Urbenvironcongress Proceedings

LANDSCHAFTSENTWICKLUNG UND UMWELTFORSCHUNG
Schriftenreihe der Fakultt Planen Bauen Umwelt
BAND S20 Berlin 2007
Eds.: Hartmut Kenneweg & Uwe Trger
2nd International Congress on Environmental Planning and Management Visions Implemantations Results
Planning the Urban Environment
August 5th - 10th 2007 Technische Universitt Berlin

Schriftenreihe der Fakultt Planen Bauen Umwelt der Technischen Universitt Berlin
Die Reihe Landschaftsentwicklung und Umweltforschung dient der Publikation von Ergebnissen und Materialien aus Forschung und Lehre an der Fakultt Planen Bauen Umwelt der TU Berlin. Sie soll die wissenschaftlichen Aktivitten der Fakultt widerspiegeln, Diskussionen anregen bzw. untersttzen und zur Weiterentwicklung von Theorie und Praxis der Landschaftsentwicklung beitragen. Das Spektrum der in ihr verffentlichten Arbeiten umfasst Forschungsberichte (einschlielich von Dissertationen und Habilitationsschriften), Diskussionspapiere, Vorlesungsmanuskripte sowie studentische Projektberichte. Den Lehr- und Forschungsschwerpunkten entsprechend sollen hier vorwiegend Schriften aus den Bereichen Freiraum-/Landschaftsplanung, Landschaftsbau, Umweltkonomie, Umweltpolitik und kologie publiziert werden. Die mit S bezeichneten Ausgaben im Format A4 dienen der Publikation von Arbeiten mit grerformatigen Vorlagen. Dadurch sollen die Publikationsmglichkeiten insbesondere auch fr die Planungswissenschaften verbessert werden.
Umschlagfoto: Moabiter Spreebogen, Berlin Partner/FTB-Werbefotografie
ISSN 0173-0495 Herausgeber: Redaktion: Fakultt Planen Bauen Umwelt der Technischen Universitt Berlin Prof. Dr. Kleinschmit cand.-Ing. Mareike Knocke Prof. Dr. Norbert Khn Dipl-Ing. Norbert Reinsch Dr. Ina Sumel Dipl.-Ing. Marco Schmidt Prof. Dr. Dr. Berndt-Michael Wilke Dipl.-Ing. Astrid Zimmermann Sekr. OE3 Franklinstr. 29, 10587 Berlin www.tu-berlin.de/~luu
Anschrift: Homepage:

Schriftenreihe der Fakultt Planen Bauen Umwelt
BAND S20 Berlin 2007
Eds.: Hartmut Kenneweg & Uwe Trger
2nd International Congress on Environmental Planning and Management Visions Implemantations Results
Planning the Urban Environment
August 5th - 10th 2007 Technische Universitt Berlin
Note:
Selected papers of the congress are also available as printed volume (ISBN 978-3-7983-2049-9).
Anschriften der Herausgeber: Prof. Dr. Hartmut Kenneweg Technische Universitt Berlin EB 5 Strae des 17. Juni 145 10623 Berlin e-mail: Kenneweg@ile.tu-berlin.de Prof. Dr. Uwe Trger Technische Universitt Berlin ACK 2-1 Ackerstrae 76 13355 Berlin e-mail: uwe.troeger@tu-berlin.de
ISSN ISBN:
0173-0495 978-3-7983-2050-5
Druck/ Printing: Vertrieb/ Publisher
Tribun EU Gorkeho St. 41, 602 00 Brno, Tschechische Republik http://www.librix.eu Universittsverlag der TU Berlin Universittsbibliothek Fasanenstr. 88 (im VOLKSWAGEN-Haus), D-10623 Berlin Tel.: (030) 314-76131. Fax.: (030) 314-76133 E-Mail: publikationen@ub.tu-berlin.de http://www.ub.tu-berlin.de/
Contents
Foreword Workinggroup 1: Indicators and concepts for sustainable life in cities Anastasia Zefkili Indicators of sustainable development for the monitoring of adapted urban spaces Claudia Dappen, Sven Heilmann, Patricia Jacob, Jrg Knieling, Immanuel Stie Demand-driven Life Cycle Management of Urban Neighbourhoods Doaa Mahmoud El-Sherif Participatory Urban Planning for SustainabilityEgyptian Cities' Profiling as a Case Study W. C. Oliveira, A. H. A. Oliveira, M. L. Peluso, L. C. Martins Environmental Education for Sustainable Planning and Eco-Friendly Management in the Cortado Lake Park Tavis Potts The Natural Advantage of Regions: Integrating Sustainability, Innovation and Regional Development in Australia Gilda Bruna, Eunice Abascal, Anglica Alvim, Arlindo Philippi Jr Sustainability concepts and indicators' reflections in the intermediate-sized city of Limeira, So Paulo state, Brazil L.M.S Andrade & M.A. B. Romero The Principles of Environmental Substainability Applicable to Urban Design Settlements: condominium located in the Federal District of Brazil and inside the Paranoa Environmental Protection Area Maria Helena F Machado The significative value of protected areas for the sustainable urban planning: a case study in the metropolitan region of Campinas/So Paulo D. Gonalo, A. G. Brito The adoption of environmental management systems in Portugal: a strategy towards urban sustainability Matthias Herbert & Torsten Wilke Urban Nature Habitat and anthroposphere from the view of nature conservation C. von Haaren & M. Rode Potentials and Limits of Multifunctional Landscapes: A Case Study of the Kronsberg district of Hannover, Germany Evangelia Athanassiou Reflections on urban metaphors Donald Miller Designing and Using Sustainability Indicators Lessons from the Sustainable Seattle Project Michele de Almeida Corra & Bernardo Arantes do Nascimento Teixeira Developing Sustainability Indicators to Water Resources Management in a Basin in Brazil E. McGurty Indicators for Sustainability in an Urban Watershed in Baltimore, Maryland, USA Glria Nspoli, Paula da Rocha Jorge Vendramini, Tadeu Malheiros, Gilda Bruna, Arlindo Philippi Jr System of Indicators for Municipal Sustainability: Santo Andr So Paulo Brazil T.M. Melo, L.R. Rezende & E.H. Carvalho Construction Residues in Goinia Gulsen Yilmaz & Serkan Gunes How to Measure the Quality of Urban Life: The Tale of Istanbul Metropoliten Area Luiza Helena Nunes Laera & Peter Herman May Economic Valuation of Urban Forestry Environmental services valuation for the efficiency and maintenance of urban environmental resource Daniela Salgado Carvalho & Teresa Fidlis Perception of Environmental Quality in Aveiro, Portugal: an environmental map based on public claims S. M. Viggiani Coutinho, T. F. Malheiros, M. L. de Moraes Padilha, A. Philippi Jr., M. Sulema Pioli Structural aspects of academic information networks and their impact in the process of developing urban public policies H. S. Moon, S. B. Kim & J. H. Shim The Possibilities of revitalizing Physical Activity in Urban Parks for Human Health with special reference to Daegu, South Korea
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Landschaftsentwicklung und Umweltforschung
2nd International Congress on Environmental Planning and Management
Flavia Teixeira Braga, Denise da Costa Pinheiro, V. Andrade Andrade Landscape planning and environmental sustainability in areas of urban and natural conflict in Rio de Janeiro: The private condominiums case in Barra da Tijuca and Jacarpagua Cristian Ioja, Maria Patroescu, Annemarie Ioja Indicators for environmental quality assessment in the urban parks: Case study Bucharest city (Romania) Mattias Qvistrm Betwixt and between: on land-use regeneration at the urban fringe as an asset for sustainable development A. C. Sarti & M. A. Lombardo Identify Attributes of the Landscape in the Basin of the Claro Brook (Rio Claro SP Brazil): a Periurban Park Components Gilda Collet Bruna, Las Raquel Muniz Bomfim & Cristina Kanya Caselli Urban Environmental Quality of Life: Franca intermediated-sized city in the State of So Paulo, Brazil Workinggroup 2: Land management and geo information Frank Iden, Bjrn Dejoks & Dietrich Bangert Interdisciplinary Information Management for the IT-based Assessment of Plans and Programmes related to the Environment Kyong-Jae Lee, In-Tae Choi, Jin-Woo Choi, Kyung-Suk Kee A comparison of biotope mapping and assessment method in Korea and Germany Hlya Yildirim, Mehmet Emin zel, Alpaslan Aka, Roman Radberger Monitoring of uncontrolled urbanization in the metropolitan Istanbul Jrgen Dllner Virtual 3D City Models Flexible User Interface Technology for Complex Urban Information Henning Nuissl & Dagmar Haase Integrated assessment of land resources and land consumption in city regions T. Lakes, H.-O. Kim, M. Bochow, B. Kleinschmit Comparison of Different High Resolution Remote-Sensing Data and Approaches for Mapping the Urban Environment C. A. Simes, A. C. M. Moura, I. S. Cintra, M. P. Nogueira, C. P. Lessa, M. T. P. Aguilar, M. S. Palhares Geo-processing in the Study of Irregular Deposits of Civil Construction, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil Richard Snow & Mary Snow GIS Assessment of Environmental Impacts on Urban Forests M. Kersting & H. Kenneweg Optimizing ecological landscape functions in urban areas using GIS-databases and remote sensing: Urban forestry as an example A. Frick, B. Coenradie, H. Kenneweg Environmental monitoring and urban development: using modern remote-sensing methods Torsten Lipp European directives, environmental planning and geographic information: The need of standardisation B. Theilen-Willige, H. Wenzel, B. Neuhuser & M. Papathoma-Koehle Remote Sensing and GIS Contribution to Natural Hazard Assessment in the Vienna Area Gulsen Yilmaz Thinking about Crime and Space: The Case in Istanbul B. Coenradie, L. Haag, A. Damm, P. Hostert, B. Kleinschmit Hybrid Approach for the Mapping of Sealing with High-Resolution Satellite Data in an Urban Environment Mehmet Emin zel, Hlya Yildirim2 Alparslan Aka Land cover change by rapid industrialization over a decade and its impact on environment Almerinda Antonia Barbosa Fadini, Joo Luiz de Moraes Hoeffel & Pompeu Figueiredo de Carvalho Time and Space Geographical Readings in the Bragantina Region Water Basins So Paulo/Minas Gerais Brazil K. Ulm Reality-based virtual 3D city models for urban planning P. A. Hecker GEOkomm: Network Activities for Urban Research and Planning of the Urban Environment E. U. Rosa & L. Pimentel da Silva The Use of Geomatic Techniques in the Management of Land Partitioning and Occupation Eduardo Ercolani Saldanha, Liane da Silva Bueno & Marcus Polette Evaluation Model for Socio-economic Sustainability
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Visions Implementations Results
Workinggroup 3: Water in the urban environment Kyung Ho Kwon and Heiko Diestel A decision support system for planning decentral rain water management measures in urban zones of Korea May A. Massoud, Joumana A. Nasr, Akram Tarhini, Jawaria Tareen The Environmental Impacts of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment: Mitigation Measures and Applicability in Developing Countries Thorsten Schuetze & Kyung-Ho Kwon Sustainable water and sanitation systems in existing housing estates of international cities Llian Alves de Arajo Environmental Degradation of Rivers in the State of Rio de Janeiro Cristian Ioja, Maria Patroescu, Marius Matache, Radu Damian The impact of the human activities from the Bucharest Urban Agglomeration on the quality of water in the Arges River Lower Watershed M.O. Kauffmann L. Pimentel da Silva & M. Kleiman Landscape Imperviousness Index: An Indicator of Water Conservation in Urban Areas Bong-Ho Han, Suk-Hwan Hong, Jung-Hee Bae, Jeong-In Kwak Development for the Biotope Assessment Method that Introduces the Watershed Concept in Urban Planning D. F. Pessoa Seeking a Sustainable Design for Flood Area Occupation: The So Paulo, Brazil Case S. Chatterjee and B. Sen Gupta Ability and willingness to pay for drinking water in a peri-urban area in Ganga delta where the groundwater aquifer is contaminated with arsenic Medhat Ibrahim & Traugott Scheytt Increasing the ability of water hyacinth for removing heavy metals Reena Singh and Thomas Krafft Vulnerability With Respect To Water And Wastewater System In Megacity Delhi/India Eduardo von Sperling & Lenora Nunes Ludolf Gomes Cyanobacteria in urban water supply reservoirs: case study of Vargem das Flores, Brazil A.L. Britto Water management in Brazilian cities: institutional and environmental issues, new water services law and new opportunities in regulation H. Lehn Urban water management is the North setting a good example for the megacities of the South? Hubertus Soppert Water management in dry and semi-dry regions Marco Schmidt, Brigitte Reichmann, Claus Steffan Rainwater harvesting and evaporation for stormwater management and energy conservation Prayatni Soewondo The Mangement of Domestic Wastewater in Urban Area in Indonesia B. Topkaya, M.Yildirim Effects of Urbanization on Drinking Water Resources Gilda Collet Bruna, Cristina Kanya Caselli, Arlindo Philippi Junior & Sheila Walbe Ornstein Social Houses in Water Reservoir Areas: The Case of Land Use and Occupation Evaluation, Itapecerica da Serra, So Paulo, Brazil G. Gunkel & M. C. Sobral Water in the Megacity Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil: Water Supply and Discharge G. O. Ribeiro, F. G. de Albuquerque, R. G. Paula & L. F. de Carvalho Mathematical models as an effective management tool for urban water systems A. Musolff, S. Leschik, F. Reinstorf, S. Oswald, G. Strauch & M. Schirmer Integral studies of urban groundwater and water balance A. Jourieh, M. Heinl, R. Hinkelmann, M. Barjenbruch Hydrodynamic-Numerical Simulation of the Flow around a Waste Water Tank in the River Spree Yu-Fang Lin Habitat Function of Urban River: Keelung River in Taipei City, Taiwan A. Abdou Visions, Perceptions and Use of the River Nile towards a Social Rehabilitation S. Chatterjee, A Bandopadhyay, B. Sen Gupta Arsenic mitigation options in water treatment A brief review
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M. Reza Ghanbarpour An integrated approach for watershed-based landuse planning Patricia Rincn Avellaneda The Water Issue within the Context of the Middle Region of Colombia P. M. Matos, F. G. de Albuquerque, M. Guimares & L. F. de Carvalho Modeling of Microcystis aeruginosa dynamics using STELLA software Workinggroup 4: Handling environmental impacts Thomas B Fischer Handling environmental impacts Biresh Shah Environmental Implications of Urban Waterfront Transformation: A Study of the Sankhmool-Teku Stretch in Kathmandu Robin Abrams Healing a Rift: The Lea River Valley & London 2012 S.V.G. Gama, F.F. Dutra, T.F. Xavier, N.M. Amorim Planning and management in protected areas from environmental impact studies: the brazilian experience in the Atlantic Forest Biome-Ilha Grande (Angra Reis, RJ, Brazil) Maren Regener The influence of public participation on the outcome of the Strategic Environmental Assessment the example of German urban land-use plans Hamdy H. Seisa Protection of ground water resources when selecting landfill sites using shallow refraction technique M. Hanusch Monitoring environmental impacts of regional plans approaches from Germany and England Ana L. S. Spnola Krings, Gilda C. Bruna, Arlindo Philippi Jr., Paula R. J. da Rocha Vendramini Brownfields and urban environmental management Alfred Herberg Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA). A Contribution to Sustainable Urban Design The Berlin Approach A. P. Bortoleto & K. Hanaki Environmental Impacts of Waste Prevention Policies applied to Solid Waste Management in Brazilian Cities M. L. M. L Padilha, M. S. Pioli, S. Coutinho, A. Philippi Jr, T.F. Malheiros Impact of the textile industry on cities and its role in the Brazilian context L. F. F. Cerqueira, L. Pimentel da Silva & M. Marques Environmental Impacts by Low-Income Settlements in Rio de Janeiro R. S. Silva, R. B. Peres, E. A. Silva Re-naturalization and eco-techniques in low valley urban areas: Analysis of the Tijuco Preto stream project, So Carlos city, State of So Paulo, Brazil Eduardo von Sperling & Csar Augusto Paulino Grandchamp Mining lake in an urban area: how to harmonize anthropic pressure and landscape requirements Amanda Ramalho Vasques & Magda Adelaide Lombardo Industrial Brownfields in So Paulo-Brazil: From the Abandonment to Redevelopment L.M.S.Andrade, V.G.Gomes, M.B.Dias, J.Moraes Conflicts of the urbenvironmental management in Fernando de Noronhas Archipelago, Brazil Ftima Maria Miranda Brayner, Ana Maria de Freitas Barbosa The River Estuary and its Impact on the Quality of Life of the Population of a Metropolitan Region M. C. L. D'Ottaviano, F. Atique & G. T. Fricke Urban Planning in Metropolitan Areas: urban development versus environmental preservation? A case study: Nova Odessa J. R. R. Menezes, J. J. Rego Silva, L. F. R. Miranda Environmental management in the context of building construction in Brazil R. Mansouri & M. Kherouf Design of stormwater and retention facilities O. A. Oyediran Solid waste management for the abatement of health and environmental impact in Lagos, Nigeria Carmen Ruiz Puente, Antonia Prez Hernando, Pelayo Villanueva lvarez Sustainability strategies in planning and design industrial areas sites
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Gilda Collet Bruna & Elaine Maria Sarapka Shopping Center and Sustainable Environment: The case of the Parque Dom Pedro Shopping Center in Campinas, State of So Paulo, Brazil Maria da Purificao Teixeira, Carmen Ruth Stangenhaus Environmental Preservation in the Production of Built Environment in the Tropics A Matter of Sustainability Jos Gpe. Vargas Hernndez Environmental and Economic Development Shrinkage of Atenquique Workinggroup 5: Urban planning and change management M. Cristina Martinez-Fernandez & Chung-Tong Wu Shrinking Cities: Environmental Legacy and Management Henning Nuissl and Dieter Rink Decline and sprawl S. Rler Urbanisation Models and Green Space Development in Shrinking Cities D Reckien, MKBL Ldeke Old industrial, capitalist and post-socialist cities structural similarities with implications for a sub-urban development? Ashraf Elmokadem "Cairo" an increasing mega city Florian Steinberg Jakarta a Sustainable City? Bernd Mielke Impact of High Quality Landscape of Commercial Areas on Land Values The Ruhr Area Experience Jorg Sieweke What is your Matrix? Reading Regimes of Hamburg-Wilhelmsburg N. J. D. de Azevedo, J. J. Rgo Silva, P. M. W. Maciel Silva, S. C. Angulo The challenge of developing countries in the application of sustainability assessment methods to social housing Dirk Heinrichs & Henning Nuissl Peripheral expansion and central decline in Latin American megacities: recent trends and new challenges for governance Gustavo Martins Marques Barreirinhas Sustainable Development Urban Planning M. A. Lombardo & A. C. Fanti Brownfield's Intervention Proposal in the City of So Paulo / Brazil Dimitris Sgouros Green Space Strategy (Dublin) K. P. Bontempo Public Use Assistance to the Conservation of Environmentally Protected Areas in So Lus Brazil G. Leito Can slums reach a sustainable development in Latin America's cities? Ceclia Maria Parlato Criteria of Sustainable Occupation for Territorial Planning in the Federal District (Braslia) Brazil Sebastian Seelig, Florian Stellmacher Revisiting a Vision. An Investigation into Vision, Implementation and Results of Developing Hashtgerd New Town in Iran Amal Abdou Dynamics of the new cities neighboring Cairo, the effect and the challenges for supportable development Maria Camila Loffredo D'Ottaviano Gated residential communities in So Paulo Metropolitan Area: a new pattern of urban development? Dagmar Haase A new housing demography under conditions of shrinkage? A household-based model approach to conceptualise residential mobility and residential vacancy M.C.Sobral, G.Gunkel & R.Paes Environmental impacts in urban areas due to reservoirs construction in semi-arid Brazil Narciss M.Sohrabi & Nilofar Zarei Effect of Historical Buildings and Zayandeh Rud on Isphahan City Development
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Simone Sandholz & Christian Strau Integrated urban green governance comparing shrinking and emerging cities. The examples of Leipzig and Recife Ayon Kumar Tarafdar Planning the Urban Environment in Developing Countries A Dilemma between Theory and Practise. Case Study: Calcutta, India Khaled Adham & Ashraf Elmokadem The Theming of Arabia: Dubai and the Emerging Cities of Spectacle in the Persian Gulf W. Endlicher, K. Krellenberg Research Training Group: Perspectives on Urban Ecology Shrinking Cities Workinggroup 6: Energy and environment Jian Xingchao Measures of Energy Saving for Buildings in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, P.R.China Matthias Barjenbruch, Alexander Wriege-Bechtold Energy potentials of wastewater A.G. Entrop, A.H.M.E. Reinders, H.J.H. Brouwers Evaluation of financial aspects and energy performance indicators of residential real estate in the Netherlands Martin Buchholz Closed ecosystem design as a new element in urban infrastructure Maria Jos L. de Araujo Saroldi "Termo de Ajustamento de Conduta" TAC as an Instrument in Solid Waste Management J. L. de Sousa & M. A. Lombardo Changes in the Urban Morphology and Temporary Metereological Series Analyze from Thermal Comfort in the Cities Julia Kaazke & Berndt-Michael Wilke Development of a waste management concept for the Yugra Region, West Siberia Ina Sumel & Ingo Kowarik Closing the gap! How local actors respond to climate change processes in urban landscapes J.H. Eum & J. Kppel The Role of Urban Climate in Land Use Planning in the Republic of Korea focused on Environmental Assessment Instruments of Seoul T. Nehls, S. Brodowski & G. Wessolek Heavy Metals and Black Carbon in Paved Urban Soils The Importance of Open Soil Surfaces in Urban Areas Erna M. Frins Air quality in urban centres of South America: Montevideo, Uruguay C. A. C. Brant Waste-Pickers in Anpolis Citys Dump A Case Study Jorge Antnio Martins & Milena Bodmer The "topological index" as a parameter for monitoring the environmental capacity of urban ways Maria Norma Menezes & Celso Pereira Guimares Sustainable Design in Brazil: Creation methodology, implementation and development of projects with industrial wastes Luciana Ziglio The management waste in Brazilian cities Workinggroup 7: Urban green governance U. Weiland New Governance Approach to Sustainable Urban Development Volia Regina Costa Kato, Anglica A. Tanus Benatti Alvim, Gilda Collet Bruna Productive local structures and the challange of sustainable urban strategies: The case of Limeira, State of So Paulo, Brazil Adriana Gondran Carvalho da Silva The city of Freiburg as an example for the city of Florianpolis R. Medeiros, J. T. de Andrade, D. Viana, R. Bateman Governance in Urban Protected Areas in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Hugo Romero and Alexis Vasquez The Chilean free market and the lack of governance of urban green areas
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Irida Tsevreni Implementing and evaluating participatory methods which encourage children activism in urban planning and environmental care Amal Abdou & Ashraf Elmokadem Shielding agriculture bequest against expanded villages with desert planning strategy: the Case of Menia Governorate, Egypt Eveline de Castro Lzaro & Sueli Corra de Faria Green governance in agribusiness dependent towns L. Gailing Landscape governance in urban agglomerations The case of regional parks in Germany Tavis Potts, Cristina Martinez-Fernandez, Kim Leevers Community Engagement, Innovation and Green Networks in the Suburbs Soojeong Myeong, Inju Song The status of natural environment of Seoul, Korea, and its metropolitan management plan toward sustainable development C. R. C. Cardoso & S. Favero Local Urban and Socioeconomic Pressures from Expanding Tourism and Oil and Gas Industry in an Environmentally Sensitive Area a case for improving local green governance in Mara, Brazil D. Bernardes, K.C.X. Alves, R.F. Walter & S.C. Faria Best Practices in Brazil: Successful Experience in Increasing Urban Environmental Governance P. F. de Carvalho & C. Barbosa Land-use guidelines towards sustainable urban development Brazil Adriana Gondran Carvalho da Silva The role of great events in the post industrial urban planning: the EXPO'98 of Lisbon Jochen Monstadt Privatisation and commercialisation as a challenge for green urban governance. A cross-sectoral analysis in the field of energy and water infrastructures in Berlin Ojochide Okunnu Atojoko The Environment & Militants Restiveness in Nigeria's Niger Delta Region
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Foreword
The world's population is growing steadily, and a permanently increasing percentage of this population is living in mega-cities. The first International Congress on Environmental Planning and Management took place in Braslia in 2005. The motto of the congress "Environmental Challenges of Urbanization" resulted from the recognition that the Latin American mega-cities threatened to be stifled by the total dominance of profit orientated regional structures and developments. After the environmental consciousness in Latin America had grown to an important issue both for the population and for the decision makers, it became clear that attempts to protect the environment and to avoid impacts had to be extended from natural reserves towards fast growing urban regions. With regard to the question how pollution control of the environmental media soil, water and air as well as the demands of the living space of man, animal and plant can be more strongly enforced in assertive planning. The Brasilian capital is an interesting example. When, in an entirely deserted environment, the visionary new foundation was conceived in 1960, it was claimed to do every possible justice to all the demands of one million people. Here, too, over-population, deficits of planning and environmental laws as well as wrong, populist motivated decisions have led to the dominance of the well-known destructive development trends of mega-cities. Hence, a "sustainable regional development" with due consideration of the natural environment must not confine itself to audacious concepts and not to their one-time (unique) realization, but it must keep going on with the critical analysis of long-term developments and planning results, and it must be able to intervene in planning procedures and to modify them. There was a strong demand among the congress' participants in Brasilia to have the 2nd "Urbenvironcongress" in a country which had traditionally experienced a long period of environmental legislation and planning. Hence the invitation to join the 2nd "Urbenvironcongress" in Berlin in 2007 was accepted with applause. The following motto was chosen for this conference: Planning the Urban Environment: Visions Implementations Results. Aim of the congress was to address planning scientists from a broader international spectrum and, primarily, to activate the international discourse. The initiators therefore invited specifically in order to initiate an interdisciplinary exchange between planners and planning executives. That is why the concept included more chances for interaction and for discussion, but less highly specific sessions performed for small separate working circles. The articles submitted to the congress which are printed in the seven chapters of this book do not always reflect visions, implementations and results. In some disciplines it is quite difficult to formulate visions as for example in the water sector. However, the editors have tried to get a line into the chapters. Most articles correspond with an oral presentation. The articles follow extensively the sequence of the oral presentations and at the end of each working group chapter follow the articles which were selected from posters. The working groups chosen are the following: Indicators and concepts for sustainable life in cities, Land management and geo information, Water in the urban environment, Handling environmental impacts, Urban planning and change management, Energy and environment, Urban green governance. 41 nations were present in the congress and the articles show a broad selection of urban environmental planning in countries of different stages of development. An interesting point is also that a different development does not mean lower respect for the environment. Many problems of urban environment planning occur in all countries and are not a specific problem of just a few countries. As planning processes worldwide the main differences can be found in the implementations and in the results. Political as well as financial pressure are important for the results, and countries which suffer from a lack of participation have more deficits in the results. These, however, must not necessarily be undeveloped countries. The wide range of articles in each working group corresponds with the broad interdisciplinary approaches. The least contact to other scientists can be noticed in Water in the urban environment when it comes to the engineering part. Planning river margins does not follow standards and is in contrast to the engineering pro10
cedure of planning a sewage treatment station. River margins enter in green governance and are a political decision and do not follow engineering rules. In all working groups there is evidence of pure techniques but also for a wide range of participation and political decision. Finally, often the budget, either private or public decides on the implementations and results. Planning the urban environment finally is a question of political will. Planners sometimes may have to learn to be less ambitious and to understand that often being a little less demanding can more often lead to successful outcomes. However, they should never forget to fight for solutions which take into account the environment as a complex system which requires multiple analytic approaches in the preparatory phase of planning. On the other hand engineers have to understand the challenge of urban environmental planning in some parts as a vision of planners which requires to generate more imagination in realizing their plans, while in many other parts they will have to replace straight technical solutions which appear simple by the comprehensive framework of multiple-tasking environmental planning. Urban environment needs more than just the planning of a functional sewage piping network and the integration of solar energy. For the soul of man not only the functional solution is important but the mixture of engineering and respecting nature has to be the aim of human dialogue. A human face of mega-cities and cities in general is the real challenge of the future. A human face of cities also means environmental synchrony with nature and people. Uwe Trger & Hartmut Kenneweg, Technische Universitt Berlin
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Workinggroup 1 Indicators and concepts for sustainable life in cities
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Indicators of sustainable development for the monitoring of adapted urban spaces

Anastasia Zefkili
Technical University Berlin, Institute for Urban and Regional Planning azefkili@in.gr
Abstract The current paper presents the development of a set of sustainable development indicators, which serves the monitoring of adapted spaces. As an application field is chosen the infrastructure of educational institutes. The approach and methodology are based on systems theory and orientation theory. The school system and its environment are described. The process is focused on the subsystem of built infrastructure. According to orientation theory, the indicators of sustainable development should express the degree in which certain basic orientors are satisfied. For the system under study, these are: Existence, Effectiveness, Freedom of Action, Security, Adaptability, Coexistence, and Psychological Needs. A set of indicators is then developed, to express the degree of satisfaction of the basic orientors for the subsystem of built infrastructure, and the contribution of this subsystem, to the satisfaction of the basic orientors for the school system. Keywords: Indicators of Sustainable Development, Adapted Spaces, Educational Infrastructure, Orientation Theory Introduction The term "adapted space" indicates the interaction between space and people engaged in any kind of activity in that space. From this point of view, the physical elements are regarded as an active factor, meaning that their characteristics affect the users, and the nature of the contacted activities. Urban space is a general term, which contains a variety of indoor and outdoor places, that can be found in an urban conurbation, with different accessibility degree. However, a basic prerequisite for the allocation or expansion of other urban spaces is the existing infrastructure, technical and social. Social infrastructure is chosen as the research object, due to its decisive role for the confrontation of intensified urban problems, like urban poverty and segregation, on one hand, and because of the lose of the traditional public financing, and the questionable provision criteria and role that it can have in the future, on the other hand. Social infrastructure supports the distribution of services, the promotion of health, recreation, and necessary skills of individuals, in order to cope with the current socio-economic challenges. Therefore, it binds a significant amount of capital (human, natural, financial, and material), which deteriorates through time. Three main stages in the life time of physical elements can be distinguished, according to the demands on capital assets: construction, function, and final disposition (demolition or reconstruction). The maintenace and pattern of use are two significant factors for the prolongation of the functional time of physical (built) elements, and thus for the most efficient use of the assets invested in them. Therefore, they are also fundamental for the promotion of sustainable development. According to the definition shaped in the Preparatory Meetings of the URBAN 21 Conference, taken place in Berlin, on July 2000, sustainable development can be approached by: "Improving the quality of life in a city, including ecological, cultural, political, institutional, social and economic components without leaving a burden on the future generations. A burden which is the result of a reduced natural capital and an excessive local debt." Regarding the built elements of social infrastructure, these general targets can be summarized in the following: - Efficient use of energy and resources: minimize consumption, use of renewable energy. - Waste management: recycling, reuse, better quality of disposals. - Infrastructure management: space utilisation, maintenance, adaptation, and long-term efficiency. - Financing: assure financial resources, without compromising the purpose of provision, minimize degree of dependency on unstable factors. - Health and safety: good indoor conditions, comfort, design for people with special needs, risk assessment and precautions. - Integration to the urban and social environment. - Quality of service: adequate provision rate, user oriented elements, response to existing needs. Methodology The concept of sustainable development, besides of a wide range of idees, definitions and implementation initiatives, generated the need for monitoring and evaluation. Orientation Theory is a thorough method of serv-
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Indicators and concepts for sustainable life in cities
ing this need, since it offers a theoretical base for the approach and evaluation of sustainability, and for the development of competent indicator sets. This theory is actually deduced from general systems theory, although its validity is confirmed through other empirical and theoretical fields. In order to achieve sustainable development, the simultaneous consideration of many factors and of their impacts, in space and time, is required. Therefore, for the recognition of all the important factors, and of the relationships and reaction chains between them, a systemic approach is regarded the most adequate. According to such an approach, the object under study, whether it is a living being, an organisation, or a country, or any part of nature or society, can be regarded as a system, consisted of subsystems, connected with each other, producing a nest of interacting component systems. Orientation theory supports that viability, and thus sustainability, of a system, is achieved when certain, essential interests of the system, called Basic Orientors, are satisfied. For human systems, these are: Existence, Effectiveness, Freedom of Action, Security, Adaptability, Coexistence, and Psychological Needs. The Basic Orientors express the basic needs of the system in order to ensure its function and its future (in order to exist and develop). They occur from the properties of the environment, in which a system must survive, function, and accomplish its purpose, develop and obtain the necessary means to perform all these activities, as well as from the charectirists of the system. The general properties of all system environments are: Normal environmental state, Resource Scarcity, Variety, Variability, Change, and Other Systems. However, these properties may have various interpretations, each of them from the view of a specific system (Table 1).
Table 1: Environmental Properties and Basic Orientors.
Environmental Property Normal Environmental State: The prevailing conditions (social, economic, cultural etc.) in the systems environment. Resource scarcity: Availability of resources in the near or distant environment. Variety: Diversity and range of choices in the environment. Variability: Important fluctuations and cri tical points of environmental systems. Change: Structural or behavior alterations in the environmental systems. Other Systems: Important environmental systems.
Basic Orientor Existence: Secure necessary resources. Protection and regulation mechanisms. Fulfillment of systems purpose. Psychological Needs: Degree of psychological strain or satisfaction of people involved. Effectiveness: Secure provision and efficient use of resources. Ability to influence the environment. Freedom of action: Ability to respond adequately to environmental conditions and inputs. Degree of autonomy. Security: Breakdown limits, dependency on unstable factors, flexibility and ability of the system to find alternatives, when threatened. Adaptability: Recognize environmental changes and react on time. Learning ability. Coexistence: Recognize affected systems and their interests. Ability to respond appropriately to other systems behavior.
The School System The main interest of this work lies upon social infrastructure, and the built infrastructure of education is chosen as the field of application. The educational system is composed by single systems-organisations, for which the school system analysed here, is considered representative (with the exception of tertiary education). The elements of the school system can be divided in four subsystems, according to their nature and function: a) students, b) personnel (administrative, teaching, other), c) institutional infrastructure (e.g. curriculum, school rules) and d) built infrastructure (equipped facilities including classes, laboratories, event and sport hall, offices, library, as well as free time spaces like cafeteria, aula etc.). The subsystem on focus is the built infrastructure of the school system, which can also be defined as the adapted spaces where the main school activities take place. In this point, it must be stressed, that the pedagogical aspects will not to be analysed in this work, since this approach is made from an engineer's point of view. Their effects in the need and use of physical infrastructure must, and will be, however, considered. The environment of the school system includes specific elements of the society, or societal system. The sector systems of the environment are: Social System, Government System, Individual Development, Infrastructure System, Economic System, Environment and Resources. These systems contain the different forms of capital assets, which state determines the potential of human society, and of every system within it. 14
Anastasia Zefkili: Indicators of sustainable development for the monitoring of adapted urban spaces
They are in constant interaction with the school system, and affect directly or indirectly the subsystem of built infrastructure. Basic Orientors The first step, in order to describe the orientors of the school system, is to examine which elements of the environment are decisive for its function and performance. Then the basic orientors for the built infrastructure are specified, and presented in Table 2. The important elements and parameters of every sector system are mentioned below, and they may interact directly with the school system, through certain inputs, or indirectly, shaping its environment. These are: Government: Educational policy, financing, agenda of sustainable development. Infrastructure: Institutional: administration, norms for educational provision, evaluation processes, educational, training and research institutes. Social: public services provision, proximity of important public facilities. Technical: networks' extensiveness and state (IT, Transportation, Communication). Economic System: Economic development: dominating sectors, required skills, and educational policies of companies. Local development: employment, salaries, competitiveness of local economic activities. Social System: Population development and composition, social structure (income, education, unemployment), household structure, integration, social mobility, living conditions and cost, violence/crime rate, social security, engagement of citizens. Individual Development: Manners and customs, religion, culture, life standards, family model, moral standards, sense of equity, qualification, educational level, adaptability, recreation activities, participation. Environment/Resources: Availability of natural resources, use of renewable energy, management of wastes, land use patterns, distribution and cost of materials, circulation of information (internet, media), exchange of knowledge, familiarity with new technology, protection of cultural heritage.
Table 2: Basic Orientors of the School System
Basic Orientor 1. Existence
2. Effectiveness
3. Freedom of Action
4. Security
5.Adaptability
6.Coexistence
7.Psychological Needs
Desired Monitoring Value Norms and school goals fulfillment. Economic and Social Viability. Resource availability and attainment policy. Infrastructure provision and expenditures. State of facilities. Income sources: size and stability. Distribution of expenditures . Infrastructure management and performance. Energy consumption, distribution, and cost. Efficient use of energy: passive strategies, use of renewable energy. Waste management policy. Recycling. Energy loses due to ineffective construction or use. Transfer and integration of knowledge and t echnology. Networking effects in attaining resources. Feedback to Institutional Infrastructure (e.g. Evaluation, shape Norms/Policies). Resources constraints. Potential savings through alternative methods (green technology, recycling etc). Law constraints. Public Intervention. Choices and available means in goal shaping and implementation. Threats to existence. Declination from Norms. Built infrastructure limits. Safety-State. Flexibility and a lternatives (in location or pattern of use). Resource requirement for the function and maintenance of the facilities. Degree covered by the system (passive energy use, contribute to repairs). Potentials t o introduce new or renewable energy technologies (e.g. photovoltaic), to the existing infrastructure. Possibilities of new infrastructure uses. Evaluation processes. Goal adaptation. Response to socio-economic changes. Contribution of external actors to attain necessary resources and facilities. Common use of Facilities. Impacts to other systems. Promotion of local development. Integration to the urban environment. Cooperation, Exchanges, Practical Trainings. Feelings triggered by the built environment (e.g. enclosure, abandonment). Reaction of Students and Teachers to the provided spaces. Comfort in the internal environment (heat, light, aesthetics, utility).
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Indicators of sustainable development For the evaluation of the basic orientors' state, an indicator set is proposed. The indicators included, can be divided in two groups. The first group aims to the monitoring of the satisfaction degree of the described orientors for the subsystem of built infrastructure (signified by the letter A). The second one aims to the monitoring of the contribution of built infrastructure to the satisfaction of the basic orientors for the system to which it belongs, the school system (signified by the letter B). The numbers used correspond to the basic orientors, as presented in Table 2. 1A.Cover of school capacity per annual expenditures for infrastructure. 1B.Percentage of change in the number of enrolments, per percentage of change of the target group size in the students' pool. 2A.Rate and cause of deterioration (aging, vandalism, physical disaster) per rate and cost of restoration of facilities. 2B.Number and size of income sources per purpose of expenditures. 3A.Percentage of infrastructure needs covered outside the school, per percentage of out-of-school activities taking place in the school facilities. 3B.Changes in the consumption and source of water and energy per use purpose, during the last five years (% increase or decrease of recycled water, rainfall, renewable and passive energy use). 4A.Percentage of school hours when artificial lightning is used, as a percentage of total school hours. 4B.Frequency and range of declination from norms regarding infrastructure provision (in teaching space per student). 5A.Green technology investments, as a percentage of total infrastructure investments during the last five years. 5B.Frequency of not implementing the school goals due to inadequate infrastructure per type of deficit (availability, capacity, equipment, maintenance). 6A.Number of co operations per duration, financing size and source and per infrastructure use. 6B.Students distribution per transportation mean for reaching the school (walk, bicycle, public transportation, car). 7A.Frequency of complaints from teachers, students and parents regarding infrastructure state or size. 7B.Rate of absence per course or school activity. Conclusions The above analysis was concluded with a minimum number of indicators, which are representative of the state and function of built infrastructure. This set is only one possibility, since different indicator sets, with the same usefulness, could be developed. However, the indicators included, should be, in every case, typical for the basic orientor, whose satisfaction are supposed to monitor, and not overlapping. Even if one indicator could be used in more cases than designed, it should not, since the interpretation of its value is depended on the basic orientor, to which it refers. The indicators described can be, in most of the cases, estimated either quantitative or qualitative (e.g. bad, satisfactory, good, or, rare, occasionally, often). For this process, as well as for the ascription of indicators' weights, experts, with good, inside, knowledge of the system are required. Bibliography
Bossel Hartmut (1994). Modeling and Simulation. A K Peters, Ltd. USA. Bossel Hartmut (1998). Earth at a Crossroads, Paths to a Sustainable Future. Cambridge University Press, UK. Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (1995): Measuring the quality of schools. - Paris : Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris. Centre of Educational Research and Innovation (1996). Education at a Glance, Analysis. OECD, Paris. Frederick L. Bates, Clyde C. Harvey (1975). The Structure of Social Systems. Gardner Press, Inc. USA.
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Demand-driven Life Cycle Management of Urban Neighbourhoods

