Process metallurgy

An Experimental Study of the Velocity Field during Filling of an Ingot Mould

Robert Eriksson, Anders Tilliander, Lage Jonsson, and Par Jonsson

Division of Metallurgy, Department of Material Science and Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm/ Sweden.

In the present study the velocity field in a 1 :3 scale water model of a 4.2-tonne ingot mould was determined using Laser Doppler Anemom-
etry (LOA). The velocity was measured in the horizontal and vertical directions at several different locations along the centre plane of the
model. The effect of different volumetric flow rates and water temperatures was also investigated. The reproducibility of the measurements
was found to be satisfactory, since the mean velocity at any measurement location had an average difference of around 10% between two
fillings. The effect of different volumetric flow rates showed that while decreasing the flow rate, the mean velocity at the bottom turned from
an upward direction to a downward direction. At the top of the model the difference between the mean velocities for the different flow rates
was less pronounced. An influence of the temperature on the mean velocity could be observed. However, further studies are required to ver-
ify this result.

Experimentelle Bestimmung des Gechwindigkeitsfeldes in einer Blockfom wahrend des Fullvorgangs. In der vorliegenden Arbeit
wurde mit Laser-Doppler-Anemometrie (LDA) das Geschwindigkeitsfeld in einem 1 :3-Wassermodell einer 4,2-t-Kokille bestimmt. Die Ge-
schwindigkeit wurde an verschiedenen Stellen in horizontaler und vertikaler Richtung entlang der Mittenebene gemessen. Der Einfluss unter-
schiedlicher Stromungsraten und Temperaturen wurde ebenfalls untersucht. Die Reproduzierbarkeit der Messergebnisse wurde als zufrie-
denstellend beurteilt, da an jedem Messpunkt zwischen zwei FOllungen die mittlere Geschwindigkeit eine durchschnittliche Abweichung von
10% aufwies. Die Versuche mit unterschiedlichen Stromungsgraten zeigten, dass mit abnehmendem Durchfluss die mittlere Geschwindig-
keit am Boden von aufwarts in abwarts gerichtet Oberging. Im oberen Bereich des Modells war der Unterschied in den Geschwindigkeiten
bei den einzelnen Stromungsraten weniger ausgepragt. Ein Einfluss der Temperatur au! die mittlere Geschwindigkeit konnte beobachtet wer-
den. Jedoch sind zur Bestatigung dieses Ergebnisses weitere Untersuchungen notwendig.

Introduction several researchers at the present laboratory in order to in-

The fluid flow in the mould during up-hill teeming is of
great importance for the quality of the cast ingot and there-
fore the quality of the final steel products. This water mod-
el study aims to increase the knowledge about the velocity
profile in the mould during filling. It is believed that such
information could be a valuable contribution to the ongoing
work to eliminate reoxidation sources, since an optimized
teeming practice will reduce the number of exogenous in-
clusions originating from the protective mould flux layer
[1]. The effect of the mould flux layer and the mould filling
process on the inclusion characteristics have also been stud-
ied in a series of plant trials carried out by Eriksson et al.
[2]. It is therefore felt that water modelling is a well suited
way to further study the up-hill teeming process. Water
models have been used over the years by several re-
searchers to study a wide range of phenomena that take
place in various metallurgical processes, as for example
slag entrainment in continuous casting moulds [3-4] and gas
stirred ladles [S]. Water modelling has also proved useful to
verify CFO-calculations [6-8]. Water models have previ-
ously been used to describe the flow field in ingot moulds
during filling [ 1-9], but since no details about the experi-
mentation were given a comparison with the results ob-
tained in this study is less meaningful.
In the present work the velocity field during filling of a
1:3 scale model of a 4.2 tonne ingot mould has been char-
acterized using Laser Doppler Anemometry (LOA) tech-
nique. Laser Doppler Anemometry has proven to be a ver-
satile technique to measure the velocity field in different
fluids. This measurement technique has been employed by
vestigate the flow field in various processes, ranging from
flames in highly preheated air combustion [ 10] and the ve-
locity of the gas leaving an AOD-nozzle [11]. The LDA-
technique has also been used extensively elsewhere for
measurements in water models in a wide range of metallur-
gical reactors and processes [12-15].
In this study, the velocity of the water was measured at
several different positions and also at different volumetric
flow rates during filling of a 1:3 Plexiglas model of a 4.2
tonne ingot mould. The volumetric flow rate of the water
was altered in such way that it corresponded to the variation
in the filling rate encountered in the industry during ingot
teeming. Experiments were also carried out with different
water temperatures in order to study the effect of the kine-
matic viscosity of the water on the measured velocities.
In the first part of the paper the scaling of the modelling
is discussed. Thereafter, the experimental procedure is de-
scribed. Finally, results form the velocity measurements are
presented and discussed.
Model Scaling
It is often convenient to define a scale factor which is the
ratio between some characteristic length in the real flow
system and the model at hand. In the present work the scale
factor is defined according to the following relationship
(1)

