616
b =4.485
2
r = 0.863
n = 486 pcs
25
20
15
10
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Figure 23. Moisture meter readings of a capacitance type meter with density compensation compared
with the actual moisture content values.
52
B. Capacitance meters:
1. The readings are affected by the density of wood.
2. The contact between the meter and wood surface should be good.
3. For some meters the measuring method has an effect on the results. For
example, when MC-meters with exposed electrodes are pressed harder
against the wood surface, the MC values obtained are higher.
4. There was a big difference between the best and worst capacitance
meters.
All the moisture content meters were tested at sawmills. The test material was
dried to normal industrial schedules at temperature levels of 60 - 75 C. The
moisture content of 10 sawn timber packages (representing a total of about 300
pieces of sawn timber) was measured. The background information on the sawn
timber packages such as kiln type, drying schedule, drying date and storage time
was recorded.
The measurement results were analysed separately for every MC meter. Two
examples of the measurements (one resistance and one capacitance type
moisture meter) are presented in Figures 24 and 25, where all the results of
measurements with different variables (see section 2.2.5) are considered.
53
30
y = ax+b
a = 1.084
b = -0.599
2
r = 0.942
n = 276 pcs
25
20
15
10
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Figure 24. Regression line between actual MC and MC measured with a resistance type MC meter in
industrial test.
30
y = ax+b
a = 0.771
b = 1.157
2
r = 0.762
n = 276 pcs
25
20
15
10
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Figure 25. Regression line between actual MC and MC measured with a capacitance meter in industrial
test.
54
55
60
50
Corrected MC values
with density compensation
40
30
20
Resistance MC meters
Calc.
Poorest
Best
Poorest
10
Best
70
Capacitance MC meters
In practice the best accuracy that can be expected is about 60% of the readings
within 1.0% of ODMC. The typical accuracy of a resistance MC meter was
actually about 45 to 50% of readings within 1.0% ODMC. Most of the
capacitance MC meters fall short of these levels by a wide margin. When the
values measured with the best capasitance meters (best in Figure 26) were
corrected with the measured density values, the calculated accuracy came close
to the average level of performance of resistance meters.
The following comments are made:
Major differences between individual MC-meters exist
Capacitance type MC-meters show a much wider variation compared to
electrical resistance type meters
Correct temperature setting is very important for resistant type meters
Correct density setting is essential for capacitance type meters
56
All measurement results obtained both in the laboratory and industrial tests were
analysed statistically. In the statistical evaluation procedure every measuring
result has been corrected with the average divergence (meter reading true
value) before the limits for 95% confidence interval are calculated. The used
regression model is linear. An example of the results is given for Nordic pine
and spruce in Table 8. Similar tables for other species are presented in
Appendix B.
57
Table 8. Confidence intervals for different MC-meters. Species tested: Nordic pine and spruce (MC level
9 - 17 % for laboratory tests and 7 - 25 % for industry tests).
