Topic: Tensile properties of metallic materials

Authors: G. Winkler, M. Diglio

Erstellt am: Dienstag, 13. April 2004

Zielgruppe: 2. Jahrgang, Fachrichtung Maschineningenieurwesen
Gegenstände: Mechanik, Fertigungstechnik, Maschinenelemente,
Konstruktionsübungen

Material used: R. L. Timings: Engineering Materials. Volume one. Addison

Wesley Longman Ltd. 1998
P. P. Benham u.a.: Mechanics of Engineering Material. Addison
Wesley Longman ltd. 1996

Kurzbeschreibung:

Die Schüler sollen in die Grundbegriffe der statischen Zugbeanspruchung und ihre
Bedeutung für die Dimensionierung von Bauteilen eingeführt werden.

Anmerkungen:

Zur Abrundung der Vorlage liegen eine Liste mit allgemeinsprachlichen Vokabeln
sowie eine englische Definition der Fachbegriffe bei.

Content:

Topic: Tensile properties of metallic materials................................................................................1

1. INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................2
2. ELASTIC LOAD-DEFORMATION BEHAVIOURS OF MATERIALS..................................................2
3. TENSILE TEST...........................................................................................................................3
Tensile test results........................................................................................................................4
Proof stress:.................................................................................................................................5
The interpretation of tensile test results.......................................................................................5
ANHANG A: METHODISCH-DIDAKTISCHE ANMERKUNGEN..............................................................7
ANHANG B: VOCABULARY LIST: GENERAL ENGLISH......................................................................8
ANHANG C: FACHBEGRIFFE NACH DIN 50 145 (ALT)...................................................................12
ANHANG D: AUSZUG AUS EINEM INTERAKTIVEN PROGRAMM DER VOEST-ALPINE STAHL AG
.......................................................................................................................................................13
ANHANG E: ENDNOTEN.................................................................................................................15

Figures:

Figure 1: Bar under stress................................................................................................................2

Figure 2: Stress-strain graph for the elastic range...........................................................................3
Figure 3: Tensile test specimen: (a) turned specimen for wedge grips; (b) sheet............................3
specimen for wedge grip; (c) sheet specimen for pin-jointed grips; (d) turned..............................3
specimen with threaded ends...........................................................................................................3
Figure 4: Load-extension curve for a low-carbon steel...................................................................4
Figure 5: Proof stress.......................................................................................................................5
Figure 6: Typical stress-strain curves: (a) annealed mild steel; (b) grey cast iron; (c) light alloy
.................................................................................................................................................6
1. INTRODUCTION
For the design engineer two things are essential:
 to have an understanding of material behaviouri, to aid in the appropriate selection of
type and condition
 to be able to calculate the stressesii and strainsiii which will have to be withstood by the
material of a component or structure
Deformations may occur in a material for a number of reasons such as external applied
loadsiv, change in temperature, tightening of bolts, etc. Bendingv, twisting (torsion )vi,
compressionvii , and shearviii or combinations of these are common modes of deformation.
Stress values do not always provide the limiting factor on design, for although a component
may be safe and employ material economically with regard to stress, the deformationsix
accompanying the stress need to be considered.

2. ELASTIC LOAD-DEFORMATION BEHAVIOURS OF MATERIALS

F F

Figure 1: Bar under stress

Studies of material behaviour by Robert Hooke in 1678 showed that to a certain limit the
extensionx of a bar subjected to an axial tensile loadingxi was often directly proportional to the
force. This behaviour is known as Hooke’s lawxii. The maximum load up to which Hooke’s
law is applied is termed the “limit of proportionalityxiii”. If after completely unloading the
body it returns to exactly its original size, then it is said to exhibit the property of
“elasticityxiv”. This behaviour exists only over a certain range of load and deformation, the end
point being termed the “elastic limitxv”. In general the limit of proportionality is a shade lower
than the elastic limit. If the elastic limit is exceeded it is found that some permanent
deformationxvi remains after removal of the load. The stress in the material at the elastic limit
is called the “yield stressxvii”. In most practical situations it is important to ensure that the
stress in the component does not exceed the yield stress.
 Figure 2: Stress-strain graph for the elastic range
If the load F is divided by the original cross-sectional areaxviii of the bar, A, and the extensions
on the abscissaxix are divided by the original length of the bar L0 , a graph of stress against
strain is obtained. Since A and L0 are constants the stress-strain behaviour is also linear in the
F

elastic range. The slope of the line is constant and may be expressed as A L   E where

L0
E is a constant of the material, and is called “Young’s modulus of elasticity”. Since  is non-
dimensional E has the dimensions of stress i.e. force per unit area.