steel research 74 (2003) No. 7 423

Process metallurgy
where Lp and Lm are some characteristic lengths of the real
system and the model respectively. The scale factor has
been set to 3, i.e. the model is l :3 of the size of the real in-
got mould. The scaled down model of the 4.2 ton ingot
mould has the following dimensions: 730 mm in height,
140x 140 mm at the base and 210x 210 mm at the top. The
inlet inner diameter is 16 mm. The model is filled to a
height of 680 mm. A schematic description of the model as
well as the inlet can be found in figure 1.
In order to translate the observations and/or measure-
ments done in the scaled model to the real system, some
specific physical similarity criteria have to be met. In order
to get an accurate model description, the Reynolds, Froude
and Weber numbers must be kept similar between the real
ingot mould and the scaled model. However, it is practical-
ly not possible to fulfil all of the three similarity criteria at
once, which will be seen in the following section. The
Reynolds number, which is the ratio between the inertia
forces and the viscous forces acting in the fluid, is described
by the following relationship
2
Re= pv /L = Lv
µv/ £2 7/
where p is the density and µ is the dynamic viscosity of the
fluid, v is the velocity and T/ is the kinematic viscosity of the
fluid. Under the assumption that the kinematic viscosity of
(mm)
210
-- ----- ----- ----- 680 mm, max fill height
140
model
Figure 1. Schematic representation of the model and the inlet.
424
water at room temperature and liquid steel at 1550°C is al-
most equal, which can be seen in figure 2 [16-17], the fol-
lowing relationship can be obtained from equation (2)
(3)
where vP is the velocity of the liquid in the real flow system
and v m is the velocity in the scaled model. Thus, the meas-
ured velocities in the scaled model are equal to the veloci-
ties in the real ingot mould times the inverse of the scale
factor, if a Reynolds number similarity is employed.
The Froude number, which is the ratio between the iner-
tia and the gravitational forces acting in the fluid, can be de-
fined as
pv 2 /L v2
Fr=--=- (4)
pg gL
where g is the gravitational constant. If the Froude number
in the scaled model and the real ingot mould are set to be
equal, the following relationship can be obtained
(2) (5)
In the case of Froude number similarity, the measured ve-
locities in the scaled model are equal to the velocities in the
real ingot mould times the square root of the scale factor.
016
29
016
-500
inlet
steel research 74 (2003) No. 7
 Process metallurgy

Temperature of steel, •c
1480 1500 1520 1540 1560 1580 1600 1620 1640 1660 1680
2.0 ,-...,.....--,"""T""-,----r----r--r----.---...-,.----..--..--..---.--r-........--.-"""T""~~
16
1.8 -•-Water 1.05 ;lli;
';-
Ill :5·
NE -steel
17 CD
3
1.6
"'0 !i
,,-
1.00
':- 1.4 <
.... ur
$ 0
ct! 1.2 0
3: 0.95 (/)

0.90
-
0
( /)
iii
~
..:.
0
0.85 - a,

3
(/) "!..
0.80
0 20 40 60 80 100
Temperature of water, •c
Figure 2. A comparison of the kinematic viscosity of water and liquid steel in the temperature range 0-100°c and 1500-1640°C, respective-
ly.