Laboratory tests
Types of hand-held
average
95 % confidence
intervals,
divergence
intervals,
divergence
% units
(reading true)
% units
(reading true)
Meter 1
1.2
-0.7
2.1
+1.3
Meter 2
1.2
-0.7
2.1
+1.2
Meter 3
1.2
-0.8
2.0
+1.2
Meter 4
1.3
-1.1
1.7
+0.8
Meter 5
1.3
-0.7
2.1
+0.7
Meter 6
1.3
-0.9
1.8
+0.6
Meter 7
1.3
-0.7
1.9
+0.7
Meter 8
1.3
-1.1
2.4
+1.0
Meter 9
1.4
-1.4
1.9
+0.1
Meter 10
1.4
+0.5
Meter 11
1.4
-1.7
3.5
-1.6
1.5
-1.0
1.9
+1.0
1.5
+0.3
2.4
+2.8
Meter 13
1.5
-2.3
3.3
-0.8
moisture meters
95 % confidence
Industry tests
average
Resistance MC-meters:
1.6
-0.7
2.2
+2.0
2.1
-1.3
2.7
+1.5
Meter 15
1.8
-0.3
4.5
+2.3
Meter 16
1.8
-0.8
2.3
+0.1
Meter 17
1.9
-1.3
3.9
-3.6
2.5
-0.5
1.6
-0.9
Meter 19
2.9
-0.6
3.8
-2.4
Meter 20
3.2
+1.2
4.7
-2.4
Meter 21
3.4
+1.4
4.6
-2.0
Meter 22
3.5
-2.7
5.3
-4.7
Meter 23
3.7
+0.0
2.0
-0,1
Meter 24
4.2
+0.3
4.7
-2.8
Capacitance MC-meters:
58
59
30
-10 C, n=48 pcs
5 C, n=48 pcs
20 C, n=108 pcs
40 C, n=108 pcs
60 C, n=108 pcs
70 C, n=16 pcs
-10 C
5 C
20 C
40 C
60 C
70 C
25
20
15
10
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Figure 27. Temperature test with a resistance MC meter (MC meters temperature according to text
on page 59).
25
20
15
measured, n=48 pcs
calculated
10
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Figure 28. Freeze test with a resistance type MC meter when T(wood) = 10 C and T(meter) =
+15 C.
60
30
25
20
15
10
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Figure 29. Temperature test with a capacitance MC meter (MC meters temperature according to text
on page 59).
In the temperature test the resistance moisture meters showed lower accuracy
and reliability than in room temperature test. In the temperature test at 10 C
the meters gave inaccurate readings. In cold weather, the meters often become
sluggish. When the meters are at room temperature and test materials at 10 C,
the meters work much better (Figure 28). The temperature tests showed that the
measurement accuracy is reduced when the meters are explosed to low or high
temperatures. This means that the pre-programmed temperature corrections do
not apply at extreme temperatures.
Temperature compensation works quite well, but the best results were achieved
at room temperature.
61
The tests proved that the effect of temperature on the capacitance measuring is
very small. It would also appear that operating a capacitance type instrument at
extreme temperatures (10 C, +70 C) does not affect its accuracy.
25
1. R = 0,969
Moisture meter reading (%)
20
2
2. R = 0,968
2
3. R = 0,963
1. Density (12,12)<450 kg/m3, n=147 pcs
15
10
0
0
10
15
20
25
Figure 30. Effect of density level on MC values calculated from measured resistance values with aid of
resistance curve of one meter.
62
The results confirm that, in the case of electrical resistance type MC meters, the
density of wood has no significant impact on the measured wood moisture
content (see section 3.7).
The effect of density (Scots pine) on the readings of one capacitance meter was
studied. The measured values are plotted in Figure 31. Following regression
analysis the meter reading is presented as a function of real MC and density (r2
= 0.91).
u meas = 0.309 u + 0.0482 u 2 + 0.0157 12.12 + 0.6
(6)
where
umeas is moisture meter reading
u
25
20
15
10
0
0
10
15
20
25
Figure 31. Regression curves calculated for three density values (400, 500 and 600 kg/m3). Scots pine
from Finland, Norway and Sweden.
63
Figure 31 shows that density has a very strong effect on the meter readings.
Normal standard deviation of density in a single kiln load is about 30 kg/m3 and
the variation range between minimum and maximum about 100 kg/m3, which
means a MC difference of 1.5 - 2% depending on MC level. The results confirm
that, in order to obtain accurate MC values, it is essential to know the wood
density.
25
sapwood
y = ax+b
a = 0.806
b = 1.262
2
r = 0.962
n = 87 pcs
20
15
sapwood, measured
heartwood, measured
sapwood, calculated
heartwood, calculated
10
heartwood
y = ax+b
a = 0.864
b = 0.123
2
r = 0.962
n = 87 pcs
0
0
10
15
20
25
Figure 32. Effect of sapwood and heartwood of Nordic pine on moisture meter readings of one
resistance type MC meter.