Claudia Dappen, Sven Heilmann, Patricia Jacob, Jrg Knieling, Immanuel Stie
HafenCity University Hamburg, Georg-August University Gttingen, Institute for Social-Ecological Research (ISOE), Germany claudia.dappen@tu-harburg.de
Cities face new challenges Today in many European cities, demographic and structural changes are causing economic, social and ecological problems. A growth in suburbs and exurbs increasingly occurs at the expense of inner-city neighbourhoods. In particular, neighbourhoods which date back to the 1950s - 1970s are vulnerable to losing important groups of residents. As a result, their technical and social infrastructures are no longer adequate to the needs of the remaining residents, with neighbourhoods suffering a consequent loss of image. On the other hand, the demand for land on the periphery of cities results from the fact that not all costs are included in traditional economic cost-benefit analyses. Tools to develop urban neighbourhoods while preserving open land The main objective of the research project is to improve existing neighbourhoods, instead of developing new areas on the edge of the cities. It thus pursues the strategy of realising the 30-hectar goal of the government of the Federal Republic of Germany. The project refers to the concept of life cycles, which in the context of urban neighbourhoods designates a periodically occurring process, during which buildings and technical infrastructure and the residential population structure undergo changes. The project "Demand-driven Life Cycle Management" aims at developing a range of tools which municipalities can employ to improve existing urban neighbourhoods rather than using open land for construction. The integrative approach of life cycle management links planning, economic and communicative tools, and serves municipalities as an instrument of analysis, communication and management by including housing development companies, tenants and investors as participants in the process. One of these tools is a monitoring system based on the concept of life cycles which follows the development of neighbourhoods. First there will be a description of the life cycle concept, then of the monitoring approach. The concept of life cycles Life cycle concepts have been established in several academic disciplines as theoretical models to describe periodical processes. In sociology there is the concept of sociological life phases of households and individuals, whereas the economic sciences use product and market cycles. Additionally, in the field of real estate economics, the modernisation and utilisation cycles of buildings have gained increased importance for investment activities. Sociological life cycle concepts Family life cycles describe the different stages in the development of households, from their formation to the point of their dissolution. They are marked by significant biographical occurrences such as moving out from the parent's house founding a joint household with a partner, the birth of a child or the end of a partnership through separation or death, which influence a person's perceptions, needs and options. Thus the life cycle concept helps to analytically distinguish different stages of family life which follow each other and typically form one's biography. The notion of the life cycle of a family has been operationalised in different ways. The classic concept goes back to the US-American demographer Glick (Glick 1947). He classifies the different phases by the number and generation of family members and distinguishes thereby six stages of the family life cycle: Formation: from marriage or the foundation of a joint household to the birth of the first child Expansion: from the birth of the first child to the birth of the last child Completed extension: from the birth of the last child to the point where the first child leaves the parent's house Contraction: period during which the children leave the household Empty Nesting: from the moving out of the last child until the death of the first spouse Dissolution: from the death of the first spouse until the death of the other spouse Sociologists and demographers criticise that the traditional model of the nuclear family is no longer a binding social norm in western societies due to social individualisation processes and a diversification of lifestyles (Hhn 1985). In consequence, not all individuals go through the six stages of the family life cycle as named above. The change also leads to a significantly varying length of the different phases and even a repetition or an absence of certain phases. This is especially true for cities, where it can be observed that the diversifica-
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tion of household and family structures is greater than in rural areas. Besides the traditional family, new forms of households and partnerships have developed: single households, childless couples, single parents, flatsharing communities, patchwork families etc. As a consequence, it has been suggested to replace the concept of the family life cycle with an extended model of household life cycles (Kemper 1985). Despite these conceptual problems, there is a broad consensus in the social sciences that life cycle concepts can be used to explain the housing requirements of households. Herlyn characterises the housing situation in respect to different life cycle stages, while integrating the new types of households (Herlyn 1990). According to Herlyn, the housing situation in the different stages can typically be described in the following way: During the expansion stage, the growth of the household causes an increased demand for living space. In this stage changes of residence are more frequent than in other stages. Depending on the households' available income and the housing market, those relocations often lead to an increase in living space and households often also acquire property. The frequency of changing residences diminishes in the completed extension stage. Still, growing children's increasing need for space remains an important reason to move to a bigger apartment. In the contraction stage, the economic situation of the household is improved by the children moving out. Especially for the tenants of rental flats, the housing situation is eased. Changes of residence are relatively seldom in this phase. Describing types of housing and needs of the new types of households is difficult due to their heterogeneity. Though as common traits, low attachment to the housing environment, high mobility and a preference for residential areas near the inner city and urban public life can be cited (Herlyn 1990: 93f.). Economic life cycles Similar to sociological life cycles the concept of economic product life cycles is based on the assumption that products pass through typical phases in their life cycles. Independent of the length of the phases, which can last decades or only months, and of the specific evolution of the sales volume, in the first phase each product realises growing earnings which later diminish. Even though there is no consensus in the economic sciences on the number of phases and their exact delimitation, one typically distinguishes periods of market entrance, growth, maturity and regression. Some authors even cite five or six phases. Typically a company has various products on the market at the same time. Usually these products are at different stages in their product cycle. Moreover the length of each phase may vary among the products. The challenge for the company therefore is to manage the phases of the products so that different ones overlap (Meffert 2004; Koppelmann 2001). Building materials age simultaneously. A construction's utilisation cycle starts with its planning and ends with its demolition or liquidation. This cycle can be described in the following way: First, the building is planned and constructed by an investor or builder. During the use phase, maintenance and repairs as well as modernisation and improvements take place in a certain rhythm. There might be changes made in the house and also a change in the use of rooms, even bigger adjustments like changing the ground plan and space modifications, such as extensions. Only a complete reconstruction or demolition marks the end of the utilisation cycle. Similar developments can be observed regarding public spaces, green areas, technical and social infrastructure as well as retail shops. Neighbourhood life cycles Like products neighbourhoods go through cycles of demand. When entering the market, first houses are built and first tenants settle in; during the growth phase, more houses are built until the development of the quarter has been completed and the number of residents is growing; during the maturity phase the neighbourhood is complete and inhabited. The last phase of regression does not necessarily take place, though demand can fall off if there is a sufficient offer of more attractive quarters that are better adapted to the changing needs and demands of potential residents. The consequences may be relatively decreasing rents and real estate prices, vacancies, lack of investment or a decline of the neighbourhood's image. Analogous to the economic product cycle, the demand cycle of neighbourhoods can vary considerably in length. The above mentioned economic, physical and social lifecycles of inhabitants, buildings, infrastructure and demand of the quarter overlap in a neighbourhood, forming the life cycle of the neighbourhood. These different cycles don't necessarily run their course simultaneously, and can differ in length. Nevertheless, particularly their interplay and homogeneous cycles are relevant for life cycle management. The synchronicity of the cycles, meaning a similar time sequence of their phases, is reinforced by the uniformity of the built environment (year of construction, housing type and size of apartments), the use (mainly residential) and the population structure (similar age and family phase or social class) as well as by a similar maintenance of the building (especially wear and tear with low reinvestment). This is particularly true for neigh18
Claudia Dappen et al.: Demand-driven Life Cycle Management of Urban Neighbourhoods
new capital Investments
Sale -> Demolition
Development
Temporary Utilisation Vacancy
Urban planning Information and comunication Economic incentives Cooperative governance
Utilisation
Maintenance Abandonment of utilisation

Demolition of dispensable outbuildings, new heating, measures to save energy etc.
Utilisation marginal Modernisation
Fig. 1: Life cycle of neighbourhoods
bourhoods developed from the 1950s - 1970s. They are likely to show parallel lifecycle frequencies, which, as a result of their overlapping, leads to homogeneous neighbourhood life cycles. They are therefore more likely to face problems of deterioration and reduced demand. The end of their life cycle would make comprehensive renewal necessary (figure: life cycle of neighbourhoods). In contrast, the concept of life cycle management for urban neighbourhoods hopes to keep this in check by employing a preventive strategy of constant urban renewal, prolonging the utilisation phase and ensuring diversification. Older neighbourhoods are sometimes affected by this phenomenon as well, though it is increasingly likely that the different reinvestment strategies and household life cycles desynchronise over the years, leading to less homogeneity of inhabitants and a mixture of old, renovated and new constructions. In order to evaluate the life cycle phases in those neighbourhoods regularly, the research project has developed a monitoring tool. Monitoring In order to face measurable problems early and to provide preventive solutions, one focus of the research is the development of indicators that can be used to describe the different life cycles of inner-city neighbourhoods. The monitoring tool in life cycle management aims at identifying changes in these neighbourhoods at an early stage before deterioration and social developments become problematic. It forms the information basis for continuous management of urban neighbourhoods by the municipality in cooperation with owners and involved parties which would lead to steady urban renewal instead of intervening only when huge problems occur. The monitored area consists of homogeneous neighbourhoods that are delimitated according to urban structure rather than statistic districts. The data is collected from statistical block data. This small scale monitoring is necessary in order to obtain valuable information about neighbourhoods from one building period. The monitoring takes place in two steps. In the first step, all delimitated neighbourhoods from the 1950s 1970s are observed on the basis of key indicators in order to detect changes and evaluate the need for action. It serves to select potential neighbourhoods for life cycle management, either due to problematic tendencies or to specific opportunities that make investments worthwhile. As a basis for this continuous examination the neighbourhood's development in the last ten to fifteen years has to be analysed. In the second step, selected neighbourhoods are subjected to an in-depth analysis involving further indicators and qualitative investigations in order to identify strengths and weaknesses. This information serves to facilitate decision making regarding the selection of strategies, measures and instruments to be employed in the neighbourhood. Indicators for household life cycles Household life cycles can be described by the size and structure of households and the age structure of the population. Focussing on the housing situation, the duration of occupancy is also important. For the neighbourhoods from the 50s - 70s it is particularly relevant if there is a large percentage of first tenants in the dis-
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solution stage, meaning that a generation change of inhabitants would necessarily occur as the inhabitants grow older and presumably a large number of apartments would become empty simultaneously. A long occupancy of an apartment also often means that there have been few investments, as modernisation often does not take place until tenants change. Living space and social infrastructure demands vary in different stages of the household lifecycle. Another aspect that can be observed on the basis of population statistics is the social composition of the neighbourhood. Here, the fluctuation rate, the percentage of people living on income from public sources and the percentage of immigrants can be used as indicators. Indicators for economic life cycles For the investment cycles of buildings the year of construction, the condition and furnishings of the apartments as well as the year of the last modernisation and maintenance investments are relevant indicators. For the evaluation of neighbourhoods, it is relevant if necessary investments have been delayed. Demand indicators include the size and plan of the apartments as well as housing type. The demand cycle of the neighbourhood finds its reflection in rent and real estate prices as well as vacancies. A large part of this data is not available at the municipalities' statistics section, but housing companies usually have extensive data on the housing they offer. Hence one step of the monitoring tool entails establishing cooperation for mutual data exchange between municipality and housing companies. Perspectives The monitoring tool, including the interpretation of key indicators and a possible organisation structure, will be tested in the course of the years 2007/2008 in close cooperation with Gttingen and Kiel. It will be especially important to determine which indicators prove to be the key ones and to what extent the monitoring system can be integrated into existing structures of city planning (for example, the continuation of the housing demand concept or the GIS systems). A further area of focus will be cooperation with local housing companies. It will be examined to what extent they can be part of the project and what kind of significant data and information they can efficiently contribute to monitoring. Bibliography
Glick, P.C. (1974): The Family Cycle, in: American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 12: 164-174. Herlyn, Ulfert (1990): Leben in der Stadt, Leske + Budrich, Opladen. Hhn, Charlotte (1985): Familienzykluskonzept und Kohortenanalyse, in: Zeitschrift fr Bevlkerungswissenschaft, Heft 11. Kemper, Franz-Josef (1985): "Die Bedeutung des Lebenszykluskonzepts fr die Analyse intraregionaler Wanderungen." In: Colloquium Geographicum. Vol. 18. S. 180-212 Koppelmann, U. (2001): Produktmarketing : Entscheidungsgrundlagen fr Produktmanager, Springer, Berlin [u.a.]. Meffert, H. (2004): Marketing: Grundlagen marktorientierter Unternehmensfhrung, Wiesbaden.
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Participatory Urban Planning for Sustainability Egyptian Cities' Profiling as a Case Study
Doaa Mahmoud El-Sherif
Housing and Building National Research Center (HBNRC), Urban Training & Studies Institute (UTI), Egypt doaa_elsherif @hotmail.com
Introduction As part of UN-HABITAT drive to address cities' crisis of rapid urbanization, UN-HABITAT is working with the European Commission (EC) and other partners to support sustainable development around the cities allover the world. Given the urgent and diverse needs, the agency found it necessary to develop a tool for rapid assessment to guide immediate and mid- and long-term interventions. In 2004, UN-Habitat's Regional Office for Africa and the Arab States took the initiative to develop the approach further for application in over 24 countries. This was achieved through collaboration with many departments within the agency. The RUSPS application in Egypt was supported by the Governments of Italy, Belgium, and the Netherlands as well as Cities Alliance, the World Bank, and the German Association for Technological Cooperation (GTZ). (RUSPS) a Participatory Approach for Urban Planning Sustainability Rapid Urban Sector Profiling for Sustainability (RUSPS) approach consists of an accelerated and action-oriented assessment of urban conditions, focusing on priority needs, capacity gaps, and existing institutional responses at local and national levels. The purpose of the approach is to develop urban poverty reduction policies at local, national, and regional levels, through an assessment of needs and response mechanisms, and as a contribution to the wider-ranging implementation of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The approach is a multi-sectoral approach, which profiles the specific urban issues by assessing main sectors of development. The initial RUSPS method concentrated in the core of four sectors: Governance, Slums & Shelter, Environment, and Gender. Later on two other sectors were added in Egypt, namely Basic Urban Services (BUS) and Local Economic Development (LED). In each sector, general background, regulatory framework, institutional set-up, performance and accountability, capacity buildings gaps are assessed and priority needs and projects are revealed. RUSPS is based on analysis of existing data and a series of interviews with all relevant urban stakeholders, including local communities and institutions, civil society, the private sector, development partners, academics, and others. This consultation typically results in a collective agreement on priorities and their development into proposed capacity-building and capital investment projects that are all aimed at urban poverty reduction. RUSPS is being implemented in over 20 African and Arab countries, offering an opportunity for comparative regional analysis. Once completed, this series of studies will provide a framework for central and local authorities and urban actors, as well as donors and external support agencies. Figure (1) shows RUSPS main concept.
CITY LEVEL DEMANDS and NEEDS City Profiles & Consultation
CITY LEVEL CITY LEVEL Synthesis of C IT Y LEVEL local level findings
RESPONSE
CITY POLICIES PROGRAMS& ACTIONS
STAKEHOLDERS
Local Officials, NGOs, Community, Private Sector
NATIONAL LEVEL
Figure (1) RUSPS Main Concept. Source: UN Habitat, 2007
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RUSPS Objectives To help formulate urban poverty reduction policies at the local, national and regional levels through rapid, participatory, cross cutting, holistic and action oriented assessment of needs. To enhance dialogue and raise awareness of opportunities & challenges with the aim of identifying response mechanisms as a contribution to the implementation of the MDGs. RUSPS Methodology RUSPS methodology consists of three phases: Phase one consists of rapid profiling of urban conditions at national and local levels. Representatives of small, medium, and large cities, revealing a wide range of local conditions, are studied to provide a representative sample in each country. The analysis focuses on the six mentioned sectors. Information is collected through standard interviews and discussions with institutions and key informants, in order to assess the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) of the national and local urban set-ups. The findings are presented and refined during city and national consultation workshops and consensus is reached regarding priority interventions. National and city reports synthesise the information collected and outline ways forward to reduce urban poverty through holistic approaches. Phase two builds on the priorities identified through pre-feasibility studies and develops detailed capacity-building and capital investment projects. Phase three implements the projects developed during the two earlier phases, with an emphasis on skill development, institutional strengthening, and replication. RUSPS Application in Egypt Egyptian cities are confronted in the new millennium with the problem of accommodating rapidly growing populations in cities and providing them with tenure, infrastructure, and shelter while ensuring sustainability and enhancing economic growth. RUSPS in Egypt encompasses a national profile, as well as profiles for six cities. The Egypt RUSPS approach started with two cities; Alexandria and Suez. With the contributions of City Alliance and World Bank and the decision to use RUSPS as the front end of Cities Development Strategies (CDSs), RUSPS was conducted in another four different cities. Baltim represents small cities; Tanta represents a Delta City while Rosetta represents cities where cultural heritage is a major issue. El-Menya city represents medium cities along Nile River in Upper Egypt. Each city is published in a separate report which includes a general background, a synthesis of the six development sectors governance, slums, gender, environment, local economic development, and basic urban services and priority project proposals. RUSPS Localization for the Egyptian Context The RUSPS Egyptian team exerted effort to adapt the initial RUSPS Terms of References (TORs), questionnaires and methodology to fit the local Egyptian conditions. This was based on studying and analyzing local concerns. The following points show the evolution of applying RUSPS approach in Egypt: 1. Localization of TORs a. Adding Additional Sectors: RUSPS application in Egypt started with the initial RUSPS four sectors (Governance, Slums, Gender and Environment). As Local Economic Development (LED) is a major concern of the World Bank, the RUSPS team in cooperating with the World Bank, added a LED and Basic Urban Services (BUS) components and a regional perspective to the city. In Rosetta city an additional sector (Heritage) was further required. Figure (2) shows RUSPS initial and added sectors in horizontal arrows, while the vertical arrows show components under each sector in a city profile. b. Localizing Stakeholders (Development Partners): When applying RUSPS methodology, local stakeholders had to be identified in accordance with the Egyptian context. The main four development partners; municipal authority, private sector, local com22
Figure (2) Horizontal Arrows Show RUSPS Initial & Added Sectors, Vertical Arrows Show Components under each Sector in a City Profile Source: Hassan, G, El-Refai, M, 2006
Doaa Mahmoud El-Sherif: Participatory Urban Planning for SustainabilityEgyptian Cities' Profiling as a Case Study
munity, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), were accurately defined for each sector. For example, the local environment department represents the municipal authority for the urban environment sector. 2. Localization of Questionnaires The original interview question guideline was adapted to take into account the unique features of the local context, as follows: a. Under each sector, related questions were separated into four groups of questions. Each group was directed to one development partner. b. Questions directed to local authorities, were divided into separate groups for different local departments. This was done in order to get specific answers from the relevant departments, e.g. environment, social affairs, women affairs, infrastructure etc based on the governmental institutional set up. c. Some questions were added such as questions for city mayor in order to access leadership opinion about problems facing the city as well as its future vision. The reasons for adding those questions were mainly lack of information and poor documentation. d. All questions were translated into native language (Arabic). 3. Localization of Methodology The RUSPS team formulated an easy way to identify priorities, it was important to formulate a rapid way to identify priorities in order to facilitate negotiation between different stakeholders and solve conflicts between them. Each group of stakeholders had possession of one vote in priority selection total agreement reflects first priority of the city. Preparation of Egyptian Cities' Profiles Followed Steps Desk Study Preparation: Conduct a preparatory desk study to get a background about the city from secondary sources such as existing documentation on laws, policies, statistical data etc, Localize Interview Form: Adapt the interview questions to take account of local features, Setting up the Interview: The setting up of the meetings with different stakeholders is the most crucial factor; its objective is not only to gather the necessary information, but also to convince the stakeholder of the use of the project, to involve him/her in the study. During the interviews, the team members used to ask follow-up questions to clarify issues, e.g.: is planning done in a participatory way? If the answer is no, then ask if the public is consulted, if plans are displayed for comments, etc, SWOT Analysis: A SWOT analysis per sector for each city was undertaken by the RUSPS research team based on the results of the interviews, Priority Projects: Priority projects were synthesised and documented per sector by the RUSPS research team and based on the results of the interviews, City Consultation: Results of the SWOT and priority projects for each sector were used as a basis for discussions in cities' consultations with the aim of revising, refining, validating etc, City Profile Preparation: Documentation of revised information and gather all sectors together with city background to finalize city profile. Main Obstacles Faced RUSPS Implementation in Egypt The implementation of RUSPS in Egypt faced many obstacles which differed from city to city; each city faced one or more of the following: Lack of political support of the Governor and/or city mayor. For example, one more city (Port-Said city) was targeted but later on was cancelled due to this obstacle. Lack of transparency resulting in difficulties in obtaining required information especially budget related data from public sector officials. Difficulties in achieving consensus on priority projects between different stakeholders, however, this was solved by the invented easy way to identify priorities as mentioned under method localization. In some cases the team faced difficulties in solving conflicts between stakeholders during city consultation. For example, in Suez city, there was a conflict between local authority and the public concerning the existence or non-existence of water pollution problem. To solve the conflict, the team asked the local officials to provide a recent water analysis, since their denial of the problem existence was based on a 1999 analysis. Lack of awareness of Governance concepts specially "Transparency" between local officials. Misunderstanding the expression shocked one of the city mayors, as the team's request for transparency was as accusing him and his officials to be thieves.
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Opposition of some local officials to the issue of participation of other stakeholders in defining development priorities, as they believe they are capable alone to set development issues. Lack of community and /or NGOs participation in some of the cities' consultations.
Main Driving Factors Supported RUSPS Implementation in Egypt The implementation of RUSPS in Egypt was supported by many driving factors which also differed from city to city; each city had one or more of the following factors: RUSPS Team leader -Habitat Program Manager (HPM) in Egypt- characterized with high awareness, activeness and willingness to support the team in overcoming all the obstacles faced. Arranging start-up meetings with the senior-most political and administrative level to introduce the RUSPS study. Those meetings were very important not only to introduce the approach but also to explain the objectives of the study and the benefits to the involved city itself. Most importantly also to secure commitment among different stakeholders to actively participate in the project. In most cases those meetings were held with the Governor to which the city is affiliated. Good choice of qualified RUSPS team members with high experience in the related sectors besides their good background about participatory planning, Team members showed high level of cooperation between themselves especially in the preparation & implementation of cities' consultations, in information exchange and in finalizing reports, High support from political leaders such as the Governor and/or city mayor. Rashid city profile was prepared based on an initiative from the Governor who contacted of HPM in Egypt and highly supported RUSPS team in performing their role. Main Findings from RUSPS Egypt The implementation of RUSPS in Egypt resulted in many positive outputs: Documentation of current conditions and drawing integrated profiles for a number of cities; this is besides the national Egyptian profile. Defining emerging urban trends for each sector for each city. In addition, common features, urban issues and differences between cities could be understood and analyzed clearly. The cross cutting relationships between different sectors were easily perceived. Different impacts and effects of weakness in one sector became a threat in another and vice versa. This analytical result permits a better understanding of each problem and its complexity. Opening dialogue between the four development partners, which enriched the results of the study. Empowering community participation through involving all stakeholders in defining their actual needs and development priorities. Highlight investment opportunities. References
Rapid Urban Sector Profiling for Sustainability (RUSPS) Initial Terms of References (TORs), United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT), 2004. Hassan, G, El-Refaie, M: "Localization of Rapid Urban Sector Profiling for Sustainability (RUSPS) in Egypt", United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT), 2006. Rapid Urban Sector Profiling for Sustainability (RUSPS) Presentations, United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT), 2007. Author's Personal Experience gained from RUSPS Egypt, Iraq, Sudan and Jordan, 2004-2007.
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Environmental Education for Sustainable Planning and Eco-Friendly Management in the Cortado Lake Park
W. C. Oliveira1, A. H. A. Oliveira2, M. L. Peluso3, L. C. Martins4
1
Departamento de Geografia, 2Instituto de Qumica, 3Departamento de Geografia, 4Decanato de Extenso Universidade de Braslia, Brazil wcandido@solar.com.br
Introduction The spatial organization of the Distrito Federal, with covers an area of 5,789.16 km2, in the Brazilian CentroOeste (Middle-east), was defined due to the building of the Brazilian capital (Braslia), and all this area felt the impact of such action, with its problems and solutions. Thus, we shall start the analysis of the territorial issue by the urbanization process and its territorial implications. The population of the Distrito Federal rose substantially in the first year of the building of the new capital and it is still growing at a very high rate. Some factors explain such growth: the exodus from the countryside caused by the modernization and concentration of farm properties, a marked characteristic of the Brazilian farming structure. The urban population rises steadily in the Distrito Federal a tendency confirmed all over the world what makes more and more poorer people live in substandard conditions in the cities of the district. As a result, there is a rise in the aggravation of environmental problems, more noticeably those related to pollution, forest fires, deforestation of areas next to riverbeds and the degradation of ecological areas of different types. In the Distrito Federal these problems are aggravated due to intense urbanization. The main environmental vulnerabilities of its territory are its water resources, the susceptibility of the soil to erosion and anthropic actions in ecological areas of different types. Thus, the most relevant environmental questions are directly related to the manner of territorial occupation and the lack of adequate infra-structure. Discussion At present, urban growth is moving against the natural environment and the quality of life, be it in the big cities or in smaller towns, in noble or underdeveloped areas; the Capital of Brazil is no exception to this rule. Areas are valorized and occupied by different social classes, and the many plans for organized occupation did not stop preserved areas of the Distrito Federal to be occupied, and a myriad of environmental problems were caused. According to Nelba Azevedo Penna: In Braslia's Plano Piloto, an area privileged by the beauty of its architecture, quality of life, technology and urban design, where aesthetical landscaping substitutes the natural flora, all areas area valorized by its own process which produces its own space occupation. Even in areas surrounding it, less qualified technically and socially (and those which do not have the so-called urban consumption goods: water distribution, electricity, sewage, landline phones, etc.) and those which were not yet occupied rural and environmental reserves have plenty of values that functionally fragment and hierarchies all its territory in an immense urban stretch. (Penna, 2003, p. 57-58). This fast urbanization process reaches the most sensitive environmental areas of the region, specially the irregular occupations, in spite of the planning governmental authorities and the laws governing territorial occupation. So, the lowering of the quality of life is already a fact in the Distrito Federal, as stated by Marta Adriana Bustos Romero: From the 1980's, and specially in the last decade of the 20th century, the actions in the area of the Brazilian capital has intensified the level of environmental damage. At present, the environmental diagnostic shows a critical state in the DF, specially in the urban agglomerations situated in more susceptible areas, where the reduction in the quality of life is more perceptible, due to not only to inadequate urbanization design and poor infrastructure, but also to the continuous degradation process and changing of the local environments. It is possible to observe, then, that a set of factors is responsible for the environmental degradation of the Distrito Federal and that the threat to the water resources is the most visible part of the contradiction between human occupation and the nature. From this point of view, the abundance of water, which was one of the most important points in the choosing of the site for the building of the capital, as it would maintain the water supply for a long period of time, is at great risk. There are also serious environmental conflicts in the use of the soil and the water resources in all water systems within the Distrito Federal. It is possible to succinctly mention some points where the problems have already reached alarming levels, which demand short and medium-term solutions. According to Marilia Luiza Peluso,
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The predatory behavior which characterizes the territorial occupation of the Brazilian capital is neither something random nor typical, but one side of the destructive impetus as regards the nature which has increased drastically, in such a way that social practices, to a certain extent, can be predatory. (PELUSO, 2003, p. 181). Amongst the systemic problems of environmental degradation faced by the DF is the advanced degradation of the Cortado Stream, in the administrative region (Regio Administrativa, RA) of Taguatinga (RAIII). This degradation is the reason for the choosing of the Cortado Stream as the object of research of this paper. Taguatinga is drained by the Cortado Stream and by the Taguatinga Stream, which create the Taguatinga river. It flows to the Descoberto River, in the border between the Distrito Federal and the state of Gois. One of the most important uses of the local rivers is the maintenance of the Green Belt, source of vegetables supplies for the markets of the Distrito Federal. Amongst the rivers/streams of interest for the Water and Sewage Company of Braslia (Companhia de gua e Esgoto de Braslia, CAESB) as sources of water, the most important ones are the Currais Stream and the Pedras River, which are within the area created by the supplementary Law No. 17/97, called the Area of Protection of Water Bodies. Besides, these two water bodies are included in the Area of Environmental Protection of the Descoberto River (APA), which means they are tributary of the Descoberto Lake, responsible for the greatest part of the water supply of the Distrito Federal. Of all the water bodies present in the Administrative Region of Taguatinga, the ones used to received sewage discharge are the Taguatinga River and the Cortado Stream. The Taguatinga River has been monitored by CAESB since 1993, and samples are collected from the river every other month, while in the Cortado Stream, object of study of this paper, there is no such monitoring/ sample collection. There are many other types of environmental degradation near the Cortado Stream. It was verified by visits to the surrounding area that there was widespread deforestation in its riverine forest, and as a consequence, the riverbed is silting up as debris are carried by the rain. Not only the silting, but also the formation of gullies due to the lack of vegetation surrounding the margins of the stream, and changes in the natural environment as the vegetation is being replaced by pasture. This is the most visible portion of the contradiction between human occupation and nature. According the Marlia Luiza, Peluso, The predatory behavior which characterizes the territorial occupation of the Brazilian capital is neither something random nor typical, but one side of the destructive impetus as regards the nature which has increased drastically, in such a way that social practices, to a certain extent, can be predatory. (PELUSO, 2003, p. 181). Methodology Physical, chemical and bacteriological analysis of the water in the Cortado Lake Park had strong traces of pollutants and bacteria considered alarming for a water spring. Analyses were made in three different spots, the first one called Cortado Lake which is the spring water of a small pond within the environmental protection area. The second spot (Cortado I) which is the exit point of a rainwater basin and is also the beginning of another stream which also springs in the park area. The Third and last spot (Cortado II), approximately 50 meters far from the second one, which is downstream in this same stream in an area of dammed water right after a 2-meters-high waterfall, surrounded by riverine forest. There was only one hidrobiological analyses of the site and the physico-chemical and bacteriological monitoring by preset techniques by the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater and by the ABNT (Associao Brasileira de Normas Tcnicas Brazilian Association of Technical Standards). The results are shown in table 1. The data presented in table 1 urge an intensive monitoring of the area, including analysis of the balneability, as the place is opened to the public and available for swimming. According to the bacteria and coliform quantity and associating the observed values on total nitrogen, conductivity and COD (chemical oxygen demand), the presence of wastewater discharges in the water system is evident. This might be done through clandestine rainwater discharge, as the whole area is surrounded by canalized and treated wastewater. After the monitoring to be done during the dry season (April to September), there will be enough data to confirm the nature of these discharges as domestic or industrial, as there are many industries around the park. Conclusion The necessity to create a conscience regarding the causes which provoked the environmental degradation and the possible solutions go through the educational process, having as its goal to create a new attitude in the population and new criteria based on the principles of ecological sustainability. According to Marcos Sorrentino: "[} we must awake in everyone the feeling of belonging, participation and responsibility in the
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W. C. Oliveira et al.: Environmental Education for Sustainable Planning and Eco-Friendly Management
Table 1: Physico-chemical and microbiological results