The Weber number, which is the ratio between the inertia
forces and the interfacial forces, can in the case of a fluid-
fluid interface be described as
2
We= v Pt
(6)
Jyg(p1 - P2)
where y is the interfacial tension, p 1 and P2 are the densities
of the two liquids, respectively. The Weber number similar-
ity is used when the interaction between two liquid phases
is important e.g. entrainment in ladles and moulds.
It can easily be concluded that in order to satisfy the
Reynolds (equation (3)) and Froude number similarity cri-
teria (equation (5)) at the same time at 20°C one needs to
build a full-scale water model, i.e. A=l [18]. According to
Cramb et al. [19], however, it is possible to alter the tem-
perature of the water, thus, affecting its kinematic viscosity
in such way that Reynold, Froude and Weber number simi-
larity can be obtained simultaneously for multi-phase flow.
That situation is, however, not directly applicable in the
present investigation, since it only considers single-phase
flow, during filling of an ingot mould. Of course, this is a
simplification of the real situation where a protective mould
flux is always present on top of the rising steel surface.
On the other hand, it is most interesting to investigate the
possibilities to simultaneously obtain both Reynolds and
Froude number similarity in the 1:3 scale model of an ingot
mould presently used. As can be seen in figure 2, the kine-
matic viscosity of water decreases drastically if the temper-
ature is increased. In order to determine the required water
temperature to obtain both Reynolds and Froude number
similarity in the flow system, equations (3) and (5) can be
combined to give the following expression
The decrease in the kinematic viscosity is, however not
sufficient enough to allow for both Reynolds and Froude
number similarity in a 1:3 scale model. It can be concluded
from equation (7) that in order to fulfil the Reynolds and the
Froude number similarity simultaneously and use the pres-
ent 1:3 scale model, a kinematic viscosity of the water of
0.18 is required. However, this is not feasible, as is evident
in figure 2. Since scaled down water model studies are usu-
ally carried out iso-thermally, at room temperature, without
having the possibility to obtain both Reynolds and Froude
number similarity, Froude number similarity is considered
to be the most important condition to fulfil [3;20]. In this
present study the main focus will be on measurements at
20°C, but the effect of elevated temperatures is also inves-
tigated.
To model the filling of an ingot mould as accurately as
possible, it is not only necessary to do an appropriate scal-
ing of the geometry of the mould, it is also necessary to
scale the volumetric flow rate at which the mould is filled
[21-22]. Assuming Froude number similarity (equation (5)),
the time for an event to take place in the real mould can be
described as
(8)
and similarly in the scaled model as
(9)
If equation (5) is combined with equations (8) and (9), the
following relationship is obtained

TJm(T) = TJv(T) (7)

,\y'X (10)