64
25
sapwood
y = ax+b
a = 0.730
b = 5.175
2
r = 0.635
n = 87 pcs
20
sapwood, measured
sapwood, calculated
heartwood, measured
heartwood, calculated
15
10
heartwood
y = ax+b
a = 0.702
b = 4.506
2
r = 0.657
n = 87 pcs
0
0
10
15
20
25
Figure 33. Effect of sapwood and heartwood of Nordic pine on moisture meter readings of one
capacitance type MC meter.
65
66
Changing
parameters
Display
Keyboard
Hammer design
Damage to wood
Properties
Positive
easy to connect cables to
meter
cable is protected against
damage
ease of manufacture
because of common parts
short and clear
instructions on meter
panel
most important
information
large enough font
background light
audible click on
measurement
ease of use
heavy enough for easy
penetration and
withdrawal of nails
easy and quick nail
change
nail guide system to
prevent breakage
adjustable penetration
depth
hand well protected
against injury
hammer does not turn
no marks with
capacitance meters
Negative
no standard connectors
no user instructions
buttons too sensitive
too weak
too heavy/light
too short/long
Overall design
Ease of reading
Stability of meters
Other comments
correct dimensions
easy to read even when
inclined
stable
proper electrode material:
no bow, long service life
Isolated nails
recommended
67
68
content of wood measured using the oven dry method according to standard
prEN 13183-1.
When moisture meters are tested, it is recommended that the meter
manufacturers instructions regarding the measurement direction and period are
followed. All measurements should be recorded in a protocol, which also should
indicate the following:
The moisture meter scale reading must be regressed against the corresponding
moisture content for each specimen in the sample using the linear regression
analysis. The equation for the regression line (Y = a x X + b) shall be used to
establish the correction factor (Y - X) for the meter scale reading (Y) of 7 to 21
inclusive.
In field calibration, the procedure should be used to develop a meaningful
relationship between a meter reading and the actual MC. All field calibrations
must be referenced to oven dry tests to determine precision and bias. Special
care must be taken to minimise errors caused by the effect of wood temperature
on readings. Specimen size for field testing may be full size or sections thereof.
Additionally, it should be noted that electrodes never indicate the average
moisture content but rather local moisture content.
69
equation (1), gives the relationship between resistance and moisture content of
the wood as follows:
u = (log(log(R ) + 1 b) / a
(7)
where
u is wood moisture content
R is known resistance values
a is species coefficient
b is species coefficient.
The coefficients for different species (based on VTTs measurements) are given
in Table 5. A control box with a resistance range from 1 MOhm to 100 GOhm is
very useful. As an example in Table 10 is MC values for Pine, Spruce, and Oak.
Table 10. Check box with known resistance values. Calculated calibration values for Nordic Pine (Pinus
sylvestris), Spruce (Picea abies) in Central Europe and Oak (Quercus spp.) in Central Europe.
Resistance
Position
Pine
Nordic
a = -0.039
b = 1.061
Spruce
Central Europe
a = -0,034
b = 1,014
Oak
Central Europe
a = -0.047
b = 1.079
1 MOhm
27.2
29.8
23.0
10 MOhm
19.5
21.0
16.6
100 MOhm
15.0
15.8
12.6
1 GOhm
11.8
12.1
10.1
10 GOhm
9.3
9.3
8.1
100 GOhm
7.3
6.9
6.4
The deviation between the meter readings and control box values is almost
linear. Adding the deviation to the meter reading gives the correct moisture
content value.
70
Moisture meters are often used in a wide range of climatic conditions. The
reliability of resistance moisture meters can be checked with a series of simple
tests (Instructions for the Brookhuis MC meter). In the first test, a constant
resistance (such as 10 M) is connected to the measuring probe (hammer) and
the moisture content is measured at room temperature (approx. 20 C). The
measured value is entered in Table 11. In the second test, the instrument without
the measuring probe and resistance is placed in a freezer (for example at 10 C)
for 1 to 2 hours. Then the instrument is taken out and re-connected to the
measuring probe and resistance. The moisture content is measured and the value
entered in the table. In the third test, the instrument without measuring probe
and resistance is placed in a oven (for example at +50 C) for 1 to 2 hours, taken
out and re-connected to the measuring probe and resitance. Again, the moisture
content is measured and the value is recorded in the table.