PHYSICO-CHEMICAL RESULTS
PARAMETER Color pH Turbidity Chloride Hardness Nitrogen (Nitrate) Fluoride emical Oxygen Demand (COD) Magnesium Alkalinity HCO3 CO 2 3 Conductivity Total Nitrogen Total Phosphorus Nitrogen (Ammonia) Nitrogen (Nitrite) issolved Phosphorus UNIT H UT mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L L Cortado L Cortado 13/11/06 8/1/07 2 6,3 2,2 1,20 39 0,168 <0,23 9,08 1,82 35,4 35,4 0,0 89 0,288 0,009 0,047 <0,010 <0,002 3 6,5 1,6 0,9 44,9 0,207 < 0,23 5,9 2,4 41,6 41,6 0,0 106,7 0,471 0,019 0,016 0,003 <0,002 LCortado 7/3/07 3 6,8 0,7 0,98 64,63 0,121 < 0,23 2,1 6,23 45,63 45,63 0,0 86,9 0,347 0,008 0,110 < 0,010 0,002 Cortado I 13/11/06 4 6,5 7,1 13,6 61,3 1,525 <0,23 23,56 3,35 53,5 53,5 0,0 178,5 2,520 0,080 0,432 0,047 0,004 Cortado I 8/1/07 3 6,7 4,9 4,8 55,2 2,576 < 0,23 15,7 2,0 53,2 53,2 0,0 157,3 3,765 0,067 0,056 0,053 0,023 Cortado I 7/3/07 3 6,5 3,2 5,66 74,88 2,85 <0,23 7,4 6,81 55,52 55,52 0,0 172,5 4,258 0,065 0,154 0,122 0,008 Cortado II Cortado II Cortado II 13/11/06 8/1/07 7/3/07 8 7,4 1,2 2,9 32,8 0,956 < 0,23 6,8 1,87 31,4 31,4 0,0 83,9 1,015 0,013 <0,020 <0,010 0,002 3 7,4 1,1 2,2 29,2 1,264 < 0,23 5,3 1,5 31,0 31,0 0,0 93,5 2,410 0,015 0,464 0,011 0,005 3 6,3 1,2 1,85 45,22 1,132 <0,23 2,2 5,27 30,18 30,18 0,0 113,9 1,919 0,011 0,135 0,025 0,005
MICROBIOLOGICAL RESULTS
Total Coliform E. coli
NMP 100 mL
NMP 100 mL
>2419,6 Ausncia
> 2419,6 9,6
>2419,6 8,6
>2419,6 >2419,6
>2419,6 >2419,6
>2419,6 >2419,6
>2419,6 1553,1
>2419,6 >2419,6
>2419,6 >2419,6
search for local and global answers that the theory of sustainable development proposes to us". (SORRENTINO, 2002, p. 19). The lack of discussion of innovative proposals hinders the renewal of our teaching, as education itself must be decisively re-oriented to prepare the present and future generations, finding new possibilities of action. This takes us back to the necessary reflection on the challenges faced when we try to change the manner of thinking and acting towards environmental issues in a contemporary perspective. Just as other areas of social organization, education lives a perpetual process of re-inventing itself. Every attempt at change is full of consensus and contradictions, advances and retreats; and we all must consider the dynamic characteristic of change. The Education Environment relationship takes a more challenging role every day, which demands the appearance of new knowledge to fully understand complex social processes and intensified environmental risks. Environmental education aims at a change in behaviour, development of competences, capacity of evaluation, participation of the learner and it also aims at pedagogical proposals centred at the development of social awareness and interdisciplinary trends; we must mediate knowledge and articulate wisdom, so that all subjects work in mutual cooperation. Environmental education must be a totalizing conception of education, which is possible when it is a result of an organic political-pedagogical project, built collectively from the interaction school-community, and thus articulated with popular organized movements committed to the preservation of life in its deepest meaning. According to Garcia,
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There is no environmental education without political participation. In a society with little democratic tradition like ours, environmental education ought to contribute for the exercise of citizenship, aiming at social transformation. Besides strengthening knowledge on environmental issues, it must also create participative spaces and develop ethical values which can restore humanity to mankind. (Garcia, 1993 apud GUIMARES, 2000, p. 68). The relation between environment and education takes a more challenging role, which demands The Education Environment relationship takes a more challenging role every day, which demands the appearance of new knowledge to fully understand complex social processes and intensified environmental risks. Environmental education aims at a change in behaviour, development of competences, capacity of evaluation, participation of the learner and it also aims at pedagogical proposals centred at the development of social awareness; that is, we must mediate knowledge and articulate wisdom. Bibliography
ALIMONDA, H. Ecologia Poltica: Naturaleza, Sociedad y Utopia. Buenos Aires: Alimonda, 2002. 350 p. BERGER, L. P.; LUCKMANN, T. A Construo Social da Realidade. 24. ed. Rio de Janeiro: Editora Vozes, 2004. 247 p. BOOF, L. Ecologia: Grito da Terra, Grito dos Pobres. Rio de Janeiro: Sextante, 2004, 319 p. GUIMARES, R. P. Desenvolvimento Sustentvel: da retrica formulao de polticas pblicas. In BECHER, B.K.; MIRANDA, M. (org.). A Geografia poltica do desenvolvimento sustentvel. Rio de Janeiro: Editora UFRJ,1997, 13-44 p. PENNA,Nelba Azevedo. Fragmentao do Ambiente Urbano: crises e contradies. In: PAVIANI, Aldo; GOUVA, Luiz Alberto de Campos (org). Braslia: controvrsias ambientais. Braslia: editora UnB, 2003, p. 57-72. PELUSO, Marlia Luiza. Reflexes sobre ambiente urbano e representaes sociais. In: PAVIANI, Aldo; GOUVA, Luiz Alberto de Campos (org). Braslia: controvrsias ambientais. Braslia: editora UnB, 2003, p. 181-196. ROMERO,Marta Adriana Bustos. A sustentabilidade do ambiente urbano da capital. In: PAVIANI, Aldo; GOUVA, Luiz Alberto de Campos (org). Braslia: controvrsias ambientais. Braslia: editora UnB, 2003, p. 241-263. GREENBERG, A.E.. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water & Wastewater, 21st ed. USA: APHA, AWWA, WEF, Centennial edition, 2005.
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The Natural Advantage of Regions: Integrating Sustainability, Innovation and Regional Development in Australia.
Tavis Potts
Scottish Association for Marine Science Tavis.Potts@sams.ac.uk
Introduction As nations and regions change in a globalised economy new debates are emerging about what constitutes effective regional planning and development. Pressures from a shifting and aging population, declining natural resources such as potable water and the impacts of human induced climate change are significant issues for many Australian regions. These issues are placing significant costs and pressures on regional communities and their development potential. Importantly, we must decouple environmental impacts from development processes. This is the notion of sustainable development reducing the ecological footprint from socio-economic activities while simultaneously increasing the quality of life. Governments and academia are increasingly focusing upon the 'region' as a unit of innovation and an appropriate scale to resolve key socio-economic and environmental issues (Martinez and Potts 2005). Changes to regions have advanced rapidly in the last decade, with knowledge-based industries significantly contributing to regional economies, while traditional resource-based and manufacturing sectors are declining or seeking to align with the 'knowledge economy' (Beer et al 2003; Martinez-Fernandez and Potts, 2005). Innovation is recognised as a key driver of growth and hence one of the main contributors to a prosperous region. Industry growth, job creation, and new technology applications have roots in innovative practices. Innovation plays a significant role in delivering solutions for regional development and increasingly, as a means of addressing sustainability issues (Krockenberger 2000). The shift towards a knowledge focus has grown in parallel with the recognition of sustainability as a key element of regional policy (Beer et al 2003). The 'Natural Advantage' is a means of integrating innovation and sustainability in the regional development context. It refers to the advantages and benefits that an organisation, community or government can obtain by applying innovation and sustainability principles and processes to its operations. This paper explores the potential for the 'Natural Advantage' to develop new industries, jobs and markets, promote civic innovation, reduce environmental impact and improve ecological systems. The Natural Advantage manifests in three integrated areas: Policies and initiatives for ecological efficiency, cleaner production and ecological modernisation in industry and government Monitoring and restoration of natural systems and policies contributing to natural capital Innovation, knowledge transfer and partnerships between public and private organisations, communities and the region. A need has emerged for policy innovation in developing knowledge systems and capacity for the development of sustainable industries and business (Hawken et al 1999). This study builds on recent research (MartinezFernandez & Potts 2005) focused upon the Macarthur region in south-west Sydney and highlighted the role of environmental issues in driving regional innovation strategies. The role of the 'innovation ecosystem', consisting of the knowledge economy, socio-economic and environmental dimensions (Martinez-Fernandez & Potts 2005) provides a useful framework to approach the Natural Advantage concept at the regional scale. It is clear that a fresh approach is needed to engage with local stakeholders, provide clear information on the relationships between sustainability and innovation, and progress action at the regional scale. Regions are diverse entities with unique conditions and socio-economic activities; to be relevant the research must fit local and regional contexts. The results from this pilot aim to directly engage with local government and small to medium enterprises (SMEs) to facilitate the natural advantage within regions. This paper highlights the results of a 1 year study on the natural advantage, applying the concept to a case study on the NSW Central Coast region in Australia. What is the Natural Advantage? The Natural Advantage is a recent term that has evolved to capture the mix of strategies, tools, policies and market based approaches that allow the concept of sustainability to be implemented within an organisation or geographic entity and the resulting outcomes and benefits that accrue to the entity and society as a result of this approach. Hargroves and Smith (2005), in the book 'The Natural Advantage of Nations', define the Natural Advantage as: "The multiple advantages a nation can achieve through a whole of society approach to the pursuit of sustainable genuine progress."
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What are the advantages that can accrue to nations? Broadly speaking this can include such issues as improved quality of life and standard of living, improved social services, investment in knowledge and innovation, conservation and restoration of natural capital, productivity gains from maximising resource efficiency, and new industries, jobs and markets in eco-innovations. At the centre of the Natural Advantage concept is the merging of the concepts of sustainability and competitiveness, in particular using the principles of sustainability to drive innovation, design and ecological modernisation through firms and organisations. Partnership is a central feature of the Natural Advantage as success requires a whole of society approach. Partnerships between governments, business, and civil society are required to achieve reforms to make markets work better. The idea for the Natural Advantage was initially conceived at the scale of the nation-state and the firm with a top down approach. This scale is useful because the task of implementing the natural Advantage will require national vision and policy. The application at the firm scale has generally focused on large companies with the capacity to develop broad sustainability strategies. Neglected in the discourse has been the critical role of the region and municipality and small to medium enterprises. For Natural Advantage to succeed across the national scale it must apply strategies that directly relate to regions and SMEs. In developing the markets and demand for sustainable services and products, change must occur at the local level. The top down national and firm approach must be matched by a bottom up local and regional process for success. For small to medium firms and local authorities the Natural Advantage brings a specific set of benefits such as resource productivity across energy, water, inputs and waste, new markets, high quality processes and products, support of local communities, integration of local business needs and local policies, increased social capital, local environmental restoration, increased local branding and identity and leveraging of resources for sustainability strategies and actions. Natural Advantage: A Conceptual Model In order to frame the discussion on applying the Natural Advantage to regional development this discussion paper has developed an explanatory model (Figure 1). The use of a conceptual and explanatory model enables the principles embedded within the natural advantage to be integrated within a local case study, examine the process behind implementation, frame the debate and encourage review and analysis. The model should be refined and changed over time on the basis of the research into the application of the Natural Advantage. The conceptual model has been drafted based on the literature on Natural Advantage and environmental innovation literature. The model has a temporal basis, outlining a series of key drivers and a transformative process over time resulting in Natural Advantage outcomes for a region. The drivers for developing regional Natural Advantage include policy and governance, markets for products and services, environmental innovation and knowledge capacity. The drivers can be seen as the baseline conditions that need to be put in place to initiate the Natural Advantage through a region and engage organisations in capacity building and development. The baseline conditions integrate (over time) through a series of transformative measures. These measures build capacity, share knowledge, and create new opportunities for growth. Sharing of information, expertise and resources and increasing the understanding of the role of different sectors (e.g. community, business, government) leads to new initiatives and outcomes. The outcomes include cleaner production, ecological modernisation, environmental innovation, and industry development the development of regional identity and sustainable regions. The drivers of the Natural Figure 1. The Natural Advantage Model Advantage process, as identified 30
Tavis Potts: The Natural Advantage of Regions
in the literature, represent the integrated issues that must be considered for success in developing Natural Advantage initiatives. Policy, regulation, innovation strategies and 'know how' refer to the actions and instruments that drive integrated sustainability and innovation outcomes for a region and encourage business to invest in the Natural Advantage. Instruments manifest at the local, state and Federal scale and can take the form of regulations, policy, market based instruments, or general advice and strategy. Many existing policies do not target or are not relevant to the needs of SMEs. This paper investigates what is being used (and what could be useful) at the local and regional level to initiate Natural Advantage initiatives. The development of policy instruments to encourage sustainable business and innovation is a critical driver of the Natural Advantage concept. Just as it is important to get the 'carrots and sticks' right in the policy and regulatory environment it is critical to encourage the development of markets for sustainable products and services. This is one of the key challenges facing sustainability and the development of sustainable business. Creation of new markets requires a 'whole of society approach' with the involvement of civil society, business and government, innovation and education. Hargroves and Smith (2005) comment that 'necessity is the mother of invention' and that the increasing pressure upon the planets natural resources is driving innovation in global business. Firms, sectors and nations that miss the next waves of innovation to achieve sustainable development and the natural advantage may risk significant market share and loss of competitiveness (Hargroves and Smith 2005). These issues come together in the transformative measures phase of the model while recognising the 'messy reality' of moving towards the Natural Advantage outcomes. It is not clear (at this stage of the research) what the precise role, extent and influence each of the drivers has in delivering the outcomes. Future research may recast the model as new information and knowledge comes to light. The Natural Advantage: Case Study on the NSW Central Coast The Central Coast region is well placed to initiate a regional Natural Advantage strategy. It is a rapidly growing coastal area on the northern fringe of the Sydney metropolitan region, located 90km north of Sydney and 100 km south of Newcastle in NSW Australia. The region consists of the local governments of Wyong Shire and Gosford City Council, the most populated local government authorities in NSW. The region is characterised by rapid residential growth, sensitive coastal catchments and water resources, and predominantly commercial, retail and service industries (Central Coast ACC, 2004). The Central Coast is recognised for its significant natural ecosystems including coastlines of beach and estuary systems, coastal lowlands with significant wetlands, waterways and forests, valleys and highland systems this representing a significant attractor of residents and business. In 2002 the estimated population was 305 000 with an annual growth rate of 2.1%, higher than the NSW average (Central Coast ACC 2004). By 2021 it is estimated that there will be 368 000 people living on the coast. This growing population has placed pressure on the coastal ecosystems and infrastructure with pressure from land clearing and development leading to problems with eutrophication of estuaries, acid sulphate soils and biodiversity impacts on ecological communities. Recently the Central Coast has experienced a significant water shortage driven by an increasing population and lack of rainfall in the reservoir. The six largest sectors of the economy and percentage of total employment from the 2001 census are retail (17.1%), manufacturing (13.2%), property and business services (11.3%), health and community services (11.1%), construction (11.0%) and government and education (9.2%). Statistics show that industries such as retail, manufacturing, construction, education, health services, business services and accommodation and cafes are on the rise while traditional primary industries such as forestry and mining are on the decline. Employment remains a significant issue on the Central Coast. The total regional labour force was 146 585 in 2003 of which 134 683 were directly employed (ACC 2004). Unemployment in the region was 8.1% compared with a State average of 5.9%. Wyong Shire has an unemployment rate of 10.2% for the period (ACC 2004). A feature of Central Coast employment patterns is that 35 000 workers commute over 2 to 3 hours on a daily basis to Sydney. This creates a range of social, economic and environmental problems. There is a significant opportunity for the Natural Advantage to develop employment opportunities through sustainable industries while minimising the ecological footprint on the central coast. As the demand for employment grows parallel with keeping the natural capital of the region intact, the role of business opportunities in sustainable industries is significant. This has been highlighted in a recent report by the Central Coast Community Environment Network (2005) identifying the key sustainable industries for future development. 13 in-depth interviews were conducted with firms and organisations over the period December 2005 to March 2006. The interviews ranged across a number of industries and small businesses and aimed to answer three questions, based on the Natural Advantage Model: What is the role that the Natural Advantage can play in building local and regional sustainable development?
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What are the activities, drivers and barriers to local business relating to environmental innovation and sustainable business? What are the tools and opportunities that can drive environmental innovation and the Natural Advantage through regions? In terms of the role that Natural Advantage can play in building regional sustainable development, the interviews revealed that local firms from diverse sectors consider themselves as 'sustainable businesses' and recognise that sustainability forms a core part of their day-to-day operations. The majority of participants thought sustainability was 'very important' for their operations. Businesses identified that while sustainability was important, their prime operation was to conduct a successful business and survive in the business. Responses suggest that entry into a sustainable business comes from many sources: traditional trades and small business, concerned citizens, and entrepreneurs. Policy and strategy should be diverse and targeted to encourage the growth sectors into developing sustainability outcomes. The interviews revealed that sustainable business contributes to regional Natural Advantage in several ways. This includes community education, knowledge transfer between business, university and community and the development of markets, products and services. Respondents felt that their impact ranged from minimal to considerable, and most discussed that sustainable business opportunities were emerging but required support, resources and policy development. Some businesses saw themselves educating consumers and the community to make choices towards sustainable products and directly acting as 'agents' for developing markets for sustainability products and services. Other businesses felt their role was limited or the sector did not have critical mass. Several respondents felt that 'something was happening' in the community and in the market in terms of sustainability and that the publicised issues concerning conservation and climate change were partly responsible for this change. Firms and organizations revealed they pursued a variety of cleaner production and eco-efficiency strategies. Some businesses were comprehensive in their approach while others had clear gaps. Firms and organisations developed a variety of products and services (sometimes both) and engaged in activities outside their immediate businesses, e.g. community education and university partnerships. Strategies were driven by regulation, awareness within the firm or organisation, and the perceived benefits of competitive advantage for the business. The key barriers were identified as cost to implement, lack of adequate funding and lack of time. Accessing resources for R&D was cited as a source of difficulty for further development of innovative products and services. In terms of the tools and opportunities that can drive the Natural Advantage through the region, interviewees identified key issues. These included resources and tools for innovation and R&D, development of more effective networks and partnerships between government, businesses, community and universities, closer involvement of local government in the development of sustainable business initiatives, recognition of the role and value of sustainable business as a part of the broader knowledge economy and recognition and support of the role of regulation and policy (including particular initiatives concerning green building) in delivering cleaner production and ecological modernisation across all sectors. All respondents noted that partnerships were a key element of developing business activities and would like to invest more time in the future into partnerships despite their stated time constraints. References
Beer, A., Maude, A., Pritchard, B. 2003. Green Regions, In: Developing Australia's Regions: Theory and Practice. UNSW Press, Sydney. pp218-244. Central Coast Area Consultative Committee (ACC). 2004. 3-Year Strategic Regional Plan. Central Coast ACC Inc. 14pp. Central Coast Community Environment Network (CCCEN) (2005) The Central Coast Sustainable Industries Project: Identification and development of sustainable industries for the Central Coast of NSW. 62pp. Hawken, P, Lovins, A., & Lovins H. (1999) Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution. Little Brown and Company, USA. Hargroves, K. and M. Smith (Eds.) 2005. The Natural Advantage of Nations: Business Opportunities, Innovation and Governance in the 21st Century. Earthscan/James&James. 525pp. Krockenberger, M 'Natural Advantage: A Blueprint for a Sustainable Australia' Australian Conservation Foundation. Available from: http://www.acfonline.org.au/uploads/natural_advantage.pdf Martinez-Fernandez, M.C., & Potts, T. 2005. Innovation at the Edges: The Role of Innovation Drivers in South West Sydney. Sydney, University of Western Sydney: AEGIS.100pp. Available from: http://aegis.uws.edu.au/innovationedges/main.html
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Sustainability concepts and indicators' reflections in the intermediatesized city of Limeira, So Paulo state, Brazil1
Gilda Collet Bruna1, Eunice Helena Sguizzard Abascal1, Anglica A Tanus Benatti Alvim1, Arlindo Philippi Jr2
1
Presbyterian University Mackenzie, 2University of So Paulo gilda@mackenzie.br
Acknowledgments to Mackpesquisa Abstract This paper discusses the transformation of the industrial processes and small and medians enterprises organized on the territory in a flexible way, the Local Productive Groups. It analyzes these Groups forming industrial clusters that are scattered in the urban tissue. Local governments try to control and organize them, proposing structuring industrial districts. But in many cases, public power fails in this goal. The work intend to study this phenomenon through the cases of Franca and Limeira, in Sao Paulo State, Brazil, and objectives to show that is possible to do indicators to measure impacts of these clusters on territory and then know more and better about process, and contribute to planning in the sense of gain sustainability. Introduction With the transformation of the industrial processes, the small and median enterprises organized themselves on the territory in a flexible way, forming Local Productive Groups known as industrial clusters in the international literature. These clusters molded the intermediate-sized cities' urban territories, generating work and income to the local population. The Local Productive Groups were scattered in the urban tissue and the local governments tried in many cases to organize their development master plans, proposing the structuring of industrial districts to receive these Groups. Limeira city is located in the hinterland of the State of So Paulo, Brasil, counting nowadays on a Local Productive Group linked to a growing jewelry and knicks-knacks, which in certain way is being transformed in a very significant sector for the city economy. In this specific case, in contrary position of the city urban policy, the firms didn't want to leave their original locations in the city center to go to the industrial districts both of the public and public sector. As a resulto of this process, the conflicts related to the environment a very visible, mainly em relation to the environmental pollution in reas where the enterprises are located, affecting the population and demanding significant contributions to the urban policy. Based in this specific case, this article objective is to discuss the concept of urban sustainability in cities that count on the presence of Local Productive Groups, thorough some indicators measuring some effects of this relation industrial cluster versus sustainability. Limeira: general indicators The municipality of Limeira lies some 154 km of So Paulo and counts of about 250 thousand inhabitants, occupying privileged position at the main State roads and railways junctions, near the International Aiport of Viracopos in Campinas. Due to this privileged location the municipality is stimulated by the development its industries generate, as well as it receives influence of the Campinas and So Paulo metropolitan regions that impact on the intermediate cities and do condition their urban quality. In the Limeira agriculture sector is peculiar by the sugar-cane production. Since the 1940' s due to the force on the import substitution process of the development national policy, the industrial park developed providing industries of the mechanical sector, paper and cardboard, chemical industries, furniture and jewelry, which specialized labor force give berth to other jewelry industries. Between 1960 and 1970, due to the industrial deconcentration policy promoted by the State Government, the municipality of Limeira starts a process of this industrial park transformation and consequently of its urban environment. Allied to the wideness and diversification of the industrial park, on one side there is a dislocation process of the industries that before were located in the center and near the railway, toward the areas served by the road axes and, on the other side an intense urban area expansion accompanied by the industrial location logic. Also due to this productive structure transformation, the population growth was very intense n the 1970's, at a population median growth rate of 5% a year. It is important to understand that this was not a Limeira particular process, and it was a phenomenon that reached part of the Campinas administrative region municipalities (where Limeira is insert), Santos, Sorocaba and So Jos dos Campos, in a radius of about 150 km of the So Paulo metropolis.
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Nowadays the municipality of Limeira counts on a relatively diversified industrial park with many branches of activities, like paper, packing, agriculture facilities, machines-tools, wheels, systems of brakes and exhaust pipes, among others, marking the presence of large industries like Ajinomoto Interamericana, CTM Citrus S.A., Company Union of Refiners of Sugar and Coffee, Brakes Vargas, Light Metal S A and Ripasa S A Cellulose and Paper, and also the branch of jewelry and knick-knacks. Its population grows in a more moderate rythm (See Table) inclusive due to the own city consolidation in the regional space. Considering this frame some data are fundamental to the understanding of the Limeira position in the State context. In the education item, Limeira counts on an unit of the Campinas State University (UNICAMP), on the SENAI and SENAC (industry and commerce services respectively), contributing to the technical formation on the national industry and commerce services. And in the sector of Health, counts on the services of the Health Unique System and its Basic Units, with four hospitals - two philanthropic and two private ones - working at the epidemiologic and sanitary monitoring, offering integral services to health. The captation and treatment of water in Limeira are done by the enterprise Waters of Limeira, a concession of 30 years, with the supervisiono f the Autonomous Service of Waters (ETA), and the potable water supply reaches 100% of the municipality. The sewer collection reaches 99% of the Limeira municipalities neighborhoods (Plano Diretor de Limeira, 1998), and the city treats partially these wastes. Although the Tatu little river counts on an interceptor in its left edge that takes the sewers until an existing Sewer Treatment Station (ETE), one of the big problems is the dejects quantity that are still laid in the water flow that crosses the city urban area. In other to decrease this problem there is a project to a new Sewer Treatment Station that goes to receive biologic treatment before the flow be conducted to the little river, together the construction of an interceptor at its right edge. With the conclusion of the Tatu ETE the probable reduction of the sewer charge will be of 80%, devolving the water quality to the little river. In relation to the service of garbage collection, this is of about 100% of the dwellings of the city, and the hospitals wastes collection is realized separated from that of the dwellings, searching the land infill as destiny. The industrial waste is on the enterprises responsibility, being 5% treated or stocked by the own generators and 95% disposed in land infills. One indicator considered fundamento to measure the quality of the development is the Human Development Index -IDH, that since 1980 is growing from 0.726 to 0.781 in 1991 and reaching 0.814 in 2000, and indicator equal to median of the State. In a general way this indicator demonstrates that Limeira excel in the items of education, health, and income, being positioned among those urban areas of high human development. Nevertheless as this is an indicator of wide scope, it is not possible to measure the main aspects that are related to sustainability of the environment of Limeira city conditioned, in the specific study, by the presence of the Local Industrial Production Group of jewelry and knick-knacks. The Local Productive Group of jewelry in Limeira and the public policies running Looking at the city urban development it is seen that the industrial transformation processes had influenced the small and media enterprises. If in the past the fordist production type had centralized and made operational all the production in the enterprise occupying huge urban areas and generating a significant quantity of jobs, recently the transformation of this productive sector leaves place to the flexible industrialization, in which the production comes to be done in a very decentralized way. Therefore the urban land occupation comes reorganizing itself and as soon as new industrial groups are taking form, other impacts effects are being felt. In this new model the industries fire their workers (spin-off) and diminishes the contract of the labor force, stimulating each time more the establishment of median and small enterprises (National Government Association, 2002 e Paladino, 2005 apud Bruna et al., 2006). Part of this new production process, the Local Productive Groups characterize themselves by enterprises that are organized within the same productive chain or complementary productive chains and their relations in form of cooperation generate positive synergy to the entrepreneurial environment, so that they contribute to an improved insertion in the global market, worldly competitive. Theoretically it is supposed there is a partnership between the public and private sectors, innovation and technological diffusion that are, by their turn fundamental elements to the formulation of sustainable strategies. Thus it constitutes a collective identity and of expectations of social and economic development in the local influence. It is seen that this new production process comes to have strong influence in the market, both local and international, providing the more flexible and innovators firms development, and, therefore, more quick facing the new need of a global world (Galvo, 2000, apud Bruna et al., 2006). Accompanying the reorganization of the Local Productive Groups process in the urban areas the attention turned to the implementation of measures to minimize the impacts of these groups and other configurations as well as toward the own degradation of the obsolete industrial structures. In parallel, related to the impact of the productive in the environment, specific legislations of air, water and soil pollution control are being imple34
Gilda Collet Bruna et al.: Sustainability concepts and indicators' reflections
mented, more in the sense of remedying the conflicts due to these impacts than to develop programs for rehabilitation and control of the total community environmental quality. In Limeira the production of jewelry and knick-knacks since the end of the 1990's becomes an important sector, because it generates work as well as increases the local population income and the city visibility in the international market. Such enterprises organized in Local Productive Groups or not, are located, preferentially, in the central areas, or residential neighborhoods of median and low pattern, employing part of the population that lives there. Besides, as this is a new alternative in the work market, informal enterprises are organized in the backyards without a minimum of control of their impacts. Linking to this, the 1998 zoning law even with its restrictions allows in some places to build enterprises of this sector, contributing, in the case of the popular neighborhoods, to stress the impacts. Due to this process, conflicts related to the environment are very well visible especially in relation to the environmental pollution; mainly the soil and river pollutions resulted of the emission of the industrial wastes in the sewer or in the curb of the sidewalks. The enterprises of the jewels and knick-knacks have their impact as they are sprawled in the central areas and their surroundings, and at the same time they bring urban vitality, however they consume energy and water and their residues are toxic and the dejects are out of control, affecting the local sustainability: the galvanic residues are highly pollutants and if not handled correctly can bring serious environmental risks. And the firms of coating are responsible for the water pollution, consuming big volumes of water, with toxic effluents containing copper leave, silver, nickel, cadmio and gold (REQUENA, 2006). These processes are related to the soil pollution, air and rivers, energetic expenses, emission of dejects and galvanic residues, visible presence of these dejects in the curb of the side walks and in the urban landscape constitute reality that needs to be evaluated, and so it would be possible to generate indicators for the analysis of the sustainability problems of the municipality in focus. The elaboration of these indicators, in this specific case, should then constitute a consistent base of argument favoring the occupation of the Industrial Districts, which function is to concentrate the activities, and thus controlling the effects of their location. The construction of the industrial districts is a recent policy of the Municipality Public Power that starts the implementation of a process f control of the polluted agents. This local urban policy has been incentivated through the reduction of 75% of the Urban Territorial Property (IPTU) Tax during ten years, in any location, be at the six industrial districts proposed by the private sector, be at 3 proposed by the municipal power, all of them strategically located near the state roads. Nevertheless this alternative was in vain, once the sites for this purpose had not been occupied. Then, there was only a Technological Park implemented at the edges of dos Bandeirantes road, in partnership with the state universities - UNICAMP and UNESP - that should count on a structure of enterprises incubator. Two of these industrial districts had been proposed for the location of the jewels and knick-knack cluster, notwithstanding they didn't have success, as these industries don't want to leave out their own occupation now strongly spread in the urban tissue. There is thus, a misunderstanding with the local urban policy that regulates and controls the land uses. The location of this industrial sector in industrial district would facilitate the environment control once the public power would take care of the residues treatment, as they are pollutant material. The municipality Master Plan searches to formalize the share of the jewels and knick-knack sector on the municipality economy, as an issue of legalization, in relation to the water resources management system, reinforcing the need of an environmental management integrated in the region. Concerning the public power control, the State counts on controller's agencies like the Enviromental Sanitation Technology Company (CETESB), THE Chemical Regional Council (CRQ), the Brazilian Institute of the Environment and Renewable Resources (IBAMA), the The Firemen Agency. Nevertheless, even this type of control finds difficulties due to the existence of many informal firms that participate in this productive process. Aiming to control these productive processes, the CETESB administrates in Limeira a pilot project in order to implement the Clean Production, in partnership with some voluntary industries. With this program it searches to control the pollutants production and reduce the consumption of resources, sending back to the public water network that water used in the process of coating, and after treatment, reuse the resources like copper and provide final destination to the pollutant residues, trying to teach the smaller firms the techniques utilized. Discussion and final considerations In a general way, new productive configurations are generating various opportunities to the population that suffers even more with the uncertainties of the industry and the economic market. Mainly they generate opportunity of insertion in the work market and the formation of new entrepreneurs who see in the Local Productive Groups the reason of a better articulation to face concurrence. In the specific case studied, the crafts activities of the jewel and knick-knack industry allow to employ a less qualified labor force besides widening the opportunities for the small entrepreneurs.
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Considering the above mentioned, it is important to strengthen the Local Productive Group, as it is generator of jobs and also makes concentrations in the city, involving a significant population part in the productive process. The informal level of services still is elevated and this is due to the fact that part of these workers is of women who don't leave their houses and domestic works and accumulate both, arriving thus to improve the family income. In environmental terms, the presence of a productive process highly polluter demands more control being done by the entrepreneurs and the public power, what shows the advantages of the industrial districts location, offering systems of treatment of pollution and avoiding its spreading. Therefore, the projects to these areas need to balance the organization of the territory through the Municipality Master Plan, according to the legislation in vigor, but also balance and evaluate with precision the environmental problems, i.e., include the industrial residues treatment in its actions, enabling access and monitoring. Therefore it is important to acknowledge the need of local urban projects supported by analysis of indicators. In summary it is possible to say that the cooperation among entrepreneurs and the public power action to help the informal firms to regulate their work - what is being done through the state agencies and municipal secretariat, with the application of public policies of location and land use and occupation control - can contribute to improve the environmental sustainability indicators in relation to the Local Productive Groups of Jewel and knick-knack in Limeira. Finally, these new processes of production structured on the territory are of most importance to face the economic crisis of today, as na improvement of the population income. Nevertheless, it is detached that this processes should be better articulated to a wide vision of the environment and to a group of policies, in special the environmental urban and the economic development ones, that together should contribute to the improvement of the life quality in the cities. Bibliographical references
ALVIM, A. A. T. B. ; KATO, V. R. C.; BRUNA, G. C.. A Influncia dos princpios Modernos nos Planos Urbansticos Recentes: o caso de Limeira no estado de So Paulo. Anais do III Seminrio Docomomo Estado de So Paulo. So Paulo, 2005. BRUNA et al. Estruturao Urbana e Arranjos Produtivos Locais: identificao e anlise das relaes entre processos sociais, efeitos espaciais e polticas urbanas atravs de estudo dos casos das cidades de Franca e Limeira no Estado de So Paulo. So Paulo: Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Pesquisa realizada na Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Faculdade de Arquitetura e Urbanismo, auxlio financeiro do Fundo Mackpesquisa, 2006. CAMPAGNONE, M. C. 1999. Gerente municipal: um profissional da gesto local. P. 25 - 38. In CEPAM. O Municpio no Sculo XXI: Cenrios e Perspectivas. So Paulo: Cepam. GALVO, O. J. de A. 2000. Clusters e Distritos Industriais: Estudos de Casos em Pases Selecionados e Implicaes de Poltica, in Planejamento e Polticas Pblicas N 21. Disponvel em www.ipea.gov.br acesso em 08/03/05. IGLIORI, Danilo Camargo. Economia dos Clusters Industriais e Desenvolvimento. So Paulo: Iglu: FAPESP, 2001. NATIONAL GOVERNMENT ASSOCIATION. A Governor's Guide to Cluster-Based Economic Development. Washington D.C: NGA, ISBN: 1-55877-356-8, 2002. PALADINO, Gina G. e MEDEIROS, Luclia Atas (Organizadoras). Parques Tecnolgicos e Meio Urbano. Artigos e Debates. Braslia: ANPROTEC, 1996. PID. Programa de Incentivo ao Desenvolvimento. Prefeitura Municipal de Limeira, SP. Secretaria Executiva de Governo e Desenvolvimento. Mover as Peas com Sucesso nos Negcios Escolher um Local Adequado para sua Instalao. Limeira. SP: Prefeitura, 20042004. REQUENA, Wendie Piccinini. O papel do APL de jias e bijuterias no desenvolvimento urbano de Limeira - SP. So Paulo: Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Pesquisa realizada na Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Faculdade de Arquitetura e Urbanismo, auxlio financeiro do Fundo Mackpesquisa, 2006. SAMPAIO, S. E. K. Sistemas locais de produo: estudo de caso da industria de jias e bijuterias de Limeira (SP). Trabalho de Iniciao Cientfica. Universidade Estadual de Campinas - Instituto de Economia. 2002. SASSEN, Saskia. As cidades na economia mundial. So Paulo: Nobel, 1998.
________________________________________________ 1 Part of the research "Urban Structure and Local Productive Groups: identification and analysis of relationships between social processes, spatial effects and urban policies trough cases' study of the median cities of Franca and Limeira, in Sao Paulo's state", realized in Presbyterian Mackenzie University, Architecture and Urbanism School, with financial help of Mackpesquisa Found, between 2005's January and 2006's February.
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The Principles of Environmental Substainability Applicable to Urban Design Settlements: condominium located in the Federal District of Brazil and inside the Paranoa Environmental Protection Area
L.M.S Andrade & M.A. B. Romero
University of Braslia, Brazil lizaandrade@uol.com.br
Abstract This study aims to contribute to the development of sustainable environment principles which could aid in settlement design in environmentally sensitive areas based on data obtained from environmental impact studies in order to coherently meet current legal requirements. For this, the study investigated how ecological principles can become guidelines for the construction of sustainable communities, appropriate for the design of urban settlements through the principles of environmental sustainability, for example, features of sustainable community development. by Dauncey and Pecky: ecological protection; density & urban design, urban Infill; village centres; local economy ; sustainable transport; affordable housing; livable community; sewage & stormwater, . water; energy and the 3 'R's political. Afterwards, a method and procedure was established for the design of a condominium located in the Federal District of Brazil and inside the Paranoa Environmental Protection Area (APA do Parano). This method and procedure had been developed in the Urban Design Studio course at the School of Architecture and Urban Planning of the University of Brasilia. Considering that urban design is part of the planning process, the environmental sustainability principles should be considered together with strategies and specific recommendations as techniques, in a dynamic interrelationship. Introduction The urban settlements are inducers of global alterations, thus, the way they have been developing will entail the instability of the human habitat once they are areas of low productivity of food, recycling of water and minimal inorganic materials, which provokes pollution of air, soil and water. However, at the same time, they also function as a very attractive center of opportunities for people, tending to grow unsustainably, especially in developing countries which haven't yet solved the social inequities with the environmental sanitation. According to Wackernagel and Rees (1996) the current level of consumption of the human beings seems to reach the maximum level of Earth's support capacity, already exceeding in 30% the ecologically productive area available. Also according to Dias (2002), the cities occupy approximately 2,5 % of the planet's surface, but consume 75% of its resources. In this context, according to Rueda (2000) and later worked by Romero (2006), there is the need to visualize the cities as a system, where all the parts are not only interconnected and interdependent, but also dependent on life support systems, such as the natural ecosystems, because of the flow of energy and natural cycles within a biophysical structure. The direct application of the ecological principles outlined by Capra (2002) in the reformulation of the fundaments of our communities is a way of overcoming the barriers which separates the human ecosystems from the ecologically sustainable systems from nature. Another alternative is Mollisson's principles of Permaculture (1998) which, derived from the application of ecology and ethics, stimulate the creation of evenly productive environments, rich in food, energy, shelter and other needs (material or non material), that include social and economical infra structure. It is a new way of developing life standards based on nature standards, used by communities that live sustainably, the Ecovilas. However, according to Andrade (2005), although they contribute to the establishment of basic principles for the human settlements, most of these Ecovilas are located in the country side, where the problems and challenges are quite different from those in the urban space because of the density. The model that best fits to take advantage of the entropyis the compact and diverse city. The proximity of the structural spatial elements such as housing, work place, services and equipments, favors the optimal use of space, the rational use of the natural zones and the efficient organization of the public transportation. Register (2002) believes it is by comprehending the city anatomy, that meaning, the land use and the urban infrastructure, that one can find the path to design and organize Ecocities, associating the urban design to the impact reduction strategies of the infrastructure systems. The same way the definition of environmental quality standards is usually translated in norms/rules, in this specific situation, it can be listed in sustainability principles applicable to the urban design, developed by Dauncey and Peck (2002) and later worked by Andrade (2005) such as: ecological protection (biodiversity), increasing urban density; urban revitalization; implementation of neighborhood centers and development of
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local economy; sustainable transport implementation; economically; affordable housing; communities with a sense of neighborhood; alternative sewage treatment; natural draining; integrated water management; alternative energy sources; policies based on the 3 Rs (reduce, reuse and recycle). The procedures developed and adopted at the "Ateli de Desenho Urbano " (Urban Design Studio) from the Post Graduation program at the Faculdade de Arquitetura e Urbanismo (Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism) from the University of Braslia, in 2003, aimed to apply the environmental sustainability principles to the amplified planning of the Sub basin of the Ribeiro do Torto, resulting in a urban settlement in the region. Methodology: Application of Principles The reason for choosing the place was the potential of the region to become one of the significant points for polarizing the regional services and commerce, due to the increase in urban density foreseen to the central north portion of the federal district. This is a result of the regularization and urbanization of the middle class condominiums, as well as the increased density proposed to the lower class irregular settlement called Vila Varjo. The main objective of the urbanistic interventions was to create a sustainable condominium which acted as a space for spreading the conjectures of the sustainable urban development to its surrounding areas, playing a relevant role in the process of social-spatial integration of the region. An incentive to the sense of neighborhood and communitarian alliances was proposed by means of public spaces which propitiated the social interaction. Although it is known that the spatial configuration is by no means a determinant of the social relations, it is also understood that it isn't a neutral and passive instance. Based on the collected information - having as planning focus the hydrologic unit of the sub-basin of Ribeiro do Torto, located in the proximities of the Chapada da Contagem - an environmental diagnosis of the place was carried out, along with an analysis of the conflicts or the problems of the physical, biotic and anthropic environments, followed by the proposition of guidelines. Ecological strategies were established before reaching the sustainability principles applied to the urban design. They were based, firstly, in the ecological principles of Capra (2002): nets, cycles, solar energy, alliances, diversity and dynamic balance. Later, the environmental resources and the necessary (urban conception) strategies were assessed so that the sustainability principles could be translated into design techniques according to Dauncey and Peck (2002), in order to reduce the significant and long reaching impacts in the economical, social and environmental aspects. Considering that urban design is part of the planning process, the environmental sustainability principles should be considered together with strategies and specific recommendations as techniques, in a dynamic interrelationship. (Table 1) The proposed urban land division presented controlled dimensions and typological diversity as, for example, economically feasible housing - unifamiliar and twin houses - as self sufficient as possible in terms of energy, water, recycling and feeding. Displacements on foot and by bicycle were incentivated in the project to reduce the use of private automobile. Public spaces destined to the treatment of rainwater and sewage by means of Anaerobic Reactor of Ascending Flow associated to a cultivated bed of superficial flow (wetlands) are also part of the urban design. Final Considerations After analyzing some studies of environmental impacts for the area, it was observed that they were only a gathering of data about the place to be implanted and mitigating solutions, distant from solutions applied to the urban design. One would expect that, from the interface of information from physical, biotic and anthropic environments, alternative solutions would appear for the urbanistic projects proposed for the area. As the urbanistic projects were developed before the evaluation of impacts, there is a tendency to maintain the traditional forms of design, many times due to lack of knowledge of ecological solutions, or even to the option of adapting solutions, seeking to accelerate the approval of the process for the entrepreneur - which many times is meaningless, given the slowness of the approval processes. In this sense, if the impacts were studied and analyzed prior to the urbanistic projects, they could contribute with the establishment of strategies and principles, once socio-environmental characteristics are diagnosed by multidisciplinary professionals. It was also verified that, when the unit of urban planning is considered a hydrologic unit (as it was the case of the sub - basin of Ribeiro do Torto), The immediatist view of the problems is surplaced by one of the long term, once immediate punctual measures may compromise the efficiency of the hydrographic basin. In conclusion, the sustainability principles associated to the urban morphology can guide directly the design of implantation and recovery of urban communities in several levels, even if those principles are not relevant to the overall enterprise, once they form a systemic and integrated structure, and contribute to the implementation of sustainable urban assentamentos. 38
L.M.S Andrade & M.A. B. Romero: The Principles of Environmental Substainability
Table 1 - Sustainability Principles used in the application of the urban land division (Andrade, 2005)
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Tab1: cont.
Bibliography
ANDRADE, Liza Maria Souza de. Agenda verde X Agenda marrom: inexistncia de princpios ecolgicos para o desenho de assentamentos urbanos. Dissertao de Mestrado PPG-FAU/UnB. Braslia, 2005. Disponvel em < http://www.unb.br/fau/pesquisa/sustentabilidade > CAPRA, Fritjof. As conexes ocultas, cincia para um vida sustentvel. So Paulo: Pensamento/Cultrix, 2002. DAUNCEY, Guy e PECK, Steven. 12 features of sustainable community development: social, economic and environmental benefits and two case studies in susteinable community development in Canada. Disponvel em < http://www.peck.ca/nua/ > Acesso em: 15 de novembro de 2002. DIAS, Genebaldo Freire. Pegada ecolgica e sustentabilidade humana: as dimenses humanas das alteraes ambientais globais - um estudo de caso brasileiro (como o metabolismo ecossistmico urbano contribui para as alteraes ambientais globais). So Paulo: Gaia, 2002. MOLLISON, Bill. Introduo permacultura. Braslia: Fundao Daniel Efraim Dazcal,1998. REGISTER, Richard. Ecocities, building cities in balance with nature. Berkeley: Berkeley Hills Book, 2002. ROMERO, Marta. O desafio da construo de cidades. Revista arquitetura e urbanismo - AU, Ano 21 n 142, janeiro de 2006. RUEDA, Salvador. Modelos de ciudad: indicadores bsicos y las escalas de la sostenibilidade. Barcelona: [s.n.]. 2000. Quaderns - D'arquitetura e urbanismo - Collegio D' Arquitetos de Catalunya. WACKERNAGEL, Mathis e REES, William (1996) - Our Ecological Footprint - Reducing Human Impact on the Earth -, New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, British Columbia, Canada
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The significative value of protected areas for the sustainable urban planning: a case study in the metropolitan region of Campinas/So Paulo
Maria Helena F Machado
Faculdade de Arquitetura e Urbanismo da Pontifcia Universidade Catlica de Campinas, Brazil lenafm@uol.com.br
Introduction: Campinas Metropolis The metropolitan region of Campinas - RMC, is today one of most important in the national scene from the point of view of its insertion in the current economic dynamics. The Campinas Metropolis, regulated by law in 2000, is formed by 19 cities, counting with 2.3 million inhabitants, being responsible for approximately 10% of the National Gross product. Interconnected with the metropolis of So Paulo (100 km away) and other developed southeastern vectors of the country by the means of its complex highway system, it is an extremely industrialized region. The strategical localization of the RMC in the state urban net in such a way differentiates itself from other areas of So Paulo State, both for the diversity of its industrial park and the intense agroindustrial activity - especially sugar, alcohol and citrus production - of its surroundings. Its modern tertiary has a regional influence as important scientific and technological centers, medical complex and wholesale business. Despite the polarization exerted by the city of Campinas - with approximately one million inhabitants -, the RMC is composed by a group of cities with different degrees of urbanization and industrialization, very uneven life quality indexes and different types of environmental risks. The existing conurbation --mainly in the road axles of regional connection-is being modified in its landscape and territorial configuration. In this region, agricultural areas have been absorbed by urban and industrial activities where the environment is quickly transformed by the construction of horizontal high-class condominiums, social housing, and illegal human settlements. Also, along the main road axles we can find: shopping centers, industrial districts, leisure parks, etc...The lack of adequate treatment of urban sewage endangers the quality of fluvial waters used to supply the entire region. The precariousness of public transportation system to attend metropolitan scale stimulates the use of automobiles and increases air pollution. Added to these factors one may also notice the absence of municipal or metropolitan parks and scarcity of urban vegetation, green belt or natural vegetation. Finally, it is a distinguishing fact that this region has been developed from the steppingstone of fertile lands and abundance of water; these resources are currently compromised by the lack of protection mechanisms and the excess of domestic littering and by the urbanization pressure onto rural areas. Moreover, despite the presence of a great concentration of skilled and specialized workmanship, the technological changes in the industries have increased the level of unemployment and urban violence1. It is in this context that the creation of the EPA - Environmental Protection Area of Souzas and Joaquin Egdio, in Campinas municipality is something to be considered as remarkable. As it will be mentioned further on in this paper, this category of protected area can be used as an instrument of territorial planning. For better understanding, it is necessary to briefly describe the National System of Protected Areas where the EPA category is included. The Brazilian National System of Protected Areas The National System of Protected Areas is an institutional landmark in the context of increasing urbanization and industrialization processes which have taken place since the late 1950's decade. Between the fifties and the eighties, the territory occupation prompted by the government privileged the great enterprises in order to integrate the national territory. The continental dimension of the country, its regional disparities, the diversity of its ecosystems, the rarefied human occupation in some of its regions were the main challenges in the long path towards modernization. There was resistance to this process within the society and since the end of 1970 decade social movements have steadily arisen to fight against what was considered by many a predatory mode of territorial appropriation. It is also necessary to point out the importance of the environmental movements and its pressure for the establishment of a National Agency and the National Environmental Policy. Although unable to count on broad human and financial resources and posing limited political influence in the economic development policies in the late 1970's, the Special Secretary of Environment was strategic for the advance of the conservation in Brazil, creating new modalities of protected areas that would be consolidated decades later. The first steps to organize the National System of Protected Areas - NSPA were built under the International Union for Conservation of Nature -IUCN's influence. This agency published in 1979 the first version of a Plan for the Brazilian System, defining the national objectives and the criteria for implantation of new protected areas. It also considered the different degrees of protection and the possibility of population's maintenance (traditional, indigenous, quilombolas) in some of those areas. In 1981, the National Policy of Environment was
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finally instituted to formulate instruments and rules for the governmental action and to guarantee to the Brazilian society "the right to a balanced environment", that would be consolidated, later on, in the Brazilian Constitution of 1988. Among others, one of its main instruments2 was the creation of protected areas. Since de 1990's the main changes have occurred in relation to the management of the protected areas, most of them under governmental trust. It is common sense nowadays that the participation of the involved communities directly in the protected areas and also that governmental funds be applied in order to create, support and supervise the conservation goals are necessary to the main objectives of sustainable development. The NSPA was finally approved in 2000, twenty years after its first formulations. There were many social groups, political parties and governments opposing this law, in special the ones with economic interests (such as land owners, wood and mineral explorers, the agribusiness sector, etc.). Thus, those were the reasons for the long time spent in accomplishing all these interests. In this sense, the postponement of its approval has allowed the incorporation of contemporaneous visions on heritage at the same time that has set up the peculiarities of Brazilian reality. They are relative to the size of the country, to the amazing biodiversity, to the population mobility and the enormous differences of income between the poor and the rich, to the conflicts of land use and land property, to the soil mineral resources and flora riches, etc. The Brazilian System included all kinds of protected areas that had been already instituted along time and also created some new ones. It is divided in two groups: a) the Strict protected group and b) the Sustainable use group3 that can be instituted by Federal, State and Municipal governmental level. As one can notice, the first group is related to the public areas specially related with scientific research, environmental education, historic meanings and unique sites and landscapes' preservation. The second group gathers public and private lands and population occupation, under rules, depending of the objectives of which category4. The EPA - Environment Protection Area of Souzas and Joaquin Egdio's characteristics. The EPA of Souzas and Joaquin Egdio was created in 1993 by a municipal decree as an instrument of Campinas City Environmental Policy. Its main objectives are: "1) the protection of the used water sources for public supplying, specially the contribution basins of the rivers Atibaia and Jaguari; 2) the conservation of the natural, cultural and architectural heritage of the region, aiming at the improvement of population's life standards and regional ecosystems; 3) the control of the urbanizing pressures and 4) to restrain any economic activity that may knock against the conservation goals (Law n 10.8950/2001). Located in the northeast quadrant of Campinas City, its area is predominantly agricultural and corresponds to 27% of the total area of Campinas, where about 30.000 inhabitants are distributed in two districts: Souzas and Joaquin Egdio. The EPA presents a dense drainage net, whose springs and water courses feed the main rivers of the region - the Atibaia and the Jaguari - which, besides delimiting the territory of the EPA, are the main sources for supplying about 90% of Campinas City population and other cities of the metropolitan region. Important route for the penetration into the interiors of Brazil by the bandeirantes in the XVIII century, this region was initially occupied by large sugar cane farms that later were transformed in coffee fields. With the arrival of the railroads in the XIX century for the draining of the agricultural production, two railroad branches were built, as there is only one - which cuts the EPA in the northwestern direction - which is still in operation for touristic purposes. From the point of view of the historical process of territorial occupation we distinguished the strong presence of the Italian migration during the Coffee golden period, whose marks in the religious and social traditions can be seen until today. Its innumerable farmhouses still well preserved can identify the colonial past of this region. They compose a unique rural architectural heritage and thus a testimony of the agricultural production that projected Campinas in the national scene. Beyond this rural architectural heritage of the old farmhouses and the railroad stations, bridges and tracks, we can highlight the urban nucleus of the districts of Souzas and Joaquim Egdio which, despite the magnifying of the urban perimeter and the raising of innumerable land divisions for high income condominiums since the 70's, it keeps, in its original nucleus XIX century constructions, some restored and put under governmental trust. The dismemberment of old farming lands into allotments for leisure ranches and housing, later transformed radically the landscape of this area, which reinforced the governmental proposal to transform it into an EPA, whose rules for urban development will be detailed further on. It is necessary to point out the significance of the forested covering still remaining due to the characteristics of rural land uses. In the context of development and urbanization of Campinas's metropolis where the original vegetation of Atlantic Forest was nearly totally devastated, the importance of this region must be detached. Of 2,5% of original vegetation that still remains in the city of Campinas, 60% is found in this EPA. Even though they are distributed in a discontinuous form, most of the important and significant remnants are within private farms but doubtless they represent an enormous heritage value for the maintenance of good standards of life for the entire population of Campinas municipality.
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Maria Helena F Machado: The significative value of protected areas for the sustainable urban planning
EPA - Environment Protection Area as a sustainable planning instrument As we pointed above, the EPA - Environment Protection Area is one of the categories of the current National System of Protected Areas5. However, though its objectives are wide enough, there are rules and restrictions related to the use of its territory such as: 1) the implementation and the operation of potentially polluting industries, capable to affect water sources; 2) the accomplishment of embankment and the opening of canals, which may cause sensible alteration of the local ecological conditions; 3) activities capable of provoking land erosion or accumulation of sand in the hydrographic web; 4) the implantation of activities that threaten to extinguish rare species of regional biota. EPA category does not necessarily imply in land expropriation, being able to enclose the set or part of one or more cities. After National System of Protected Areas' regulation, it turned out compulsory to all EPAs to have a Management Plan and a Managing Committee. The Management Plan shall contain the zoning of the area forbidding or limiting economic activities - in the rural as much as in the urban ones - that may promote alterations in the local environmental conditions. Therefore, it must preserve the natural, historical, cultural and landscape attributes that originated its implantation6.The Managing Committee of the EPA is based on a shared and participative approach as it has the responsibility to implement the management plan. Therefore, it has to be constituted by the representation of the public institutions, landowners, NGOs - non governmental organizations, universities that develop scientific research, that is, all the social segments that make use of that territory. Its attributions, beyond the supervision of the general rules (determined by the instrument itself, as seen above) are: the elaboration of programs and projects that aim at the sustainable development of the EPA, the hierarchizing of problems and their solutions, and also, the management of financial resources (when existing) to work out the defined programs or raise funds to achieve them. Hence, the EPA can be considered an instrument of planning as it estimates rules for land uses considering both environment limits and potentials, to promote sustainable development. Also, considering the enlargement and renewing of state planning nowadays, this instrument comes near to the new approaches of integrated conservation of assets related to the urban planning and urban renewal, facing sustainable strategies for restoring historic heritage. Both approaches -based on either environmental or historic revitalization concepts - differ basically from the emphasis on economic values that have priority in territorial planning - urban and regional - in the 1960's and 1970's decades. Therefore, those approaches admit that the territory is configured historically by its environmental and socio-cultural characteristics that transform landscapes. Conclusions The creation and the implementation process of EPA Souzas and Joaquin Egdio are very significant and show out the potentials of this instrument to preserve this area and to experiment new tasks for planning the Campinas metropolis. The peculiar and unique characteristics of this area, as shown, keep important testimony of the colonial period and at the same time of the natural resources and rural activities that need to be conserved for the sake of the sustained development of Campinas and surroundings. The Managing Committee of this EPA, with its representations (NGOs, public universities, agencies, land owners, etc...) is an example of the recent changes that lead to the empowerment of local communities. As it is a recent process, one can foresee all the dissimilarities among social agents represented in the Committee, such as the predominance of consolidated economic and political interests. The scarcity of public funds for supervision and programs aiming the preservation of environmental resources, cultural heritage and projects to rehabilitate the historic architecture as well as to promote the conservation of the water sources is also remarkable. At last, it is never too much to point out that, despite the increasing and necessary participation of the civil society in the management process, the important role of the governmental institutions in the decision to implement and manage the protected areas. After all, environmental protection is a public policy and, moreover, the Government's main goal should be the public interest. It is imperative that the Government plays its preponderant role by leading the implementation process, fixing clear rules and supervising its enforcement as well as applying public funds for its effective settlement. Bibliography
1 - Mattos, C. O (1997) - Caracterizao da Situao Legal do Uso das Terras como Subsdio Gesto da APA Municipal de Campinas, S.P. In Anais do Congresso Brasileiro de Unidades de Conservao. Curitiba, P.R., Brasil. 2 - Mattosinho, M. (2004) - Nosso Municpio e seus potenciais, dentre eles a gua. Texto sobre a rea de Proteo Ambiental de Campinas, para o encarte e publicao da Campanha da Fraternidade 2004. Campinas, S.P., Brasil. 3 - Ministrio do Meio Ambiente, Recursos Hdricos e Amaznia Legal/ IBAMA (1997) - Marco Conceitual das Unidades de Conservao Federais do Brasil. DIREC - Diretoria de Ecossistemas. Braslia, D.F., Brasil. 4 - Prefeitura Municipal de Campinas (1996) - Plano de Gesto da rea de Proteo Ambiental da Regio de Souzas e Joaquim Egdio - APA Municipal SEPLAMA - Secretaria de Planejamento e Meio Ambiente. Campinas, S.P., Brasil.
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________________________________________________ 1 The dynamics of the RMC can be evidenced by the rhythm of its population growth in the period of 1991 the 2000. It was 2.54%, superior to the growth of So Paulo's metropolitan region, which was 1.65%, in the same period. 2 The main objectives of the National Environmental Policy are: environmental zoning, environment licensees, environmental impacts evaluation reports, environmental patterns to water and air pollution, the disciplinary or compensatory penalties to environmental degradation and the creation of protected areas. 3 The Strict Protected Group is composed of: 1) Biological Reserve, 2) Ecological Station, 3) National (State or Municipal) Park, 4) Natural Monument, 5) Sylvester Life Refuge. The Sustainable Use Group encloses: 1) EPA Environmental Protection Area, 2) Relevant Ecological Interest Area 3) National Forest 4) Extractive Forest 5) Fauna Reserve 6) Sustainable Development Reserve and 7) Private natural Heritage Reserve. 4 The System also included the Biosphere Reserve as a special model, internationally adopted to accomplish integrate, participative and sustainable management of natural resources to enhance the population's life quality. 5 The EPA is defined as "a in general extensive area, with certain degree of human occupation, endowed with biotic, non-biotic, aesthetic or cultural attributes especially important for the living standards and the welfare of the populations. Its main goals are: to protect the biological diversity, to discipline the occupation process and to assure the natural resources sustainability"(art.15/NSPA Law). 6 . Concerning the urbanization projects that come to be approved by the government they will have to follow some rules such as: 1) adequacy to the environmental zoning of the area; 2) plantation of green areas with native species in at least 20% of the area; 3) tracings of adequate ways and lots to the topography with inferior inclination 10%, respecting the compatible curves of level and with the draining systems; 4) adequate system of collection and treatment of sewers.
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The adoption of environmental management systems in Portugal: a strategy towards urban sustainability
D. Gonalo1, A. G. Brito2
APCER Associao Portuguesa de Certificao, Portugal IBB Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Centre for Biological Engineering, Universidade do Minho, Portugal dora.goncalo@apcer.pt
1 2
Abstract Environmental Management Systems (EMS) can be considered powerful tools to use in the strategic planning of the cities' development, improving their environmental quality due to the fact they contribute to reduce the environmental impacts, the risks and the wastes created by the companies' performance, saving natural resources. EMS are expected to promote an efficient integration between the urban environment and economical development. Therefore, the main targets of this work were to identify the motivations for the environmental certification and the corresponding benefits and difficulties concerning the implementation of EMS. In order to accomplish these targets, a survey to collect data was performed and a SWOT analysis to integrate the results was done. The results showed that Environmental performance, Legal requirements and Image improvement correspond to the main motivations for achieving the environmental certification and to the benefits of the EMS implementation. However, the fulfilment of the legal requirements is the major difficulty founded in the implementation of the EMS. On the other hand, the SWOT analysis concluded that the environmental certification is improved by a previous experience in other management systems. The results of the survey point to the importance of the adoption of EMS to the design and eco-efficiency of the cities because they can be used to minimize the environmental impacts created by the companies' activity and to promote the cities' sustainability. Introduction and objectives A strategy towards the urban sustainability must be concerned with the environmental impacts generated by the constructions and activities being performed in the cities. Thinking about this strategy, it s important to consider the role of all the interested parties, such as the companies located in the urban perimeter, and the activities they perform, as important players for the cities' development as long as the companies manage to find the right balance between the life quality's improvement they allow and the expected environmental preservation promoted by the EMS implementation. The ISO Survey 2005 confirms that the environmental certification over the world has been growing consistently and we can find several studies concerning this subject. However, in Portugal, it was not possible to find any deep study related with this matter. So, the aim of this work was to analyse the EMS adoption at the Portuguese companies, identifying the motivations for the environmental certification and the corresponding benefits and difficulties concerning the implementation process, and to use these results to determine the importance of the EMS to the design and eco-efficiency of the cities. In order to accomplish these targets, it was developed a survey which lead to characterize the adoption of EMS, and it was also done a SWOT analysis to integrate the results. Methodology The study was designed to present the global characterization of the companies, the motivations for their EMS's certification and the benefits and constraints identified during the implementation's process. It was also possible to evaluate the companies' satisfaction with the environmental certification service and, finally, the companies could indicate their specific suggestions in the survey's last group. In May 2006, the survey comprising 32 questions distributed by 6 groups was sent directly to the Environmental Manager of a sample of 240 Portuguese companies certified according to the standard ISO 14001.These companies were
Costs reduction Access to new markets Other motivations Improvement of the relationships and communication with the community Access to financial incentives programs Factors Competencies continuous improvement Requirements from Customers and other interested parties Efficiency increase Fulfilment of legal requirements Image improvement Environmental performance improvement 0
0,6 1 2,4 4 3,0 5 3,0 5 4,9 8 7,3 12 7,9 13 19 23 23 31,1 10 20 30 40 50 51 60 Percentage Number
11,6
14,0 14,0
Figure 1: Motivations for environmental certification
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Factors
Other benefits 0,0 0 Improvement of the relationships and 0,0 communication with the community 0 1,2 Access to new markets 2 Access to programs of financial 1,8 3 incentives 3,0 Costs reduction 5 4,2 Competencies continuous improvement 7 7,9 Efficiency increse Improvement of practices and documentation Satisfaction of Customers and other interested parties Image improvement
Percentage Number
all clients of Associao Portuguesa de Certificao (APCER), a certification body member of IQnet The International Certification Network. As result, it was obtained 82 valid answers, which means a 34% answer rate. The data were processed in a data base from the SPSS Program (version 13.0).
Results and discussion The main motivation for the environmental 23 certification is the "Environmental perform16,4 Fulfilment of legal requirements 27 ance improvement" with 31% of the answers, Improvement of environmental 32,1 followed by the "Image improvement" and the 53 performance "Fulfilment of legal requirements", both with 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 14% (Figure 1). Comparing this data to the results of the ISO/TC207/SC1 Strategic SME Figure 2: Benefits from the EMS implementation Group (2005)'s Study we can confirm the coincidence in two of the most relevant motivations: "Environmental performance 5,5 Other areas 12 improvement" and "Fulfilment of legal requirements". 20,2 Risks reduction 44 The main benefits of the EMS implementaEnvironmental 26,6 tion are the "Improvement of environmental 58 impacts reduction Percentage performance" (32%), the "Fulfilment of legal Number 21,6 Wastes reduction 47 requirements" (16%) and the "Image improvement" (14%) (Figure 2). These results confirm 13,3 Water savings 29 the conclusions of Hillary (1999) who states Electrical power 12,8 that companies get benefits from the environ28 savings mental performance improvement, the fulfil0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 ment of legal requirements, the image improvement, and the relationships estabFigure 3: Areas with more evident benefits lished with the interested parties. Besides the appointed benefits, we also Discomfort to present the fail of legal 0,6 study the companies' areas where the envi1 requirements fulfilment ronmental certification increased their opera1,9 Others difficulties 3 Lacking of comprehension of ISO 14001 tional efficiency. The data showed that the 3,1 5 requirements areas allowing more representative benefits 5,0 Top management involvement 8 Market's indifference to the company's are the "Environmental impacts reduction" 6,3 10 environmental performance (26.6%), the "Wastes reduction" (22%) and Percentage 6,3 Lack of human resources 10 Number the "Risks reduction" (20%) (Figure 3). The 6,9 Lack of time 11 importance given to the "Wastes reduction", Internal resistance against the change of 13,8 22 procedures partially confirms the opinion of Arimura, Hibiki 15,0 Additional amount of work required 24 e Katayama (2005), who points that ISO 20,6 Costs related 33 14001 helps to reduce the consumption of 20,6 Fulfilment of legal requirements 33 natural resources and the wastes generation to the long one of the time. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 The main difficulties connected with the Figure 4: Difficulties from the EMS implementation EMS implementation's are the "Fulfilment of the legal requirements" and the "Cost related", both with 21%, followed by the "Additional work required" (15%) (Figure 4). The relevance of the "Costs related" also confirms the opinion of Hillary (1999), Edwards et al. (1999) e Delmas (2002) that considers that the costs are a relevant or serious constraint in the process, including several factors (the EMS conception costs, the certification process costs and the system' s annual maintenance costs). Often, the SWOT analysis is used to establish strategic development perspectives for a specific organization starting from its Internal and External Analysis. In this work, the SWOT was applied to the adoption of EMS (Figure 5), identifying its Strengths and Weaknesses (Internal Analysis) and its Opportunities and Threats (External Analysis) as result of the survey's data. The SWOT analysis concluded that the environmental certification is improved by previously experience in other management systems and that the EMS implementa18 13,9
13 8,5 14 10,9
Factors
Areas
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D. Gonalo, A. G. Brito: The adoption of environmental management systems in Portugal
Strengths - Previously experience in management systems - Availability of human resources - Improvement of environmental performance - Image improvement - Fulfilment of legal requirements - Obtaining of the expected benefits with the EMS implementation - Relationship between the costs and the benefits related to the EMS implementation Opportunities - Consultancys experience and competence - Answer capacity from the governmental authorities - Valorisation of EMS by the governmental authorities - Certification bodies action near the governmental authorities - Technical support (guides or manuals and seminars) and training provided by the certification bodies to support the EMS implementation - Added value from the certifications audits Weaknesses - Fulfilment of legal requirements and others requirements - Costs related to the EMS implementation - Additional work required - Internal resistance to the change of procedures - Lobby over the governmental authorities Threats - Existence of auditors few oriented for the development of audits with added value - Price of the certification service - Weak action form the certification bodies near the governmental authorities - Lack of technical information (guides or manuals and seminars) and training to support the EMS implementation
Figure 5: SWOT Analysis
tion is related with the human resources available in the company due to the additional amount of work needed. Nevertheless, and besides the expected benefits, that include the improvement of environmental performance, of image and the fulfilment of legal requirements, the process can be complicated due to the internal resistance against procedures changes, the costs associated and the difficulties related with the fulfilment of the environmental requirements. The results also point to the importance of the adoption of EMS to the design and eco-efficiency of the cities. Indeed 50% of the companies with EMS certified are located in the cities and only 17% in industrial areas. The remaining 27% are located in other different places (isolated places, small population areas, near traffic roads,). As result, the EMS can be considered powerful tools to use in the strategic planning of the cities' development, improving their environmental quality due to the fact they contribute to reduce the environmental impacts, the risks and the wastes created by the companies' performance and to save water and electrical power. So, they are expected to promote an efficient integration between the urban environment and economical development because they can be used to minimize the environmental impacts created by the companies' activity and to promote the cities' sustainability.
Conclusions The main conclusions of this study showed that the "Environmental performance improvement", the "Fulfilment of the legal requirements" and the "Image improvement" correspond to the main motivations for achieving the environmental certification and match with the benefits expected for the EMS implementation. However, the "Fulfilment of the legal requirements" is also the major difficulty founded in the implementation of the EMS. The results also point to the importance of the adoption of EMS to the design and eco-efficiency of the cities. The EMS can be considered powerful tools to use in the strategic planning of the cities' development, improving their environmental quality due to the fact they contribute to reduce the environmental impacts, the risks and the wastes created by the companies' performance and to save water and electrical power. So, they are expected to promote an efficient integration between the urban environment and economical development. References
Arimura, T.; Hibiki, A.; and Katayama, H. - Is a Voluntary Approach an Effective Environmental Policy Instrument? A Case of Environmental Management System, 2005. Available from http:/zeus.econ.umd.edu./cgibin/conferencee/download.cgi?db_name=ACE2005&paper_id=268 [Accessed on 2006/08/11]. Delmas, Magali - Environmental Management Standards and Globalization. UCIAS, Vol. 1 - Dynamics of Regulatory Change: How Globalization Affects National Regulatory Policies, Art. 6, 2002. Edwards, B.; Gravender, J.; Killmer, A.; Schenke, G. e Willis, M. - The Effectiveness of ISO 14001 in the United States. Group Project thesis. School of Environmental Science & Management; University of California, 1999. Available from http://www.bren.ucsb.edu/research/1999Group_Projects/iso14k/iso14k_ final .pdf; [Accessed on 2005/12/27]. Hillary, R. - Evaluation of Study Reports on the Barriers, Opportunities and Drivers for SME's in the Adoption of Environmental Management Systems; Network for Environmental Management and Auditing - Paper submited to the Department of Trade and Industry, Environmental Directorate, 1999. The ISO Survey - 2005. Available from http://www.iso.org/iso/en/iso9000-14000/pdf/survey2005.pdf, [Accessed on 2006/09/08]. SME Group (2005) - The Global Use of Environmental Management System by Small and Medium Enterprises: Executive Report, 2005. Available from http://www.iso.org/iso/en/iso9000-14000/pdf/iso14001survey_2.pdf, [Accessed on 2005/12/27].
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Urban Nature Habitat and anthroposphere from the view of nature conservation
Matthias Herbert & Torsten Wilke
Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Leipzig, Germany Torsten.Wilke@BfN.de
Nature conservation and landscape management in urban areas ?! Art. 1 of the Federal Nature Conservation Act (BNatSchG) names the aims of the nature conservation and the landscape management in Germany as follows: "In view of their own value and as a human life support, considering also our responsibility towards future generations, nature and landscape both inside and outside the areas of human settlement, shall be conserved, managed, developed and, where necessary, restored, in order to safeguard on a lasting basis 1. the functioning of the ecosystem and its services, 2. the regenerative capacity of the natural resources and their sustained availability for human use, 3. fauna and flora, including their natural habitats and sites, 4. the diversity, characteristic features and beauty of nature and landscapes, as well as their intrinsic value for human recreation." From it arises at first that in Germany a comprehensive order exists for the protection of the nature and to the preservation of the biodiversity which stops not on the outskirts. The legal order applies explicitly also to the settled area. Importantly for the nature conservation just if it is about the realisation of the formulated aims immediately in the residential sphere of the persons is the purpose to conserve, manage and develop nature and landscape not only in the view of their own value, but also as a human life support. But nature conservation in urban areas takes place under other basic conditions than in open landscapes. Consequently the main focuses of the action have to aim especially at this situation. The nature conservation authorities are called on here to develop guidelines for nature conservation in built-up areas. This requires different values and targets from open landscape. In settled areas and the direct environment, the main focus is not only on elements of habitat and species conservation. Nature conservation strategies for settled areas must take sociological and social economic factors into account because nature conservation in towns and cities is in a special state of tension with the demands which people place on their living environment. Thus, nature conservation in settled areas is closely linked with human leisure usage. Safeguarding open spaces in towns or cities is thus not only an ecological task for nature conservation, it also promotes acceptance and can be supported by economic arguments. Also the legislator has recognised the need of this special orientation. In the principles of article 2 BNatSchG it becomes clear in different formulations that there are special focal points for the nature conservation in settled areas or in the settlement sphere. Article 2 para. 1 subpara. 10 BNatSchG demands that, within the areas of human settlement, too, still existing natural stocks such as forest stands, hedgerows, baulks and other ecotones, brooks and streamlets, ponds and other ecologically significant smaller landscape structures shall be preserved and developed. Beside these rather classical measures for conservation of species and of their biotopes, nature conservation and landscape management in settled areas focus especially on the provision of sufficient space for recreation (Art. 2, para.1, subpara.13 BNatSchG). Before the background of the increasing problems of the demographic change and shrinking cities on the one hand, persistent suburbanization, on the other hand and the topical strategies and measures for the reduction of landscape consumption for settlement and transport a special meaning also comes to Art. 2, para. 1, subpara. 11 BNatSchG: "In view of their significance for the ecosystem and for recreation, non-builtup areas shall be preserved, the individual and overall expanse and the properties and functions of which enable them to fulfill their purpose in this context. Sealed surfaces which are not required any longer shall be restored to a more natural state ('renatured') or, where de-sealing is not possible or excessively expensive, they shall be left to the natural development/ succession." Nature in the city offers the most different facets and should be limited by sides of the nature conservation not only on nature of a certain kind. Already green and open spaces in itself regardless of her special orientation by nature take over important ecological functions in the strongly polluted living space of the people. Open spaces stamp the appearance of the cities and reflect the history of development of the cities. They are important social meeting places, places of communication and fulfil varied claims of the leisure activities. Near to the front door they offer possibilities of nature experience, in particular for children. 48
Matthias Herbert & Torsten Wilke: Urban Nature Habitat and anthroposphere from the view of nature conservation
In this respect it is our task to strive towards the preservation and development of green structures and open spaces in cities and urban areas. If then other nature conservation demands still succeed from the planning about the realisation up to lasting preservation and management, for example in relation on interlinking of open areas, plant use, extensification of cultivation, succession or also general public and local resident participation, then nature conservation and landscape management can produce a big contribution to the rise of the quality of life in cities. Here, before the front door of the people the big chance insists that the people come to appreciate these qualities and exert themselves stronger for these interests in the future. With it nature conservation is able to get more acceptance because it becomes clear to everybody that the qualities are protected for the people and not against them. This is a task not only for nature conservation authorities bur for all planning agencies. Communes, too, are required by the Federal Nature Conservation Act (BNatSchG) and the Federal Building Code (BauGB) to take nature and landscape into consideration in their urban development measures. Even the Federal Building Code (BauGB) as the determining professional law on whose basis settlement development is pursued in Germany demands in Art. 1 the consideration of the nature conservation issues. It takes relation on the essential precautionary-instruments of the Federal Nature Conservation Act like landscape planning, impact mitigation regulation and assessment of implications for Natura 2000 sites. Using existing instruments The two above mentioned laws, BNatSchG and BauGB, contain the essential legal regulations which are supposed to guarantee an appropriate consideration of nature conservation and landscape management issues in urban areas in the Federal Republic of Germany. For an consideration of these issues in the planning practice there are various instruments of nature conservation and local development planning at hand with there appropriate tasks. Apart from the protection of nature and landscape by setting up protected areas, nature conservation in Germany has an impact mitigation regulation as contained in the articles 18 to 21 BNatSchG. This is a further legal instrument witch is supposed to guarantee the efficiency of the balance of nature and landscape scenery, including its biological diversity, also outside protected areas.The objective of this regulation is to conserve the efficiency of the balance of nature and of the landscape scenery on its present level if possible when building projects are realised. The intervening party responsible for an impact on nature and landscape shall be obligated to refrain from any avoidable impairment of nature and landscape, and to offset any unavoidable impairment through measures of nature conservation and landscape management. For building projects in settled areas the impact mitigation regulation has to be already did within the framework of local development planning and not only when concrete permissions for the buildings are given.The impact has to be assessed and already then appropriate measures to avoid impairment as well as compensatory measures have to be fixed. In these cases how ever communities have a certain leeway of weighting concerning the requirements of a complete compensation for them. Apart from the instruments already mentioned above nature conservation and landscape management in Germany disposes of landscape planning on three or even four levels, which run parallel to outline spatial planning respectively to local development planning. Here we focus on the registration and assessment of the balance of nature as well as on the working out of prepositions for a lasting protection and development of nature and landscape. The municipality can do justice only to the requirements for an adequate consideration of the interests of nature conservation and landscape management, while she finds out within the scope of her precaution tasks about these interests. Knowledge of ecological factors and correlations is required as a basis for making the right decisions even in the framework of development planning. Mastering existing environmental stress and preventing new impairments make it necessary to possess information on the state of nature and landscapes as well as past and foreseeable developments, current and expected adverse effects, and opportunities to restore lost qualities in nature and landscape. This professional preparation and locality decisions is procured by landscape planning. On the level of land use plan especially the landscape plan is the adequate instrument. With it, in Germany exist basically enough instruments to pursue nature conservation also in the settled area. But it requires continuing discussions and approaches to use these instruments also for the solution of topical problems and challenges. Normally today less complete new plannings are asked, than rather clever reaction to topical developments in existing settlements. Hence, the realisation of nature conservation issues can not be limited to the classical legal instruments, but it is asked a management, which also utilised informal and up to now in this context not well known action possibilities, as it is shown for example by the way property owners in Leipzig allow the municipality to replant open spaces.
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Development- and Action-Strategies The esteem for green areas and open spaces just in the residential sphere seems to increase further. The socially, social and also the economic dimensions of these areas in the city marketing and with location questions become more and more clear and deliver additional arguments to handle these areas with care. Before the background of the objective from the national sustainability strategy to reduce drastically the land consumption for settlement and transport purposes, is a one-sided strategy, which puts down only on the postcompression and inside compression of existing districts and is not flanked from a suitable preservation and development of internal-urban green, open space and natural qualities, surely contraproductively. Numerous investigations show that the people move just on account of these qualities to the outskirts and engage here new unsettled areas. Therefore only a strategy we called "dual inside development" ("doppelte Innenentwicklung") can be successful. That means, an internal-urban compression can counteract only against an additional landscape consumption in the outskirts if at the same time a suitable open space supply and usability make the city as a residential location attractive. In the draught for a national strategy to the biological diversity of the Federal Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety the following purposes were formulated in 2005 for urban area with the time horizon in 2020: Up to 2020 the residential near green is doubled in the cities (for example plants on roofs, claddings and courtyards). Publicly accessible green is available within walking distance. Up to 2015 nature-orientated areas (as little and bigger parks, unused brownfields, agricultural and forestry land, courses of rivers ) are connected up to a green system. The green system connects cities and their surroundings and it offers for at least 10% of its area to spontaneous, natural vegetation. Living spaces for endangered, city typical species (as bats, sparrow, swift, kestrel, chicory, wall-fern) are preserved and extended till 2020 significantly. The strategy is aiming at concrete actions: Assembly of communal goals and acting concepts for the development of "urban greens", habitat- and green-space-connectivity until 2010 and their realisation until 2020. Upgrade of city interiors and communes by a temporarily use of fallow grounds / brownfields and gaps between buildings as green spaces Design and maintenance of open spaces and tilled areas to conserve the ecosystem Development of public open space in consideration of the cities historical character and structure, as well as the gender- and age-specific aspects. Use of all existing possibilities to improve the direct living environment until 2020 (e.g. street deconstruction, planting vegetations on the roofs etc.) Just before the background of increasing bottlenecks in municipal house holds are also asked new, cost-effective solutions for the management and the maintenance of urban green spaces, which open chances for more nature conservation in cities. The Federal Agency for Nature Conservation supports this search for intelligent solutions for more nature conservation and a management for urban open spaces protecting the quality of life in the cities. Topically the competition "federal capital city in the nature conservation" of the Deutsche Umwelthilfe (DUH) runs within the scope of our association support (see: http://www.naturschutzkommune.de ). The municipalities are called on for applying with her strategies and actions for this title. We hope to get a row of solution attempts which stimulate to the emulation and also show under topical basic conditions usual ways to succeed with nature conservation in settled areas. In Leipzig a testing and development project promoted by BfN treats the special question of the development of wood in the settled area.The Question is whether forest can be an alternative green space utilisation also on smaller urban areas in future which is ecological, economic and also socially attractive. The ecological, cost-efficient green space management is also in the focus of an other BfN supported DUHproject "Urban green space chance for a wider appreciation of nature". In the international frame, we are at pains to bring the urban areas back into the concepts for the preservation of the biological diversity, as the aforementioned abridgements of the national strategy to the biological diversity have shown. We will support the conference "Urban Biodiversity and Design" in forefront of the COP 9 from the 21st to the 24th May, 2008 in Erfurt and bring the results of this conference directly to Bonn to promote the subject also in this connection. You are very welcome to take part in this conference.
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Potentials and Limits of Multifunctional Landscapes: A Case Study of the Kronsberg district of Hannover, Germany
C. von Haaren & M. Rode
Institute of Environmental Planning, Leibniz University of Hannover, Germany rode@umwelt.uni-hannover.de
Abstract Multifunctionality of landscapes must be interpreted and implemented differently according to the spatial scale referred to and the level of integration of various landscape functions on the same site. The concept of multifunctional land use was tested by a research and development project at the Kronsberg, a city district at the urban fringe of Hannover, Germany. An integrated design for coordinated nature conservation as well as agricultural and recreational use of open space in the suburban landscape was created to alleviate conflicts among the three types of land uses. To achieve the project goals, a large number of measures were implemented, including field to grassland transformations, planting and building operations and environmental education activities. The results of the project suggest that at landscape level, multifunctional land use can be achieved almost without dispute between proponents of different land use types on the basis of a comprehensive plan. To a large degree, such integration is possible in a mosaic of monofunctional sites within the landscape (tessellated multifunctionality) and in partial multifunctionality on the same site with clear priority to one of the land use types. In contrast, the equal integration of different land use types at one site is very difficult (total multifunctionality). This proves especially true for agriculture when a profitable income shall be generated from the land. Introduction Multifunctionality of landscapes has been stressed by many authors as an overall concept for landscape development (s. Brandt, Tress, Tress eds. 2000). Due to high demands on landscapes from multiple actors and growing land pressure combined with environmental problems, a paradigm of complete multifunctionality has emerged in the scientific and political discussion. Landscapes are supposed to simultaneously serve various ecological, economic and recreational functions as well as purposes of cultural identity. However, what is meant by the term multifunctionality differs vastly. Its definition varies between - different, basically segregated land uses being arranged in a given area in a way that avoids conflicts between them, to - radical multifunctionality in which different land uses and functions are optimised in one single area without spatial segregation. At the urban fringe, the need for good organisation of multifunctional landscapes is especially high because of strong demands for using the landscape in different ways (Antrop 2004). The co-ordination of multiple environmental protection interests among each other and with proposed and existing land uses promises to be an effective way to organise and realise sustainable, multifunctional landscapes. However, as systematic research about this issue so far is scarce, a better understanding about how multifunctionality can be implemented on varying scales and in different contextual situations is required in order to facilitate decision making processes concerning the multipurpose utilisation of landscape resources. Against this background, the objectives of this paper are: - To shed more light on the concept of multifunctionality as representing different degrees and ways of integration - To explore the potential for integrating multiple land uses in varying contextual situations - To present some results about the possibilities and difficulties of multifunctional land use in the urban fringe. The findings presented in this paper are primarily drawn from a research project accompanying the redesign of a suburban landscape the "Kronsberg" district, lying to the southeast of the city of Hannover,Germany (Rode, v. Haaren eds. 2005). The reshaping of this landscape with the purpose of creating a multifunctional landscape, suitable for suburban land uses, was part of aWorld Exposition 'EXPO 2000' initiative of the city of Hannover and the German Ministry of the Environment. The theoretical background (differentiating concept of multifunctionality) of the here presented accompanying research was shaped by several previous research projects focussing on different perspectives and on various scales of the organisation of multifunctional landscapes (s. Bathge et al 2003, v. Haaren et al 2005, v. Haaren et al 2004). Methodologies used for monitoring the effects of integrating various kinds of land uses (agriculture, recreation, nature conservation) in the landscape were: vegetation inventory and evolution, faunistic inventory and evolution (birds, butterflies, locust), soil inventory, questioning of visitors of the Kronsberg as well as inhabi-
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tants of the nearby Kronsberg residential area about their recreation preferences, interviews with farmers working or owning land in the Kronsberg area as well as an economic analysis of the profitability of farming under "multifunctional" conditions. The monitoring was carried out over a period of five years from 2000 to 2005. Reshaping the Kronsberg landscape for Multifunctionality The Kronsberg is a rather flat hill at the southern urban fringe of Hannover. The area has been intensively farmed until the end of the 1990s and in consequence, very few landscape structures like hedgerows and trees were present before the start of the project. Beginning in 1996, part of the area was developed for residential housing (6000 units) and for enlarging the site of the Hannover fair for the 'EXPO 2000'. The open space authority of the city of Hannover declared 'creating a multifunctional landscape' the priority for the remaining area and Swiss landscape architect D. Kienast prepared a landscape planning and design concept. Key elements of this concept were a model farm with organic farming and a farm shop; the so called "Allmende", a common land of 3km length and 50 - 350m width which stretches along the transition zone between the developed residential area and the open landscape. Here the most radical integration of agriculture (sheep grazing), recreation and nature conservation on the same site with none of these demands dominating over the others was to be tested; 13km of trails (suitable for pedestrians, bicycling and agricultural traffic) accompanied by 10-15m wide margins (with grassland, trees and shrubs) and extensively farmed field stripes in order to develop rare field plant communities; two artificial hills which offer a spectacular view over the city of Hannover; they are built up from limestone material originating from the 'EXPO 2000' construction site; the lime soil was supposed to foster the development of calcicole plant societies. Different ways of initiating this development were tested in the accompanying research; Reforestation of 60 hectares of former cropland on the less fertile soils at the ridge of the Kronsberg-hill with the purpose of developing a forest that should serve recreational and biotope conservation purposes as well as forestry. Results of the accompanying research Objectives of the accompanying research were to evaluate whether and to what degree the intended synergies of the project could be realised. Along these lines, the potentials and limits of multifunctionality in a suburban situation should be ascertained. The main finding of the research was that many synergies can easily be obtained on the landscape scale when the concept of 'tessellated multifunctionality' is applied. In this sense, either a mosaic of segregated mono-functional sites or partially multifunctional sites with clear priorities to one of the landscape functions is created (Fig. 1).
Figur 1: Types of multifunctionality (modified, based on Rode & v. Haaren 2005: 158)
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C. von Haaren & M. Rode: Potentials and Limits of Multifunctional Landscapes
By contrast, the equal integration of different types of land use on the very same site (total multifunctionality Fig. 1) is very complex, especially if one of these functions is agriculture striving for a profitable generation of farm products. The development of new trails with margins and hedgerows produced synergies between the different land use types on the margins and in the entire landscape. Recreational aspects increased through improved aesthetical quality, direct use of broad margins for picnicking, and a better accessibility of the landscape. Agriculture experienced advantages in terms of better accessibility of fields, improvement of biological pest control, and prevention of soil erosion. Species and biotope conservation was enhanced since plant and animal species richness increased considerably both on the margins and the entire landscape and the connectivity of the habitat network was strengthened (Rode, Reich 2005; v. Haaren, Reich 2006). Furthermore, the maintenance cost efficiency was favourable compared to the costs of maintaining a park for 6000 users (Rode, v. Haaren 2005). Questioning of users (inhabitants of the new residential area or visitors from other parts of the town) showed that the created landscape was very well accepted even though recently planted trees had not yet grown to their full visual impact. People from the Kronsberg residences clearly preferred the open landscape to small open spaces closer to their dwellings. Especially successful were the artificial hills in terms of species conservation and recreation. The hills were frequently visited for recreational purposes and rare plant communities and butterflies as well as locust species could be documented on the slopes, especially on those with southern exposition. Not quite as successfully could synergies be established between nature conservation and forestry on the reforestation sites. Nature conservational quality was reduced since foresters considered it necessary to use also non native species. Moreover, the forest plots were designed too narrowly to produce a forest microclimate suitable for the development of a typical beech forest's biocenosis (which had been the declared aim). In contrast to the successful implementation of synergies on the landscape scale, much more conflict occurred on the 'Allmende'. Though sheep grazing on this site was financially supported to a large extend, it could not be successfully managed by the organic farmer. The reasons were primarily that the farmer did not have enough spare time to spend on the management which was more complicated than usual due to the need to consider recreational and nature conservation demands (i.e. mobile fencing of the sheep was necessary). In addition, some sheep or fencing gear was stolen and the succession parcels produced too little biomass to build a sufficient nutrition base for sheep grazing, especially during the first years. Therefore, nature conservation had to step back from its originally ambitious goals and allow adaptations. Partly due to the intensive grazing but also as a consequence of soil conditions, the emerging species diversity (plants and animals) could not fulfil the initial expectations and did not meet the level of biodiversity reached at other examined sites in the Kronsberg area. The recreational use of the Allmende was not as intense as projected. Because of ongoing sheep manure, people did not dare to enter the partly fenced sites via the gates and refrained from resting on the grass. However, they appreciated the visual effects of the animals. Conclusion Especially in conditions of multiple demands on land coming together with limited space like at the urban fringe, the integration of as many land use types as possible on the same site is often inevitable. The results of the case study clearly suggest that the creation of mono- or bi-functional landscape structures for recreation and biotope conservation is successful and will create considerable synergetic effects, also for agriculture. If potentially conflicting functions are spatially segregated but interwoven in a mosaic-like structure, different ecological functions can be combined easily and with benefits to all sides. A precondition for this strategy is that land, or money for purchasing land, for habitat conservation and recreational purposes is available. As "tessellated multifunctionality" needs more space than total integration, this concept is suitable for implementation on the landscape scale. On the contrary, the integration of recreational or habitat functions into the management of farmed sites seems to be combined with considerable disadvantages for one of the related parties. There are many overlapping benefits particularly in the prevention of soil erosion and flooding, the conservation of habitats, and human recreation, and these benefits can be combined on the very same sites by harmonising the measures taken. However, it is more difficult to include agricultural land in such a plan. As a rule, farmed areas can only be enjoyed by their aesthetical value and can not be used for walking. As a consequence, it is not always possible or advisable to achieve radical multifunctionality. The findings of the research also shed light on the question of potentials of the concept of multifunctional agriculture as supported by the EU to justify agricultural subsidies. There seems to be almost inevitably a trade-off between profitable farming and "on-site" nature conservation and recreation demands. If the farmer does not voluntarily accept income cut-backs in the name of land stewardship, compensation is necessary.
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However, it became obvious that financial support cannot compensate for all additional difficulties in farm management: Time as well is a crucial factor that has to be taken into consideration. As the Kronsberg example showed, organic farming may be even disadvantageous in this respect because it is more time-consuming than conventional farming. The organic farm had more difficulties managing rare field plant societies than the conventional farmers. As a consequence, it is highly recommended that management options are worked out in collaboration with farmers to best incorporate them in the farm management. References
Antrop, M. 2004: Landscape change and the urbanization process in Europe. - Landscape and Urban Planning 67: 926. Bathke, M., Brahms, E., Brenken, H., v. Haaren, C., Hachmann, R. & Meiforth, J., 2003: Integriertes Gebietsmanagement. Neue Wege fr Naturschutz, Grundwasserschutz und Landwirtschaft am Beispiel der Wassergewinnungsregion Hannover-Nord. Margraf Verlag, Weikersheim: 214 p. Brandt, J., B. Tress, and G. Tress 2000: Multifunctional Landscapes: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Landscape Research and Management. - Conference material for the conference on "multifunctional landscapes", Centre for Landscape Research, Roskilde, October 18-21, 2000. Rode, M. & Reich, M. 2005: Die Entwicklung des Kronsberges fr den Arten- und Biotopschutz. In: Rode, M., v. Haaren, C. (Hrsg.): Multifunktionale Landnutzung am Stadtrand. Naturschutz und Biologische Vielfalt H. 15: 35-76. Rode, M. & v. Haaren, C. (Eds.) 2005: Multifunktionale Landnutzung am Stadtrand. Naturschutz und Biologische Vielfalt H. 15 Hrsg. BfN: 188 p. v. Haaren, C. & Reich, M. 2006: The German Way to Greenways and Habitat Networks. Landscape and Urban Planning 76: (1-4): 7-22. v. Haaren, C., Brenken, H. & Hachmann, R. 2005: Integriertes Gebietsmanagement Fuhrberger Feld. Modell fr ein multifunktionales Landschaftsmanagement der Zukunft. In: Naturschutz und Landschaftsplanung Jg.37, H.9: 261-268 v. Haaren, C., Oppermann, B., Friese, K.-I., Hachmann, R., Meiforth, J., Neumann, A., Tiedtke, S., Warren-Kretzschmar, B. & Wolter, F.-E. 2005: Interaktiver Landschaftsplan Knigslutter am Elm. Naturschutz und Biologische Vielfalt 24: 296 p.
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Reflections on urban metaphors

