A Partial Fraction Series for the Cotangent Function

and An Infinite Product for the Sine Function

Consider the convergent series

∞ ∞  
1 X 2x 1 X 1 1
f (x) = + 2 2 2
= + + ,
x k=1
x −k π x k=1
x − kπ x + kπ
which is defined for all real x except multiples of π.

Its derivative equals 

∞ 
0
1 X 1 1
f (x) = − 2 + − 2
− 2
,
x k=1
(x − kπ) (x + kπ)
∞
0
X 1
f (x) = − .
k=−∞
(x − kπ)2
To justify the series differentiation above, check the pattern
g(u) = g(x) + g 0(x)(u − x) + o(u − x):
1 1 (u − x) (u − x)2
= − +
u ± kπ x ± kπ (x ± kπ)2 (u ± kπ)(x ± kπ)2
∞  
X 1 1
+
k=1
u − kπ u + kπ
∞  
X 1 1
= +
k=1
x − kπ x + kπ
∞  
X 1 1
+ − 2
− 2
(u − x)
k=1
(x − kπ) (x + kπ)
∞  
X 1 1 2
+ 2
+ 2
(u − x)
k=1
(u − kπ)(x − kπ) (u + kπ)(x + kπ)
 ∞
1 X 2x
For f (x) = + we also need to evaluate
x k=1
x2 − k2π 2
∞
2 1 1X 2x
f (x) = + 2
x2 x k=1 x2 − k2π 2
∞  X ∞  
X 1 1 1 1
+ + + ,
K=1
x − Kπ x + Kπ L=1 x − Lπ x + Lπ
∞
2 1 X 4
f (x) = +
x2 k=1
x 2 − k2π 2
∞ ∞ 
X X 1 1 1 1
+ +
K=1 L=1
x − Kπ x − Lπ x − Kπ x + Lπ
!
1 1 1 1
+ + ,
x + Kπ x − Lπ x + Kπ x + Lπ
 ∞
2 1 X 4
f (x) − −
x2 k=1
x 2 − k2π 2

∞ 
∞ X
X 1 1 1 1
= +
K=1 L=1
x − Kπ x − Lπ x − Kπ x + Lπ

1 1 1 1
+ +
x + Kπ x − Lπ x + Kπ x + Lπ
(Now, separate out the terms where K = L.)
∞  
X 1 2 1
= 2
+ + 2
k=1
(x − kπ) (x − kπ)(x + kπ) (x + kπ)
∞ X ∞ 
X 1 1 1 1
+ +
K=1 L=1
x − Kπ x − Lπ x − Kπ x + Lπ

K6=L 1 1 1 1
+ +
x + Kπ x − Lπ x + Kπ x + Lπ
 ∞ ∞
2
X 1 X 4+2
f (x) − −
k=−∞
(x − kπ)2 k=1
x 2 − k2π 2

(Now, separate the rest of the terms into partial fractions.)

∞ X ∞
X 1 1
= +
K=1 L=1
(K − L)π(x − Kπ) (L − K)π(x − Lπ)
K6=L
1 1
+ +
(K + L)π(x − Kπ) (−L − K)π(x + Lπ)
1 1
+ +
(−K − L)π(x + Kπ) (L + K)π(x − Lπ)
!
1 1
+ +
(−K + L)π(x + Kπ) (−L + K)π(x + Lπ)
 ∞
2 0
X 6
f (x) − f (x) − 2 − k2π 2
k=1
x

(Now, collect similar terms.)

∞ X ∞  
1 X 1 1 1
= +
π K=1 L=1 (K − L) (K + L) (x − Kπ)
K6=L
 
1 1 1
+ +
(−K + L) (−K − L) (x + Kπ)
 
1 1 1
+ +
(L − K) (L + K) (x − Lπ)
  !
1 1 1
+ +
(K − L) (−K − L) (x + Lπ)
 ∞
2 0
X 6
f (x) − f (x) − 2 − k2π 2
k=1
x
∞ X ∞   
1 X 1 1 1 1
= + −
π K=1 L=1 K−L K+L x − Kπ x + Kπ
K6=L   !
1 1 1 1
+ + −
L−K L+K x − Lπ x + Lπ

= (using symmetry between appearence of K’s and L’s)