Table 11. Temperature stability test according to the instructions for the Brookhuis MC meter (see text).
Test
Temperature
Measured value
First
+ 20 C
Second
- 10 C
Third
+ 50 C
By comparing the results of these test runs it should show that all the three
measuring values should be same. Otherwise the instrument is influenced by the
temperature and therefore not reliable enough.
71
The samples should be chosen in the same way as for the resistance meters. The
samples should be accurately weighed and measured with a calibrated meter
using the manufacturer's recommended setting for the species being measured.
The meter readings should be recorded for each sample and the samples then
oven-dried according to the standard prEN 13183-1.
If the manufacturer has given the regression formula from base voltage to meter
reading, the user can create a simple spreadsheet for reducing the meter reading
at the used setting to the base voltage. Different meter settings can then be
applied in the spreadsheet to give the optimum relationship between the meter
setting and the actual oven-dry MC.
If the manufacturer has not given the formula, then several readings at different
settings around the manufacturers recommended setting must be taken before
oven drying the sample to ensure that the optimum setting can later be
calculated.
Thus, the meter can be tuned for the local timber conditions.
72
73
74
and the meter reading. Using these new species corrections, the MC meter
reading values were calculated. However, these new meter readings must be
further corrected with a correction factor that depends on the target MC. The
idea is that the correction factor will be built into the meter. The following
Table 12 shows the accuracy of the readings in the industrial tests before and
after correction.
Table 12. Comparison of the accuracy of readings in the industrial tests before and after correction.
Correction
Before
19%
34%
After
35%
64%
The meter readings on the After row were calculated, not measured. This
example shows how the accuracy of meter readings can be improved if the
manufacturer can only determine the right species correction factor.
75
76
77
References
Apneseth, T. & Hay, M.1992. Test ab baerbare elektriske fuktighetsmlere. NTI
Norsk Treteknisk Institutt, Arbeids rapport. 48 p.
ASTM D 4444 - 92. 1992. Standard Test Methods for Use and Calibration of
Hand-Held Moisture Meters. Pp. 521 - 525.
Brookhuis Micro-Electronics. Test it yourself, brochure. 1 p.
European standard prEN 13183-1, 1998. Round and sawn timber Method of
measurement of moisture content Part 1: Method for determining moisture
content of a piece of sawn timber (Oven-dry method). European Committee for
Standardization. Brussels.
European standard prEN 13183-2, 1998. Round and sawn timber Method of
measurement of moisture content Part 2: Method for estimating moisture
content of a piece of sawn timber (Electrical method). European Committee for
Standardization. Brussels.
Instructions for the MC meters.