Evangelia Athanassiou
Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki evathan@uth.gr
Introduction The Green Paper for the Urban Environment (1990) was the first European Community document to associate local and global environmental problems with the function and development of cities, as well as with dominant planning theories that influenced their formation to date. It sought to illuminate the 'root causes' of the urban environmental crisis and suggest new directions for the management of European cities. Notwithstanding its much discussed western European bias, which neglected prominent features of south European Mediterranean cities, the Green Paper was important in its urban focus and even prescient. Published in 1990, it heralded the birth of the sustainable cities discourse before the Earth Summit in Rio (1992) and the widespread acknowledgement of the urban dimension of the environmental crisis. It, thus, represents a significant shift in European environmental action: from defensive protection of an untouched, scientifically measurable natural environment to the management of a complex, socially mediated, urban environment. During the 1990s, a similar shift occurred at the wider environmental movement, which relinquished the idealism of the 1970s, which rejected cities and called for small scale self-governed settlements in harmony with an idealized nature, and adopted a more pragmatic stance which accepts growing urbanisation in the planet and views cities as a geographically specific means to promote global sustainable development. The EU's efforts for a concerted spatial policy for its territory, which would also promote sustainable development, emerged much later than its environmental concerns. This paper examines metaphors explicitly employed to describe the city in European Union documents relevant both to its wider spatial policy and to efforts towards sustainable urban development. Environmental sustainability and the potential borne by global economic processes and digital networking can be identified as two dominant discourses shaping the rhetoric of European spatial and urban policy, setting the norm of urban planning in member states. Both discourses employ metaphors, which stress global interconnectedness, whether material (environmental) or immaterial (economic, digital), while understating local and global differentiation. They are examined also as testimonies of underlying allegiances and inherent contradictions in the theoretical construction of the relatively new discourse that emerged at the intersection of spatial, urban and environmental policy, within the EU. 1. Metaphors that homogenise Flows of capital: the city as business Economic restructuring and the emergence of the global market have changed the economic base of cities and have had overwhelming impact on cities north and south. Within the EU, the tight relationship between industrial manufacturing and urban growth has been shattered along with the traditional model of the urban core surrounded by sprawling residential suburbia. This is true, not only for the hard industrial core of west European cities, but also for cities of the south European periphery, whose development was not causally linked to the industry. In the new urban landscape, described by different terms by different scholars metapolis (Ashcer, 1995), postmetropolis (Soja, 2002), city a? la carte (Fishman, 1995), generic city (Koolhas, 1995), digital city sprawling continues in unpredictable directions and forms, hosting a variety of uses not the residential monoculture many of which are relatively new in the peripheral scene. Koolhas (1994) has celebrated this 'generic city' that has no particular identity, related to place or history, as its archetypical elements can be found anywhere. Flows of global capital facilitated by flows of information are difficult to pin down, yet they give concrete shape to the new metropolis. In many attempts to represent its emerging character, the new city is seen more as a-topic and fluctuant and less as physical. Transformations appear be dictated, in an almost deterministic manner, by processes which operate beyond physical space, at a level that is beyond anybody's reach or understanding and, hence, beyond control. Urban planning can only facilitate the materialisation of the above. In what appears as the return of urban planning to pragmatism, the city is often celebrated as it is. There is an underlying paradigm creating the agenda in urban planning, as expressed in the spatial and urban policy of the EU. 'Global cities', as well as cities peripheral to the global economy, have to compete for survival in the same inevitable context. The mandate for each city is to become competitive in the fierce world of globalisation, by becoming attractive to investment. Urban planning, as practised by national policies becomes an aid to this unavoidable path, in which social and environmental differentiation between cities and within cities is not an issue. Deregulation and flexibility, the dicta of globalisation, translated into urban form,
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are signified by more highways, hotels, 'technological parks' and airports and also by attractive gentrified city centres, 'iconic' corporate architecture and international art museums. Within this diversified and discontinuous terrain, residential areas also diffuse in suburbs and ex-urbs. The metaphor of the city as a business is predominant in the rhetoric of European urban policy. The European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP) is an attempt to co-ordinate spatial polities in EU member states towards 'common objectives for spatial development' (EU, 1999, 7). Environmental protection and diffusion of innovation and knowledge are seen as aspects of a policy aimed inter alia to increase the 'economic attractiveness' of cities and regions within the unequal European territory. A 'more balanced competitiveness' is one of three aims of spatial development, as set out at the document's introductory chapter, the other two being economic and social cohesion and conservation of cultural and natural resources. The European spatial policy appears as an aid to increase 'investment incentives' for each European city, thus making it more competitive in the unregulated global market. The ESDP, as a major document reflecting the nature of European spatial policy, almost contradicts itself. Appearing as an effort to confront inequalities on European territory, it accepts the tenet of an uncontrollable global market and, hence, the inability of planning, or any other policy, to confront its forces. ESDP does not suggest a transformative framework. It is rather a pragmatic guide to increased competitiveness of European cities within the global market. The city as a business that seeks to attract investment is a metaphor that obscures internal urban boundaries, social and environmental presuming that the benefits of increased competitiveness, may evenly diffuse within the physical and social fabric of each city. Nevertheless, as investment is not evenly distributed in space, uneven development occurs in all spatial scales, most tangibly at the urban. The concrete conditions that are experienced by different people within each city vary dramatically, and are not fluctuant or intangible as the global market is. Diffusion of the urban fabric is coupled with social and environmental inequality, which is materialised in very physical, and disturbingly unchanging ways and is delineated by, often, impenetrable boundaries on the shifting urban territory. Focus, nevertheless, is on the global, the abstract and the fluctuant, while the local, the concrete and the tangible remains blurred. Globalisation, the uncontrollable forces of an unregulated global economy form the deterministic context for the city; a context that, although not visible, is taken face value. Many commentators (Hirst and Thompson, 1999, Vergopoulos, 1999) have argued that globalisation is not a fact, but a myth, that it is not a reality, but a rhetoric, chosen to legitimise specific policies. The market, global as it may be, is not free, but facilitated and controlled by national and international laws. Nevertheless, dominant urban discourses choose to adhere to 'a myth suitable for a world without illusions, but one that robs us of hope' (Hirst and Thompson, 1999, 6). Flows of information: The city as a network Combined with the flows of global capital, networks of information and communication create the potential for new organisation of production and work, new experience of public domain, more flexible understanding of urban space (Graham & Marvin, 1994). Investigating the shaping forces of the new city, dominant urban discourses place focus once more on worldwide flows and the eminent dematerialisation of the city. In the new metropolis, dense networks of infrastructure facilitate a limitless sprawl, while telecommunications and information technology reduce the need for physical proximity, realising the 1960s utopia. The city is registered as a superimposition of networks of roads, railways, information and telecommunications itself linked with cities across the globe through other networks of capital, information, transport and telecommunications. Each city relinquishes its relationship with its natural hinterland and seeks to become part of a global network of cities. Innovation is the password to the network and geographical propinquity has shrinking significance in the shaping of new partnerships. Living in a city that forms part of a global network and consists of ubiquitous networks itself can potentially liberate its citizens from boundness to specific physical places. Networks of transportation give urban people the freedom to create and experience their own personal city. 'The new city is a city la carte' (Fishman, 1990, 38). The city appears as a neutral and socially undifferentiated substructure on which individuals chart freely their own independent itineraries. However, networks are neither ubiquitous, nor democratic. Right of access to networks is extremely eclectic. At the same time, lack of access is one of the constituents of urban poverty. Boundness to physical space maybe indeed nearly abolished for the financial and technological elite that forms the minority of the population even in those cities that are registered as global. Their freedom of choice makes their urban environment flexible and extendable to the globe. The airport is indeed the emblematic gate of the 'generic city' as Koolhaas would have it, but only for the footloose corporate elite. Ever expanding highways connect different spots on the map, but are bound to leave others unconnected, or barred from the city by those very roads. Next to the footloose lives another, bigger, part of the urban population, which is bound to specific places, and is not positioned on, or served by, networks. The very nature of transport networks organized hierarchically in hubs and distributing lines reinforces some people's boundness, while and arguably because it facilitates oth56
Evangelia Athanassiou: Reflections on urban metaphors
ers' mobility. When access to information networks is considered, inequalities in access are huge, between different parts of the world, as well as between different parts of the same city. 'Inequalities in physical and electronic spaces tend to be mutually reinforcing' (Graham and Marvin, 1996, 191). The universal and democratic 'nature' of the worldwide web is practically negated by the social, geographical and cultural specificity of those who can actually use it. The immaterial city, the digital city, the city of flows and superimposed networks, interacts with the physical, the concrete and the everyday, sometimes producing more difference and sometimes reinforcing, rather than obliterating physical boundaries. The city a? la carte of open choices, of great mobility and of global access is superimposed to and interacts with a city of unchosen boundness, of limited choices and no access. The effect of this superimposition is neither deterministic, nor liberating in its own right. It is dialectic. Flows of energy and materials: The city as an ecosystem 'For virtually every issue that cities confront, nature has an answer' (Sorkin, 2005, 233) Within the sustainable cities discourse, cities on 'a small planet' become the means of promoting the goal of sustainable development. The dominant metaphor here is the city as an ecosystem. The city's 'metabolism', its vital flows of energy and materials, is linear, unlike that of a natural ecosystem, which is cyclical, and produces no waste. In order to become sustainable, the city needs to simulate the cyclical 'metabolism' of a natural ecosystem and, thus, reduce its impact on the planet (Girardet, 1992). In this metaphor emphasis shifts to the material, the physical. The ecosystem metaphor is used in EU documents regarding the future of European cities. The European Sustainable Cities Report (1996) recognised different 'interrelated strands' at the 'ecosystems approach'. The first views the city as, literally, a physical ecosystem in order to analyse its physical metabolism. The second strand borrows terms from ecology, such as niche, parasitism and symbiosis (EU, 1996, pp58-59) to study social differentiation within cities. The document seems to imply that such differentiation is an intrinsic 'natural' property, common to all urban ecosystems. Thus explained, uneven development at the urban level is disconnected from the spatio-temporal processes that produce it and reproduce it (Harvey, 1996, Smith, 1996). The city is reified. The use of the ecosystem metaphor evokes biological commonality of problems among cities of the world, apparently oblivious to the well-recorded fact that cities of the world, and of the EU for that matter, form different cases of urbanisation, materialised into different physical environments. In strictly physical terms, the unsustainability of poor cities of the developing world is more a matter of addressing the immediate environment, rather than its effects on the global ecosystem. Conversely, addressing the problems of the mega-cities of the developing world, be they environmental or social, maybe more related to global power relations than to urban planning and management. Moreover, environmental conditions within each city, be it of the 'developed' or 'developing' world, vary dramatically. Atmospheric and water pollution, soil erosion, lack of basic infrastructure of hygiene, water or transport, and increased risk (due to adjacency to industrial areas, landfills, highways, et.c.) are the environmental conditions of urban poor. In the same city, citizens of higher income, inhabit healthier and safer environments, insulated from local environmental degradation and social misery. This upper class may contribute more to local and global environmental problems through more wasteful lifestyles and longer automobile journeys. As Swyngedouw and Hayden (2006) put it 'there is no such thing as an unsustainable city in general. Rather there are a series of urban and environmental processes that negatively affect some social groups while benefiting others'. Summing up, although set in a natural context and continuously reproduced through natural 'metabolic' processes the city is not a natural ecosystem and its internal differentiation cannot be explained or accounted for in ecological terms. The city is both social and natural, as all its natural processes are socially mediated (Harvey, 1996, Hayden, Kaika and Swyngedouw, 2006). In both rich and poor cities, assigning a 'biological basis' to urban problems and their solutions allows for 'loss of social thinking' (Beck, 1992, p25). 2. Metaphors that disempower Public participation, community involvement and empowerment are mentioned in several international and EU documents as tantamount for the pursuit of sustainability at different spatial levels, most notably, at the urban. The urban 'community' is a heterogeneous and transient entity. This is not particular to the 'metapolis' of the 21st century, but has characterised cities in history. In the multiethnic, multi-cultural and multilingual 'metapolis', it has become increasingly obvious that the constituents of 'community' are diverse and constantly changing, and have to be re-examined in the wake of global economy and digital networks. Castells (1997, 60)) suggests 'local environments per se do not induce a distinctive identity'. Nevertheless, 'a general feeling of belong-
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ing and, in many cases, a communal, cultural identity' may still occur through a process of social mobilization, that touches upon shared life and interests. As previous sections of this paper suggested, dominant urban discourses, ones that are reflected in the EU rhetoric about the city, present homogenising views of contemporary cities, obscuring or 'naturalising' both differences between cities and, mostly, internal differentiation within each city. Moreover, urban change is seen as triggered by processes, which operate at a global level and facilitated by worldwide networks of information. The macroscopic level of reference of current urban planning discourses undermines the potential for community building and public participation. Global economic forces, planetary environmental problems and world wide digital networks are invisible: no-one can trace the global flows of capital, feel the mean temperature of the world rise or bits flow in networks of information. Focusing on global flows, the tangible everyday lives that people different selves, communities, 'others' live, the air they breathe, the houses they inhabit and the roads they travel stay out of focus. More important, the context, which such discourses present for the city, is deterministic, in economic, technological or ecological terms. Forces that create the new urban landscape appear too complex, intractable and unavoidable for anyone to be able to suggest an alternative. This inevitable context appears to be robbing urban planning of its transformative potential, even more so of its socially transformative role, thus reducing it into yet another guarantee to the well functioning of the global market. When a new direction for cities is being outlined, by the sustainable cities discourse, it refers more to the overall reduction of the city's detrimental effects to the planet and less to the diversified environmental and social, living conditions of urban people and the alleviation of urban miseries. Environmental urban planning needs to resolve the apparent contradiction between the homogenised, fluctuant and a-topic city that dominant discourses present and the diversified, concrete and physically bound city that most people experience. The urban environment is both natural and social, both globally networked and locally rooted. Most of all, it is not one, but many environments in each city. References
Beck, U (1992) Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity, London: Sage Publications (first published in German 1986, translated in English by Mark Ritter). Castells, M. (1997) The Power of Identity, Oxford and Malden: Blackwell Publishers. Commission of the European Communities (CEC). 'Green Paper of the Urban Environment', COM(90) 218 final, Brussels,1990. European Commission (1996) European Sustainable Cities, Directorate General XI, Brussels. European Commission (1999), European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP), Luxembourg. Graham, S. Marvin, S. (1996) Telecommunications and the City, London: Routledge. Fishman, Robert (1990) 'America's New City: Megalopolis Unbound' Wilson Quarterly, 14,I, pp 25-48. Haughton, Graham and Hunter, Colin (1994) Sustainable Cities, London: Regional Studies Association. Heyden, N., Kaika, M. and Swyngedouw, E. (eds) (2006) In the Nature of Cities: Urban Political Ecology and the Politics of Urban Metabolism, London and New York: Routledge. Koolhaas, Rem, 'The Generic City' Reprinted in office for Metropolitan Architecture, Rem Koolhas and Bruce Mau, Small, Medium, Large, Extra Large, ed Jennifer Sigler, 010 Publishers, Rotterdam, 1995. Satterthwaite, David (1999) The Earthscan Reader in Sustainable Cities, London: Earthscan. Smith, N. (1996) The New Urban Frontier: Gentrification and the Revanchist City, London: Routledge. Soja, E W. (2002) 'Six Discourses on the Postmetropolis'. In G Bridge and S Watson (eds.) Blackwell City Reader (pp188-196), Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Girardet H (1992) The Gaia Atlas of Cities: New Directions for Sustainable Urban Living. London: Gaia Books. Harvey D (1996) Justice, Nature and the Geography of Difference, Cambridge MA: Blackwell Publishers. Hirst P and Thomson G (1999) Globalization in Question: The International Economy and the Possibilities of Governance. Cambridge, Oxford, Malden: Polity Press (second edition, first published 1996). Sorkin M 'From New York to Darwinism: Formulary for a Sustainable Urbanism'. In Esther Charlesworth (ed) (2006) City Edge: Case Study of Contemporary Urbanism, (pp226-233). Burlignton: Elsevier. Vergopoulos, C, (1999) Globalisation: the Great Chimera, Athens: Nea Synora (in Greek).
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Designing and Using Sustainability Indicators Lessons from the Sustainable Seattle Project
Donald Miller
University of Washington, Seattle, USA, millerd@u.washington.edu
Introduction In 1990, Sustainable Seattle, a non-governmental organization, initiated an open public process to develop a set of sustainability indicators to be used to monitor and report on progress toward sustainable development in the Seattle, Washington urban region. These indicators were the basis of reports in 1993, 1995,1998 and subsequently, that drew public attention to improving or declining sustainability with respect to these factors. This project has been widely recognized as a pioneer in developing and using sustainability indicators, and has received several awards. A critical assessment of this experience can provide lessons for other communities pursuing a similar project, both in the organization and process used in developing these measures, and the content and intent of the indicators themselves. Many of the indicators developed by Sustainable Seattle have influenced the design of measures employed in the region to monitor growth and the effectiveness of plans. A brief discussion of the nature and purposes of sustainability indicators provides a useful framework for investigating the work and results of Sustainable Seattle. What are Sustainability Indicators? Indicators are measures of quantities and qualities that are useful in gauging the current or changing condition of something of interest. Sustainability indicators focus on the elements that contribute to the long-term viability of human activity. As stated by the World Commission in 1987, and by others, this means not only concern for natural environmental features, but also for the economy and for features of society are important over time. Environmental features include resources that provide important inputs for production, disposal of wastes, and the function of ecological systems. This is often spoken of in terms of assuring that a set of physical stocks and conditions are available to future populations that will accommodate economic and evolutionary development comparable to current levels. The economic dimension of sustainability includes careful use of renewable and non-renewable resources in a way that supports continued employment and income, balanced with the other needs of society and the environment. Social features of sustainability include the institutional arrangements that advance the welfare of residents of an area, and the justice or fairness with which resources and opportunities are distributed. Planning for sustainable development requires balancing these three sets of features so that they somehow complement rather than conflict with each other. Achieving such a balance is a complex undertaking that we only partly understand, and thus is more than a technical exercise. In the context of urban development, these three dimensions of sustainability have their counterparts in the different perspectives commonly used in viewing land: exchange value, use value, and environmental value. Exchange value focuses on how land can be developed to produce the greatest net income; sometimes stated in terms of 'highest and best use.' This market approach tends to cause owners to view land as a commodity and to exercise a short time horizon in their decision making. Use value, on the other hand, refers to the social utility of land in accommodating human activities of all sorts. These social purposes include residence and communal features such as recreation and assembly and cultural values. Finally, environmental value of land regards this resource in terms of its role in supporting natural systems, providing habitats, and even in providing environmental services to humans. How Are Sustainability Indicators Used? A major value of sustainability indicators is to translate abstract statements of goals or a vision of a desired, long-term future into concrete, operational terms. These purposeful measurements can play important roles in designing and evaluating courses of action in a plan-development process, in monitoring and reporting on the effectiveness of these courses of action once they are implemented, and more simply in reporting on the changes taking place over time in the built and natural environments. These indicators can provide guidance in preparing plans in that they are derived from goals or objectives to represent qualities sought, thus providing focus in designing planning options, and then serving as criteria useful in evaluating these options to assist stakeholders in making choices. In this role, a set of these measures can provide an information basis for public deliberation and agreement on an agenda for planning. Sustainability indicators can also be used in monitoring the performance of plans and programs. Just as private sector firms are required to develop and release performance information on a regular basis, govern-
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mental agencies and public institutions are more and more expected to do the same. These measures of progress toward goals and targets are useful in adapting plans as conditions change, and additionally in providing accountability to the public concerning the effectiveness of these plans and their implementation. In another form of monitoring, these indicators can be used to provide stakeholders with reports on changes that are taking place, whether or not these changes are improvements over earlier conditions, and even the rate of progress toward goals. This function can be provided by public agencies or non-governmental organizations. A final use of indicators, that combines some of the earlier purposes, is to provide a basis for a development management strategy. In this role, each indicator is designed as a measurement of a related policy, and then these are used as performance metrics in selecting and adjusting actions to implement these policies. If these indicators measure outputs or outcomes, this approach does not presuppose the design of programs or projects, as might happen with a formal plan, and can encourage creativity in designing effective ways of implementing policies. As a management strategy, this is similar to performance contracting, and can support incremental decision making within the framework of adopted policies. An example of this is the green development program for commercial properties in Berlin, where a specific set of design parameters is not prescribed, but rather the design is developed within a set of incentives and requirements. Sustainable Seattle The case of Sustainable Seattle is interesting for a number of reasons. This non-governmental organization set out to develop a set of indicators that could be used periodically to assess whether a number of features thought as important in contributing to sustainability were improving or getting worse, and by how much. The process set in motion in 1990 to develop this set of measurements involved informal workshops, a civic panel, and public forums over a period of three years. Several hundred representatives from business, residents' and citizens' groups, and public officials were involved. At one stage in this process, ten teams organized around major topics had drafted 99 indicators. By the seventh draft iteration, this list had been reduced to the following 40 items. Environment - Wild salmon runs through local streams - Biodiversity in the region - Number of good air quality days per year, using Pollutant Standards Index - Amount of topsoil lost in King County - Acres of wetlands remaining in King County - Percentage of Seattle streets meeting 'Pedestrian-Friendly' criteria Population and Resources - Total population of King County (with annual growth rate) - Gallons of water consumed per capita - Tons of solid waste generated and recycled per capita per year - Vehicle miles traveled per capita and gasoline consumption per capita - Renewable and non-renewable energy (in BTUs) consumed per capita - Acres of land per capita for a range of land uses (residential, commercial, open, etc.) - Amount of food grown in Washington, food exports, and food imports - Emergency room use for non-emergency purposes Economy - Percentage of employment concentrated in the top ten employers - House of paid employment at the average wage required to support basic needs - Real unemployment, including discouraged workers, differentiated by ethnicity, gender - Distribution of personal income, with differentiation by ethnicity and gender - Average savings rate per household - Reliance on renewable or local resources in the economy - Percentage of children living in poverty - Housing affordability gap - Health care expenditures per capita Culture and Society - Percentage of infants born with low birth weight (including by ethnicity) - Ethnic diversity of teaching staff in elementary and secondary schools - Number of hours per week devoted to instruction in the arts for elementary, secondary schools - Percent of parent/guardian population that is involved in school activities - Juvenile crime rate - Percent of youth participating in some form of community service 60
Donald Miller: Designing and Using Sustainability Indicators Lessons from the Sustainable Seattle Project
- Percent of enrolled 9th graders who graduate from high school (by ethnicity, income, gender) - Percent of population voting in odd-year (local) primary elections - Adult literacy rate - Average number of neighbors the average citizen reports knowing by name - Equitable treatment in the justice system - Ratio of money spent on drug and alcohol prevention, treatment vs. incarceration for related crimes - Percentage of population that gardens - Usage rates for libraries and community centers - Public participation in the arts - Percent of adult population donating time to community service - Individual sense of well being These indicators were used in reports published every two or three years for the Seattle/King County area, titled Indicators of Sustainable Community. Each indicator is described, discussed in terms of its relationship to other measures and to sustainability, and historic data is presented graphically to illustrate whether positive progress has been made. These publications are regarded as report cards on this fast-growing region of about 1.8 million population. While scientific validity was a major criterion used in enumerating and specifying indicators by participants in this process, the meaningfulness of these indicators to non-technical parties was of even greater importance. This led to major effort throughout this process to choose the most important features of sustainability for the final list, and to choosing measures for these that residents could relate to on the basis of their own experiences. For example, the size of wild salmon runs returning to spawn in regional rivers is used as a measure of water quality and the condition of riparian habitats. Experts on water quality find this to be a crude index since it does not distinguish between pollutants that may be present, and marine scientists argue that decline in salmon stocks may result from problems other than habitat degradation. On the other hand, because wild salmon have such important cultural meaning in this region and because most people here have observed salmon returning from the sea to spawn in the streams of their origin, this indicator has intellectual and emotional appeal that translates into political support for efforts to improve their return rates. In addition to aiding in identifying popular concerns, the broad public involvement used by Sustainable Seattle resulted in participants taking ownership of their contributions and developing a sense of advocacy for the final set of items that are measured. Other examples of similar effort to balance technical with popular concerns can be seen in the list of the categories and the 40 indicators used in these reports. The open public process that contributed to this balance and the resulting indicators have drawn wide attention to the work of Sustainable Seattle. In a survey of over 170 sustainability projects in the U.S., Redefining Progress found that at least 90 of them used Sustainable Seattle as a model for their own efforts, and in 1996 the U.N. Center for Human Settlements gave this program its excellence in performance award. In addition, the Washington State Growth Management Act (GMA) requires local governments to design and operate monitoring systems as part of their planning programs. This was not previously a routine activity of city and county planning agencies. Because sustainable urban development is the major principle of local plans under the GMA, and because both elected officials and many citizens had been involved in developing the indicators used by Sustainable Seattle, most of the local jurisdictions incorporated many of these measures into their monitoring activities. This unintended development has given a kind of legal standing to much of this non-governmental program, and has contributed to addressing these concerns through public policy and implementing activities. In December 2004, Sustainable Seattle resumed the process of reviewing and revising its earlier set of indicators, again using a broad participatory process. A diverse steering committee of 24 members met monthly to develop a framework, goals and criteria for this new project. Beginning in 2005, about 100 civic leaders began to meet to review and prioritize a new preliminary list of indicators, and a technical advisor panel met several times in 2006 to assess the scientific soundness of this emerging list. Local foundations are supporting this effort. The result that will be published later in 2007 will include more items than the earlier set, but will identify a subset of these that will guide a program to interest local governments and non-governmental organizations in undertaking specific projects intended to improve the performance of this region on these measures. This case illustrates how an open, grass-roots process can succeed in engaging the public in structuring and specifying a set of sustainability indicators for an urban area. It also illustrates how a process of this sort can balance technical validity with citizen interests and concerns. And as indicated by evidence of the influence that Sustainable Seattle has had on other communities, these experiences can encourage and usefully inform efforts elsewhere.
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Developing Sustainability Indicators to Water Resources Management in a Basin in Brazil