steel research 74 (2003) No. 7

425
Process metallurgy
From this it is clear that the ratio between the volumetric
flow rate in the real mould and the scaled model can be de-
scribed as
(11)
The volumetric flow rate used during up-hill teeming in
the industry of interest for the present study is in the range
of 50-80 dm 3min- 1. During filling of the ingot mould in the
industry, the volumetric flow rate decreases constantly
since the flow is driven by the ferro-static head in the ladle
and the fact that the sliding gate nozzle on the ladle is not
used to control the discharge rate. In this investigation a
constant volumetric flow rate has been used during filling
of the scaled down water model.
Experimental
Principle - Laser Doppler Anemometry. The basic
components of the Laser Doppler Anemometry equipment
are a laser, a beam splitter, transmitting/receiving optics, a
photo detector, a signal processor and a data analysis sys-
tem [ 10]. The beam splitter, which is a Bragg cell, creates
two beams with equal intensity, but with different frequen-
cies. These are focused into optical fibers bringing them to
a probe containing transmitting/receiving optics. In the
probe, the parallel beams from the optical fibers are focused
by a lens which causes them to intersect in the measurement
area. The measurement volume is typically a few millime-
tres long. The flow velocity is measured in the point of in-
tersection between the two beams.
A fringe-like pattern is created in the volume of intersec-
tion between the two laser beams. The particles that move
across this intersection volume will scatter the laser light,
producing a signal consisting of dark and light regions. The
fringe spacing is dependent on factors concerned with the
optical system, such as the configuration of the lens, laser
beam diameter and the angle between the two beams. Flow
velocity information comes from light scattered by tiny par-
ticles (seeding) carried in the fluid as they move through the
measurement volume. It is collected by a receiving lens and
focused on a photo detector producing a signal at the
Doppler frequency. The velocity is calculated from the
Doppler frequency and the fringe distance.
Experimental Setup. In the present water model study
of the velocity field during filling of an ingot mould, a 1:3
Plexiglas model was used. Water was fed from a brass inlet,
located in the bottom of the model, from the 100 litre water
reservoir equipped with a 4 kW heating element using an
electric circulation pump. The filling rate could be manual-
ly adjusted by a valve controlled volume flow meter rang-
ing from 0-400 litres per hour. The experimental setup is
schematically described in figure 3. Air was bubbled into
the water in the reservoir to create small air bubbles, suffi-
ciently small to just follow the main flow field. The LDA
equipment was then used to measure the velocity of the
bubbles in the water.
426
Flow Meter
Transmitting/
Receiving Probe
Temperature
Controller
~~i
i~ Laser
L_
o - r
Flow Control
Heating Element Valve
Water Reservoir
Figure 3. Schematic representation of the experimental set-up.
The velocity measurements were made using an argon ion
laser (Spectra-Physics Stabilite model 2017) working in the
back-scatter mode. This means that the laser light is emitted
and received by the same optical unit. The measurement
data were analysed using a Dantec PDA software on a PC-
computer. The focal length of the back-scattering setup used
in this study was 600 mm and the measuring volume was a
few millimetres. It is only possible to carry out the LDA
measurements in one single point at a time. Therefore, a
transverse movable system was used to direct the measure-
ment probe horizontally and vertically.
Results and Discussion
In most of the experiments, the water model was filled
with a constant flow rate of 350 dm 3h- 1 and a constant wa-
ter temperature of 20°C. If not, that circumstance is pointed
out in the text. At each measuring point the velocities were
measured in the horizontal and vertical direction at the cen-
tre plane of the model during at least two fillings. From
these measurements, a mean velocity was calculated in the
horizontal and vertical direction. A velocity vector was then
calculated from the mean velocity of the two components.
The mean velocity from the different measurements, at the
same measuring point, showed a difference of approxi-
mately 10%. This indicates that the reproducibility of the
LDA technique in the present application was sufficient.
The mean velocities during the time period between 17
and 25 seconds from the start of filling are shown in
figure 4. It can be seen that the velocity is high at the inlet,
which is expected since water enters the larger mould at a
flow rate of 350 dm3h- 1 through an inlet of only a 16 mm
diameter. From the figure, it is also clear that there is a re-
circulation loop on both sides of the inlet. The same ten-
dencies can be observed for the time period 35 to 49 sec-
onds after start of filling, which is shown in figure 5. It is
also seen that, at distances farther away from the inlet, the
measured vertical velocity is lower than at the entrance.
In figure 6, the velocity vectors for the filling period
ranging from 93 s to 148 s from start of filling is shown. Af-
ter 148 s the water surface reaches a vertical distance of ap-
proximately 380 mm. From the lower part of the figure it
can be seen that a high vertical velocity is found close to the
inlet and that recirculation loops exist. This is similar to
steel research 74 (2003) No. 7
 Process metallurgy

(mm)~ ---- - <--- -

(mm) - ----- ----- - - L- -
~
~
650.;. 0.1 mis 0.1 mis
650

600-:- 600

550+ 550
<------5 30 >--- ~ - 5 30

500t 500

450.;. 450

400+ 400
- 380 - 380

350

300+ 300

I
250+ 250
230
230

200+ 200
185
~I <.1 I 185

150-'- 150
'------1 140

5,.\ 110
/·/'-- ; 140

100t 110
100

50 ~-~f-+
/--
Yj
80

50 50 .y ~f 80

50

L ,.i'- +-+-+--+--+-+--+-+ -+-+-1---+-+---+-+ -+--r++-+-+--+---

-100 -50 0 50 100
20
-100 -50 0 50 100
20

Figure 4. The measured mean velocity vectors during filling in the Figure 5. The measured mean velocity vectors during filling in the
time period from 17 to 25 s. time period of 35 to 49 s.