Resistance meters:
Aqua - Boy
BES Bollmann combo 200
CSA electronic Delta - 8N
Delmhorst RDM-2S
FMD moisture meter
FME moisture meter
Gann Hydromette RTU600
Gann Hydromette M2050
Protimeter Timbermaster S
Protimeter Timberlogger
Timber Test FM510
WALTTERI
Vanicek VIVA 12
WSAB Lignomat mini X
78
Capacitance meters:
79
80
APPENDIX A
100000
R=10^(10^(ax+b)-1)
a= - 0.036
b=1.015
2
r = 0.951
n = 270 pcs
Resistance (Mohm)
10000
1000
100
10
0,1
0
10
15
20
25
30
Resistance (Mohm)
100000
R=10^(10^(ax+b)-1)
10000 a= - 0.045
b=1.150
2
r = 0.973
1000 n = 90 pcs
100
10
0,1
0
10
15
20
A1
25
30
100000
R = 10^(10^(ax+b)-1)
a = - 0.038
b = 1.067
2
r = 0.981
n = 639 pcs
Resistance (Mohm)
10000
1000
100
10
0,1
0
10
15
20
25
30
100000
R=10^(10^(ax+b)-1)
a= - 0.039
b=1.032
2
r = 0.968
n = 296 pcs
Resistance (Mohm)
10000
1000
100
10
0,1
0
10
15
20
A2
25
30
100000
R=10^(10^(ax+b)-1)
a= - 0.046
b=1.119
2
r = 0.962
n = 117 pcs
Resistance (Mohm)
10000
1000
100
10
0,1
0
10
15
20
25
30
25
30
100000
R=10^(10^(ax+b)-1)
a= - 0.044
b=1.131
2
r = 0.971
n = 120 pcs
Resistance (Mohm)
10000
1000
100
10
0,1
0
10
15
20
A3
100000
R=10^(10^(ax+b)-1)
a= - 0.042
b=1.112
2
r = 0.976
n = 63 pcs
Resistance (Mohm)
10000
1000
100
10
0,1
0
10
15
20
A4
25
30
APPENDIX B
Table 1. Confidence intervals (MC level 9 - 17 %) for different MC-meters. Species tested: Pine from
Finland. Norway and Sweden.
Laboratory tests
Types of hand-held moisture meters
95 % confidence
intervals,
% units
average
divergence
(reading true)
Meter 1
1.1
-1.1
Meter 2
1.1
-1.0
Meter 3
1.2
-1.3
Meter 4
1.2
-1.0
Meter 5
1.2
-0.8
Meter 6
1.2
-1.1
Meter 7
1.2
-0.5
Meter 8
1.3
-1.3
Meter 9
1.3
-0.9
Meter 10
1.3
-1.2
1.3
-0.2
1.3
-1.2
Meter 12
1.3
-0.9
Meter 13
1.3
-0.3
1.4
+0.9
1.5
-0.5
Meter 15
1.4
+0.2
Meter 16
1.4
-1.8
Meter 17
1.9
-1.0
Resistance MC-meters:
Capacitance MC-meters:
Meter 18 (dens. comp. calc.)
2.6
-0.4
Meter 19
2.7
+0.0
Meter 20
3.3
+0.4
Meter 21
3.4
-2.4
Meter 22
3.5
+0.7
Meter 23
3.5
-0.3
Meter 24
4.4
+0.9
B1
Table 2. Confidence intervals (MC level 9 - 17 %) for different MC-meters. Species tested: Pine from
Central Europe.
Laboratory tests
Types of hand-held
moisture meters
95 % confidence
intervals,
% units
average
divergence
(reading true)
Meter 1
1.3
-0.2
Meter 2
1.3
-0.7
Meter 3
1.3
-0.6
Meter 4
1.3
-0.5
Meter 5
1.3
-0.5
1.3
-0.2
1.4
+1.2
Meter 7
1.3
-0.9
Meter 8
1.4
-0.5
Resistance MC-meters:
1.4
-0.7
1.4
+0.3
Meter 10
1.4
-0.8
Meter 11
1.5
-0.7
Meter 12
1.7
-0.4
Meter 13
1.7
-0.3
Meter 14
2.1
-0.9
2.9
-1.1
Meter 16
3.0
-0.4
Meter 17
3.1
-0.2
Meter 18
3.3
+0.0
Meter 19
3.4
+0.0
Meter 20
3.5
+0.3
Meter 21
3.8
-2.7
Capacitance MC-meters:
B2
Table 3. Confidence intervals (MC level 9 - 17 %) for different MC-meters. Species tested: Maritime pine
from France.