M X M   
2 X 1 1 2Kπ
lim +
M →∞ π
K=1 L=1
K−L K+L (x − Kπ)(x + Kπ)
L6=K

M M   !
X X 1 1 4K
= lim +
M →∞
K=1 L=1
K−L K+L x2 − K 2 π 2
L6=K
 M  
X 1 1
Note specifically that the sum + equals
L=1,L6=K
K−L K+L

M M M +K M −K
X 1 X 1 X 1 X 1
− = −
L=1
L+K L=1
L−K L=K+1
L L=1−K
L
L6=K L6=K L6=2K L6=0

2K−1 M +K −1 M −K
X 1 X 1 X 1 X 1
= + − −
L=K+1
L L=2K+1
L L=1−K
L L=1
L
2K−1 M +K K−1 M −K
X 1 X 1 X 1 X 1 P
= + + − L  −L in the third
L=K+1
L L=2K+1
L L=1
L L=1
L
2K M +K K M −K
X 1 X 1 X 1 X 1 1 1
= + + − − −
L=K+1
L L=2K+1
L L=1
L L=1
L 2K K
M +K M −K M +K
X 1 X 1 3 X 1 3
= − − = − .
L=1
L L=1
L 2K L=M −K+1
L 2K
 ∞
2 0
X 6
f (x) − f (x) − 2 − k2π 2
k=1
x
M M   !
X X 1 1 4K
= lim +
M →∞
K=1 L=1
K−L K+L x2 − K 2 π 2
L6=K

M  M +K  !
X X 1 3 4K
= lim −
M →∞
K=1 L=M −K+1
L 2K x2 − K 2 π 2

M  M +K  !
X X 1 4K
= lim
M →∞
K=1 L=M −K+1
L x2 − K 2 π 2

M   !
X 3 4K
+ lim −
M →∞
K=1
2K x2 − K 2 π 2
 ∞
2 0
X 6
f (x) − f (x) − 2 − k2π 2
k=1
x
M  M +K  
X X 1 4K 4K 4K
= lim − + +
M →∞
K=1 L=M −K+1
L K 2π 2 K 2π 2 x2 − K 2 π 2

M
X −6
+ lim 2 − K 2π 2
M →∞
K=1
x
M  M +K  2 
X X 1 4K 4Kx
= lim − +
M →∞
K=1 L=M −K+1
L K 2π 2 K 2π 2(x2 − K 2π 2)
∞
X 6
− (which cancels above)
K=1
x2 − K 2π 2
We have, after cancellation,
f 2(x) − f 0(x) !
M  M +K  
X X 1 4K 4Kx2
= lim − 2 2+ 2 2 2 2π 2)
M →∞
K=1 L=M −K+1
L K π K π (x − K

It will now be shown that the part depending on x!equals 0.

M  MX +K  2 
X 1 4x
lim 2 2 2 2
= 0.
M →∞
K=1 L=M −K+1
L Kπ (x − K π )
X
First, consider the part of this sum,
K<aM for any a where 0 < a < 1.
M +K
1 X 1
Since decreases, , as a lower rectangle sum,
L L=M −K+1
L Z M +K
1
is smaller than the corresponding integral du,
u=M −K u
 M +K
1 X 1
Since decreases, , as a lower rectangle sum,
L L=M −K+1
L Z M +K
1
is smaller than the corresponding integral du,
u=M −K u
M +K
which equals ln and, since K ≤ aM ,
M −K
M + aM 1+a
is thus smaller than ln = ln = 2 arctanh a.
M − aM 1−a
X  MX +K  2 
1 4x
We then have 2(x2 − K 2π 2)
K≤aM L=M −K+1
L Kπ
∞  2 
X 4x
≤ 2 arctanh a 2 2 2 2
,
K=1
Kπ (x − K π )

which can be made smaller than for any  > 0,
2
if a is small enough.
Next, consider the remaining part, where aM ≤ K ≤ M .
M +K 2M
X 1 X 1
For such K, ≤ < ln (2M + 1)
L=M −K+1
L L=1
L
M  M +K  2 
X X 1 4x
K=aM L=M −K+1
L Kπ 2(x2 − K 2π 2)
∞
ln (2M + 1) X 4x2
< ,
aM π 2 K=1
(x2 − K 2π 2)

which can also be made smaller than , if M is large enough,
2
M aM M
X X X  
≤ + < + = .
K=1 K=1 K=aM
2 2
M
X
Since this can happen with any  > 0, we have lim = 0.
M →∞
K=1
We are now left with !
M M +K
2 0
X X 1 4K
f (x) − f (x) = − lim ,
M →∞
K=1 L=M −K+1
L K 2π 2
which converges to a negative constant, say −C 2.