3. TENSILE TEST
Strength has already been defined as the ability of a material to resist applied forces without
yielding or fracturing. By convention, strengthxx usually denotes the resistance of a material to
a tensile load applied axially to a specimenxxi. This is the principle of the tensile test. Tensile
testing machines apply a carefully controlled tensile load to standard specimen and measure
the corresponding extension of these specimens. The following figure shows some standard
specimen and the direction of the applied load.

Figure 3: Tensile test specimen: (a) turnedxxii specimen for wedge gripsxxiii; (b) sheetxxiv
specimen for wedge grip; (c) sheet specimen for pin-jointed grips xxv; (d) turned
 specimen with threadedxxvi ends

Tensile test results

The load applied to the specimen and the corresponding extension can be plotted in the form
of a graph as shown in the following figure:

Figure 4: Load-extension curve for a low-carbon steel

 From A to B the extension is proportional to the applied load. Also, if the applied load
is removed the specimen returns to its original length. Under these relatively lightly
loaded conditions the material is showing elastic properties.
 From B to C it can be seen from the graph that the metal suddenly extends with no
increase in load. If the load is removed at this point the metal will not spring back to
its original length and it is said to have taken a permanent setxxvii. This is the yield
pointxxviii.
 The yield stress is the stress at the yield point; that is, the load at B divided by the
original cross-section area of the specimen. Usually, a designer works at 50 per cent of
this figure to allow for a “factor of safetyxxix”.
 From C to D extension is no longer proportional to the load, and if the load is removed
little or no spring back will occur. Under these relatively greater loads the material is
showing plastic propertiesxxx.
 The point D is referred to as the “ultimate tensile strengthxxxi” when referred to load-
extension graphs or the 'ultimate tensile stressxxxii' (UTS) when referred to stress-strain
graphs. The ultimate tensile stress is calculated by dividing the load at D by the
original cross-sectional area of the specimen. Although a useful figure for comparing
the relative strengths of materials, it has little practical value since engineering
equipment is not usually operated so near to the breaking pointxxxiii.
 From D to E the specimen appears to be stretching under reduced load conditions. In
fact the specimen is thinning out (neckingxxxiv) so that the “load per unit area” or stress
is actually increasing. The specimen finally work hardensxxxv to such an extent that it
breaks at E.
 In practice, values of load and extension are of limited use since they apply only to
one particular size of specimen and it is more usual to plot the stress-strain curve. (An
example of a stress-strain curve for a low-carbon steelxxxvi is shown in fig. 6
 Stress and strain are calculated as follows:
load
stress 
area of cross  sec tion
 extension
strain 
original length
Proof stressxxxvii:

Only very ductilexxxviii materials, such as fully

annealedxxxix mild steelxl, show a clearly defined yield
point. The yield point will not even appear on bright
drawnxli low-carbon steel which has become slightly
work hardened during the drawing process. In such
circumstances the proof stress is used. The proof stress
is defined as the stress that produces a specified amount
of plastic strain, such as 0.1 or 0.2 per cent. Figure 5
shows a typical stress-strain curve for a material of
relatively low ductility such as hardened and
temperedxlii medium-carbon steel.

Let us now consider the point C in Figure. 5. The

corresponding strain is given by D and this consists of a
combination of plastic and elastic components. If the
stress is now gradually reduced (by reducing the load
on the specimen), the strain is also reduced and the
stress-strain relationship during this reduction in stress
is represented by the line CB.
Figure 5: Proof stress
During the reduction in stress the elastic deformation is recovered so that the line CB is
straight and parallel to the initial stages of the loading curvexliii for the material; that is, the
part of the loading curve where the material is showing elastic properties.
In our example, the stress at C has produced a plastic strain of 0.2 per cent as represented by
AB. Thus the stress at C is referred to as 0.2 per cent proof stressxliv. So AB represents the
plastic deformation and BD represents the elastic deformation when the specimen is stressed
to the point C.
The material will have fulfilled its specification if, after the proof stress has been applied for
15 seconds and removed, the permanent set of the specimen is not greater than the specified
percentage of the gauge lengthxlv which, in this example, is 0.2 per cent.

The interpretation of tensile test results

The interpretation of tensile test data requires skill borne out of experience, since many
factors can affect the test results – for instance, the temperature at which the test is carried out,
since the tensile modulus and tensile strength decrease as the temperature rises for most
metals and plastics, whereas the ductility increases as the temperature rises. The test results
are also influenced by the rate at which the specimen is strained.