Laboratory tests
95 % confidence
intervals. % point
average
divergence
(reading true)
Meter 1
0.9
+0.6
Meter 2
1.0
+0.1
Meter 3
1.0
-0.3
Meter 4
1.0
+0.2
Meter 5
1.0
-0.4
Meter 6
1.1
-0.1
Meter 7
1.1
+0.1
Meter 8
1.1
+0.5
Meter 9
1.1
+0.3
Meter 10
1.1
-1.8
Meter 11
1.1
-0.2
Meter 12
1.1
+0.3
Meter 13
1.2
-0.9
Meter 14
1.2
+0.4
1.2
+0.4
1.2
+1.9
Meter 16
1.3
-0.4
Meter 17
2.0
-1.0
Meter 18
2.0
+2.0
Meter 19
2.6
+2.3
Meter 20
2.7
+1.8
Meter 21
2.7
+1.8
Meter 22
2.9
+1.5
2.9
-1.1
Meter 24
3.1
-2.5
Resistance MC-meters:
Capacitance MC-meters:
B3
Table 4. Confidence intervals (MC level 9 - 17 %) for different MC-meters. Species tested: Spruce from
Finland, Norway and Sweden.
Laboratory tests
95 % confidence
intervals,
% units
average
divergence
(reading true)
Meter 1
0.8
+1.0
Meter 2
0.9
-0.4
Meter 3
0.9
-0.5
Meter 4
1.0
-0.5
Meter 5
1.0
-0.5
Meter 6
1.0
+0.0
Meter 7
1.1
-1.9
Meter 8
1.1
-2.1
Meter 9
1.1
-0.8
1.1
-2.3
1.2
-0.2
1.1
-1.5
1.2
-0.2
Meter 12
1.2
-0.2
Meter 13
1.2
-0.5
Meter 14
1.2
-0.7
Meter 15
1.2
-1.7
Meter 16
1.3
-2.7
Meter 17
1.7
-1.6
Meter 18 (dens.comp.calc.)
2.5
-0.5
Meter 19
2.6
-1.1
Meter 20
3.1
+1.8
Meter 21
3.2
+2.0
Meter 22
3.4
-2.9
Meter 23
3.5
-0.3
Meter 24
3.8
+0.4
Resistance MC-meters:
Capacitance MC-meters:
B4
Table 5. Confidence intervals (MC level 9 - 17 %) for different MC-meters. Species tested: Spruce from
Central Europe.
Laboratory tests
95 % confidence
intervals,
% units
average
divergence
(reading true)
Meter 1
2.0
+0.5
Meter 2
2.0
+0.9
Meter 3
2.0
-1.0
Meter 4
2.0
-1.3
Meter 5
2.0
+0.6
Meter 6
2.0
+0.6
Meter 7
2.0
+0.6
Meter 8
2.1
-1.2
2.1
-1.4
2.1
+0.7
2.1
-0.6
Resistance MC-meters:
2.2
+0.8
Meter 11
2.2
+0.3
Meter 12
2.3
+1.0
Meter 13
2.3
-2.5
Meter 14
2.3
+0.2
Meter 15
2.3
+0.4
Meter 16
2.3
+0.1
Meter 17
3.0
+0.5
2.2
-1.0
Meter 19
3.3
-1.6
Meter 20
3.7
+0.4
Meter 21
3.7
-0.7
Meter 22
4.0
+1.4
Meter 23
4.0
+1.2
Meter 24
4.4
-3.2
Capacitance MC-meters:
B5
Table 6. Confidence intervals (MC level 9 - 17 %) for different MC-meters. Species tested: Birch from
Finland and Sweden.
Laboratory tests
Types of hand-held moisture meters
95 % confidence
intervals,
% units
average
divergence
(reading true)
Meter 1
1.7
+1.4
Meter 2
1.7
-0.2
Meter 3
1.8
+1.7
Meter 4
1.9
+1.0
Meter 5
1.9
+1.3
Meter 6
2.0
+1.3
Meter 7
2.0
+0.4
Meter 8
2.0
+1.3
Meter 9
2.0
+0.3
Meter 10
2.0
+1.3
Meter 11
2.0
+0.4
Meter 12
2.1
+0.9
Meter 13
2.1
+1.0
Meter 14
2.2
+0.3
Meter 15
2.5
-0.9
Meter 16
2.7
+1.6
Meter 17
2.8
-1.4
Meter 18
2.8
+2.1
Meter 19
2.9
-1.8
Resistance MC-meters:
Capacitance MC-meters:
2.9
-1.8
Meter 21
3.1
-1.0
B6
Table 7. Confidence intervals (MC level 9 - 17 %) for different MC-meters. Species tested: Beech from
Denmark and Germany.