Michele de Almeida Corra & Bernardo Arantes do Nascimento Teixeira
Graduate Program in Urban Engineering Universidade Federal de So Carlos (UFSCar); Brazil miacorrea@hotmail.com, bernardo@power.ufscar.br
Abstract This paper describes the development of Sustainability Indicators (SI) to water resources management (WRM), applied to a watershed (Tiete-Jacare) located in the center of the State of Sao Paulo Brazil. The set of SI proposed was structured by consultation process that privileged participation of basin committee members, water resources users and technical specialists. This set aims to diagnoses current situation and to evaluate future conditions, evidenced by tendencies and changes searching sustainable means to overcome difficulties. The evaluation and analyses from SI could assist stakeholders to propose stratiogies to deficient areas, identified by the indicators, and to prioritize goals and actions. Introduction The sustainability concept appeared as a concern from natural resources exploration and the recognition that many of these resources are finite. The concept has been discussed in several international conferences that culminated in documents as Brundtland Report and Agenda 21. The indicators are tools used to planning and to manage a resource. They are instruments of accompaniment; whose objective is data join and compound information to facilitate comprehension. The main indicators characteristics are: capacity to evaluate existent conditions and tendencies; possibility to make comparisons in both temporal and local scales; possibility to evaluate the accomplishment of goals, as well as ability to supply warning information. The development of SI for WRM is justified by the importance of water for human survival as well as for environmental quality. The sustainable management of this multiple use resource is essential and makes possible the reduction of conflicts and other problems. Objectives The present article aims to brief describe the development of SI to WRM applied to a Basin Committee context. The SI selected from national and international experiences were studied and adapted to the empiric object, Basin Committee Tiete-Jacare (CBH-TJ), located in the State of Sao Paulo Brazil. Methodology The methodology used in this research can be divided in three main parts: Concepts and Context about the associated themes; Rising of proposition and use of indicators experiences; and Development of SI by consultation processes. First, sustainability concepts and definitions survey was elaborated. In parallel was searched WRM structure in Brazil and specifically in the State of Sao Paulo. These discussions resulted in a set of sustainability principles that were identified in literature and adapted considering several aspects (economic, social, ecologic, political and cultural) and multiple uses of water. In this interim, the empiric object was characterized under relative aspects to WRM. This characterization used the Water Resources Situation Report in the Tiete-Jacare Basin (2000) and the Sao Paulo Water Resources Plan (2004-2007). Second, experiences about proposition and use of indicators in Brazil (POMPERMAYER, 2003) and others countries (ANZECC, 2000; EPA, 2003; FBC, 2000; PATTERSON, 2002) were investigated. The indicators were filtered to WRM and a preliminary set of SI was obtained. Third, a list of possible problems was submitted to committee members, asking to prioritize these problems in agreement with the reality observed in the whole basin or in their municipal districts. SI were associated to prioritized problems, reducing the preliminary SI for the wanted context. A second consultation process was accomplished by experts and technicians to evaluate the indicators, culminating in a set of SI more consistent and concise. Finally, the modified set of SI was also submitted to Committee members to verify possible gaps or overlaps. The final set of SI will be adopted in a collective process to be conducted in parallel to the elaboration of the Watershed Management Plan, in course nowadays.
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Michele de Almeida Corra & Bernardo Arantes do Nascimento Teixeira: Developing Sustainability Indicators
Results and Discussions The first result obtained in this research is a set of specific sustainability principles applied to water management. The main principles that compose this set are: universal access to water, responsible use, decentralized and participative management, economic value of water, environmental education and conflicts solutions considering multiple uses. The studied experiences on SI applied to WRM in different countries (presented in CORREA & TEIXEIRA, 2006) were used to compose a preliminary set of SI, after an adaptation to local context (Tiete-Jacare Basin). The main result presented here is the set of SI obtained by successive consultation processes. In the first consultation, indicators were related to problems prioritized by committee members. The main problems pointed out were: absence of riparian vegetation; occurrence of erosive process; small society participation in decision processes; problems in water supply system; irregular occupation in protected areas (margins, hillsides, riparian); pollution sources (wastewater and solid waste); necessity of environmental education; and lack of planning to WRM. In the second and thrird consultations, the set of SI (based on studied experiences and classified according problems) was evaluated and the results are showed in Table 1. The indicators were related to respective problem, and the numbers indicate their priority (number 1 is most important).
Table 1 Set of Sustainability Indicators to Water Resources Management
Associated Problem 1 Riparian vegetation absence 1 Riparian vegetation absence 2 Occurrence of erosive processes 3 Small society participation in decision process 6 Excessive groundwater withdrawal 8 Pollution in collection of water points 9 Losses in water supply system 10 Solid Waste (SW) inadequate disposition
Sustainability Indicator Ratio between vegetation area and total basin area Ratio between streamlength with riparian vegetation and total streamlength Number of significant erosion process Number of civil society entities registered in the committee Number of wells with significant water levels falling Index of water supply quality Index of physical losses in water supply system Ratio between amount of SW without correct destination and total amount of SW
Unit % % Un. Un. % 0-100 % % % % Un. 0-100 % 0-100 %
13 Absence of management instruments Ratio between licensed outflow and total (license and payment) outflow susceptible to license Ratio between payed outflow and total outflow susceptible to payment 16 Occurrence of problems in stormwater drainage (SD) 19 Water resources Pollution and contamination 22 Insufficient wastewater system 23 Groundwater pollution and contamination 24 Insufficient water surface availability Number of occurences of significant problems in SD Index of water quality Ratio between population assisted by wastewater system and total population Index of groundwater quality Ratio between demand and water surface availability (domestic, agricultural and industrial uses) Ratio between population assisted by water supply system and total population Number of occurences of diseases related to WR Number of conflicts manged by basin committee
25 Insufficient water supply system 26 Occurrence of diseases related to water resources (WR) 29 Conflicts due water resource multiple use
Un.
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Some discrepancies between opinions of committee members and specialists were observed and resulted in: priority problems whose indicators were classified as subindicators, and problems that were considered secondary whose indicators stood out by specialists. The concept of "significant" present in some indicators should be discussed and decided by the committee in the context of the Basin Plan. The development indicators based on previous identificated problems that were pointed by society and basin committee members allowed inclusion of important aspects, addressing to priorities areas. It could be observed that the main sustainability principles defined in the first step of the research were also considerd in the set of SI. Society participation as a whole in the decision process of basin committee aims to leave then aware and to involve all segments in sustainability quest: technicians, specialists, users and managers. One problem to be faced is lacking of available data necessary for the proposed indicators composition. When this lack is verified, actions should be foreseen to obtain and to render available requested data. It is recommended that the set of SI be applied in Tiete-Jacare Basin context to evaluate its capacity to monitor management aspects and to give bases to diagnose situation of water resources. The application of SI should be a committee routine, allowing stakeholders to know how conditions are developing along time, and compare conditions and evolution with other basins. This set of SI makes possible to diagnoses WRM in the Tiete-Jacare Basin. Through application of these and subsequent analysis of data obtained, SI could to address actions to deficient areas, as well as to prioritize goals already proposed. The set of SI should compose the Basin Plan and should be available to the society, acting as a subsidy in environmental education and as a guideline in changing water users behavior. Bibliographical References
ANZECC, Australian and New Zealand Environment Conservation Council. Core Environmental Indicators for Reporting on the State of the Environment. State of the Environment Reporting Task Force, 2000. Disponvel em www.deh.gov.au/soe/publications/coreindicators.html. CORREA, M. A & TEIXEIRA, B.A.N. Uso de Indicadores de Sustentabilidade na Gesto de Recursos Hdricos: algumas experincias internacionais. (in portuguese). In: V SIMPSIO INTERNACIONAL DE QUALIDADE AMBIENTAL. Porto Alegre, 2006. EPA's Draft Report on Environment: Technical Document, 2003. United States Environment Protection Agency. Office of Research and Development and the Office of Environment Information. www.epa.gov/indicators/. acesso 28/09/2005. FBC - Fraser Basin Council, Canada. Sustainability Indicators for the Fraser Basin Workbook, October 2000. www.fraserbasin.bc.ca acesso em 06/10/2005 PATTERSON, M. Headline Indicators for tracking progress to sustainaibility in New Zeland. Massey University, Palmerston North and Ministry for the Environment ahd previously release as Technical Document n. 71. Signposts for Sustainability. 2002. POMPERMAYER, R. S. Aplicao da Anlise Multi-critrio em Gesto de Recursos Hdricos: Simulao para as bacias dos Rios Piracicaba, Capivari e Jundia. (in portuguese). MSc Thesis Universidade de Campinas, 2003.
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Indicators for Sustainability in an Urban Watershed in Baltimore, Maryland, USA

E. McGurty
Johns Hopkins University, United States emcgurty@jhu.edu
Introduction The environmental movement aims to improve environmental quality for the equal benefit of everyone. Since we all depend on the same earth system, traditional environmentalists contend that protection of that system will accrue benefits to all people. However, the environmental justice movement challenged the universalist thinking of traditional environmentalism by demonstrating that many attempts at universal improvements resulted in improving the quality of the environment for some people more than others. Further, the new policies actually led to worsening conditions for people of color and the poor. The environmental justice movement in the United States gained power by showing how the legislative and regulatory infrastructure designed to ameliorate environmental problems contributed significantly to the inequitable distribution of risks. The idea that environmentalists spoke for everyone by advocating for policies that reduced risks on a universal basis was no longer tenable. [1] The focus of environmental justice advocates on inequity in the distribution of environmental risks begged the question: Should the risks be redistributed evenly across all segments of society so that middle class whites increase the risks they now face so that their burden can be equal with the poor and people of colour? Activists insisted that redistribution of risk was not the logical solution to the problem of inequity. For example, Ben Chavis told delegates and observers to the First People of Colour Environmental Leadership Summit in 1991 that "[w]e are not saying 'take the poisons out of our community and put them in a white community.' We are saying that no community should have these poisons." [2] The challenge for environmental justice is to advocate for the reduction of overall risks without undermining the civil rights approach that emphasizes the inequities in risk distribution. The tension between these two impulses infuses the movement. For example, Jesse Jackson's keynote address to the Summit stressed the universality of environmental issues and underscored the impacts of the current environmental protection paradigm on everyone: "You can't say it's just a black thing, or a brown thing, or a red thing. For they may dump toxic waste on the poor side of town today, but as surely as the wind blows, as surely as it's one planet Earth, what affects any of us in the morning affects the rest of us by sundown. " [3] However, Robert Bullard, the sociologist who spearheaded much of the scholarly interest in environmental justice, emphasized racial inequity of risks rather than universality: "We can clearly document that the environmental problems that confront our communities cannot be reduced solely to class; it is not just a poverty thing. Racism cuts across class. And we have to understand that and drive that point home every time some white media person tries to spin it into 'it's a class thing.'" [4] While it seems the movement embodies contradictory perspectives, the promise of environmental justice lies in its ability to simultaneously engage both the universal/equal and the local/unequal aspects of the environmental consequences of development decisions. Planners are well positioned to take up this challenge. Watershed 263 Restoration Project The Urban Watershed Restoration Project in Baltimore, Maryland attempts to integrate these ideas from environmental justice into urban regeneration through ecological restoration. The project approaches environmental issues from the multi-scale approach that environmental justice demands. The traditional environmental problem of poor water quality of the Chesapeake Bay is addressed by focusing the poor environmental quality in a distressed, low-income, predominately African American section of Baltimore. By simultaneously considering both the universal and the inequitable perspectives on environmental problems, the project promises to improve environmental conditions that effect many (water quality) while also reducing the environmental risks borne by the few and improving the quality of life for residents of this distressed urban area, as well. Watershed 263 (WS 263), one of 355 storm water catchment areas in Baltimore, is a 930-acre drainage area which includes portions of 12 neighbourhoods in predominately low-income, African-American sections in historic West Baltimore. The WS263 project aims to improve water quality of the outflow into the Middle Branch of the Patapsco River, a part of the Chesapeake Bay, while simultaneously improving social and economic conditions in distressed city neighbourhoods. The project involves extensive community participation in the implementation and maintenance of a variety of non-structural Best Management Practices (BMPs) and strategic restoration projects. Techniques that improve water infiltration will be employed in addition to offsetting impermeable surface with increased green infrastructure. Examples include rain gardens, strategic place-
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ment of new urban tree canopy, diversion of runoff to street tree pits, the use of advanced technology street sweeping, clean-up and plantings in vacant lots, construction of green roofs, and development of a 6 mile greenway through the urban streets and parks. In many ways, the project is similar to myriad of water quality improvement or urban greening projects in cities throughout the United States. For example, community organizations in various cities routinely use community greening gardening and forestry as a method of addressing the problems of vacant properties. [5] Also, structural and non structural BMPs are regularly employed by cities in storm water management plans and programs. [6] However, the project has two unique characteristics that enable the integration of environmental justice sensibilities into a mainstream environmental problem. Using Ecological Boundaries for Urban Planning First, the planning area is defined by ecological boundaries, not the normal way of thinking about central cities, particularly economically distressed parts of cities. Planning in inner cities is most often organized around either political or social boundaries. For example, in Baltimore, the recently developed comprehensive plan focuses on traditional neighbourhood designations. Neighbourhoods are areas in the city that facilitate interactions among residents and creating a geographic identity for residents. Usually, neighbourhoods have some degree of education, income and ethnic homogeneity and have a primary school at the centre. In many ways, neighbourhoods, as socially functioning areas, offer an ideal scale for planning. For example, because residents have a strong affinity with their neighbourhood, active citizen participation in the planning process is more likely at the neighbourhood level. Also, citizens experience the positive and negative impacts of urban development policies and city programs and services on the neighbourhood level. A third benefit of the neighbourhood approach to planning is that citizens can define spatial boundaries and can change those designations, depending on the context. [7] Using ecological boundaries for improving economic and social qualities in distressed city areas contradicts many currents in planning. However, ecological spaces offer an opportunity to examine impacts of environmental problems on two scales, the "universal/equal" and "local/unequal." The traditional environmental objective, addressing universal aspects of environmental risks, involves the Clean Water Act (CWA); a federal level law that aims to improve the quality of the surface waters of the United States with the goal of making all of them meet the "fishable or swimable" criteria. The CWA assumes that improving the water quality of a body of water will decrease the environmental and health risks for all Americans, no matter what their income, education level, race or ethnicity. The underlying assumption is that inequities, civil rights, poverty, and social marginalization have nothing to do with water pollution. The law and its related regulations do not deal with people and their life circumstances at all but focus exclusively on the physical environment. Regulators examine data on contamination and create parameters for both point and non-point sources of contamination in order to improve water quality. The permits that are issued, the regulations that are promulgated and the rules that are enforced only take water quality standards into consideration. The purpose is to clean the waters of the nation, not to reduce poverty or ameliorate racism. [8] As mandated by the CWA, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) identified Baltimore Harbour as impaired by bacteria (fecal coliform), toxics (PCBs), metals (chromium, zinc and lead) and suspended sediments. As a result, Section 303 (d) of the Clean Water Act mandated the State of Maryland to establish "Total Maximum Daily Loads" (TMDL) for nutrients and metals for the Harbour and enforces these through the State's issuance of National Permit Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits. In addition, under a consent order with the EPA, the City has agreed to major capital improvements in its sewer system, designed to eliminate raw sewerage entrance into the Harbour from the outdated and ill maintained combined overflow sewers and the illegal sewer connections. The capital improvements for the storm sewers are underway in the city and will continue for 12 years and will require at least $900 million. [9] While these actions spurred by the CWA may result in an improvement in the water quality of Baltimore Harbour, it is difficult to see how the residents in West Baltimore would be impacted. What difference would it make to the daily life of the average resident in these neighbourhoods if the pollution in the Harbour waters was decreased? However, if the idea of community is conceptualized in ecological terms, the direct connections between the quality of the water in the Harbour and the lives of residents in West Baltimore can be drawn. The contaminants flowing into the Middle Branch of the Patapso River (part of the Baltimore Harbour) from the outflow pipe of sewer shed 263 come from aspects of the area that have direct bearing on the quality of life of residents. Land use, tree canopy, open space, abandoned buildings, vacant lots, impervious surfaces, trash and sanitation service, traffic, diesel buses and trucks are implicated in both the contaminated Harbour and the poor quality of life experienced by residents. The ecological boundary makes the high levels of environmental burdens borne by residents in WS 263 a vital aspect of implementing the CWA. This approach transforms a traditional environmental solution into an environmental justice remedy: improving the 66
E. McGurty: Indicators for Sustainability in an Urban Watershed in Baltimore, Maryland, USA
conditions of poverty and oppression in concert with ameliorating environmental problems. The solution for the Harbour, which has a universal implication, is rooted in restoration of the urban landscape in ways that also addressing the economic and social conditions of the urban poor. Indicators for Social and Economic Improvements The second aspect of the project that enables an integration of the universal and local aspects of environmental justice is the development of metrics to assess the impacts of restoration on not only environmental parameters, but also economic and social qualities of the community. The environmental parameters can follow standard methodology and protocols. The project's specific water quality goal is to use strategic restoration and BMPs to decrease both nutrients and heavy metals in the outflow by 25%. The goal was established after preliminary SWMM models that with implementation of BMPs, 27% of storm water can be reduced and or treated. The model further suggested that by increasing tree canopy alone, up to 15% of precipitated water can be intercepted by urban tree canopies. By focusing efforts in one a sub-sewer shed, as an experimental site along with a control sub-sewer shed where no restoration projects will be implemented, the team can determine the impact of the restoration and BMPs on improvements in the outflow. Toward that end, in both the experimental and control drainage areas, sampling equipment has been installed to collect flow rates and volumes, and sample to test for heavy metals, nutrients, E. coli and other pathogens, and temperature. In addition, 85 plots were analyzed for vegetation, using UFORE methodology and 45 of these 85 plots had soil analyses for heavy metals and nutrients. The baseline data indicates that WS263 has very poor water quality in comparison to other watersheds in Baltimore City and County. For 19 storm events, water quality in WS263 exceeded EPA criteria for Cu, Pb, and Zn up to 90%, 80%, and 25% of the time, respectively. Concentrations of nitrate-N were as high as 6 mg/L during low flow periods, which is comparable to agricultural watersheds in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed. The soils of WS263 are moderately contaminated. Approximately 17% of plots sampled had Pb concentrations that exceed EPA soil screening guidelines. The majority of these plots were located on abandoned lots. Tree canopy in WS263 is 5.9%, compared to the city-wide canopy of nearly 20%. Species are mostly naturalized invasive species (e.g., Tree of Heaven), not planted and managed trees. The measurement of the expected social and economic benefits is a complex problem for three main reasons. First, if the goal is to improve the quality of life of residents living in the area, then traditional measures of the urban development benefits are not appropriate. For example, increasing property values are often viewed as a primary benefit of urban redevelopment projects. However, in this context, where the goal is to improve the quality of life of the current residents, increasing property values might only serve to displace the current residents with wealthier ones. Increasing socio-economic status of a particular place is also often used to indicate the success of urban redevelopment schemes. However, an increase in income of residents of an area could simply be an indication of wealthier people replacing poorer people in a specific place, not the increase in income of the current residents of the area. History is replete with examples of both urban and environmental problems that are unintended consequences of solutions to other problems. The WS263 project asks: How do we create "green" cities that don't push out low income people as an unintended consequence? Using an ecologically defined space creates a second challenge to measuring the social and economic benefits from the restoration projects and BMPs. Most data is collected using census geography, city boundaries, or other socially defined spaces and will require significant manipulation in order to make it reflect the reality in the watershed. Since another primary goal of the project is to create community stewardship over the restoration projects, the data manipulation must be available in fairly "user-friendly" fashion so that ongoing data collection and analysis can continue to assess trends over time. The third challenge for developing social and economic indicators for the project is that some of the information that could indicate success needs to be collected, which is costly and time consuming. Researchers conducted phone surveys to learn about resident's knowledge of watersheds and their satisfaction with the environmental quality of their neighbourhood. Baseline data indicates that residents in WS263 are about as knowledgeable about watersheds as their counterparts in the city and region. Results of the survey show that 33% of the people living in the region know that they live in a watershed, in contrast to 22% in the city and 28% in WS263. However, two indicators show that WS263 residents show deep dissatisfaction. First, only 9% of the people living in the region are dissatisfied with the environmental quality of their neighbourhood, in contrast to 17% in the city and 34% in WS263. A second indication of dissatisfaction is that 41% of the people living in the region would move away if they could, in contrast to 54% in the city and 74% in WS263. While these measures, instituted by researchers, offer some insights into the impact of the restoration projects on the quality of life of residents, they do not necessarily reflect the characteristics of a neighbourhood that are important to residents. To capture these measurements, the Watershed 263 Community Stakeholders
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Council formed, as an outcome of the community capacity building and outreach efforts of the project. The Council developed, through community fora and consultation with project partners, a list of potential measurements that could indicate project success, based on goals for each dimension of the project. There are 10 social, 10 ecological, and 8 economic goals deemed important by residents, and the Council identified several metrics that could be used as proxies to determine if the project was fostering these goals. (See Table 1). Conclusions Since most of these parameters have not been measured on any level of scale, baseline data sets need to be established. The next steps for this project include the development of a data base management system that the Council can use for future collection and organization of the indicator data. If trends are to be determined, long term data collection will be necessary. Since the information will be coming from myriad sources, the Council will need an organized structure for obtaining each data set, a system for quality control/quality assurance, and an easily implemented method for parcelling the data into the WS263 boundaries. After establishment of the database system, preliminary assessments need to be conducted. While time-sensitive analysis can not be conducted because the restoration efforts have just begun, the indicators could be compared to other locations at various geographic scales (within Baltimore, in the Baltimore region, other cities educational and motivational purposes. While the baseline data could easily be shown with graphs and charts, the Council will need to adjust the graphs and charts to incorporate the future data, so flexible and user friendly tools for representing the data need to be developed. Environmental justice has challenged urban practitioners to reconsider the impact of their work and to conceptualize their vision of liveability. The WS263 project has the potential to demonstrate that universal goals of improving environmental quality for everyone can be addressed while simultaneously improving the quality of life for residents in poor, distressed city neighbourhoods. In 1970, Richard Hatcher, the first black mayor of Gary, Indiana said, "The nation's concern with environment has done what George Wallace was unable to do: distract the nation from the human problems of black and brown Americans." The situation was exasperated when it came to light that the laws and regulations designed to improve the environment for all citizens actually led to decrease in environmental quality for the poor and people of color while allowing whites and the middle class to escape the worst of the environmental burdens. However, the WS263 project has the potential to model an approach to environmental problem solving that avoids the redistribution of risks onto the marginalized and takes the problems of black and brown Americans seriously.
Table 1: Sample of Community Identified Goals and Indicators for WS263
Selected from Social Goals and Indicators Goals Indicators Greater community involvement and stewardship teams # of people involved in the WS263 Council # of people identified as willing volunteers # of people who feel neighbours are supportive of community improvements (sense of community unity) Safer neighbourhoods and travel ways connecting # of traffic accidents involving pedestrians schools, parks, community centres, commerce, and # of schools, parks, and community centres, etc. linked to institutions designed safe pathway Selected from Ecological Goals and Indicators Goals Indicators Reduce impervious surface and improve groundwater # acres impervious surfaces converted to green space and infiltration other previous surfaces Reducing the ratio of alleys to roads to sidewalks Open space # of vacant acres converted to green space, community gardens, other green uses # of acres of open space per person # of open space acres that function as an ecological unit (connectivity) Selected from Economic Goals and Indicators Goals Indicators Community micro or informal economic enterprise # of new community run businesses Dollars spent in locally owned businesses Community based weatherization programs, rain barrel Establishment of locally owned business specializing in storm installation, cool roof programs, housing code water reduction technologies improvements # of rain barrels, green roofs, and energy saving appliance installations
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E. McGurty: Indicators for Sustainability in an Urban Watershed in Baltimore, Maryland, USA
References
[1] Eileen M. McGurty, Transforming Environmentalism: Warren County, PCBs and the Origins of Environmental Justice, (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2007). [2] Charles Lee, ed., Proceedings: The First National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summitt(New York: United Church of Christ, 1991): 8. [3] Ibid., 73 [4] Ibid., 30 [5] Diane Englander, New York's Community Gardens: A Resource at Risk, (New York, NY: Trust for Public Lands, 2001) [6] Bell, W., et. al., "Targets of opportunity: an innovative urban BMP retrofit program," Public Works (July 1999) 130: 8 [7] David S. Sawicki and Patrice Flynn, "Neighborhood indicators," Journal of the American Planning Association (Spring 1996) 62: 2. [8] United States Environmental Protection Agency, Introduction to the Clean Water Act, http://www.epa.gov/watertrain/pdf/IntrotoCWA.pdf, viewed 11 April 2007. [9] USA and State of Maryland v. City of Baltimore, Consent Decree, 26 April 2002, http://www.epa.gov/compliance/resources/decrees/civil/cwa/baltimore-cd.pdf, viewed 11 April 2007.
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System of Indicators for Municipal Sustainability: Santo Andr So Paulo Brazil