Why?

Because the left side is finite for x 6= nπ,

the right side converges for these x’s.
Because the right side has no x’s, it must be a constant.
Because of the minus sign, it cannot be positive.
If −C 2 were equal to 0, we would have f 2(x) − f 0(x) = 0.
f 0(x) = f 2(x) ≥ 0 would contradict
∞
0
X 1
f (x) = − 2
< 0.
k=−∞
(x − kπ)
 f 0(x) = −f 2(x) − C 2,
Z 0 Z
f (x)
2 2
dx = − 1 dx,
f (x) + C
f 0(x)
Z Z
1 C
 dx = − 1 dx,
C f (x) 2
+1
C
 
1 f (x)
arctan = −x + D,
C C


f (x) = C tan C(−x + D)


f (x) = −C tan C(x − D)
 π 3π 5π
tan x → ±∞ at x= ± , ± , ± ,...
2 2 2
π 3π 5π
tan C(x − D) → ±∞ at C(x − D) = ± , ± , ± ,...
2 2 2
π 3π 5π
tan C(x − D) → ±∞ at x−D = ± , ± , ± ,...
2C 2C 2C
π 3π 5π
tan C(x − D) → ±∞ at x =D ± , D± , D± ,...
2C 2C 2C
π
These values of x are spaced at a distance of .
C
∞  
1 X 1 1
f (x) = + + → ∞ at x = 0, ±π, ±2π,
x k=1
x − kπ x + kπ
These values of x are spaced at a distance of π.

C equals 1.
tan (x − D) → ±∞ when, and only when,
x approaches the numbers D ± π2 , D ± 3π
2
, D± 5π
2
,...
∞  
1 X 1 1
f (x) = + + →∞
x k=1
x − kπ x + kπ
when, and only when,
x approaches the numbers 0, ±π, ±2π, ±3π, . . .

These two sets of numbers will coincide iff

π 3π 5π
D equals any of ± , ± , ± , . . ..
2 2 2

For any of these values of D, this would yield

f (x) = −C tan C(x − D) = tan D − x) = cot x.
 ∞ ∞  
1 X 2x 1 X 1 1
cot x = + = + +
x k=1
x2 − k2π 2 x k=1
x − kπ x + kπ
For each interval nπ ≤ x ≤ (n+1)π, match antiderivatives   of
x 1
∞ ∞ ∞ −2
1 X 2x X −2x X kπ kπ
cot x− = 2 2 2
= 2 2 2
=  2
x k=1
x −k π k=1
k π −x k=1 1 −
x
 
∞
X  
x
 2  kπ

to get ln | sin x|−ln |x| = ln 1 −  + a constant,
k=1
 kπ 
∞   !
2
sin x Y x
= Cn 1− , where Cn 6= 0,
x k=1
kπ
∞    !
sin x Y x x
= Cn 1+ 1− .
x k=1
kπ kπ
Taking lim yields C0 = 1. Taking lim yields C−1 = 1.
x→0+ x→0−
 sin x
For n > 0, Cn = lim x
∞
x→nπ+ Y
  !
x x
1+ 1−
k=1
kπ kπ
sin x 1
= lim   ∞ ! .
x→nπ+ x Y 
nπ

nπ
1−
nπ 2nπ 1+
kπ
1−
kπ
k=1
k6=n
Similarly, Cn−1 = lim (same stuff ). Each Cn equals Cn−1.
x→nπ−
All Cn’s are equal, and they equal 1.

This gives us the Weierstrass Product for all x: !