Figure 6(a) shows a typical stress-strain curve for an annealed mild steel. From such a curve
we can deduce the following information.
 The material is ductile since there is a long elastic range.
 The material is fairly rigidxlvi since the slope of the initial elastic range is steep.
 The limit of proportionality (elastic limit) occurs at about 230 MPa (230 N/mm2!!!).
  The upper yield pointxlvii occurs at about 260 MPa.
 The lower yield pointxlviii occurs at about 230 MPa.
 The ultimate tensile stress (UTS) occurs at about 400 MPa.

Figure 6(b) shows a typical stress-strain curve for a grey cast ironxlix. From such a curve we
can deduce the following information:
 The material is brittlel since there is little plastic deformation before it fractures- Again
the material is fairly rigid since the slope of the initial elastic range is steep.
 It is difficult to determine the point at which the limit of proportionality occurs, but it
is approximately 200 MPa.
 The ultimate tensile stress (UTS) is the same as the breaking stress for this sample.
This indicates negligible reduction in cross-section (necking) and minimal ductility
and malleabilityli. It occurs at approximately 250 MPa.

Figure 6(c) shows a typical stress-strain curve for a wrought light alloylii. From this curve we
can deduce the following information:
 The material has a high level of ductility since it shows a long plastic range.
 The material is much less rigid than either low-carbon steel or cast iron since the slope
of the initial plastic range is much less steep when plotted to the same scale.
 The limit of proportionality is almost impossible to determine, so the proof stress will
be specified instead. For this sample a 0.2 per cent proof stress is approximately 500
MPa (the line AB).

Figure 6: Typical stress-strain curves: (a) annealed mild steel; (b) grey cast iron; (c) light alloy
ANHANG A: METHODISCH-DIDAKTISCHE ANMERKUNGEN

Anglist:
1. Introduction of technical terminology
2. Monolingual introduction of general vocabulary
3. reading equations and formulae in English
4. Describing and interpreting graphs and diagrams
5. grammar : passive, conditionals, conjunctions, phrasal verbs

Techniker:
1. text with technical terminology in context
2. assessment for students:
 Describe the basic principle of a tensile test.
 State three properties of a material that can be determined by a tensile test.
 Briefly explain what is meant by proof stress and state how it is determined.
 Explain how the elastic modulus for a material can be determined from a
tensile test

Erfahrungsbericht – Einsatz in der Klasse:

noch nicht vorhanden
ANHANG B: VOCABULARY LIST: GENERAL ENGLISH

accompany, -ied, -ied occur or do at the same time as

If you apply stress on a specimen it is accompanied by
deformation.
affect, -ed, -ed have an influence or impression on
The climate affected his health.
amount large quantity
A large amount of money is spent on tobacco every year.
appropriate suited to / in keeping with
Sports clothes are not appropriate for a formal wedding.
behaviour technical: the way in which something functions or operates
The behaviours of materials are different with regard to elastic
load-deformation.
verb: to behave
borne out of resulting from
His skill is borne out of long experience.
carry out, -ied, -ied phrasal verb
to put into execution, to continue to an end or stopping point
The soldier carried out his orders.
circumstance condition, fact etc. connected with an event or person
Under certain circumstances the proof stress is used.
consider, -ed, -ed think about, take into account
They considered the problem carefully.
consist of, -ed, -ed phrasal verb
to be composed of, made up of
A window consists of a frame and a pane.
cross-section piece or slice made by cutting across e.g. a tree trunk
The cross-section of a sphere is circular.
decrease (cause to) become shorter, smaller, less
A decrease in tensile strength goes hand in hand with a rise in
temperature.
verb: decrease
opposite: increase (become longer, bigger, more)
deduce, -d, -d to infer from a general principle
He deduced the equation by thinking logically.
noun: deduction
denote, -d, -d to serve as an indication of, to stand for
In algebra the sign x usually denotes an unknown quantity.
design engineer person specialized in constructing things
We need design engineers to construct machines.
determine, -d, -d calculate, find our precisely
You can determine the height of a mountain by trigonometry
divide by, -d, -d phrasal verb
the operation of finding how many times a number contains
another number or quantity
8 divided by 4 equals 2
economical not wasteful
He is very economical about spending his money.
 note: economical (sparsam) vs. economic (wirtschaftlich)
employ, -ed, -ed to make use of (someone or something inactive)
You employ a pen for sketching.
ensure, -d, -d to make a thing or person sure
By checking it carefully he ensured that the machine would run
smoothly.
equipment the implements used in an operation or activity
His has got high-tech equipment in his modern home.
verb: to equip with
exceed, -ed, -ed to be greater than or superior to; to go beyond a set limit
If the elastic limit is exceeded some permanent deformation
remains
exhibit, -ed, -ed to show
This person exhibits some very strange behaviour
extension enlargement, the act of getting longer, bigger
Tools are extensions of human hands.
verb: to extend
figure 1) number
He is good at figures (calculating).
2) diagram, drawing to illustrate something
Figure 6 illustrates the complicated text very well.
increase (cause to) become longer, bigger, more
Bad economy always goes hand in hand with an increase of
unemployment.
verb: increase
opposite: decrease (become shorter, smaller, less)
indicate, -d, -d to point out, to point to
A sign-post indicated the right road for us to follow.
noun: indication
measure, -d, -d to find the size, extent, volume, degree, etc . of something
Can you measure the length of this room, please?
negligible of little or no importance or size
The deviation in size is negligible.
obtain, -ed, -ed to get
Where can I obtain the book?
occur, -red, -red to take place, to happen
When did the accident occur?
noun: occurrence
operate, -d, -d to perform a function; to (cause to) work
You must not operate this machine without wearing goggles.
percentage rate or number per cent (=for each hundred)
What percentage of his income does he spend on his hobby?
provide, -d, -d to supply, to give what is needed
He provides a poor man with food and clothes.
range row, line or series of things
This supermarket offers an excellent range of products.
recover, -ed, -ed to move back to a normal position or condition
As soon as you remove the weight, the specimen will regain its
original length.
refer to, -red, -red phrasal verb
to think of, regard, or classify within a general category or
 group; to call
He is referred to as Mr Superbrain.
noun: reference
remove, -d, -d to change the location, position
They removed the books from the table.
resist, -ed, -ed to withstand the force or effect of
The soldiers resisted the attackers.
noun: resistance
sample specimen
We used the same sample for several tests.
scale a system of units for measuring
Do we have to use a scale of 1:10?
shade a shade lower = slightly / a little (bit) lower
His grades are a shade lower than last year.
slope upward or downward slant or inclination or degree of slant
The slope of the roof is very steep.
subjected to phrasal verb
conditional upon
A specimen subjected to increasing loads will finally break.
term, -ed, -ed to call
This geometrical shape is termed “cone”.
thus so
The results thus obtained were correct.
tighten, -ed, -ed make or become tighter
You must tighten the screw carefully
to apply, -ied, -ied to put to use especially for some practical purpose
If you apply pressure to glass it will shatter.
noun: application
to fulfil, -led, -led to meet the requirements of, to satisfy
All his wishes were fulfilled.
to plot, -ted, -ted to represent graphically
The test result can be plotted as a graph.
with regard to with respect to, concerning
I’m writing to you with regard to your last letter.
withstand – withstood - resist the effect of
withstood Runways must withstand the impact of landing planes.

HINTS

data Pl.: data (without –s)

either ….. or entweder ….. oder
neither ….. weder ….. noch
nor sowohl ….. als auch
both …..
and
for seit: He hasn’t slept for two days.
weil: synonym: because: For / Because although a component may be safe,
deformations must be considered
i.e. read: that is
e.g. read: for example
for instance synonym: for example
since seit: He hasn’t had a rest since his last holidays
weil: synonym: because: The interpretation requires skills since / because
many factors can affect the test results
less little – less – least (wenig unzählbar)
few – fewer – fewest (wenig zählbar)
opposites:
much – more – most (wenig unzählbar)
many – more – most (viel zählbar)
ANHANG C: FACHBEGRIFFE NACH DIN 50 145 (ALT)
ANHANG D: AUSZUG AUS EINEM INTERAKTIVEN PROGRAMM DER
VOEST-ALPINE STAHL AG

STATISCHE FESTIGKEITSPRÜFUNGEN
Von statischen Festigkeitsprüfungen spricht man, wenn Belastung langsam gesteigert
oder konstant gehalten wird.

Zugversuch (ÖNORM EN 10002, Teil 1 bis 5)

Der Zugversuch dient zur Bestimmung der Kennwerte eines Werkstoffs bei
Zugbeanspruchung. Er wird mit einer genormten Zugprobe aus dem zu prüfenden Werkstoff
durchgeführt.
In der Prüfmaschine wird die Zugprobe stetig mit einer langsam wachsenden Zugkraft
belastet. Die Zugprobe verlängert zuerst elastisch bis zur Streckgrenze Re, ohne sichtbare
Querschnittsveränderung. Im weiteren Verlauf schnürt sie an einer Stelle ein, verlängert sich
dort beträchtlich und zerreißt schließlich.
Während des Versuchs wird die auf die Zugprobe wirkende Zugkraft F und ihre
Längenänderung L fortlaufend gemessen und die Zugspannung  und die Dehnung 
Z

errechnet. Diese beiden Größen werden im Spannungs-Dehnungs-Diagramm aufgezeichnet.