Glria Regina Calho Barini Nspoli1, Paula Raquel da Rocha Jorge Vendramini2, Tadeu Fabrcio Malheiros3, Gilda Collet Bruna4, Arlindo Philippi Jr2
Mato Grosso Stade Government, 2School of Public Health University of So Paulo, 3So Carlos Engineering School University of So Paulo, Mackenzie Presbiterian University So Paulo gilda@mackenzie.com.br
1 4
Abstract The city of Santo Andr belongs to So Paulo Metropolitan Region, and it is located on the fountainhead that partially supplies the region. It is divided by part of Billings lake which is not internally transposed. It is necessary to pass by other cities in order to get to the other side. This geographic division constitutes a peculiar physical situation and distinguishes the way the territory is occupied. The northern part is more occupied and dense while the other part, which is the Paranapiacaba district, much less dense and with different urbanistic characteristics. This part of the city is managed by the only sub-city hall of Santo Andre, which embodies Paranapiacaba and Parque Andreense. Santo Andr started its industrialization in the end of the 19th century with the arrival of European immigrants (mostly textiles industries) and there was a change in the profile of these industries in the 1950's, when it started to have many auto parts industries. The city has been the target of many governmental intervention projects and it has been one of the pioneers in the participative management, in the implantation of the participative budget as well as in the integration of environmental sanitation policies. The concern with the sustainable development is present in their policies and projects. As consequence of the adoption of management measures, different from most Brazilian cities, Santo Andr has systematized data and published part of this data in a city data year-book. Besides that, the city counts with a geographic information system (GIS) which is in process of consolidation. But, even being an exception among the cities in the country, Santo Andr could count with a more efficient tool for public management in case it adopted a system of indicators of municipal sustainability, modeled on the existing ones, already used in some Brazilian cities, or developed its own indicators system, that could monitor systematically its development. The objective of this work is to approach the public policy of environmental sanitation in Santo Andre and discuss the necessity of an indicator system for its management. Introduction The issue related to environmental conservation in urban areas has deserved special attention because the cities have in their territories most people and economic activities with antropic impacts more and more expressive, reflecting in texts of international conventions and national governmental planning. It is necessary to identify how these concerns are present in the municipal legislation and what kind of indicators that cities like Santo Andr have availabre. Located in the State of So Paulo, Brazil, Santo Andr was chosen because it has an environmental sanitation policy directed for urban sustainability which is still inexistent in great part of the Brazilian cities. These concerns are present worldwide in the Global Agenda 21, produced in Rio-92, and in the eight Development Objectives of the Millennium, defined in 2000 by the UN Millennium Summit UN, where government representatives, among them, Brazil, agreed on reaching them until 2015. Among these objectives there is the environmental sustainability (UNESCO, 2000). In Brazil, the National Agenda 21, concluded in 2002, contemplates in its axis "Strategy for rural and urban sustainability" the urban issue, more specifically treated in the objectives 10 to 14 (CPDS, 2002). The tenth objective of this Agenda is about the management of urban space and the metropolitan authority, understanding that the urban sustainability depends on federal policies directed to the national development, but favoring the decentralization, respecting and strengthening the local government and incentivating the comanagement among different social segments. For the redirection of policies and urban development, we propose a significant reorganization of municipal, metropolitan, state and federal management systems in a way that the cross-sector planning and implementation of territorial order programs, housing, transportation and job generation is stimulated. It is necessary to promote changes in the objective of development policies and urban environment conservation, mainly the ones related to irregular occupation and industrial activities. This change intends to replace punishment and restrictive instruments to others of negotiation and incentive, privileging the ones of economic nature, understanding that they are more suitable because they generate additional resources that propitiate the implementation of urban sustainability projects (CPDS, 2002). 70
Glria Regina Calho Barini Nspoli et al.: System of Indicators for Municipal Sustainability: Santo Andr, Brazil
Recently, the Federal Law number 11.445 of 01/05/07 established national guidelines for basic sanitation services, focusing as principles to be observed in its rendering, that are universalization and integration. this means to serve everybody and integrate actions directed to water supply, sanitation, urban draining, and wastes handling, besides its articulation with environmental protection policies, water resources and health protection. In relation to the management it is expected the institutionalization of decision processes, information systematization, transparence in the actions and social control (MINISTRIO DAS CIDADES, 2007). The participation of environmental sanitation in the salubrity of natural and built environment is expressive, and it should not be isolated. There is the necessity of cross-sector articulation with social policies, in a way that the sanitation of urban environment is made possible and the environmental quality of the cities becomes a reality. In order to reach the socio-environmental results from the execution of the actions mentioned, which refers to urban environment, the municipal administration need to have their reality represented by a system of socioenvironmental indications that subsidizes the formulation and management of urban policies, as well as the proposal of a municipal urbanistic legislation. The city of Santo Andr The city of Santo Andr, a component of the Metropolitan Region of So Paulo, was separated from So Bernardo do Campo in 1953, its population is approximately 664,000 people (IBGE, 2000). The city has an area of 175 Km2 it is located in a fountainhead region, which partially supplies the city of So Paulo, the most populated city in the country. The water from this fountainhead contributes for the formation of Bilings lake, which divides the city in two parts and there isn't an internal crossing to the city. Its economy is based on industrial sector. Social indicators built for the Brazilian cities rank Santo Andre in the 76 place nationally, referring to municipal social situation. It shows in a scale of 0 to 1, the last one represents a better position, the following social indicators: Poverty 0,816; Youth 0,825; Literacy 0,921; Education 0,754; Formal employment 0,209; Violence 0,792; Inequality 0,390; Social exclusion 0,637 (POCHMANN e AMORIM, 2003). As the city is contiguous with its neighbors, So Paulo, So Bernardo do Campo, So Caetano do Sul and Diadema, its road mesh are continuous with these cities'. Its structure is radial, a result of disordered occupation, a characteristic of most Brazilian cities. The Santo Andre 2020 planning aims to work on the specificities of the city and aims to go toward the maintenance and enlargement of its economic potential, in the social inclusion perspective, conserving its environmental asset, with quality of life in the urban space point of view, culture, leisure, education, sports, accessible to everyone, with no exception. Concerned that this journey must be done together with the citizens who live, work and contributes to build a better future, the project received the name City of Future and it has a participative design. Santo Andr participates in the Intermunicipal Consortium and in the Economic Development Agency of Geat ABC and in Regional Chamber of Great ABC. Great ABC is the name given to part of the Metropolitan Region of So Paulo composed by the following cities: Santo Andr, So Bernardo do Campo, So Caetano, Diadema, Ribeiro Pires, Rio Grande da Serra and Mau. There has been initiatives to apply sustainability indicators in Santo Andr as the GEO-Cities, but because of lack of resources they haven't been built. A project called "MEGA Strategic Evaluation of the Implementation Process of Development and Environment Policies in the city of Santo Andr SP" is under development with partnership with the City Hall and the University of So Paulo, which will develop an evaluation methodology for public environmental policies and as one of its products will be an indicators system. Municipal Policy of Environmental Sanitation and Management The city of Santo Andre innovates when it establishes, since 1998, a Municipal Policy of Environmental Sanitation and Management, which is an integrated environmental sanitation model. It considers as environmental sanitation actions the ones that aim to reach ascending levels of environmental salubrity by: potable water supply, sanitary and liquid waste disposal, water draining, control of transmitting diseases vectors and other specialized services constructions (Unique Paragraph of Article 1 of Municipal Law 7.733/98). Besides these attributions, the civil defense actions that aims the management of environmental risks are also responsibility of the managing organ of this policy. The ongoing improvement of environmental quality, the universalization of environmental sanitation actions, the multidiscipline attitude when treating environmental issues, popular participation in the decision processes having the environmental education as a mobilizer, the inter-sector integration, the adoption of pub-
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lic health and environment improvement criteria for the use of financial resources managed by the City are some of the principles of this policy (Art. 2). A Municipal System of Environmental Sanitation and Management was instituted. Institutional agents that are integrated in an articulated and cooperative way (Art. 5 and paragraphs) to formulate policies, define strategies and execute actions of environmental education compose it. The Municipal Council of Environmental Sanitation and Management and the Municipal Service of Environmental Sanitation of Santo Andr SEMASA, as technical and executive agency and collaborator, participate in the system as consulting and deliberative agency. To evaluate and follow the implementation of the sanitation policy, as well as the publication of Environmental Salubrity Reports of the City are responsibility of the COMUGESAN, a collegiate of twenty-two members on the same level composition. The system is composed by collaborating agencies and the government departments responsible for the urban and housing development areas, municipal services, education, economic development and employment, citizenship, health, culture, sports and leisure, municipal police besides the Popular Participation Nucleus. It is assigned to SEMASA competences to implement the objectives and the instruments of the instituted policy, with responsibilities to plan, propose, execute and coordinate the actions to be taken, as well as control and inspections. Among other competences for the agency are the elaboration of the Environmental Sanitation and Management Plan PLAGESAN; the establishment of norms, criteria and stands of environmental quality and pollutant emission; the management the Municipal Fund for Environmental Sanitation Management resources and coordination of the elaboration and revision of director plans related to its competence (Art. 6). The legal orientation for the use of the indicators in the policy is noticed in two moments. First, as an element to compose PLAGESAM, in which "sanitation, epidemiologic and environmental, use and occupation of the soil indicators and others of regional impacts" must compose the city socio-environmental diagnoses. Second in the elaboration of the City Environmental Salubrity Situation Report, subsidize the evaluations of the policy and the programs in execution. These indicators must be built from an Environmental Information System, one instrument of the Policy (Art. 12, incise XVI). Urban Socio-environmental Indicators Systems The institutional apparatus that guides the Environmental Sanitation Policy of Santo Andr has, in its context, actions related to infra-structure and sanitation services, environment, urban development, health and environmental education. Because of the way that the system is conceived, it can be understood as propitiate to the construction of a socio-environmental indicator system build from the urban sub-basin, which bases all the actions articulated by the public policy. There is a summary of data compiled annually by SEMASA that works more like an instrument to publish the data than an articulator of it. The city notices the necessity of an indicator system for the improvement of local management, but its initiatives haven't been successful. It would be interesting that in the conception of the indicators for the city there were the concern of relating social and environmental indicators in a way to be possible to evaluate the size of urban improvement impacts in terms of infrastructure and public services in the social indicators improvement. The advances of the national policy of development and the advances reached by Santo Andr, as the fact of having done a mobilization to establish vision of future (City of the Future) and having prepared a director plan which contains goals, creates a propitious moment with adequate environment for the implementation of the municipal system of information aiming the sustainable development. Bibliographic Reference:
CPDS - Comisso de Polticas de Desenvolvimento Sustentvel e da Agenda 21 Nacional. Agenda 21 Brasileira Aes Prioritrias. Braslia: MMA, 2002. IBGE - Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatstica. Censo Demogrfico. Rio de Janeiro, IBGE, 2000. MINISTRIO DAS CIDADES. Lei Federal No 11.445 de 05/01/2007. Disponvel em: <http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2007-2010/2007/Lei/L11445.htm>. Acesso em: 28/03/2007. POCHMANN, Mrcio e AMORIM, Ricardo (orgs). Atlas da Excluso Social. So Paulo, Editora Cortez, 2003. SEMASA, Saneamento Ambiental de Santo Andr. Disponvel em: <www.semasa.com.br>. Acesso em 25/03/2007. UNESCO. UNESCO and The Millennium Development Goals. Paris, 2000. Disponvel em: <http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals >. Acesso em: 28/03/2007.
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Construction Residues in Goinia

T.M. Melo, L.R. Rezende & E.H. Carvalho
Federal University of Gois UFG, Brazil txmmelo@yahoo.com.br
Abstract The civil construction chain of production is an important economic activity that contributes significantly to the extraction of natural resources and indiscriminate production of residues. The present work deals with the elaboration of a panorama about the construction and demolition residues produced in Goinia. It aims to contribute to the possible plan that can be carried out with convergent actions to reach a form of sustainable management of such residue. Therefore, the interaction between the residue produced and the environment were observed. The legislation, the data concerning the quantity of residue produced, collected, transported, its final destination, the initiatives of use and recycling as well as the administrative and fiscal aspects were studied. The study was based on the collection of data through the application of questionnaires, photographs, and oral interviews during visits to several municipal and state agencies as well as private companies. During the writing of this paper there was participation in events such as seminars, congresses, public hearings and technical meetings. The analyses verified that the municipal data, when they exist, are precarious due to a lack of control and management in all of this chain of production. The city of Goinia is facing a great challenge in the elaboration and management of efficient public policies that are capable of managing this type of residue correctly. Introduction The lack of effectiveness or even the inexistence of public polices directed toward the correct management of the residues of construction and demolition in the municipalities, is mainly caused by a complete lack of knowledge about the various factors related to it, such as: the volume produced, the costs involved in non-preventive and emergency management, the possibilities for the utilization of these residues and other factors. Some data show their significance in the environment, such as: Schneider (2003) who states that civil construction consumes from 14% to 50% of the natural resources extracted from the planet. In addition, Andrade (2001) explains that this sector produces about 50 kg of residue for each m2 of construction. According to Pinto's (1999) research carried out in some municipalities in Brazil, it was detected that there is an estimated production of residue from 230 kg to 760 kg per inhabitant per year. Prior to any action it is necessary to diagnose the principle occurrences of these solid residues, which would make it possible to see the current situation in Goinia in relation to this type of residue, thereby contributing to the coordinated acts of sustainable management. In the Brazilian economy, John (2001) affirms that construction industry corresponds to 14%. Methodology The search for data was based on qualitative research in the field (visits in various public agencies: City Department of Environment SEMMA, Union of the Constructors of Gois SINDUSCON-GO, Association of the Rubbish Carriers of Gois ASTEG, City Cleaning Company of Goinia COMURG; private companies: local constructor companies, and transporting enterprises and participation in technical meetings, public hearings and various events related to the theme) as well as bibliography. The residues from construction and demolition still did not have an official place other than the city landfill at the end of 2006. It was supposed that there was some control of the quantity of residue from civil construction by COMURG since this control existed over the other residues received there (hospital and domestic). That's why initially a questionnaire was developed specifically for ASTEG and COMURG. The intention was to identify the quantity that was transported by the private companies and by the public company. With these data in hand, we intended to identify and list the quantity that arrived at the city landfill being transported by the private companies and by the public company. With this information we would compare the data from the public company with that from the private company. During the visits we discovered the lack of available data in public agencies, which contributed to a change in the methodology in oral interviews in various public agencies in an attempt to find the information and later compile the data. Results In 2005 an average of 30,000 m3 of residue were transported monthly by the 3,000 dumpsters of the 36 private transporting companies in Goinia, added to that of the COMURG and other informal carriers. In this period an average of 10% to 15% of dumpsters was stopped in rendering of services. The data referring to the amount transported by the private companies was obtained by sampling. The president of the ASTEG has a
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company, that according to him controls 10% of the market and based on this information the data were projected into an universe of 100%. This analogy was justified because of the lack of control over the official data of the association. One needs to consider that the transportation is carried out in dumpsters that vary from 3 m3 to 10 m3 and there is no detailed control over the exact amount in each dumpster. Using this information we obtained the results of the data presented in Table 1, which esimated for each dumpster the average volume of 4.5 m3 and weight equivalent of 4 tons. There one can see that in the years 2001 and 2002 the quantity of residue collected was about 236,000 tons. For each year from the year 2003 there was an increase in the quantity to about 322,000 tons. In 2005, the quantity of residue transported by the private companies reached the level of 354,000 tons. At the end of this period of observation, we verified an increase of 50% in the quantity of construction residue in Goinia. In Figure 1 one can see that for all of the years considered there was an increase in the production of residue in the period between the months of May and October. This fact may be related to the dry season in this region, which is the period when there is more construction. We tried to relate the obtained data of each period with the increase of the civil construction activity of SINDUSCON-GO, which indicated the Association of Real Estate Market, however the related agency clarified that it doesn't make this type of control either.
Table 1: Annual quantity of construction waste carried by enterprises
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Total
2001 Dumpster 4230 3730 4819 4807 4230 4807 5010 6380 5832 5902 5216 4032 58995
Tons 16920 14920 19276 19228 16920 19228 20040 25520 23328 23608 20864 16128 235980
2002 2003 2004 2005 Dumpster Tons Dumpster Tons Dumpster Tons Dumpster Tons 4200 16800 4560 18240 4560 18240 6930 27720 3383 13532 4410 17640 4410 17640 6200 24800 4220 16880 5830 23320 5830 23320 7680 30720 4532 18128 5607 22428 5600 22400 8010 32040 5029 20116 6690 26760 6690 26760 8530 34120 4220 16880 7830 31320 8010 32040 7820 31280 5470 21880 7822 31288 8015 32060 7440 29760 6022 24088 7630 30520 7905 31620 8600 34400 5230 20920 8210 32840 8316 33264 7910 31640 6110 24440 7760 31040 7460 29840 7380 29520 5832 23328 7570 30280 7570 30280 6090 24360 4702 18808 6590 26360 6590 26360 5970 23880 58950 235800 80509 322036 80956 323824 88560 354240
Origin: ASTEG, 2006
In 2002 there was a register in the city landfill that showed the deposit of 35,400 tons of domiciliary residues, 140 tons of hospital waste and 60,615 tons of civil construction residues. It shows that the civil construction waste makes up 63% of the total garbage received at the city landfill. So, Goinia is within the average of the national production of construction residue identified by Pinto (1999), in which he mentions that the ratio of construction and demolition residue within the urban solid residues produced nationally vary from 41% to 70%. This type of residue has always been partially deposited in the city landfill (ASTEG, 2006). This behavior is contrary to article 4, paragraph 1 of the Conama Resolution 307/2002, which prohibits these residues from being dumped in city landfills as well as irregular dumping on roadsides, river banks, vacant lots and protected areas. At the same time that the agencies responsible for protecting the environment prohibit the use of city landfill sites for dumping civil construction residue, they have not provided an alternative, a legal place for such dumping. The government, construction companies and the transportation companies have reached an impasse and have not been able to find a solution. Much of the construction residue continues to be dumped in inadequate places. It is estimated that 70% of construction residue is deposited outside of the city landfill. The impasses in relation to the dumping of construction residue have been constant in all municipal governments, because the category of civil construction has never been challenged to accept their responsibilities in relation to these residues. Until February 21th, 2007 no solution or proposal had been found. In the year 2003, there was in Goinia the Program of Management of Materials, where it was verified that in 2002, Goinia spent approximately U$1 677,966.10 a month with the removal of 727,374 tons of rubbish deposited irregularly on the roadsides of the municipality. That is an average of 60,615 tons a month, or 2,020 tons a day (BLUMENSCHEIN, 2003). With these data we inferred that the monthly cost in that year was U$ 3.81 for each ton removed. Comparatively, one can see that the transportation companies removed the total of 235,800 tons, with a cost of U$ 74,866 a month and U$ 10.85 each ton (ASTEG, 2006). It needs to be con74
T.M. Melo et al.,: Construction Residues in Goinia
Annual quantity of construction waste carried by enterprises