what was seen in figures 4 and 5. However, in the upper part
of the figure, it can be seen that the flow is directed down-
wards forming a big recirculation loop.
Figure 7 represents the last studied filling period, from
148 s from start of filling to end of filling. The results are
very similar to what was found in figure 6, for the previous
filling period. Thus, it seems that during the filling of the
upper part of the mould a downward flow is created. How-
ever, one has t(? keep in mind that these are only measure-
ments from one vertical plane. If other planes are chosen,
such as a plane representing the half radius distance, a
slightly different flow pattern might be expected.
Also, from figures 4-7 it seems apparent that the flow pat-
tern is not entirely stable during the filling period. Only
large-scale time dependent movements can explain the ob-
served variations during the filling of the model ingot.
However, in general it is clear that one expects that the
highest velocities should be found close to the mould inlet,
where water is entering through a small inlet hole. Also, it
is clear that the width of the mould increases from 140 mm
at the bottom to 220 mm at the top. This will direct the flow
out towards the side walls where it will move downwards,
thus creating the circulation loops observed in this study.
One also has to remember that the free surface is moving
with a velocity of about 2.6 mms- 1 during the filling. This
continuous movement of the surface might dampen the ten-
dencies to create circulation loops.
The effect of a changed flow rate on the measured veloc-
ities was also studied. The change in mean velocities with
different volume flow was measured at five different loca-
tions, A-E, shown in figure 8. Three different volume flows
were applied, 100, 200 and 350 dm 3h- 1• The measured

steel research 74 (2003) No. 7

427
Process metallurgy

~
(mm ) - - - - - - - - - - - - ->---- (mm) ----------- 0.1 mis
~

65 0 0.1 mis 650

600 600

550 550
~
- 530 530

500
.!/////
500

450 450

400 400

350
-
///// k//
~
380

350
;//// /// 380

300 300

250 250

200
1//t;.::/
230

200
///Ii~ •.,
.( ( ii;.
230

185 \L. 185

150 150
jl,iT/ 140 / / (ii~ 140

'\ TV 1 T,k'

rf/
110 110
100 100

50 y1/v 80

50 50 j/1
80

50

-100
•

-50 0 50 100
20
L, -100 -50 0 50 100
20

Figure 6. The measured mean velocity vectors during filling in the Figure 7. The measured mean velocity vectors during filling, in the
time period of 93 to 148 s. time period of 148 to the end of filling.

mean velocities are given in table 1. As expected, the high-
est upwards velocities at the position closest to the inlet (po-
sition A) are related to the highest volume flow, since the
momentum increases with an increasing flow rate. For the
lowest flow rate, the mean velocity at position A is directed
downwards. For the flow rate of 200 dm 3h- 1, it becomes di-
rected downwards in position B. In positions C, D, E all the
mean velocities for the different flow rates are directed
downwards and furthermore these are more or less of the
same magnitude. From the results in figures 4 to 7 and in
table 1, it is clear that at measurement positions farther
away from the inlet (positions B to E) an increased flow rate
at the inlet does not necessarily lead to a higher vertical ve-
locity. Instead, it is the overall flow pattern that determines
where the velocities are highest. Here, it is again important
to remember that this study only measured velocities along
one vertical plane. It would be necessary to measure the ve-
locities along more vertical planes in order to get a more
complete picture of the overall flow pattern in the ingot dur-
ing filling.
The effect of different temperatures on the fluid velocity
was also investigated. The water temperature was increased
to 50°C and the velocities were measured at the locations A-
E using a volume flow rate of 350 dm3h-i. A comparison
between the mean velocities obtained with water of 20°C
and 50°C is given in table 2. A small influence of the tem-
perature on the mean velocity could be observed. At the two
positions which are closest to the inlet (position A and B),
there is a tendency that the higher temperature results in a
higher horizontal and axial velocity compared to the data

428 steel research 74 (2003) No. 7

 Process metallurgy

Table 1. Mean velocity in horizontal (U) and vertical (V) direction for
different volumetric flow rates at five locations in the model at a
water temperature of 20 °C.
(mm)

Position Flow Rate (lh- 1) UMean (ms·') VMean(ms"')