Laboratory tests
95 % confidence
intervals,
% units
average
divergence
(reading true)
Meter 1
1.2
-0.3
Meter 2
1.3
+0.4
Meter 3
1.3
-1.6
Meter 4
1.4
+0.8
Meter 5
1.4
+0.4
Meter 6
1.4
-0.4
Meter 7
1.5
+1.5
Meter 8
1.5
+0.5
Meter 9
1.5
+0.7
Meter 10
1.5
-0.1
Meter 11
1.5
-1.3
Meter 12
1.5
+1.3
Meter 13
1.6
-0.7
Meter 14
1.6
+0.3
Meter 15
1.6
+0.6
Meter 16
2.0
-2.1
2.0
-2.1
Meter 18
2.3
-0.9
Meter 19
2.4
-1.0
Meter 20
2.5
-0.4
Meter 21
2.5
-1.9
Meter 22
2.8
+2.5
Meter 23
2.8
+2.4
Resistance MC-meters:
Capacitance MC-meters:
B7
Table 8. Confidence intervals (MC level 9 - 17 %) for different MC-meters. Species tested: Oak from
Denmark, France and Germany.
Laboratory tests
Types of hand-held moisture meters
95 % confidence
intervals,
% units
average
divergence
(reading true)
Meter 1
1.0
-0.3
Meter 2
1.0
+0.8
Meter 3
1.0
+0.7
Meter 4
1.0
+0.7
Meter 5
1.0
+0.8
Meter 6
1.0
+0.9
Meter 7
1.1
+1.1
Meter 8
1.2
+1.7
Meter 9
1.2
+0.5
Meter 10
1.2
+1.5
Meter 11
1.2
+0.3
Meter 12
1.2
+0.7
Meter 13
1.3
+0.8
Meter 14
1.4
+0.0
Meter 15
1.6
+1.6
Meter 16
1.9
+1.1
Meter 17
2.1
-1.3
2.2
-2.2
Meter 19
2.3
-1.3
Meter 20
2.8
-0.9
Meter 21
2.9
+2.3
Meter 22
3.0
+1.8
Meter 23
3.1
-2.2
Resistance MC-meters:
Capacitance MC-meters:
B8
Table 9. Confidence intervals (MC level 9 - 17 %) for different MC-meters. Species tested: Alder from
Sweden.
Alder
Laboratory tests
Types of hand-held moisture meters
95 % confidence
intervals,
% units
average
divergence
(reading true)
Meter 1
0.8
+0.3
Meter 2
0.8
+0.0
Meter 3
0.9
+0.4
Meter 4
0.9
+0.1
Meter 5
0.9
-0.3
Meter 6
1.0
-0.4
Meter 7
1.0
+0.1
Meter 8
1.0
-1.5
Meter 9
1.1
-0.5
Meter 10
1.1
+1.3
Meter 11
1.1
-1.3
Meter 12
1.1
+0.1
Meter 13
1.1
-0.5
Meter 14
1.2
-0.8
Meter 15
1.3
-0.8
Meter 16
2.0
-3.1
Resistance MC-meters:
Capacitance MC-meters:
Meter 17
2.0
-0.8
Meter 18
2.1
+0.7
Meter 19
2.2
-0.4
Meter 20
2.2
+0.5
2.7
-1.2
Meter 22
2.7
-1.4
Meter 23
3.1
-1.8
B9
Table 10. Confidence intervals (MC level 9 - 17 %) for different MC-meters. Species tested: Larch from
Denmark.