45000 40000 35000 30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
m3
Ja n Fe b M ar Ap r M ay Ju n
Months
Figure 1: Annual quantity of construction waste carried by enterprises. Origin: ASTEG, 2006
sidered that the garbage trucks are not hired to remove only construction residue, and the percentage of the other types of residue transported is not calculated. Having the data in hand one can infer that during the whole year of 2002 a total of 963,174 tons of residues was removed with the average total cost of U$ 752,832. The public administration spent 74% of the total spents on the transportation of construction residues in Goinia. Moreover, it spent of 193% more than the private carriers for the transportation of construction residue. These public costs are repassed to the taxpayer through the Urban Territorial Land Tax IPTU, but it isn't specified how much of the IPTU is used for this service neither how is calculated the value for each ton if there aren't any control about the quantity of residue transported. In 2005 the private carriers had 81 multiple hoist trucks, traveling an average distance of 45km (round trip), having as their base the central area of Goinia. In this year the transportation for each dumpster cost the private companies U$ 27,74, while the rent for a dumpster was U$ 30,51 per week. In 2002 the rent of a dumpster per week cost U$ 18.85 and the cost for the company was U$ 15.25. The expenses from the two periods are distributed in the following way: 4.3% in office expenses, 52.5% with employees and taxes and 43.2% with the expenses with dumpsters and trucks. It is estimated that of the residue transported 45% is concrete and mortar, 15% ceramic residue, 20% of recyclable residue (wood, plastic, glass, paper) and 20% of non-recyclable residue. However there has not been a specific study of the exact measurement of the characteristics of each type of residue (ASTEG, 2006). The impasses concerning the dumping of construction residue have always existed in all of the municipal administrations and recently have been in the news, especially in the year 2006. In January 2006 there was an article concerning the dumping of tons of residue into the rivers and creeks of the city. That article mentioned that from the Macambira Creek the equivalent of 1.2 million m3 of residues was removed. Much of that residue had been washed into the river from the edges where it had been dumped. This residue was causing the blockage of the creek bed. The operation of removal took 32 hours of work by the Department of Highways and Roads of the Municipality (O POPULAR, 2006). Conclusion With these analyses one can see that during the chain of production in urban construction there has never been any concern about the management of the final destination of this type of residue, even after being regulated by Conama in 2002. Thereby the city has inherited an environmental passivity, whose consequences are socialized with the community, while the discussion of a solution is only taken up with each new headline in the newspaper. Because the quantity of residues transported increases from year to year we are concerned about when there will be public policies capable of impeding indiscriminate production of these residues. There has also been no public or private discussion about the cost of the adequate administration of construction residue. The public data obtained are deficient and precarious and show the need for a data-base upon which
Ju l Au g Se pt O ct N ov D ec
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urban planning can be developed. Such conduct is indispensable for the development of a modern methodological base. With this, there arises the concern about when public policies will be created that are capable of resolving the problem, requiring that the participants involved be held responsible. Therefore one can see how urgent it is to develop actions that will provide efficient service to meet the needs of the city. It must be emphasized that the huge amount spent by the public administration is 193% higher than the costs of private transportation of these residues, not counting the expenses such as: costs relative to the correction of irregular dump sites; final dumping in landfills or irregular dump sites; inspection activities; pest control; environment polluted and the bad quality of life. References
ANDRADE, A. S. U; Paliari, J. C; Agopyan C. Estimativa da Quantidade de RCD Produzido em Obras de Construo de edifcios. In: IV Seminrio "Desenvolvimento Sustentvel e a Reciclagem na Construo Civil -0 Materiais Reciclados e suas Aplicaes". 05 e 06 de junho de 2001. Universidade de So Paulo. So Paulo. 2001. p. 65-74 ASSUNO, M. Mananciais recebem toneladas de entulho. O Popular, Goinia, 15 de jan.2006. Cidades. Vida Urbana, p. 5. ASTEG - Association of the Rubbish Carriers of Gois. Goinia, 2006. BLUMENSCHEIN, N. R. CREA - GO. Programa de Reduo de Desperdcio e Gesto de Materiais. In: CREA - GO. Prmio CREA Gois de Meio Ambiente - Compndio dos trabalhos premiados / 2003. Goinia. Safra Grfica e Editora Ltda, 2004. JOHN, V. M. Avaliao da vida til de materiais, componentes e edifcios. Porto Alegre, 1987. [Dissertao de Mestrado da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul] PINTO, T. P. Metodologia para Gesto Diferenciada de Resduos da Construo Urbana. So Paulo, 1999. [Tese de Doutorado da Escola Politcnica da Universidade de So Paulo] SCHNEIDER, D. M. Deposies Irregulares de Resduos da construo Civil na Cidade de So Paulo. So Paulo, 2.003. [Dissertao de Mestrado da Faculdade de Sade Pblica da Universidade de So Paulo]
________________________________________________ 1 The value of the dollar corresponds to the average exchange rate during the years of the research (2002 to 2005): U$ 2,95.
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How to Measure the Quality of Urban Life: The Tale of Istanbul Metropoliten Area
Gulsen Yilmaz1 & Serkan Gunes2
1 Gazi University, Ankara,Turkey, 2Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey gulseny@gazi.edu.tr
Introduction Quality of life (QOL) is of interest to environmental psychology, social psychology, health sciences, sociology, anthropology and social geography and urban planning. In the context of urban planning, ssustainable development increased significantly during the last decade of the twentieth century. So it is necessary to improve the quality of urban life to gain sustainable urban areas. Measuring life quality in housing areas and to calculate suitable indicators are important issue. The focus of this study is to assess the quality of urban life study in Istanbul case about an environmental and spatial sustainable development strategy to support sustainable development in the globalization process. The analytical measurement study of QOL in Istanbul encloses the physical attributes of residential areas and survey of QOL with individuals as well as the data gained from municipality's data base. In this context, the study aims to identify the difficulties of measurement in QOL and discusses the possible solutions. What is the Quality of Urban Life: Short Overview Definitions of quality of life are as many and inconsistent as the methods of assessing it. Stemming from a larger piece of work looking at the definition and measurement of quality of life this paper highlights the lack of a consensus definition of quality of life by means of taxonomy of definitions that emerge from the literature. In recent years, in an attempt to secure conceptual clarity, various researchers have produced typologies of QOL definitions. An assessment of Quality of Life (QOL) has been a topic of growing concern on a global scale. Although the concern is said to have originated in the 1930s (Wish, 1986). As "quality of life" represents more than the private "living standards", indeed several disciplines assigned different meaning to the QOL. Although there is consensus on the meaning of the term quality, implying a sense of satisfaction of the people within an environment in which they live, the specific set of attributes (indicators) and the measurement (methods) have drawn notable criticism from many quarters (Wish, 1986). If one analysis the QOL depending on space; space will be questioned whether it can satisfy the demands or the needs of humans. In such a case, in defining QOL, the space becomes one of the major variables to observe humans and their activities with the complex interaction over itself and time. On the other hand, if one threats the QOL under satisfaction dimension, then the individual subjectivity stands in the forefront. Space based characterization of QOL is constituted by combining the objective conditions of space and individual subjective responses (Marans, 2003). Spatial QOL is formed by the accumulation of these variables. Space based objective conditions are constant where the individual subjective responses differs. Since, in the measurement of QOL, the individual becomes a continuous variable of quality in an inextricably manner (Rogerson, 1997). Another dimension in spatial QOL is the variety in spatial scale in the perception of individuals. The overall QOL experience of space is the collection of different subjective responses of individuals in different spatial scales as city and community, macro and micro neighbourhood and house (Marans and Rodgers, 1975). As a result, forming QOL over space differs in individual level, however all individual subjective responses creates a total QOL experience with the combination with the objective conditions the space offers. One of the main indicators of QOL on urban scale is the quality and characteristics of residential areas. Because yet the residential areas threats the natural resources of the city; residential areas also offers healthy environment to improve QOL. Istanbul Istanbul is the one of the most important cities in Turkey. From 1980 to 1990, the population of the Istanbul grew from 4.7 million to 7.3 million, and reached approximately 10 million in 2000. Today, the macro form of the Istanbul metropolitan area was determined by the dispersion of housing areas towards the periphery by reflecting on the provision of transportation network. The city is more and more big so the problems relationship between city growth and quality of life. Rapid population growth by migration and unplanned urbanisation process causes increasing demand to natural resources. In this respect not only natural resources are destroyed and exhausted but also the structure of the built environment has become unhealthy. So, Istanbul faces many persistent planning problems such as lack of adequate infrastructure in squatter areas, the gap between incomes, etc. The problems per-
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sist partly because planning has not been enough responsive to local peculiarities. This lack of responsiveness is in turn because of the gross scale at which problems are conceived and attacked. One of the most important and persistent problems is the poor urban and environmental quality. Up to now, the location selection of industrial, commercial and mass housing areas have not put down to a defined planning policies. In this way, these selections are limited by the individual preferences and speculative interests. The Tale of Istanbul Metropoliten Area The Istanbul Study on Quality of Urban Life is undertaken as part of the Istanbul Strategic Plan prepared by the Greater Istanbul Municipality and by Istanbul Technical University together. The method of the research consists of three main data sets: 1. Face-to-Face 1635 Interviews with Residents 2. SSI1 population data 3. GIS data. From this data set, a model which defines the quality of urban life indicators is established. At the end of the study, some measures have been developed to increase the quality of urban life especially for the residential domains environment2 (Figure 1-2). The data is collected by environmental inventory3 and producing GIS data. In the study, the main attribute of the QOL is defined as residential areas. One of the main focuses of the study is justified according to the relationship between healthy environment and residential areas. In order to assess the quality of urban life by measuring both community and environmental conditions and residents' evaluative and behavioral responses as part of Istanbul Strategic Plan. The intent is to work with municipality in establishing an appropriate set of indicators which not only reflect the quality of life in Istanbul at the beginning of the millennium, but which can be measured regularly throughout the 21st century. Quality of life is analysed according to residential areas in this study quality of neighbourhood in residential areas includes public services and facilities, commercial facilities, environment and conservation of open land, residential history, mobility and preferences, travel behaviour, community involvement and participation, neighbouring, fear of crime, parks and recreation services, family health status, physical activity, etc.
Figure 1: Examples from the results of the study. IMP, 2006.
For the measurement of QOL, population and building density and land values are determined in district scale. However, direct correlation between population density and QOL is not identified. Therefore, the correlation between high population density and unhealthy environment is accepted. The building density is defined according to physical conditions that are served by residential areas (Figure 1). The study concluded with taxonomy of 9 different housing patterns. Quarters were then analyzed via land values. Initially, a total of 740 quarters were identified across the city of Istanbul. Third the quarters were then divided into 9 sub categories of 1: Low Density/Low Land Value, 2: Low Density/Medium Land Value, 3:Low Density/High Land Value, 4:Medium Density/Low Land Value, 5: Medium Density/Medium Land Value, 6:Medium density/High Land Value, 7:High Density/Low Land Value, 8:High Density/Medium Land Value, and 9:High Density/High Land Value. (Trkoglu, 2006) According to the housing patterns, each housing areas differs from the others by density and land values (Figure 2). The main characteristics of patterns are observed as irregular distribution. In this study the terminology about distribution pattern is defined regular versus irregular. With the help of the data, Istanbul Metropolitan Area and relationship between subjective evaluations and objective environmental measurements are analyzed to identify neighborhood profile and differences between communities. But its not succeeded because of data generalization of indiviual subjective responses. 78
Gulsen Yilmaz & Serkan Gunes: How to Measure the Quality of Urban Life
Figure 2: Taxonomy of different housing patterns in Istanbul: IMP, 2006.
Conclusion The case study in this article shows that the QOL in terms of satisfaction should refer both the subjective and objective aspects concerning necessary conditions for satisfaction in Istanbul. It is recommended that planning administration in Istanbul must be decentralized, if it is to be more responsive to intra-city environmental eccentricities and improve the quality of life. The study does not clarify the relationship between the environment and the city dwellers. The environmental objective conditions and individual subjective responses should be integrated according to interrelation basis. The recommendations of the study are inadequate due to descriptive analysis. The empirical evidences are increased due to the scale. However, the study resulted with lack of legible profiles of city dwellers and recommendation to improve life quality. To handle this problem, correspondence analysis4 is offered to clarify relational dimension and Bertin Graphics5 should be introduced for the sake of legibility. Correspondence analysis (has also been called correspondence mapping, perceptual mapping, social space analysis, correspondence factor analysis, principal components analysis of qualitative data, and dual scaling) (CA) is a method of factoring categorical variables and displaying them in a property space which maps their association in two or more dimensions (Greenacre, 1993). The purpose of the method was permuting the subjective individual responses and objective environmental condition of a matrix for the purpose of revealing hidden structure in data matrix. In abstract terms, a Bertin matrix is a matrix of display. Bertin matrices allow rearrangements to transform an initial matrix to a more homogeneous structure. The rearrangement of QOL indicators are realized latent and concurrent structure of urban quality which gives clues for urban planners to interventions. References
Greenacre, M. J. (1993) Correspondence Analysis in Practice. London: Academic Press. IMP, (2006) Istanbul Metropolitan Planning Department Studies, Istanbul. Marans, R.W. and W.L. Rodgers. (1975) Toward and Understanding of Community Satisfaction, In Hawley, A. And V. Rock (Eds.) Metropolitan America in Comtemporary Perspective. New York: Halsted press. Marans, R.W. (2003) Modelling Residental Quality Using Subjective and Objective Indicators: Opportunities Through Quality of Life Studies, Paper presented IAPS Methodologies in Housing Research Conference, Stockholm, Sweden. Maupin P., Apparicio, P. Lepage R., Solaiman B. (2000) Multiple Correspondence Analysis for Highly Heterogeneous Data Fusion. An Example in Urban Quality of Life Assessment, http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel5/6940/18648/00859867.pdf
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Rogerson, R. (1997) Quality of Life in Britain (Quality of Life Research Group, Department of Geography, University of Strathclyde Glasgow) Wish, N. B. (1986) Are We Really Measuring the QOL?, American Journal of Economics and Sociology 45, p. 93. Perver K. Baran, Handan D. Trkoglu Fulin Bolen, Robert W. Marans, Conflict Between Growth And Quality Of Urban Life: Initial Findings From An Ongoing Study In Metropolitan Istanbul , Paper presented at EDRA37, Atlanta, May 37, 2006. Turkoglu, H., Bolen F., Korca P., Marans, R., (2006) Measuring Quality of Urban Life: Findings from Istanbul Metropolitan Study, http://enhr2006-ljubljana.uirs.si/publish/W13_Turkoglu.pdf, Paper presented at the ENHR conference "Housing in an expanding Europe: theory, policy, participation and implementation" Ljubljana, Slovenia,2 - 5 July.
________________________________________________ 1 State Statistical Institution. 2 Physical Characteristics of Residential Environments: 200 meters around respondent's home 3 Environmental Inventory: Visible environment around respondent's home 4 Benzecri, J. P. (1992). Correspondence analysis handbook. Paris: Dunod. 5 Bertin, J. (1977). Graphics and Graphic Information Processing. New York: De Gruyter
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Economic Valuation of Urban Forestry Environmental services valuation for the efficiency and maintenance of urban environmental resource
Luiza Helena Nunes Laera1 & Peter Herman May2
1Universidade Federal Fluminense PGCA,Brazil, 2Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro CPDA, Brazil llaera@gmail.com
Abstract The present urban forest policy in the city of Rio de Janeiro shows a greater priority of public budget resources to plant trimming, through periodic pruning. Based on that fact it is possible to demonstrate that preservation measurements must be more efficient than those designed to meet individual needs for space, as a way to guarantee the continuous environmental services provided by the trees. The exploratory study of economic valuation of trees, based on hedonic value, has confirmed that community trees provide economic benefits on real state prices. Thus demonstrating that each additional unit on the variable "public tree" correspond to an additional R$399.967 in the variable "real state unit price", placed in the neighborhood of Recreio dos Bandeirantes. This estimated value should be taken as a parameter for encouraging the development of public forestry plan, based on carbon measurement, still not established in Rio de Janeiro. This initiative will certainly guarantee significant environmental, economic and social benefits to society. Introduction Within the city of Rio de Janeiro, urban forestry sets a link between the natural phytogeographical elements and its urban sprawl, with crucial significance for life quality improvement and the city landscaping. Worldwide concern for "global warming" suggests increasing interest in trees for sequestering carbon and reducing carbon dioxide emissions. (DWYER et al, 1992). Due to its efficiency, urban forests have been playing an increasingly significant role in reducing carbon levels in the city atmosphere, not only in sequestering carbon but also in affecting CO2 emission on those areas (NOWAK e CRANE, 2002). Approximately 90% of the terrestrial carbon storage is placed within the world forests, both in biomass and soils. Forests sequester 1 Gt C annually through the combined effect of reforestation, regeneration and enhanced growth of existing forests (PANDEY, 2002). Urban trees' contribution may be even more significant if fast-growing species are given good growing space and favorable light, fertilization and moisture conditions (SAMPSON et al. 1992). Additionally, a growing necessity for managing urban green areas for all community's benefit comes from its special capacity to controlling many of the adverse effects of the urban settlement, thus contributing for a significant improvement in life's quality (JONHSTON, 1985). The confirmed urban forestry's benefits of environmental order logically take us to consider the existence of additional economic and social gains. This paper proposes the discussion and identification of the economic value of urban forest. Thus being an efficient indicator for application of a wider environmental policy with priority for both control actions (planning, maintenance, protecting the urban forest) and behavioral motivation towards public trees. Both economic valuation and carbon quantification methodologies were used to make possible the inclusion of environmental functions of the urban forestry in the discussion of its economic value. Public forestry management in the city of Rio de Janeiro The public forestry management in Rio de Janeiro depends on the city administration and it is carried out by Parks and Gardens Foundation (FPJ), an institution controlled by the Municipal Secretariat of Environment. Even though it depends on public agencies, the control and management actions are not coordinated by these agencies, therefore there's no program or management plan for the city's urban forestry. The lack of a previous management plan on urban forestry implies the necessity of an adequate insertion of vegetation on the spaces they have been set. The pruning routine is motivated by citizen's inquiries through registration through a taxpayer advocate service. The trees are specific and individually evaluated by FPJ technicians in order to determine the need for pruning or removal. Once the services are defined, the city administration hires a company to accomplish the intervention following criteria referring to crown volume that needs to be removed, with specific values according to the residue from pruning or removing. Only expenses related to forestry maintenance (pruning and removal) are included on the annual budget of the city that is directed to FPJ, there is no budget foresees the maintenance of trees already planted in the city. Most of the tree planting in the city is based on legal construction licenses. It is required to plant tree seedlings inside the land area or in a public area, according to the total area and destination of the construction. The number of seedlings corresponds to a portion of the total construction area, meaning that for every
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150m built it is necessary to plant one seedling within that land. If it is not possible to plant on the construction site this number doubles when it comes to public area. These new trees are planted by the construction companies following FPJ's determinations, being responsible for the costs referring to seedling acquisition and planting services. With the purpose of analyzing the economic aspects of the plan and control actions by Rio de Janeiro Urban Forestry an analysis was conducted in an area of the city where public urbanization investments are considered a priority. This area called AP4 include the neighborhoods of Barra da Tijuca and Jacarepagu where approximately 60,000 community trees were quantified in the period between 2002 and 2004, summing the total number of pruned trees, the number of planted seedlings and the number of tree removal. The monetary value analysis of urban forestry management and control on AP4 (Table 1) showed expenditures are usually greatest for pruning activities, when compared to maintenance and inspection costs. In the same way, the private resources showed on accounting for planting costs are only short term effective due to planted seedling loss by lack of maintenance on medium and long term. Table 1: Costs / Collections Interventions in Ap4 Forestry 2002/2004
AP4 2002 to 2004 Forestry interventions Pruning Planting Planting management Report evaluation Fines ( for killed trees) * Evaluation costs ** Dead trees removal costs Number of Trees 18540 13841 203 121 TOTAL Municipal Private Costs (R$)*** Costs (R$)*** 1,244,290.04 0 188,154.55 812,340.00 423,534.60 0 105,007.03* 0 62,033.88** 0 2,023,020.10 812,340.00 ***US$1=R$ 2,1 Collections 0 0 0 5,670.00 0 5,670.00
This model that focus on pruning practices indicates a possible decline in tree development and a possible reduction in the number of trees in the city. The absence of budget assurance for tree planting management might lead to a reduction of the current number of public trees. This fact indicates the necessity of evaluating the current management plan and its consequences to the urban environment quality, defining an urban forestry plan based on carbon measurement. It is necessary to define management action and goals in order to guarantee the continuous environmental services provided by public tress. An urban forestry management plan, based on carbon measurement, would represent the necessary changes on the stewardship plan to optimize complementary benefits. Through a quantification of biomass alteration on public forests it is possible to evaluate the positive effects of public forestry when related to tree carbon sequestration. On the other hand, the additional carbon benefits from urban forestry expansion and a restrict stewardship plan would only become significant on a long term basis. In order to calculate the total carbon sink from the expansion of urban forestry, it is necessitous to measure the biomass asset, year after year, to obtain a biomass exponential curve that would indicate the actual profit to the carbon stocking from community trees. The quantification of phytomass alteration on public forests has been one of the evaluations of the positive effect of public forestry related to biomass stocking alteration, in the context of calculating the balance of greenhouse gas emissions. On the other hand, the additional carbon benefits from urban forestry expansion as well as a stewardship plan would only become significant on a long term basis where the measurement of this growth to the stock would indicate the biomass exponential curve, year after year. Besides the proposal of an urban forestry plan definition for this city, it is also necessary to analyze other sources of values and benefits of trees to the society that would enable the population to achieve a better perception such as the additional real state value due to the presence of community trees. Exploratory study on the economic valuation of urban forestry The Hedonic Pricing method application The theory and methods in economic valuation have been used to estimate the portions of economic value of urban green areas, including the direct use, the environmental services value and physical and mental human health besides the economic value of these areas. The economic valuation model based on hedonic pricing used on this research considers an heterogeneous good as an attribute and estimates the economic value for each attribute based on the analysis and 82
Luiza Helena Nunes Laera & Peter Herman May: Economic Valuation of Urban Forestry
quantity of the characteristics related to them. The hedonic pricing method is used to estimate the value of a good or service that affects prices of marketed goods or services when associated with them (FREEMAN, 1993). The basic premise of the hedonic pricing method is that the price of a marketed good is related to its characteristics, or the services it provides. Thus, prices will reflect the value of a set of characteristics associated with the good purchased. This way, for each good attribute there is an implicit value that defines it. If characteristics are identical, it is possible that the remaining differences in price are associated with environmental aspects such as: green space and coastal area proximity, air pollution, noise, etc. The analysis took place on the neighborhood of Recreio dos Bandeirantes, where the physical characteristics of property and neighborhood were considered. This neighborhood was chosen due to the great number of property registered on the city administration and also, because this region has been receiving public investments for urban forestry services. The aim of the methodology was to find a factor of impact on property prices and consequently the relative valuation of a considered externality (public forestry). The research area was defined as polygon with approximate are of 1.48km, consisting of 27 streets, excluding streets that surpassed the polygon limits the same way as streets and avenues located on the polygon limits. On each street the properties for sale that were negotiated on the period between October 2004 and November 2005 were identified. The structural variables features (number of rooms, bathrooms, garage and total area) and the unit market price were supplied by local real state agencies. The value unit used on the analysis was the average m cost, both for built and under construction sites, mainly located on the public streets. For neighborhood data, related to presence or absence of urban forestry, one sheet was elaborated for each street with individual information about locality and type of property, presence or absence of aerial net area and individual tree characteristics related to species and age located on the front sidewalk of properties. Tree age determination was based on planting data carried out by FPJ. The individual tree with maximum 2 year from planting were identified as "small", those with ages between 2 and 5 years "medium" and from 5 years on "large". The localities (streets) were distributed according to the level of forestry defined basically by classification and qualification of forestry and presence period of trees on those streets. There were 27 streets analyzed, with 338 residential buildings, 395 houses, 62 commercial units, 172 empty lands and 40 buildings under construction. The studied area presented 2,297 trees distributed in 110 species. From the total street trees, 316 were denominated "small" with maximum 2 year from planting period, 632 "medium" between 2 and 5 years, and 1,349 "large" trees, fully grown, over 5 years from planting period. Properties (apartments) negotiated in the period between October 2004 and November 2005 was identified on each street, as well as each unit price. One hundred and four (104) residential units were identified and negotiated in the period, with value per street indicated on each analysis sheet. Data was analyzed with the aim of relating the impact of tree presence on property value. The data collect was organized in sheets organized by forestry type (small, medium and large) and according to property square meter value. On the elaborated sheets 4 multiple regressions were applied, in a linear functional form, using the software Microsoft, Excel OFFICE XP. For each analysis the dependent variable "property price" was maintained as well as the independent variable "total m2", with the individual inclusion of four neighborhood variables ("total number of trees" "number of large trees" "number of medium trees" and "number of small trees"). Each regression result indicated the variability proportion between property price (dependent variable "y") that can be clarified by property square meter value, and the presence of trees on the streets. On the regression analysis the results obtained for the t-test demonstrated that the ratio between property price and presence of full grown trees is statistically significant. This evidence was demonstrated by the Pvalue obtained from the variable, that allows discarding a void premise and accept the positive impact hypothesis of community trees on the real state price. In order to test the magnitude of the ratio between the real state price and the presence of trees on a street, a test was suggested, forcing the linear coefficient (interceptive) to a zero value (Table 2). The results demonstrate that each additional unit on the variable "total tree number" (which represents the urban forestry present on the street) correspond to an additional R$399.967 in the dependent variable "real state price". This result is confirmed by the P-value application, near zero, that encourages us to accept the hypothesis of the positive effect of street tree presence on the real state prices, within the polygon. Based on the residential building number within the polygon, there is an estimative of 3,380 properties (apartments) such as the ones analyzed on the regressions. Considering the value R$399.96 related to additional individual total property value by the presence of trees in streets, it is predictable that this value corresponds to public forestry in the area of Recreio dos Bandeirantes, when related to the real state price, showing a total of $ 1,351,898.86. Forestry maintenance on the analyzed streets, calculated based on public expenditures, corresponds to approximately 13% of the total estimated value. To estimate this result the following
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Regression statistics Observations R-Squared Adjusted R-squared Stat t Intersection Variable X 1 Variable X 2 Coefficient Intersection Variable X 1 Variable X 2 valor-P Intersection Variable X 1 Variable X 2 Where: VARIABLES
Dependent variable -Y Independent variable X1 Independent variable X2
R1 101 0.635449658 0.621666321 R1 #N/A 39.11729327 10.48351337 0 2145.368603 399.9672233 #N/D 5.1058E-62 9.66657E-18 R1
Real State Price TOTAL M Total number of trees
R2 101 0.902286916 0.891198905 R2 #N/A 77.13914595 25.85704106 0 2061.786456 867.4224686 #N/D 3.13004E-90 7.98939E-46 R2
Real State Price TOTAL M Total number of Large trees
R3 101 0.295151197 0.277930502 R3 #N/A 37.0359412 3.007645115 0 2476.788221 469.0086312 #N/D 8.1268E-60 0.003337849 R3
Real State Price TOTAL M Total number of Medium tree
R4 101 0.268887085 0.251401096 R4 #N/A 48.43572924 2.272563424 0 2560.742208 364.982768 #N/D 9.45766E-71 0.025214556 R4
Real State Price TOTAL M Tota l number of Small tree
Table 2: Result of multiple regression applied to linear zero coefficient
actions were taken into consideration: annual necessity of tree monitoring, annual pruning and planting following necessary determinations analyzed on this study. Conclusion The present urban forest policy in the city of Rio de Janeiro shows a greater priority of public budget resources to plant pruning services. Based on that fact it is possible to demonstrate that preservation measurements must be more efficient than those designed to meet individual needs for space, as a way to guarantee the continuous environmental services provided by the trees. This efficiency should be established through effective expansion actions on urban forestry and preservation of existence trees. The exploratory study of economic valuation of trees, based on hedonic value method, has confirmed that community trees provide economic benefits on real state prices, including the environmental economic value of trees. The analysis results demonstrated that each unit increase on the variable "total tree number" (representing urban forestry presence) corresponds to an increase of R$ 399.97 on the dependent variable real state price, for an area of the neighborhood Recreio dos Bandeirantes. Based on this data, it was possible to determine the value of R$ 1351,898.86 to urban forestry on the studied area. Therefore, to avoid alterations on this value it is necessary to create efficient management and control actions, followed by continuous environmental services monitoring, which can be achieve by quantifying the phytobiomass alterations. The annual necessary management cost, described on the study site, corresponds to approximately 13% of the estimated value, calculated by the hedonic price method. This estimated value should be taken as a parameter for encouraging the development of public forestry plan, based on carbon measurement, still not established in Rio de Janeiro, which will guarantee significant environmental, economic and social benefits to the society. References
DWYER, J.F., MCPHERSON E.G; SCHROEDER H.W;.ROWNTREE R.W. Assessing the benefits and costs of the urban forest. Journal of Arboriculture. 18:227-234, 1992 FREEMAN III, A. M. The measurement of environmental and resource values: theory and methods. Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future, 1993. JONHSTON, M. Community forestry, a sociological approach to urban forestry. Arboriculture Journal. 9:121-126, 1985 NOWAK, D. J ; CRANE D. E. Carbon storage and sequestration by urban trees in the USA. Environmental Pollution 116, 381-389, 2002. PANDEY, D. N. Global climate change and carbon management in multifunctional forests. Current Science 83, 593602, 2002. SAMPSON, R. N ; MOLL, G. A ; KIELBASO J. Opportunities to increase urban forests and the potential impacts on carbon storage and conservation. In Forests and Global Change Volume One: Opportunities for Increasing Forest Cover (Dwight Hair and R. Neil Sampson, eds.), pp. 51-72. American Forests, Washington, DC, 1992.
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Perception of Environmental Quality in Aveiro, Portugal: an environmental map based on public claims
Daniela Salgado Carvalho & Teresa Fidlis
University of Aveiro, Portugal carvalhods@gmail.com
Abstract The increase of citizens' environmental perception and the consequent demand for higher urban environmental quality standards has been working, among other issues, as a mobilization factor for public claims over local governments. These claims may constitute a relevant media to characterize and evaluate citizens' environmental concerns, their degree of activism, as well as, the responses given by local authorities to their expectations. The interpretation of this type of data allows the construction of environmental maps, where the relationship between the triangle constituted by "citizens environment and territory local governance" can be assessed. This paper shows an environmental diagnosis based on public claims on environmental matters and discusses its potentials for local environmental and planning management. The paper is structured into three parts. The first part reviews the most recent challenges regarding urban environmental quality within the European context and the main features of the associated political and legal framework in Portugal highlighting the place for public claims on urban environmental problems. The second part presents the case study objectives, methodology and results obtained after studying public environmental claims submitted to the Local Council of Aveiro, Portugal, between 2000 and 2005. Finally, the third part, critically analyses an environmental map resulting from data analysis, bringing to the fore likely interpretation regarding citizens environmental concerns and local environmental problems. The research brings evidence about the diversity of claims and associated environmental problems, including issues such as noise, sewerage and solid waste management or water. The associated spatial pattern also provides a useful instrument to visualize and to evaluate consequent local government performance in terms of environmental planning and management. Introduction The environmental problems resulting from urbanization processes have constituted an increasing focus of attention by population, organizations and government authorities in general. Air pollution, noise, urban solid waste management and sewerage are the most common examples of problems referred to by the population. Due to the fact that environmental quality is intrinsically related with quality of life, public health and even environmental sustainability [see for example van Kamp et. al. (2003) and Pacione (2003)], the solving of its problems is more and more associated with local management and planning programs. The existence of environmental problems, the environmental perception of population and its increasing demand on this matter allow, partially, the interpretation of thematic territorial pattern of the claims submitted to the governmental authorities, especially the local ones, which are in charge (and accountable for) of maintenance and improvement of local public goods and compliance with environmental rules. The theoretical framework of formal public claims related to environmental problems at local level is not widely studied in the specific literature. It is however well explored at the basis of grassroots movements as approached with the labels NIMBY (Not In My BackYard) and LULU (Local Unacceptable Land Use). The NIMBY label, that came into use in the 1970s (Jamison, 2003), is considered as a characteristic of the environmental grassroots movements (Figueiredo & Fidlis, 2003). The LULU label has its roots in the critical analysis of these movements, in which the territorial component, associated with the environmental problems, becomes more relevant. Despite the fact that the claims on environmental matters analyzed on this study do not consist on organized grassroots movements, the NIMBY and LULU features are pointed out since the claims mostly reveal unpleasant situations resulting from local problems sources. The claims on environmental matters submitted to local governmental authorities are formal and non-organized demands that do not properly constitute grassroots movements. Nevertheless, these claims hold potentialities to put into evidence current environmental problems, the environmental perception of citizens or even the authorities' responses. The European Union has been playing an important role on proposal of strategies and instruments which promote the prevention and solving of urban environmental problems. Amongst other documents that propose guidance on this matter, the 5th Environmental Action Programme of the European Community, the European Sustainable Cities and Towns Campaign and the 6th Environmental Action Programme of the European Community and, as a result of the last one, the Thematic Strategy on the Urban Environment (2006), are to be highlighted. The implementation of this strategy is considered an important contribution to the improvement of urban environmental quality and reduction of negative environmental impacts of cities. Some other relevant guidance at international and European level, as Local Agenda 21 (Chap. 28 of Agenda 21) and the Aalborg
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Charter, must be pointed out as they have strongly influenced local strategies for sustainability throughout the world. In Portugal, the legal framework for urban environmental quality can be found in a dispersed set of documents which includes the Framework Law of Territorial and Urban Planning Policy and corresponding regulation, which determines the main rules for land-use planning, as well as the sectorial environmental legislation, in which air and water quality, noise levels and waste management control measures are established. Despite of its coherent evolution and consolidation, the fact is that this vast and dispersed legal framework can not be easily operationalized by local authorities nor assimilated by public in general, hindering an effective local environmental management and urban problems prevention. Case Study and Methodology Based on a research project in course, this brief article presents the preliminary results of the study concerning the claims on environmental matters submitted to the Environmental Department of the City Council of Aveiro, Portugal, between 2000 and 2005. The municipality of Aveiro, with approximately 75.000 inhabitants, is located in the central part of Portugal' Atlantic coast. One third of its territory is classified as Nature 2000 under the European Birds Directive. The empiric research methodology consists on the identification and critique analysis of these claims. After the identification of the cases , these were integrated on a table divided into six thematic items (i) identification, (ii) administrative proceeding, (iii) location, (iv) typology of environmental problem, (v) solving and (vi) results. "Remarks" are included in the table as well. The typology of environmental problems considered in the claims were classified on the following groups water and sewerage; air; fauna damage; vegetation damage; solid waste; noise; abandoned residence/lots; illegal activities/explorations; vectors/insects; abandoned vehicles/objects; and "others". This classification adapted from Nucci (2001) allows the assessment of the protest factors, and consequently the factors of incommodity associated with environmental problems, their location, the local authority's reaction towards the causes of protest as well as the pro-active role they assume to solve the problems. Furthermore, the data's location analysis enables the analysis of the spatial pattern of the claims and associated typology of environmental problems. Preliminary Results In order to show the data treatment carried out up to now, the temporal evolution of the number of claims presented to the City Council, the sorts of environmental problems which significantly disturb citizens (and which lead them to present a formal protest) as well as their territorial distribution throughout the county are presented. The research allowed the identification of the total number of claims, which is 364, presented between 2000 and 2005. The temporal evolution of the presentation of these claims reveals a significant annual increase that has slightly decreased in 2005. Thus, 15 claims were presented in 2000, 30 in 2001, 36 in 2002, 80 in 2003, 105 in 2004 and 98 in 2005. The data found out show a good linear correlation concerning the number of claims, since R2=0,91. The analysis of the claims by typology of environmental problem, showed in Fig.1, reveals that in the five years of analysis, the environmental problems that raised more incommodity were solid waste with 98 claims, followed by water and sewerage with 80 claims, protests regarding abandoned vehicles or materials on the public area with 49 claims and noise with 36 claims. The environmental problems which have led to a low number of claims were air, vegetation damage, fauna damage and illegal activities or explorations. The distriOthers Illegal act./explorations Vegetation damage Fauna damage Vectors/insects Abandoned veh./objects Noise Air Abandoned res./lots Water and sewerage Solid waste 2,20% 7,42% 21,98% 26,92% 9,89% 1,37% 0,55% 1,10% 8,24% 13,46% 6,87%
Fig. 1: Typology of Problems Referred in the Claims - 2000 to 2005
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Daniela Salgado Carvalho & Teresa Fidlis: Perception of Environmental Quality in Aveiro, Portugal
bution of the claims per parish shows that there is a close relation between the number of claims and the resident population within the parishes. This behavior is predictable since the effects of the urban pressure over the environment tend to be more concentrated where there is a higher urban density. The spatial pattern of the claims was analyzed based on the indicator "[(number of claims/resident population) x 100]". Fig. 2 depicts the six most frequent claims and their per capita distribution (each 100 inhabitants) in the parishes of Aveiro municipality, between 2000 and 2005. Globally, and on a decreasing order, the parishes of "Vera Cruz", "Oliveirinha", "Glria" and "Esgueira" concentrate most of the claims per capita that may indicate either more sensibility and perception of the existing environmental problems or, in fact, more concentration of environmental problems. The parishes closer to the urban center Esgueira, Glria and Vera Cruz which enclose about 42% of the municipality' population, present the highest levels of the six most frequent typologies of the environmental problems. The highest number of claims within these parishes is focused above all on water and sewerage and waste management, which is something curious since in these areas the environmental infrastructure are more consolidated. The parish of Oliveirinha, despite the absence of noise claims, constitutes together with Esgueira, Glria and Vera Cruz the parishes with the greatest diversity and the highest number of claims. These four parishes comprise 232 of 364 claims, which represents 63,7% of the total. In the peripheral parishes the typology of evinced problems tends to be less diversified and to present lower intensity of claims per capita.
Per capita distribution of the main claims in the parishes of Aveiro - 2000 a 2005
0,3 0,2 0,1
0,3 0,2 0,1 0,0
0,3
0,0
0,2
0,3
Cacia
0,1 0,0
0,2 0,1
So Jacinto
Vera Cruz
Esgueira
0,3 0,2
0,0
0,3 0,2 0,1 0,0
0,1 0,0
0,3 0,2
Glria
Santa Joana So Bernardo

0,3 0,2
0,1 0,0
0,3
0,3 0,2 0,1
Aradas
Eixo
0,2 0,1
0,1
0,0
Eirol
0,3
0,0
0,0
Caption
Abandoned vehicles/ objects Solid waste Water/Sewerage Abandoned residences/ lots Noise Vectors/insects
0,3
Oliveirinha
0,2 0,1 0
Requeixo
0,2
0,3 0,2 0,1 0,0

0,3
N. Sra. Ftima
0,1 0,0
Nariz
0,2 0,1 0,0
Source: Cartographic base of county of Aveiro - 1:10.000 Proceeding from City Council of Aveiro
Fig. 2: Per capita distribution of the main claims in the parishes of Aveiro - 2000 a 2005
Conclusions The environmental quality is seen as an indicator of quality of life as well as the social-economic factors. As it is an indicator of quality of life the environment has been a focus of attention and protest by the populations, especially at local level. Formal claims on environmental matters submitted to the city councils, who play an important role in the management of environmental quality, hold potentialities to indicate local citizens perception as well as the existence of problems requiring urgent solutions. The claims can monitor perception, existing problems and local council governance. The European, national and local initiatives and recommen-
Atlantic Ocean
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dations, such as the Thematic Strategy on Urban Environment of the European Commission, the challenges of the territorial planning on the Portuguese context brought by the most recent legal spatial planning framework, or the National Strategy on Sustainable Development create conditions for a new way to develop and implement public policies of environmental management at local level and the necessity of evaluating and giving responses to the citizens claims, assuring high levels of environmental quality. The data collected and briefly presented show a set of relevant aspects regarding the time evolution of claims on environmental matters, the typology of environmental problems that have led to protests, the prevailing location of these protests and the necessity of intervention by the City Council to solve them or to warn the private initiative if problems are of their responsibility. The data showed a higher concentration of environmental problems in the parishes with higher urban densities, where, surprisingly, organizational schemes and infrastructures for environmental management are more developed. This result calls for the local council to consider the evaluation of local solid waste and sewerage management systems in order to identify improved proceedings in the future. The data also showed an increase of claims over the last years, despite the evolution of the legal framework associated to urban planning and environmental management. In the future a comparative analysis of these results with (i) the responses given by the local council, (ii) the specific features of the urban tissue and its relation with major infra-structures and hydrological system, as well as with the (iii) results revealed by the Local Environmental and Sustainable Development plan will bring to the fore new insights into this brief characterization of environmental problems in Aveiro. References
Figueiredo, E. & Fidlis, T. (2003) Movimentos ambientais de raiz popular em Portugal (1974 - 1994), Revista Crtica de Cincias Sociais, No. 65, 151 - 173. Jamison, A. (2003) The making of green knowledge: the contribution from activism. Futures. Elsevier, Vol. 35, 703 - 716. Nucci, J. (2001) Qualidade ambiental e adensamento urbano: um estudo de Ecologia e Planejamento da Paisagem aplicado ao distrito de Santa Ceclia (MSP). Humanitas - FFLCH-USP, So Paulo. Pacione, M. (2003). Urban environmental quality and human wellbeing: a social geographical perspective. Landscape and Urban Planning. Elsevier, Vol. 65, 19 - 30.
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Structural aspects of academic information networks and their impact in the process of developing urban public policies
Sonia Maria Viggiani Coutinho, Tadeu Fabrcio Malheiros, Maria Luiza de Moraes Padilha, Arlindo Philippi Jr., Maria Sulema Pioli
University of So Paulo (USP) School of Public Health and So Carlos Engineering School scoutinho@usp.br
Abstract This paper has the overall objective of presenting structural aspects and pros and cons of academic networks of research and teaching in environment and sustainable development. Special attention is given to networks that focus on research, access and release of information through indicators. With respect to this study, academic networks mean both, purely teaching institutions networks, as well as mixed networks that are formed by other institutions beyond teaching entities. Networks are known as a combination of people and organizations, generally placed on different locations, far away from each other, that use appropriate communication technologies to interact. These networks leverage, jointly, the ability to generate changes in policies and practices related to sustainable development and environment management to a high level when compared to their individual/ isolated actions. This higher level of combination/aggregation generates advantages regarding commutating knowledge and experiences among the participants, optimizes efforts in time spent in research as well as financial resource invested and required infra-structure to allow the network to properly operate. It is equally important to evaluate the synergies that the network can create among the participants and its impact in the process of developing urban public policies. Introduction The willingness of the international community for achieving the issue of the natural resources maintenance for the future generations culminated in the Environment and Sustainable Development Conference in 1992, in Brazil, where representatives of many countries gathered to develop instruments with only one target: the sustainability of the development. According to the United Nations Worldwide Commission of Development and Environment, sustainable development means to supply the needs of the current population without compromising the needs of the future population. Therefore, a sustainable community should try to balance its economic growth with the maintenance of its natural resources, its culture and people's quality of life, so that its population can benefit from the development achieved. The 21 Global Agenda is a document that aims to materialize the objectives of the sustainable development. One central topic of Agenda relates to the need of consistent information for the decision making process, information backed by sustainable development indicators. These indicators must be used by everyone who needs information. Be it for public policies orientation, to monitor projects implementation or for environmental management, especially in local levels. Additionally, this information also serves to feed the global databases and to grant information to general public and communities. Academic networks Inside of this global context, the academy represents an institutional space; with the objective of teaching and researching deepen the knowledge of the science as well as to enable the link to the society. . The word academy comes from classic Greek. It meant the Academo`s garden Athenian hero in which Plato taught. The academy provides an interdisciplinary contribution for the understanding of the sustainable development. One of its major concerns is to make possible to people the exchange of experiences. Thus, in extremely global world, leveraged by technological progress in communicating, the construction of networks is practically a demand within the academies. In summary, it is crucial to evaluate the synergy that a network can create between the several participants and its impact in the process of urban public policies development (COUTINHO 2006). The etymologic means of the Latin word retis (translation of net to Latin) is a type of mesh to arrest birds, small hunting or fish. So, the notion of network relates originally to capture, to hunting. By transposition, the network is thus an instrument to capture information. This reference to the mesh is more evident in English (network), literally a "net that works", dynamics. The networks are known as a combination of people or organizations; usually geographically disperse at distant places that use appropriate communication technologies (CREECH and WILLARD 2001). The types of networks, found in CREECH and WILLARD 2001, are:
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1. Internal networks of knowledge management Its main objective relate to gather individual knowledge to reach organizational goals. They can surpass the national borders. 2. Strategic alliances Adopt a model used in the private sector to keep or to get competitive advantage outside of the network. 3. Communities for practices They are informal and attract individuals that want to exchange experiences. The main objective is more the desire to fortify individual capacities for their own objectives than to generate a work aiming at common objectives. 4. Specialists Network formed by individuals or organizations that are chosen by the experience they hold at specific areas. 5. Information Network Supply access to information added by its members in an organized form. They are passive. The users only benefit by the capability of the network in supplying information. 6. Formal Network they have more focus and use more restricted database than the information networks. They are trans-sector and trans-regional and their vision is wider than in the communities for practices networks and enrolls more participants than the Strategic Alliances networks. Their strongest point is the productivity and their impact to the decisions makers. Their weakness point is the lack of ability to communicate the information. Another classification of the nets: 1. Informal Networks they are numerous and have an important role regarding knowledge creation. 2. Information Networks as a university library, that allows access to the information, but do not create new knowledge. 3. Open Networks with well-defined subjects, they are created for diffusion of the research and the knowledge. They are formally constituted, and the participation takes place through invitation. 4. Development Networks with well-defined subjects and criteria of participation. They aim at creating knowledge and speeding up its application to the economic and social development. They are formally constituted and have strong governance (CLARK HC 1998). Given the difficult to establish a landmark between the many types of existing networks, this paper proposes the following clusters: 1. By the form of its constitution (formal and informal) the networks can be formally or informally constituted. 2. By the geographic scope of action (national, regional, international) the networks can be formed by people or institutions from only a specific country, region or, they can enclose several countries and regions. 3. By the content (general, specific) the networks can focus in a specific subject (for example Sustainable Development indicators), or they can enclose wider subjects (environment and sustainable development). 4. By its composition (academics, non-governmental organizations, research institutes, mixed organizations, etc) the networks can exclusively be composed by education institutions, non-governmental organizations, research institutes, among others categories. Alternatively, they can be mixed, composed by education institutions, Ngos (non-governmental organizations), research institutes, among others. 5. By its objectives (research, education, informative, practical, mixed) the networks can have as unique objective the research and education, they can focus only in the spreading of information, or they can involve practical activities. They also can be mixed, composed by some or all the above objectives. Therefore, the academic networks, for the purpose of this article, comprehends the networks formed by educational institutions, as any mixed networks that have among other forms of institutions and organizations, educational institutions in its composition. The activities of the research and environmental and sustainable development awareness networks, mainly the academics ones, facilitate the interaction, the cooperation and the transference of knowledge and technology among groups with this common interest subject.Thus, they can develop activities of capacity building, exchange programs, mobility and scientific interaction, with the objective to keep the network institutions in excellent position in relation to the subject in question They have the potential to generate relevant changes in public policies and practices that could help the environment and the sustainable development management well beyond the point that could be reached if they acted individually. Besides the advantage of adding knowledge and experiences among the several participant institutions, the synergy generated also reflects in the effort and time consumed in the research, as well as optimizes financial resources and infrastructure requirements for the network functioning. The intended collaboration within the networks allows the establishment of connections of different perspectives: the relationship between the participants, the joint responsibility of the decisions, the collective responsibility for the results and the support to address complex problems. The mission of a network is not 90
Sonia Maria Viggiani Coutinho et al.: Structural aspects of academic information networks
necessarily to get tangible results, products or services, but to have as a proposal, the creation of a collaborative landmark of work that allows, in the future, the arising of new joint actions The experiences described ahead in the case, illustrate that potential. Samples of academic information networks As an experience of existing information networks with the participation of the academy, we can mention the Center for International Earth Science Information Network1 (CIESIN), U.S.A., the Canadian Sustainability Indicators Network2 (CSIN), Canada, and the Red de Indicadores de Desarrollo Sostenible3, of the Economic Commission for Latin America and Caribbean (Eclac, Chile), among others. The Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN), established in 1989 as an NGO (non-governmental organization) under the Earth Institute at Columbia University U.S.A. aims to promote the access and to strengthen the use of the information by the scientists, decisions makers and general public, contributing for a better understanding of the human interactions in the environment. The mission of Canadian Sustainability Indicators Network (CSIN), of Canada, is to speed up the progress in direction to sustainable development, supplying information concerning best practices in indicators of sustainability in Canada, allowing the exchange of ideas, experiences, data and methods among new and experienced practitioners. The objectives of the Red de Indicadores de Desarrollo Sostenible of the Environment and Human Settlements Division of the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (Eclac), of Chile, relate to the support for developing capabilities and relevant information supply for the evaluation of the progress towards sustainable development. The "Red" provides through its web page, a directory of academic institutions, state-owned companies, non-governmental organizations (national and international) that develop a series of activities related to monitoring, promotion and consolidation of the sustainable development in Latin America and Caribbean. The "Red" is supported by a group specialized in methodologies and sustainable development indicators application in Brazil, Chile, Colombia and Mexico. Conclusion Those networks provide elements to governments to define or to strengthen a sustainable development agenda through using relevant information to elaborate public policies in a more efficient way. That is possible by considering, with the same weight, social, economic and environment questions, besides favoring the assessment of the implementation process of these policies, making possible to establish, in a systematic way, self adjustment mechanisms in the proper set of policies results monitoring expectations. At the same time, the networks can provide inputs to develop and implement sustainable development indicators, promoting the exchange of information among the participant countries, as, for example, the Red de Indicadores de Desarrollo Sostenible assisting countries of Latin America and the Caribbean. In this way, the research group SIADES Environment Information System for Sustainable Development coordinated by the Public Health School and the Engineering School of So Carlos of the University of So Paulo is a network in implementation. Up to now, the group is in the process of initiating a research to evaluate positive aspects, difficulties and opportunities of research academic networks and education in environment and sustainable development, as well as the synergy that a network can create among the several participants and its impact in the process of public policies development. Bibliography reference
COUTINHO SMV. 2006. Anlise de um processo de criao de indicadores de desenvolvimento sustentvel no municpio de Ribeiro Pires - SP. So Paulo [Master of Sciences Dissertation - School of Public Health - University of So Paulo] CLARK HC. Formal Knowledge Networks A Study of Canadian Experiences. Canad: IISD; 1998. Disponvel em http://www.iisd.org/networks/research.asp Acesso em 25/10/2006 CREECH H. Strategic Intentions: Principles for Sustainable Development Knowledge Networks. Canad: IISD;2001 http://www.iisd.org/networks/research.asp Acesso em 25/10/2006
________________________________________________ Canadian Sustainability Indicators Network (CSIN) - http://www.csin-rcid.ca/ Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN) - http://www.ciesin.columbia.edu/ Red de Indicadores de Desarrollo Sostenible da Divisin de Desarrollo Sostenible y Asentamientos Humanos do CEPAL http://www.eclac.cl/dmaah/proyectos/rids/index.htm
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The Possibilities of revitalizing Physical Activity in Urban Parks for Human Health with special reference to Daegu, South Korea
H. S. Moon, S. B. Kim & J. H. Shim
Dept. of Environmental Planning, Keimyung Univ., Daegu, South Korea hyeshick@detec.or.kr
Introduction As a rapid growth and urbanization over the past several decades, Green spaces in have literally disappeared in South Korea, and urban health has declined to cause serious many physical and mental health problems among urban residents. In addition, cardiovascular diseases, epidemic obesity, and other major public health problems are strongly associated with physical inactivity. While increasing awareness that individual health is very important and it can be improved by doing physical activity, studies on improvement of fitness through the built environment, like urban parks, have not been carried out. This paper is a case study with an empirical investigation into the possibilities and the potential bentfits of physical activity in urban parks. The changing concept of health The concepts and definitions of health have evolved with the changing standards and goals of human well being. Traditional medicine has focused on pathogenesis, defining health as "an absence of diseases." Health, in modern society, is a much broader and holistic concept, and the preventive and promotional aspects of healthcare are increasingly important. A broader definition of health as "a state of physical, mental, and social well-being," first introduced by World Health Organization (WHO) in the 1980s, is now widely accepted. WHO (1986) states that health has to be considered as a resource for everyday life, not an object of living; it is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal resources as well as physical capabilities. Health does not dependent on medical care alone, but instead, includes access to food, shelter, work, education, income, a stable ecosystem, sustainable resources, social justice and equity (Hancock, 1993). Much of this modern concept of health has to do with the quality of the built environment in which people live, work and play. Barton and Tsourou (2000) claim that the quality of the environment and the patterns of developments themselves are the major determinants of health. Especially, city parks are the important built environments for citizens to do physical activity for free or at low cost. And the recent research suggests that exercise is more beneficial-leading to enhanced tranquility, and more relif of anxiety and depression-when it occurs in natural settings, like parks, rather than along urban streets (Bodin & Hartig, 2003). The benefits of parks Parks give us health benefits in several ways. First, parks provide people with contact with nature, known to confer certain health benefits and enhance well-being. Ulrich and Simons (1986) found that natural scenes facilitate recovery from stress more effectively. Ulrich (1991) states that natural environments are highly beneficial for stressed individuals because they hold attention and block unpleasant thoughts. He also claims that contact with plants, water, and other natural elements can calm anxiety and help people cope with stress. Second, physical activity opportunities in parks help to increase fitness and reduce obesity. WHO (1995) warned that obesity is a kind of maladies and has influence on various kinds of adult diseases. Active park users were healthier than passive users and non-park users on a number of measures, such as body mass index (a ratio between weight and height), diastolic blood pressure, systolic blood pressure, depression score and perception of general health (Godbey et al., 1998). Finally, parks resources can mitigate climate and air pollution impacts on public health. Urban heat island effect is a significant public health risk nowadays. Tree canopy in parks reduces air temperature by about five to ten degrees (Kim, 2002). Trees in parks also help improve air quality by removing pollutants from the atmosphere. Methods [Figure 1] shows the study sites: Daegu, South Korea. Datas were collected through person-to-person interview with 400 randomly sampled residents, twenty and over twenty years old, visiting urban parks to do physical activity. The interviews were conducted during September of 2006, and yielded a response rate of 98%. The questionnaire included three parts: the awareness of health, the actual conditions of users doing physical activity, and the considerable factors to revitalize physical activity in urban parks.
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H. S. Moon et al.: The Possibilities of revitalizing Physical Activity in Urban Parks
Figure 1: Study Sites
All response items for the perception, attitude and considerable factors were dichotomous or nominal categorical variables. Data analyses included descriptive statistics and bivariate analyses were performed using SPSS software.
Table 1: Types of parks for physical activity
Findings The awareness of health Only 8.1 % of the respondents did not care about health, but 91.9 % of them were interested in health more than 'commonness'. Meanwhile, 95.2 % of the respondents knew that obesity has influence on various kinds of adult diseases, and 93.1 % of them cognized that it is possible to prevent obesity from being serious by doing physical activities.
Item
Variance
Person (No.)
Rate (%)
The actual conditions of users doing physi- Table 2: Types of physical activity Person Rate cal activity Item Variance (No.) (%) According to the [Table 1], over half of the respondents replied that the type of park used for physical activity was 'Small-scale Neighborhood Park and Mini(Pocket) Park'. Another 17.6% used 'Neighborhood Park'. 'Playground (12.8%)', 'Waterside Park (10.5%)' and 'City Natural Park (7.9%)' come after them. This finding shows that people use commonly parks which are easily accessible from homes. [Table 2] shows types of physical activity that occur in parks. Many (67.0%) active users usually walk in parks. All of the remaining variances are less than 10%. This finding shows that users, want to do physical activity in parks, prefer doing low-intensity physical activity, like walk, rather than high-intensity one such as running, biking and etc.. Over 50% of the respondents reported using parks for physical activity once or twice a week, and 25.2% using over three times a week. Most experts encourage people to do physical activity at least three times a
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week to get health benefits. But, the respondents who have been doing physical activity like that are only about 25 %. Meanwhile, many (56.7%) users responded that they used parks for thiry minutes or an hour. Another 35.1% used for over an hour and the other for under thiry minutes. In fact, many experts insist that lipolysis is possible when users do physical activity for over thirty minutes. Therefore, it is the sufficient finding to expect health benefits that 91.8 % of the respondents continued doing physical activity for over thirty minutes. The considerable factors to revitalize physical activity in urban parks According to the [Figure 2], 'Walks' is the most important considerable factor which is needed to revitalize physical activity in parks and 'Good access' which means how easily users visit parks was ranked as the second most important one. The survey showed 'Exercise facilities' and 'Amenity' are also significant factors that ought to be considered.
Table 3: Frequency and Hours of park use