Das Spannungs-Dehnungs-Diagramm hat jeden Werkstoff eine typische Form.
Ungehärteter Baustahl, der durch ein elastisches Werkstoffverhalten gekennzeichnet
ist, hat eine ausgeprägte Streckgrenze. Im elastischen Anfangsbereich steigt Spannung
proportional mit der Dehnung. Die Kurve bis zu Re ist daher eine Gerade. Der konstante
Faktor heißt Elastizitätsmodul E und ist ein Maß für die Steifigkeit eines Werkstoffs. Die
Gerade wird als Hooke‘sche Gerade bezeichnet.
Daraus resultiert das Hooke‘sche Gesetz   E  
 Bei Erreichen der Streckgrenze Re verlängert sich die Zugprobe, sie „streckt sich“,
ohne dass sich die Spannung in der Probe erhöht. Nach dem Streckbereich steigt die
Spannung in der Zugprobe langsam bis zum höchsten Punkt der Kurve. Diesen Höchstwert
der Spannung bezeichnet man als Zugfestigkeit Rm
Danach fällt die Kurve ab. Die Zugprobe schnürt sich ein und zerreißt schließlich. Die
bleibende Dehnung, die die Zugprobe bis zum Bruch erfahren hat, heißt Bruchdehnung A. Ein
weiterer Verformungskennwert ist die Brucheinschnürung Z.

Bei Werkstoffen ohne ausgeprägte Streckgrenze, wie bei gehärtetem Stahl, hat die
Spannungs-Dehnungs-Kurve keinen ausgeprägten Knick bei der Streckgrenze.
Da die Streckgrenze für die Festigkeitsrechnung wichtig ist, wurde für weitere Berech-
nungen die 0,2-%-Dehngrenze Rp0,2 eingeführt. Dies ist jene Spannung, bei der die Zugprobe
nach der Entlastung eine bleibende Dehnung von 0,2 % aufweist. Bestimmt wird die 0,2 %-
Dehngrenze durch eine Parallele zur Geraden am Kurvenanfang durch den Punkt ε = 0,2 %.
Die Spannung im höchsten Punkt der Kurve wird auch hier als Zugfestigkeit Rm bezeichnet.
ANHANG E: ENDNOTEN
i
Werkstoff- (Material-) verhalten
ii
Spannungen  [N/mm2]
iii
Dehnungen  [1]
iv
Belastungen [N]
v
Biegung
vi
Verdrehung, Torsion
vii
Druckbeanspruchung
viii
Abscherung
ix
Verformung
x
Verlängerung L [mm]
xi
Einachsige Zugbeanspruchung
xii
Hooke´sches Gesetz
xiii
Proportionalitätsgrenze
xiv
Elastizität
xv
Elastizitätsgrenze
xvi
Bleibende Verformung (Verlängerung)
xvii
Streckgrenze (Fließspannung) [N/mm2]
xviii
Querschnittsfläche [mm2]
xix
Abszisse, horizontale Achse
xx
Festigkeit
xxi
Probe, Prüfling
xxii
Auf der Drehbank hergestellt, gedreht
xxiii
Beißbacken, Klemmvorrichtung für Proben (Keilklemmung)
xxiv
Blech, Flachmaterial
xxv
Klemme mit Zapfenaufnahme
xxvi
Einschraubkopf
xxvii
Bleibende Verlängerung
xxviii
Streckgrenze, Fließgrenze Re [N/mm2]
xxix
Sicherheitsfaktor, Sicherheitsbeiwert
xxx
Plastische Eigenschaften
xxxi
Höchstzugkraft [N]
xxxii
Zugfestigkeit Rm [N/mm2]
xxxiii
Bruch
xxxiv
Einschnüren
xxxv
Verfestigen (durch Erhöhen der Versetzungsdichte)
xxxvi
Stahl mit geringem Kohlenstoffgehalt
xxxvii
Dehngrenze
xxxviii
Duktil, zähe (bei Zugbeanspruchung)
xxxix
Ausgelagert
xl
unlegierter Stahl, Flußstahl
xli
Blank gezogen
xlii
Angelassen, getempert
xliii
Belastungskurve
xliv
0,2%-Dehngrenze Rp0,2 [N/mm2]
xlv
Meßlänge L [mm]
xlvi
Steif
xlvii
Obere Streckgrenze ReH [N/mm2]
xlviii
Untere Streckgrenze ReL [N/mm2]
xlix
Grauguß GG
l
Spröde
li
Zähigkeit (bei Druckbeanspruchung)
lii
Fließgepresstes Leichtmetall