∞    ∞
Y x x Y x2
sin x = x 1− 1+ =x 1− 2 2
k=1
kπ kπ k=1
k π
On the entire interval 0 < x < π, in particular,
∞ ∞
1 X 2x X 2x
− cot x equals − 2 2 2
= 2 2 2
.
x k=1
x −k π k=1
k π −x
∞ ∞ ∞   !
n
X 2x 1 X 2x X x2
= 2 2 2 = 2π 2 2π 2
k π x k n=0
k
k=1 1− 2 2 k=1
k π
This is a series of positive terms which converges absolutely.
If rearranged, it will converge to the same sum:
∞ X ∞ ∞ X ∞
1 X 2x2n+1 X 2x2n+1
− cot x = 2n+2
= 2n+2
x k=1 n=0
(kπ) n=0 k=1
(kπ)
∞ ∞
! ∞ ∞
!
X X 2 2n+1
X X 2 2n−1
= 2n+2
x = 2n
x ,
n=0 k=1
(kπ) n=1 k=1
(kπ)
which is a power series converging for −π < x < π.
We now compare the series convergent for −π < x < ! π,
∞ ∞
1 X X 2 2n−1
cot x − = − 2n
x
x n=1 k=1
(kπ)
∞  n n 
1 X (−1) 4
with the earlier result cot x − ' B2n x2n−1,
x n=1
(2n)!
which we saw converging at least for −2 < x < 2 .
Their sums will have the same values, derivatives,
second derivatives, third derivatives, etc., at x = 0,
∞
X 2 (−1)n−14n
so their coefficients all match: 2n
= B2n,
k=1
(kπ) (2n)!
and these power series will be identical for −π < x < π.

∞
X 1 (−1)n−122n−1π 2n
We have the identities = B2n
k2n (2n)!
for n = 1, 2, . . . k=1
∞
X 1 (−1)n−122n−1π 2n
= B2n
k=1
k2n (2n)!
∞
X 1 (−1)1−122−1π 2 (−1)021π 2 1 π2
= B2 = =
k=1
k2 (2)! 2 6 6
∞
X 1 (−1)2−124−1π 4 (−1)23π 4 −1 π4
= B4 = =
k=1
k4 4! 24 30 90
∞
X 1 (−1)3−126−1π 6 (−1)225π 6 1 π6
= B6 = =
k=1
k6 6! 720 42 945
∞
X 1 (−1)4−128−1π 8 (−1)27π 8 −1 π8
= B8 = =
k=1
k8 8! 40320 30 9450
∞
X 1 (−1)5−129π 10 (−1)429π 10 5 π 10
= B10 = =
k=1
k10 10! 362880 66 93555
 ∞
X 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1< =1+ + + + + + + ...
k=1
k2n 22n 32n 42n 52n 62n 72n
1 1 1 1 1 1
<1+ + + + + + + ...
22n 22n 42n 42n 42n 42n
2 4 8
=1+ + + + ...
22n 42n 82n
1 1 1 1
=1+ + + + ... =
22n−1 42n−1 82n−1 1
1−
22n−1
∞
X 1 1
yields both the inequalities 1 < < ≤ 2,
k2n 1
k=1 1−
∞
22n−1
X 1
and the limit lim = 1.
n→∞
k=1
k2n
For the Bernoulli numbers the corresponding inequalities are

(−1)n−122n−1π 2n 1
1< B2n < ≤2
(2n)! 1
1−
22n−1
(2n)!  (2n)!
< B2n| = (−1)n−1B2n <
(sharper)
22n−1π 2n π 2n 22n−1 − 1
(2n)!  4(2n)!
< B2n| = (−1)n−1B2n < (simpler)
22n−1π 2n 22nπ 2n

n−1 (2n)!
with the asymptotic formulas B2n ∼ (−1)
22n−1π 2n
2n+ 12
n−1 4n
and B2n ∼ (−1) 1
e2nπ 2n− 2
 ∞
X Bn(x)
Now we shall consider the function g(x, t) = tn .
n=0
n!

For each value of x, this is a power series in t

which converges for each t satisfying |t| < 2π.

∞ ∞ ∞
d d X Bn(x) X d Bn(x) X B 0 (x)
n
g(x, t) = tn = tn = tn
dx dx n=0 n! n=0
dx n! n=0
n!
∞ ∞
X nBn−1(x) n
X nBn−1(x)
= t = tn
n=0
n! n=1
n(n − 1)!
∞ ∞ ∞
X Bn−1(x) X Bk (x) X Bn(x)
= tn = tk+1 = tn+1
n=1
(n − 1)! k=0
k! n=0
n!
∞
X Bn(x)
=t tn = tg(x, t), for each value of t.
n=0
n!
 d
For each constant value of t, we have g(x, t) = tg(x, t)
dx
   
d −xt d −xt d −xt
and g(x, t)e = g(x, t) e + g(x, t) e
dx  dx  dx
= tg(x, t) e−xt + g(x, t)te−xt