650
100 -0.05 -0.06

600 200 -0.03 0.08

A

350 0.03 0.28

550
100 -0.09 -0.13

500 B 200 -0.07 -0.01

350 0.00 0.10

450
100 -0.09 -0.15
D
400
c 200 -0.10 -0.11

350 -0.06 -0.11

350 100 -0.10 -0.16

D 200 -0.12 -0.13

300
350 -0.10 -0.14
c -0.11 -0.15
250 100

E 200 -0.13 -0.16

200
350 -0.11 -0.12

150

Table 2. Mean velocity in horizontal ( ll) and vertical ( V) direction for

different water temperatures at five locations in the model with a
100
flow rate of 350 dm3 h-1 .

50 Position Temperature (0 C) UMean (ms·') V Mean (IDS" 1)

L, -100 -50 0 50 100

A
20

50
0.03

0.04
0.28

0.28

20 0.00 0.10
Figure 8. The locations of the measuring points for different volume B
flows and temperatures. 50 -0.01 0.12

20 -0.06 -0.11
measured using the colder water. This is also true for the
c
so -0.08 -0.07
horizontal velocities at positions C to E. However, the ver-
tical velocities in positions C to E seem to decrease with an 20 -0.10 -0.14
increased water temperature. D
50 -0.11 -0.11
The results from the scaling of the model might also be
used to discuss the expected difference in velocity with a 20 -0.11 -0.12
change in temperature and the usefulness of the data for E
predicting the situation during filling of steel. However, this 50 -0.12 -0.10
comparison must be limited to the region close to the inlet
since the further away from the inlet the more the general
flow pattern determines the velocity values, as pointed out in our 1: 3 scale model, we can calculate that the water kine-
above. Let us assume that liquid steel is filled at a tempera- matic viscosity needs to be 0.19·1~ m2s- 1. From figure 2,
ture of 1535°C, which corresponds to a kinematic viscosity it is clear that we cannot obtain such a low kinematic vis-
of 0.96-10--6 m 2s- 1• If we use equation (7) to obtain both a cosity even if the water was l00°C. By using water of 50°C
Reynolds and Froude number similarity in the flow system instead of 20°C we lowered the viscosity from 1.0· l~

steel research 74 (2003) No. 7 429

Process metallurgy
m2s- 1 to 0.56· 10-6 m2s- 1• The results in table 2 for the posi-
tion closest to the inlet showed that the lowered kinematic
viscosity led to slightly higher velocities. However, meas-
urements at even higher temperatures are necessary in order
to obtain a better understanding of the effect of water tem-
perature on the measured velocities.
Conclusions
The velocity fields in a 1:3 scale water model of a 4.2-
tonne ingot mould have been characterized using a Laser
Doppler Anemometry (LDA) technique. The velocity has
been measured at several different locations in the centre
plane of the model and the effect of different volumetric
flow rates and water temperature have been investigated.
The conclusions from the present study are:
The mean velocity at any of the measurement locations
differs only 10% for two identical experiments. Hence, it is
possible to measure the velocity field during filling of an
ingot mould using the LDA technique.
Notably, from the measured velocities it may be conclud-
ed that the overall flow pattern is not entirely stable during
the filling period.
Studies of the influence of different volumetric flow rates
on the velocity show that, when the flow rate is decreased,
the mean velocity close to the bottom outside the inlet area
turns from having an upward direction to a downward di-
rection. At the top of the model the difference between the
mean velocities for the different flow rates is much less de-
pendent on the volumetric flow rate.
An influence of the temperature on the mean velocity is
observed. However, further studies into this matter are re-
quired to verify this result.
The results of this study help to get a better understand-
ing of the fluid flow during the filling of an ingot. In the
near future, the turbulence characteristics will also be stud-
ied based on the data in this report. It is the authors, aim to
use the results from the water model study to verify CFD
calculations of the filling of the mould.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the technician Peter Kling for
all help during construction of experimental equipment and
Simon Lille for introducing the LOA-technique.
(A2003053; received on April 5, 2003)
430
Contact: Robert Eriksson
Dept. of Material Science and Engineering
Royal Institute of Technology
10044 Stockholm I Sweden
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