Larch
Laboratory tests
95 % confidence
intervals,
% units
average
divergence
(reading true)
Meter 1
0.9
-0.7
Meter 2
1.0
+0.3
Meter 3
1.0
-0.1
Meter 4
1.0
-1.5
Meter 5
1.1
-0.0
Meter 6
1.1
-0.5
Meter 7
1.1
-2.1
Meter 8
1.1
-0.2
Meter 9
1.1
-0.6
Meter 10
1.1
+0.5
Meter 11
1.1
-0.8
Meter 12
1.2
+0.2
Meter 13
1.3
-0.7
Meter 14
2.2
-1.8
1.8
-1.0
Meter 16
3.1
-1.7
Meter 17
3.1
-2.5
Meter 18
3.9
-3.0
Meter 19
4.0
-2.6
Meter 20
4.2
-2.2
Meter 21
4.5
-2.2
Resistance MC-meters:
Capacitance MC-meters:
B10
Table 11. Confidence intervals (MC level 7 - 25 %) for different MC-meters. Species tested: Pine from
Finland and Sweden.
Industry tests
Types of hand-held moisture meters
95 % confidence
average
intervals,
divergence
% units
(reading true)
Meter 1
1.4
+1.2
1.5
+1.4
Resistance MC-meters:
2.6
+3.2
Meter 3
1.9
+0.4
Meter 4
2.1
+0.4
Meter 5
2.2
+0.7
Meter 6
2.2
+0.6
Meter 7
2.4
+0.9
Meter 8
2.4
+1.1
Meter 9
2.5
-0.2
Meter 10
2.5
+1.1
Meter 11
2.6
-0.7
2.6
+1.7
2.7
+2.5
Meter 13
2.8
+1.0
Meter 14
3.4
-1.8
Meter 15
4.3
-4.1
Meter 16
5.4
+2.7
1.9
+0.3
Meter 18
1.9
-0.2
Meter 19
4.2
-1.9
Meter 20
5.2
-2.9
Meter 21
5.2
-2.5
Meter 22
5.3
-2.7
Meter 23
5.9
-4.2
Capacitance MC-meters:
B11
Table 12. Confidence intervals (MC level 7 - 25 %) for different MC-meters. Species tested: Spruce from
Finland and Sweden.
Industry tests
Types of hand-held moisture meters
95 % confidence
average
intervals,
divergence
% units
(reading true)
Meter 1
0.7
+1.2
Meter 2
0.8
+1.5
0.9
-0.3
0.9
+2.5
Meter 4
0.9
+0.3
0.9
+0.5
Resistance MC-meters:
1.0
+2.2
Meter 6
1.1
+0.4
Meter 7
1.1
+1.3
Meter 8
1.2
+0.9
Meter 9
1.4
+1.6
Meter 10
1.5
+1.5
Meter 11
1.5
-0.4
Meter 12
1.6
+1.3
Meter 13
1.7
+0.8
Meter 14
2.0
-2.7
Meter 15
3.0
-1.1
Meter 16
3.6
-1.3
1.4
-1.4
Meter 18
1.7
-0.4
Meter 19
2.0
-3.3
Meter 20
2.6
-1.3
Meter 21
2.8
-1.6
Meter 22
3.0
-5.5
Meter 23
3.1
-3.1
Capacitance MC-meters:
B12
APPENDIX C
Property
Explanation
Good/bad aspects
Grade
Cable connections
Changing parameters
Display
Keyboard
Hammer design
Pin marks
Overall design
Readability
Stability of meters
Comments
C1
C2
Published by
Author(s)
wood, timber, moisture meters, moisture content, measuring instruments, reliability, tests, electrical resistance,
temperature, species correction, pine, spruce, birch, oak, beech, alder, larch
Activity unit
Project number
September 2000
Language
English
Name of project
R0SU00371
Pages
79 p. + app. 17 p.
Price
Commissioned by
VTT Publications
12350621 (nid.)
14550849 (URL: http://www.inf.vtt.fi/pdf/)
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