= 0.
As a function of x, g(x, t)e−xt must be a constant,
which depends on the value of t:
g(x, t)e−xt equals C(t) for some function C.
∞
X Bn(x)
We now have tn = g(x, t) equal to C(t)ext,
n=0
n!
for all x and t satisfying |t| < 2π.
 ∞
X Bn(x)
Starting from C(t)ext = tn ,
n=0
n!
we keep t constant and integrate these functions of x:
Z 1 Z 1 X ∞
xt Bn(x) n
C(t)e dx = t dx,
x=0 x=0 n=0 n!
Z 1 ∞ R1
x=0 Bn(x) dx n
X
xt
C(t) e dx = t ,
x=0 n=0
n!
xt 1
R1
e  x=0 B0(x) dx 0
C(t)  = t ,
t x=0 0!
et − e 0
C(t) = 1,
t
t
C(t) = , for 0 < |t| < 2π.
et −1
A Generating Function for Bernoulli Polynomials

∞
X Bn(x) text
For 0 < |t| < 2π, tn =
n=0
n! et − 1

A Generating Function for Periodic Bernoulli Functions

∞ ∞
X B̂n(x) X Bn({x}) te{x}t
For 0 < |t| < 2π, tn = tn =
n=0
n! n=0
n! et − 1

A Generating Function for Bernoulli Numbers

∞
X Bn n t
For 0 < |t| < 2π, t =
n=0
n! et − 1
 ∞ ∞
d X Bn(x) X d Bn(x)
To justify the tn = tn step above,
dx n=0 n! n=0
dx n!
check the pattern
g(u) = g(x) + g 0(x)(u − x) + o(u − x):
Bn(u) Bn(x) Bn0 (x) Bn(2)(cn)(u − x)2
= − (u − x) + ,
n! n! n! 2n!
Bn(u) Bn(x) Bn−1(x) Bn−2(cn)(u − x)2
= − (u−x) + ,
n! n! (n − 1)! 2(n − 2)!
where each cn lies between u and x.
∞ ∞ ∞
X Bn(u) n X Bn(x) n X Bn−1(x)
t = t − (u − x)tn
n=0
n! n=0
n! n=0
(n − 1)!
∞
1 X Bn−2(cn) n
+ t (u − x)2.
2 n=0 (n − 2)!
 ∞
1 X Bn−2(cn)
tn(u − x)2 will be o(u − x)
2 n=0 (n − 2)!
∞
X Bn−2(cn) n
if t converges,
n=0
(n − 2)!
and it does, for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ u ≤ 1,
since it converges absolutely there:
∞
X  Bn−2(cn) n
 t  converges by the root test:
 (n − 2)! 
n=0 s 

n 
Bn−2(cn) n |t|
for even n,  t ∼ < 1.
(n − 2)! 2π

If x and u belong to any other bounded interval,

the inequalities are similar.
We can return to the cothangent and the cotangent from here.
∞
X Bn n t
For 0 < |t| < 2π, t = t .
n=0
n! e −1
∞
X Bn n 2x
For 0 < |x| < π, (2x) = 2x ,
n=0
n! e −1
∞
X Bn n−1 1
(2x) = 2x ,
n=0
n! e −1
∞
X Bn n−1 B1 1−1 1
(2x) + (2x) = 2x ,
n=0
n! |1! {z } e −1
n even = − 12
∞
X Bn n−1 1 1
(2x) = + ,
n=0
n! e2x −1 2
n even
 ∞
X Bn n−1 1 1
For 0 < |x| < π, (2x) = + ,
n=0
n! e2x −1 2
n even
∞
X B2n e2x + 1
22n−1x2n−1 = ,
n=0
(2n)! 2(e2x − 1)
∞
X B2n e2x + 1 ex + e−x
22nx2n−1 = = ,
n=0
(2n)! e2x −1 ex − e−x
∞
X B2n
4nx2n−1 = coth x ,
n=0
(2n)!
∞
X B2n
i 4n(ix)2n−1 = i coth ix ,
n=0
(2n)!
∞
X B2n
4n(−1)n(x)2n−1 = cot x .
n=0
(2n)!