Item Variance Person (No.) Rate (%)
Conclusion This paper reported findings from the survey examining the concern about health, actual condiFigure 2: Consierable factors tions of physical activity in parks and considerable factors to revitalize physical activity. The survey revealed that a) respondents have positive opinions about necessity of physical activity to keep or improve their fitness, b) they commonly use near parks from home and generally enjoy walking, c) hours of park use are enough for expecting health benefits, but frequence is not enough, d) significant considerable factors are the following: walks, good access, exercise fercilities and amemity. Therefore, in order to make more people do physical activity for their health in parks, we ought to apply those factors to the park design. When it is done, it would be possible to expect health benefits through physical activity in parks. Refereces
Lee C, and Moudon AV. Physical activity and environmental research in the health field: Implications for urban and transportation planning research and practice. J Plan Lit. 2004;19(2):147-181. Frumkin H. Healthy places: exploring the evidence. American Journal of Public Health. 2003;93(9):1451 Hancock T. The evolution, impact and significance of the healthy cities/healthy communities movement. Journal of Public Health Policy. 1993;Spring:5-18.
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Landscape planning and environmental sustainability in areas of urban and natural conflict in Rio de Janeiro: The private condominiums case in Barra da Tijuca and Jacarpagua
Flavia Teixeira Braga, Denise da Costa Pinheiro, V. Andrade Andrade
Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil flaviatbraga@gmail.com
By analysing the results processed by the constructed landscape in Rio de Janeiro city, on the boroughs of Jacarepagu and Barra da Tijuca along the last ten years, the provided data unfold a contraditory logic on Real State sales in areas of private condominiums. There is an estimation that new models of artificial landscape have been set based on a inside out preservation, conservation and susteinability ideology for, at the same time they are linked to the final user (dweller), the idea of a commitment to a quality of life pattern and ecosystemic maintenance of the region. On the other hand, taken actions point to a wrong direction, because what is put in practice on the relation between existing landscape and entrepreneurs/constructors favors the creation of an abyss between the discussion/practice of the landscape construction once the systematization practiced on the creation of private condominiums present barriers and problems whose main symptoms are: 1) a segregating spacial occupation; 2) predatory actions that remove original characteristics from the environmental and landscaping unit of the region composed by an area which is rich in fauna and flora (lakes, swamps, vegetation and animals).The usage perspective of the respective areas used in study cases show the construction of private Real State endeavors that propose patterns that are not alike the original structure of the ecosystem but, on the contrary, destroy the region progressively, damaging the quality of life of the people who have settled down in this region. Furthermore, aiming to bring up questions about different evaluating parameters of environmental quality in private Real State endeavors, the intention is to understand the ownership process of these lands, seeking to evaluate the implementation of green area concept, quality of life, and the relation between natural landscape and constructed landscape. Over this proposal, the importance of the discussions proposed by the landscape planning, specially the way how projects produce artificial landscapes that become one of the fundamental elements for the Real State sales. Key words: landscaping and landscape, environmental impact, Barra da Tijuca Controversies on the practice of the conception and construction of a socioenvironmental landscape at Barra da Tijuca area In order to understand better the main aspects that will be dealt from this moment on, it is necessary that for the reader to have references of the Barra da Tijuca area. This data will be useful for us to understand the quantity of changes caused on the landscape specially from the 1980s on. These processes started out intense spacial changes as well as deep disturbances in the environment and its ecosystems, predicting that in a period of 20 years this area would be going through one of the greatest urban modifications and growth in the city of Rio de Janeiro. Covering an area of nearly 16.500 acres and located between the rocks of Tijuca and Pedra Branca, this area reveals itself as a complex combination formed by the integration of hydrographic basins, ocean shores and lagoons. They present in their area specific characteristics that define the patterns of connectivity between fauna, flora and socioenvironmental usages (fishing, nautical sports, etc.) that are part of it. The hydrographic structure, definer of its space is formed by the Camorim, Vargem Grande and Vargem Pequena rivers. These last ones flow to canals which head to Sernambetiba Canal. The Camorim river flows to Jacarepagu Lagoon, and its flux is vital to the local aquatic life. The group of lagoons that compose the system of the Baixada de Jacarepagu and Barra da Tijuca is another element of analysis of this area due to the fact that, besides the appearance of a significant number of them, when it is taken into consideration the urban level of the area, they still have a considerable area of water depth. The lagoons in order of greatness are: Lagoa da Tijuca, Lagoa de Jacarepagu, Lagoa de Marapendi and Lagoinha. There are two other basic geographic parameters for the understanding of this area. The first one relates to the extensive area of restinga and sand (formed for the sand accumulation proceeding from the ocean), this condition is basic, according to environment specialists, for maintenance of the ecosystem quality of the area as a whole1. As the known area is mentioned to as Pedra Branca where in its interior it is possible to detect considerable green spots formed by Atlantica and transistion forests, characterized for species of restinga and fen. These sets if extend until the bottom of the Rocks that, had its geomorphological characteristics formed by the high declivity of its hillsides, become possible the establishment of great fertile valley areas and forests that act directly in the process of draining of the e region assuring the maintenance of the life of the lagoons.
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Barra da Tijuca is part of the Area of Planning 4 AP 4 part of the XXIV Administrative Region of Rio De Janeiro XXIV RA2. Due to its importance for the growth of the city and for being detainer of great landscaping potential, it was subject, in the years of 1970 of urban studies that defined the use of its territory and urban structure, for which was hired the architect and urbanist Lucio Costa to design the Directing Plan of the region3. When, however, we consider the process of occupation of the area from the new molds that had almost redefined the region in a period of thirty years, it is perceived that the parameters delimited for the plan urban total had not been taken care4 of had the diverse factors, among which if they detach: the pressures accumulated for the sped up process of competitive occupation of lands, proposal for the real estate market, and the great and increasing urban concentration of low income communities. Both the factors had not only subordinated use standards and division of the land but also determined the segmentation of parts of the urban plan, powering a summing of impacting vectors that had resulted in the urban resetting of the area, where new space, urban uses, architectural and landscaping had been gradually incorporating the landscape of the region. As indicated above, the problematic implication of the urban one and uses of the landscape especially generated successive crises that appear currently in the region, represented by forms and differentiated approached of the original Managing Plan, regarding to its morphologic configuration, to the socio-spacial forms of occupation e, over all, to the fruition of its ecosystems, in special the hydric structure of rivers, lagoons and shores. The relevance of the question can easily be conferred on the basis of recent data gotten in the reports of the Secretariat of Urbanism and City department of Environment of 2005. Although the results represent only one side and must be taken as relativized data, to be enrolled to an ampler analysis of the facts, still they are important subjects that base part of the assumed rhetoric on our speech. The numbers registered for the research disclosed that the region presents one of the highest rates of urban growth, accumulates the biggest concentration of income of the city among its inhabitants, constitutes the biggest longevity among its inhabitants besides bigger education level, establishes the lesser rate of demographic density e, finally, congregate a great concentration of free areas5. Still inside the logic statistical of the searched data, it has other parameters that are related to this question. For example, we have in the region one of the biggest losses of natural environments in the city, with approximately 2,675 acres that, added to the area of the Planning Area/AP-5, they result in 92% of the total loss for the occupied areas in Rio de Janeiro. This relation reflects in fens and restinga, arriving at a total decrease of 30% of the spot. According to data evaluated in the period of 2000 the 2005, the growth of the urbanization of the Planning Area/AP-4, established for the same period, were of 41%, generating the loss of the quality of the system to lake and coastal ecosystems. Due to this aspect, the AP-4 becomes the second bigger impacting area in the environment quality of the city, representing a critical case of degradation. The influence of the real estate market and chronic poverty, that characterizes great percentages of the population that has settled in recent years in the region, justifies the actions and the products contradictorily materialized on the natural and constructed environment. In this process it is possible to observe distinct scales of performance and social spheres that discuss predatorily on the landscape. The differences are variable issues and, in this in case that specific case, can be exemplified by the frequency, forms, scale and degradation level/disintegration which the environment, or, ecosystem, has been submitted. The dichotomy disclosed here through the argumentative context and the percentages of field research discloses, among others things, that the environmental indicators that today invigorate in the State of Rio de Janeiro and in the domestic territory6, do not portray the reality of the impact caused in natural environment e, through the environment legislation, not only obtain fluidity as they gain flexibility when they are subject to the actors who act on the production of the landscape of this region. However, if we have, on the other hand, classes that grow disorderedly in the form of great salaried masses, or even in the formal housings that unchain multiples processes of embezzlement of the environment and accumulate socio-economic problems, including the marginality and the crime, on the other hand we evidence that the same effect suffered for the environment are gotten by the real estate speculation and the concessions endorsed and technically presented in the state responsibility. In fact, both appear with one of the agent great delimiters of this landscape that, exactly using a differentiated routine, it contributes for the same end: the degradation of this environment. The differential in this as context are the form of operation and assembly of the process of destruction of the natural environment. Although the rhetoric full of philosophical conceptions7 of the ecocentrism and the biocentrism, it is patent that the operation of actions diverge in number and degree when we come across them with the real data of the landscape and the nature. It is clear, in the logic of program methods of architectural programs and landscaping coated and integrated to the concerns of environment order, that the necessity of creating one simulacro of "a naturalistic" landscape, becomes the final objective. Objective this, whose intention is the illusion production optics material96
Flavia Teixeira Braga et al.: Landscape planning and environmental sustainability
ized in an environment syntonized to the aspirations of a society, that longs for the inside life of high standard of quality of next life and the nature, reliving perhaps, a romantic dream of a new Eden in a throrough Rio de Janeiro of the 21century The reproduction and maintenance of the designated ideal assume that the enchantment can not be broken by the disturbances to the nature and must be prescribed to all the resources that lead a modern and luxurious life for the cascade presence and artificial lakes, exotic current vegetation, square for practice of tennis, fields of golf and bocha, and so on. In our point of view this is one of the main forces that advance in contradiction and set themselves up in an untouchable way on the imagination of our society. The conceptive logics of some subjects that act on the landscape construction, besides giving visibility to a small environmental speech, yet it ignores the first ecosystem of the region, for it not only develops conceptive ideas with out of tune background but also uses a modus operandi that deducts to progressively to fundamental ecosystem elements (fauna, flora, hydric resources). There is, as follows, the creation of a new landscape that prefers providing aesthetics tendencies and stereotyped models to really understand and interact with the forms given by the status quo of the region. Bibliographic References
ACIESP. Glossrio de Ecologia. Publicao ACIESP n. 57. ACIESP - Academia de Cincias do Estado de So Paulo. So Paulo: 1987. COELHO, Maria Clia Nunes. in: Impactos ambientais urbanos no Brasil. Org. GUERRA, Antnio Jos Teixeira, e CUNHA, Sandra Baptista da. Rio de Janeiro: Bertrand Brasil, 2001. p. 19-45. IPP. Indicadores ambientais da cidade do Rio de Janeiro. Brasil. 2005/Instituto Municipal de Urbanismo Pereira Passos - IPP, Secretaria de Urbanismo, Secretaria Municipal de Meio Ambiente- Rio de Janeiro: IPP, 2005. HARVEY, David. Espaos de Esperana. So Paulo: Ed. Loyola, 2000. FEARO. Revised guide to the Federal Environmental. Assessment and Rewiew/process. FEARO - Federal. Environmental Assessment Review Office Environ. Asses. Rev., Canad. 1979. LEFF, Enrique. Epistemologia ambiental. So Paulo: Cortez editora. 2000. LONDON, Marcos Zanetti. A circulao de idias urbansticas no meio profissional e acadmico: um estudo comparativo entre as trajetrias de Donat Alfred Agache e Atlio Corra Lima. Dissertao de mestrado: PROARQ FAU/ UFRJ. 2002. SPIRN, Anne Whiston. O jardim de granito. A natureza no desenho da cidade. Traduo: Paulo R. M. Pellegrino. So Paulo: Editora da Universidade de So Paulo, 1995. VILLAA, Flvio. Espao intra-urbano no Brasil. So Paulo: Studio Nobel: FAPESP: Lincoln Institute, 2001. ________________________________________________ 1 It is clarified, that for its geologic characteristic the areal possesses a good draining, however, it has considerably diminished for the sped up process of urbanization. The basic infrastructure lack and the waterproofing of the ground, next to the eathing of its dunes and of the extensive areas of fertile valleys, caused for the real estate enterprises of the region, intensify the problem of the pollution of the lagoons and canals and, consequently, diminish the number of species of the local ecosystem. 2 The AP-4 is considered by the City hall of Rio De Janeiro as the most important area of expansion for the city, with expressiva amount of natural, tourist areas and of leisure little explored. 3 The plan considered for the architect was intitled immediate Pilot for the Bar of the Tijuca and Baixada de Jacarepagu, and was initiated in 1969, praising the predatory process of the urbanization, and thus, trying to direct the possibilities of use and preservation of the area, through the creation of reserves and points of preservation of the landscaping interests. 4 The plan considered for the architect was intitled immediate Pilot for the Bar of the Tijuca and Baixada de Jacarepagu, and was initiated in 1969, praising the predatory process of the urbanization, and thus, trying to direct the possibilities of use and preservation of the area, through the creation of reserves and points of preservation of the landscaping interests. 5 The taken data as base of the affirmations had been harvested in the Ambient Pointers of the City of Rio De Janeiro, produced for the Municipal Institute of Urbanism Pereira Passos - IPP, Secretariat of Urbanism/City department of Environment - Rio De Janeiro: IPP/PCRJ, 2005. 6 In Brazil the study and evaluations carried through in the domestic territory if they had initiated from the decade of 1980 with the creation of the CONAMA - National Advice of the Environment (23/01/1986). The Resolution in the 001 defines "ambient impact as any alteration of the physical, chemical and biological properties of the environment, caused for any form of substance or resultant energy of the activities human being, etc." Soon after in 1988, had an agreement come back to the implantation of the ambient questions that would act in the planning of the cities, established of form to become participative. The Protocol of San Salvador (extension of the Conference of Estocolmo) des-
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cribes in its art. 11: "All person has right to live in a healthy environment and to count on basic public services." e still "the State-parts will promote the protection, preservation and improve of the half-environment". Another important consequence for the problems of the environment questions in Brazil had representation in the Federal Constitution of 1988, present one in art. 225, "All have right to the environment ecologically balanced, public easement of the people and essential to the healthy quality of life, imposing themselves it the Public Power and to the collective the duty to defend it and to preserve it for the gifts and future generations". Art. 225, incorporation IV prescribes that it charges to the Public Power "to demand, in the form of the law, for installation of works potentially .causing activity of significant degradation of the environment, previous study of ambient impact, the one that will give advertizing", still in this way, interpolated proposition V: "to control the production, the commercialization and the job of techniques, methods and substances that hold risk for the life, the quality of life and the environment. See HARVEY, David. Spaces of Hope. So Paulo: Ed. Loyola, 2002. Chapter 11. Responsibility before the nature and the nature human being.
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Indicators for environmental quality assessment in the urban parks: Case study Bucharest city (Romania)
Cristian Ioja, Maria Patroescu, Annemarie Ioja
University of Bucharest, Centre for Environmental Research and Impact Studies, Romania cristi@portiledefier.ro
Abstract The paper deals with a subject of a high relevance for Bucharest, a city dealing with an accelerated decreasing of the green areas surface (about 50 % between 1989 and 2005) and quality. The assessment of the environment quality in the urban parks from Bucharest included the delimitation of four categories of indicators and factors: positioning, state, pressure and administrative - financial. For the qualitative and quantitative indicators and factors, four categories of quality were established: 1st class - very good state, 2nd class - good state with degradation trends, 3rd class - bad state and 4th class - really bad state. Through the application of environmental quality assessment, we have noticed that the most important parks in Bucharest are to be included in the 2nd and 3rd categories, with a constant trend of qualitative and quantitative degradation. Key words: urban park, threats, environmental quality, Bucharest, Romania 1. Introduction The perception of urban green areas as available for built areas with diverse functions (parkings, terraces, buildings, commercial units etc.) is a dangerous case law in the context that the current area no longer covers the need for green areas in Bucharest. In Bucharest there is an accentuated trend of decrease (with about 50 % between 1990 and 2003) and of degradation of green areas. Thus, the area per Bucharest citizen decreased between 1989 and 2002 from 16,79 m2 to 8,89 m2 [1]. The situation is concerning if we take into account that only 18 % of the green areas are parks and public gardens, meaning 1,62 m2 per inhabitant. In Bucharest they have an uneven distribution, as the southeast, northwest and central parts have problems [2], [3] (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Spatial distribution of the urban parks in Bucharest city
In this context the knowledge of environmental quality in parks is a priority to maintain the attraction degree of the urban spaces [4], [5], [6]. They are areas where the urban environment is rebalanced and where services of leisure and recreation are ensured for inhabitants [7], [8], [9], [10]. 2. Description of method for evaluation of environmental quality in parks The evaluation of environmental quality of large green areas assumed the delimitation of four classes of indicators and indexes: location, state, pressure and administrative-financial indicators. Out of these, five were considered to have a key role in defining the quality of environment in parks and public gardens: air quality, noise pollution, waste management, security and degradation sources [1].
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2.1. Categories of indicators and indexes a. Location indicators (8) show conditions characterizing green areas that have influence on the quality and on maintenance costs. Location indicators refer to favourable elements (diversity of land forms, climate, presence of natural ecosystems), and restrictive elements (natural risks). Indicators show the environment's characteristics and the way they are used and improved by facilities within green areas. b. State indicators (25) show the quality of environmental components, and the way some problems are administered within the green areas (waste, water). c. Pressure indicators (15) evaluate the size of human pressure factors acting inside or outside the green area. d. Administrative and financial indicators (8) show the interest of local administrations and of inhabitants for the green area, and the efficiency of actions promoted in the green areas. 2.2. Quality of classes For all these indices and indicators four quality classes were established (Table 1): a. First class - very good state, defined by: *high favourability of environment for function of green areas and valorisation of natural elements. *insignificant areas affected by natural risks (under 0,1 % of total) *efficient waste and water management, *adequate quality of vegetation (lack of drying or destruction of vegetation, presence of spaces with roses and flower arrangements), *low number of degradation sources inside and outside the green areas, *low projection of dysfunctions specific for urban environment (air, water and soil pollution, improper waste management, etc.) in green areas, *favourable perception for the population and local authorities, *maximal valorisation of green area functions without exerting high pressure on environment (especially of education, culture, sport and leisure), *flexibility of administration, noticed by the balance of the budget. b. Second class - good state, defined by: *punctual problems determined by degradation sources, *trend to accentuate the problems caused by uncontrolled waste disposal sites *good quality of vegetation *slightly unbalanced maintenance costs, because of useless investments, exaggerated personnel costs, prodigality *balanced distribution of land use c. Third class - bad state defined by: * increasing number of small degradation sources, * slight tendency of decrease of green areas in the last 15 years, * elements favourable for the environment that are not valorised, * existence of expenses unrelated to the state of the green areas, * low degree of collection of waste generated in the green areas * bad perception of the green areas by local inhabitants or by local administration, especially because of high maintenance costs and low security, d. Fourth class - very bad state defined by: * presence of degradation sources inside or outside the green areas, with significant projection on the quality of environment. * low attraction degree of the space for visitors because of insecurity, lack of facilities, lack of attractive elements and improper waste management, *lack of interest of local administration and public for green areas, manifested by vandalism, uncontrolled waste disposal, reinstate of green areas property to their old owners etc. * high prodigality, observable by lack of relation between funds spent and the situation of the green area, by high quantity of water consumed, * low security influenced by infractions, * advanced degradation of vegetation, * tendency to decrease the green areas and to increase the built areas. * frequent overpass of legal limits for noise indicators, or quality of air and water indicators
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Cristian Ioja et al.: Indicators for environmental quality assessment in the urban parks
Table 1. Quality categories for some indicators used to environmental quality assessment in the parks
Class of indicators LOCATION INDICATORS Indicators Fourth Class Third Class Average diversity not valorised Very reduced areas (under 5 %) 0,1-1 ha Drought in hot season, 1-3 cases hail / year 20-50 % Second Class Average diversity well valorised Moderate areas (10-20 %) 1,1-5 ha 1/3 of the vegetation season with drought, under 1 hail / year Sub 20 % No overpasses, with local problems 60-70 dB(A) 10-50 % Semiweekly 2 50-90 years 75-99 % One street or side railroad 1000020000/500010000 1-10 % 1-5 5-10 % 10-25 First Class
Diversity of land forms and their valorisation FAVORABLE ELEMENTS Terrestrial or aquatic natural ecosystems Areas with natural vegetation
Monotonous
High diversity High areas, predominant Over 5 ha Low incidence of climatic risks
No 0 Long droughts, over 3 cases hail / year Over 50 %
RESTRICTIVE ELEMENTS
Frequency of climatic risks
Weight of areas affected by geomorphologic risks in total STATUS INDICATORS AIR QUALITY NOISE POLLUTION WATER MANAGEMENT WASTE MANAGEMENT Concentrations of powders and nitrogen oxides Level of noise in park Weight of water volume in urban consume Frequency of salubrity works Points with uncontrolled waste disposal sites
Over CMA Over 80 dB(A) 100 % Monthly Over 5 Under 10 years/ over 100 years Sub 50 % At least one road or railroad Over 50000/20000 Over 20 % Over 10 Over 20 % Over 50 Over 2/ha or under 0.1/ha Under 10 /ha /day or over 50 /ha/day No No Decrease of over 20 %
Over the alert threshold 70-80 dB(A) 50-100 % Weekly 2-5 10-20 years or 90-100 years 50-75 % One road with low traffic 2000050000/1000020000 10-20 % 5-10 10-20 % 25-50 0,1-0,2 / ha or 1-2 / ha 10-20 /ha/day No No Decrease 10-20 %
No Under 60 dB(A) Under 10 % Adapted for number of visitors 0 20-50 years 100 %
QUALITY OF Age of tree vegetation VEGETATION ACCESSIBILITY OF Weight of spaces with VISITORS unlimited areas PRESSURE INDICATORS FRAGMENTATION Transport infrastructure DEGREE splitting the park PEDESTRIAN TRAFFIC SECURITY OF PARK BUILT AREAS SOURCES OF DEGRADATION ADMINISTRATIVE Number of visitors / day in weekend and during week Weight of isolated areas Number of crimes in daytime /year Weight of built areas Small sources of degradation within the park AND FINANCIAL INDICATORS Number of employees per surface Expenses of park per ha Existence of PUZ and PUDs Projects for arrangements Dynamics of area in the last 15 years
No Under 10000/sub 5000 Sub 1 % 0 Sub 5% Sub 10
0,5-1 ha 30-40 /ha/day Yes, only PUD Yes Decrease 5-10 %
0,2-0,5 ha 20-30 /ha/day Yes Yes Stationary or increasing
ADMINISTRATIVE EFFICIENCY
3. Results and discussions The evaluation of indicators on quality class for parks in Bucharest was made on the basis of information resulted of mapping and measurements made by the Center for Environmental Research and Impact Studies, University of Bucharest, and of information provided by the park administrators. By applying this method, most Bucharest parks are included in third class, the causes of the bad environmental quality being the high number of degradation sources within the parks and in their proximity (especially for noise), the decreasing area, the improper waste management (presence of uncontrolled waste disposal sites at the limit with other functional areas), high maintenance costs and uncertain property rights (parts of parks that were given back to the old owners). The exception are the municipal parks (Herastrau, Cismigiu, Carol), included in the second quality class. Despite these problems, parks are still very attractive areas for Bucharest inhabitants, their overcrowding is frequent especially during summertime.
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4. Conclusions The improvement of Bucharest's parks' management must become a priority for their administrators, as their diminuation as value in Bucharest's urban ecosystem is more and more obvious. The perception of costs needed for maintenance (50-60 per hectare per day) [2] and the problems raised by parks (insecurity zones, habitat for some pests, etc.) [10], without balancing the direct and indirect benefits (less costs for leisure, increase in value of urban ecosystem, improvement of living standards, behavioural and esthetic education of members of community, satisfy of their needs etc.) is very dangerous in the context of the artificial crisis of space that Bucharest is confronting. The integrated monitoring of park quality is imposed as an imediate administrative necessity to appreciate the real dimension of Bucharest's green areas crisis, and to define the best measures in order to solve the problems identified. References
[1] Patroescu, Maria, C. Ioja (2004), Disfunctionalitati n gestiunea spatiilor oxigenante. Studiu de caz spatiile verzi din municipiul Bucureti, Analele Universitatii din Craiova, Seria Geografie, VII, pag. 5-15 [2] Ioja, C. (2006), Metode i tehnici de evaluare a calitatii mediului n aria metropolitana a municipiului Bucure?ti, teza de doctorat, Universitatea din Bucureti, Bucureti [3] Ioja, C., Maria Patroescu (2004), The role of parks in the Bucharest City Urban Ecosystem. Case study Herastrau Park, Lucrarile Seminarului geografic Dimitrie Cantemir, nr. 25, Pag. 235-242, Iai [4] Dwyer, J.F., E.G. McPherson, H.W.Schroeder, R.A.Rowntree (1992), Assessing the benefits and costs of the urban forest, Journal of Arboriculture, 18(5), pag. 227-234 [5] Rowntree, R.A., D.J.Nowak (1991), Quantifying the role of urban forests in removing atmospheric carbon dioxide, Journal of Arboriculture, 17, pag. 269-275 [6] Mc Pherson, E.G., D. Nowak, G. Heisler, S. Grimmond, Catherine Souch, R. Grant, R. Rowntree (1997), Quantifying urban forest structure, function, and value: the Chicago Urban Forest Climate Project, Urban Ecosystems, I, pag. 49-61 [7] Rowntree, R.A. (ed.) (1988), Ecology of the urban forest - part III: Values, Urban Ecology, 15, pag. 1-200 [8] Bernatzky, A. (1982), The contribution of trees and green spaces to a town climate, Energy Building, 5, pag. 1-10 [9] Rowntree, R.A. (ed.) (1986), Ecology of the urban forest - part II: Function, Urban Ecology, 9, pag, 227-440 [10] Lam, K.C., Ng, S.L, Hui, W.C., Chan, P.K. (2005), Environmental quality of urban parks and open spaces in Hong Kong, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 111, pg. 55-73
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Betwixt and between: on land-use regeneration at the urban fringe as an asset for sustainable development
Mattias Qvistrm
Department of Landscape Architecture, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sweden Mattias.qvistrom@lpal.slu.se
Introduction "According to a common view, nature starts where the city ends. Here, on the edge of the city, lies the boundary between nature and culture, between red and green, that is: between the built environment and untouched landscape. the city is the enemy of nature and the front-line is the edge of the city." (Tjallingii 2000, p. 105) The divide between rural and urban areas is one of the reasons why the city edge has been submerged in spatial plans and public policy considerations for a long time (Allen 2003). As in many other countries, the rural-urban divide described in Tjallingii (2000) is prominent within Swedish planning; in general, only densely built areas can be incorporated in the legally binding and detailed plans, leaving the countryside and the urban fringe with strategic and advisory plans without any legal power to affect land-use changes. The ruralurban divide is mirrored in the administrative structure on local, regional and national levels, whose decisions materialise in the landscape. The divide is not only increased by administrative structures, but is also sanctioned by disciplinary interests (Tjallingii 2000, Corner 2004). For instance, there are plenty of academic journals on urban or rural studies respectively, but only a few that pay any attention to rural urban interfaces. According to Allen (2003, p. 135), the rural-urban divide is one of the main reasons for the difficulties handling the urban fringe, "a distinction that (mis)informs not only the setting up of institutional arrangements but also, and more broadly, the deployment of planning approaches and tools." To accomplish a sustainable development, or indeed a comprehensive understanding of the environmental impacts of urban growth, we need to overcome this divide. In this paper, I will argue that a greater awareness of landscape transformations at the city edge within spatial planning will offer such a bridge.
Illustration 1: Lund and the south-western part of Scania in southern Sweden. Major highways and municipal borders are marked on the map. The case-study area is indicated with a circle.
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In the paper, the neglect of the city edge is illustrated in a minor case study of land-use transitions at the urban fringe of Lund in southern Sweden (see illustration 1). The study is based on field studies in 1997 and 2007, an analysis of the local spatial plans (from the 1960s and onwards) and of cartographic material revealing land-use changes. The material is partly based on Qvistrm (unpublished) and has been a part of the interdisciplinary research project Ephemeral landscapes: exploring landscape dynamics at the urban fringe (see e.g. Qvistrm & Saltzman 2006). The case study aims to compare the (utopian) plans for future city developments with actual landscape transformations at the urban fringe. Landscape changes at the city edge of Lund In the spring of 1997 I witnessed the bulldozing of a decayed hose and an abandoned garden on the northern city edge of Lund (illustration 2). Beside the dirt road next to the house, vast arable fields surrounded the garden and every hundred metre or so another garden was scattered on the vast plain. A beautiful pear tree was just about to be crushed when an old couple who lived in the neighbourhood paused to watch the demolition. They told me they frequently passed the house by bicycle, and they expressed how much they had enjoyed the flowering pear tree during the years. In a landscape dominated by large arable fields, a lush garden means a lot, not only to humans. There is a deficit of green areas in the vicinity of Lund, a city located in a region comprising some of the most productive arable fields in Scandinavia and with no hills, rivers or other hindrances for a large scale and monotonous agricultural landscape. A week after the event, the house was gone and the only thing left was the odd mark on the ground, indicating the position of the water-pipe. Lund encompasses one of the largest universities in Scandinavia as well as rapidly expanding high technological industries, which causes the city to grow out of its former boundaries. The number of inhabitants of the city has increased steadily since the 1950s, and today the population (ca 100 000) is more than twice as big as fifty years ago (Lunds kommun 2005). Still, no matter how expansive a city is, there are always places supposed to be developed which are not utilised. Almarcegui (2005) provides a number of colourful illustrations of such derelict sites in the central parts of Lund, which are presently being used for informal activities. Furthermore, one part of a city might be expanding whereas other parts are lingering. The northern edge of Lund is one of these areas. Considering the postponement of plans for urban expansion, the northern fringe of Lund might be compared with the situation in a shrinking city; in the shadow of future developments, the landscape has been paralysed rather than utilised for development (see Oswalt 2005 for a discussion on Shrinking cities). The northern city edge of Lund had been designated for urban development since the early 1960s, although the highly productive arable land made the city expansion problematic. Although the city did expand to the north in the early 1970s, vast areas allocated for development were not utilised at the time. One of these areas, between Norra Fladen (the northern part of the city) and Stngby (a village two kilometres to the north of Lund), is the topic of this paper (see illustration 1). The entire case-study area, approximately two square-
Illustration 2: the demolition of a house and a garden at the urban fringe of Lund in 1997. Ten years later, the place is still not utilised for urban development. (Photograph: Mattias Qvistrm)
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Mattias Qvistrm: Betwixt and between: on land-use regeneration at the urban fringe
kilometres in size, was the subject of large scale plans for city expansions in the early 1970s as well as in the 1980s. For instance, in 1986, a plan, presented to the public, contained settlements for 15000 inhabitants and 6000 working places at the northern fringe. However, the city has mainly expanded in other directions, partly due to conflicts with the interests of agriculture (Qvistrm, unpublished). In order to prevent land speculation and to secure the possibilities for the city to expand, vast areas at the fringe of the city were bought in the 1960s by the municipality of Lund (as in many other municipalities in Sweden at the time). These areas have been leased ever since (primarily to farmers), while waiting for the expansion to come into being. In 2005, 59 hectares of land were designated for urban development in the near future, however, as a complement, the municipality of Lund owned 1200 hectares of land which is called the "land reserve". The land reserve is land which is supposed to be used for urban development in the future, and which is managed accordingly. Agriculture in "land reserve" areas is dependent on short term contracts (usually one-year contracts), which fosters a short term use of the land. However, 80% of the land reserve had been part of the land reserve for more than 30 years (Tekniska frvaltningen i Lund 2005). The city expansion to the north has been delayed time after time, although some minor areas have been developed into settlements. The rest of the landscape has been affected by thirty years of short term leasing contracts in the shadow of future city expansions. As far as a visual analysis of ten year of landscape changes can tell, the short term agriculture seem to have fostered an economically sound activity where recreation values, biodiversity or the interests of the neighbours in the city is disregarded. Short term contracts are likely to endorse short sighted land-use. In a landscape dominated by arable land, abandoned gardens (as well as small biotopes along roads and railways) are important for the biodiversity as well as for recreation. In the comprehensive plan of Lund, the importance of such biotopes is clearly stated, and the need to preserve and develop green structures at the urban fringe is mentioned in the plan. In particular, the need for clumps of trees in the open landscape, and vegetation along roads and boundaries, are brought forward in the plan (Lunds kommun 1998). However, as mentioned before, the comprehensive plan is a weak planning instrument, and the case-study tells a different story with regards to the last decade of landscape change. Prior to the visions of a city expansion, there were no abandoned gardens in the case-study area. In 1970 - 1997, thirteen settlements (primarily small farmsteads) were abandoned in the area, possibly due to the threat of city expansion. Nine of these were still there in 1997 (Qvistrm, unpublished). Visiting the area in 2007, I find locating the place of the bulldozed garden difficult; the land has been ploughed, but is now uncultivated, and I am not able to detect any difference between the arable field and the former garden. Two of the abandoned gardens mentioned above have been bulldozed and replaced with new settlements, a third one has been covered with excavated material and yet another one is partly used as a dump for garden waste. After decades of utopian plans for city expansion, the major part of the studied area was labelled as a valuable cultural landscape to be protected, in the local comprehensive plan of 1998 (Stadsarkitektkontoret i Lund 1998). However, recent plans for a golf course and a school in the area illustrates how weak this "protection" is. In reality, urban expansion is still a threat, and unless the municipality decides to act in a different way, the landscape will probably be even more monotone and even more dominated by large scale agriculture in a few years time. Conclusion " urbanization provides a crucial opportunity: to create living patterns harmonized with nature's rhythms as people continue to create urban habitat." (Lee 2007, p. 6) Lee's notion of urbanisation as an asset for a sustainable development stands in stark contrast to the introductory quote by Tjallingii, in which urbanisation is regarded as a threat to an untouched landscape. Expanding cities as such are not a threat to sustainable development, but the expansion needs to be adjusted to the demands of a sustainable society. I would like to argue that one of these demands should be to acknowledge the urban fringe as an asset within planning. Today, the urban fringe is generally looked upon as a phase about to be developed into urban settlement, and therefore the intermediate landscape is treated as less important within planning. Furthermore, landscape changes taking place at the fringe while waiting for the city to expand are far from easy to understand. An analysis of the interplay between spatial plans and everyday actions in these landscapes will, however, reveal some of the processes shaping the land. In Qvistrm & Saltzman (2006), this interplay was studied in an area at the city edge of Malm (Sweden), illustrating the development of a green area in the shadow of city expansion. The new settlements were postponed time after time, and finally the area was discovered by the planners and protected as a nature park. Conversely, the plans for a future development can also threaten a varied landscape at the fringe, as has been illustrated in this paper. In contrast to Malm, the case-study area in Lund was dominated by short-term land-use contracts. The importance of such contracts for the development of the landscape at the urban fringe has so far not been
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studied, at least not in Sweden. There is a need for further landscape studies exploring the gap between utopian dreams of city expansion and the present day situation at the city edge, if we are to fully take advantage of the possibilities for a sustainable development of the city. Allen (2003) argues for a combination of methods within urban, rural and regional planning to be able to handle the fringe. In Sweden, however, regional planning is almost absent, and rural planning is only advisory. Here, a different gap seems to be even more important to bridge in order to be able to handle the urban fringe: the gap between management and planning. For instance, while the old biotopes (or gardens) have decreased in number in the case-study area in Lund, a new walking path has been developed by the municipality not far away from the area, to increase the access to the landscape for recreation. It seems as if developing new objects is far more easy for planners than to deal with the management of existing features; to handle a dynamic landscape waiting for a future development seems to be very difficult within planning, unless the municipal divisions dealing with land-use management are involved. Today, leasing contracts are not integrated with planning, despite being a very effective tool with which to manage land owned by the municipality at the fringe. Such a co-ordination is, however, dependent on a new way of seeing within planning: the urban fringe must be considered an asset for the development of "urban habitats". Acknowledgements The paper results from the project Ephemeral landscapes: exploring landscape dynamics at the urban fringe, funded by FORMAS, the Swedish Research Council for Environment, Agricultural Sciences, and Spatial Planning. The author wishes to thank Lisa Larsson for helpful language revisions and Lars G B Andersson for GIS support. References
Allen, A. 2003. "Environmental planning and management of the peri-urban interface: perspectives on an emerging field", Environment & urbanization, vol. 15, pp. 135 - 147. Almarcegui, L. 2005. Guide to the undefined places of Lund. Lunds konsthall, Lund. Corner, J. 2006. "Terra fluxus", in: Waldheim, C. (Ed) The landscape urbanism reader. Princeton architectural press, New York. Lee, K. 2007. "An urbanizing world", in Stake, L. (Ed) State of the world: Our urban future. WW Norton & Company, New York & London. Lunds kommun. 2005. Lunds statistik 2005. www.lund.se/templates/Page____1363.aspx Oswalt, P. (Ed). 2005. Shrinking cities, vol 1: International research. Hatje Cantz, Ostfieldern-Ruit. Qvistrm, M. 1998 (unpublished). Om frloppslandskapet. Qvistrm, M., Saltzman, K. 2006. "Exploring landscape dynamics at the edge of the city: spatial plans and everyday places at the inner urban fringe of Malm, Sweden", Landscape research, vol 31, pp. 21-41. Stadsarkitektkontoret i Lund. 1998. versiktsplan fr Lunds kommun. Stadsbyggnadskontoret i Lund. 2004. Program till detaljplan fr ladugrdsmarken 5:9 m fl (Golfbana) och del av 5:8 m fl (Rekreations- och idrottsomrde). Tekniska frvaltningen i Lund. 2005. Markpolicy fr Lund. Lund. Tjallingii, S.P. 2000. "Ecology on the edge: landscape and ecology between town and country", Landscape and urban planning, vol. 48, pp. 103 - 119.
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Identify Attributes of the Landscape in the Basin of the Claro Brook (Rio Claro SP Brazil): a Periurban Park Components
A. C. Sarti & M. A. Lombardo
Universidade Estadual Paulista "Jlio de Mesquita Filho" UNESP Rio Claro / SP / Brazil acasarti@unimep.br
Abstract This article proposes to identify attributes of the landscape in the hydrographic basin of Claro brook, in the city of Rio Claro SP Brazil. There have been changes in the use of the space, whether in the agricultural environment or in the urban one. Such changes have been speeding up since the last decades of the 20th century up to the beginning of the 21st century. During this period natural resources, cultural and landscape management have been set up and initiatives have been taken leading to a bigger stability of some landscape attributes. Laws have been established due to the setting of different management tools, getting to the tourist patrimony. The coffee cycle defined and determined the composition of the landscape with the formation of big farms in "plantation system" and their large houses. The railroad came and as a consequence of it, the expansion of the coffee farms and the creation of Horto Florestal of Cia. Paulista de Estradas de Ferro S. A. (Nursery Tree of Paulista Co. of Railroads S. A.) known nowadays as State Forest subaltern at Environmental and Water Resources State Secretary. It shows the beginning and the development of the conservatism thought. The applying of the Brazilian Forest Code implies in the setting of permanent preservation areas and legal reserve areas affecting the maintenance capacity of the sources. The research of archaeological sites (litho and ceramic) allows using this status for the creation of protected areas. At the same time the impact of the Cultural Inventory provides shelter to the establishment and its surroundings. This Environment Protected Area (EPA) implies in a bigger control on the laws of doing or not doing. The articulation of such laws identifies the attributes that can bring people motivated by cultural, environmental, historical and patrimonial content, diversifying the possibilities of the multiple uses, the management of the landscape hydrographic basin, the possibilities of such multiple uses, the environmental and continued education. The area as an urban park gets its importance. Key words: tourism resources, public parks and areas, landscape analysis, environmental management Introduction One of the most important points of the visiting shows the meaning of the object which makes and intensifies the feeling of connection with the place (Santos, 1988, p.64). There is an exchange between the visitor and the visiting object where the recent past and the far one get together, bringing information and understanding related to the physics sphere and met physics, in dizzily synapses. From this, exchange life experiences can come, the reality perception gets bigger and the concept of citizenship is consolidated. New opportunities of economic activities can appear linked to the work generation, income and wealth transference among regions. The education has a rich space to develop itself when considering the informality one to continuous process even self managed. Therefore, such visiting can also have a possibility of a destructive aggression of the frustrated living which is able to be misunderstood and do not bring really the true information. In this view, the hydrographical basin analysis allows the management of the space and the integration of the landscape, making them coherent to the principles of social equity, ecological prudish and economic viability. The water is focused as the base of the system, organizing the flux on the other factors. The human society defines management tools (laws), showing its wishes, mobile ones, as the objectives to be reached. They must be applied and recognized as authentic. Their objectives must be clear and the values which they are subordinated must be a mirror in the society which raises them. The study of the hydrographic basin of Claro brook allows to check that the making and spatial distribution of the landscape attributes, has base in the geological, morphological and soil types together the economical and social factors characterized by different historical phases. What did act as such changes were the environmental settings from the conception of the natural resources settings, giving the material base to the cultural movements' development. After the stational semidecidual forest domain due to the cyclic process made by the sugar cane from XVII to XIX century, and by the coffee plantation expansion (DEAN, 1977) from the end of XIX century to the mid of XX, and the industrial process which begins on the 50`s and intensify later, the attributes of the landscape impact as domestic and industrial sewage, in the increasing of low income population and in the absence of preservation politics in the county level. Even so, the high level of life in cities has been shown while opportunities for the formal and informal education has been arisen, articulating the periurban interface.
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EPA Environmental Protection Area The Environmental Protection Areas (EPA) are tools of the Environmental National Politic used to protect and keep the environmental quality and the natural systems with the goal to guarantee the life quality of the populations near them and to protect the regional eco systems based on the Resolution CONAMA n 10/88. The juridical base is given by the Law n 6.902/81 which says: The Executive Power sets rules limiting or forbidden: a) the setting and the potentially polluted industry working, able to affect water sources; b) the realization of moving leveling and the opening of canals; c) activities able to speed up the soil erosion or shallow level of the streams; d) activities devoted to endanger the regional fauna. It can be set up by the Union, State and County. EPA has a juridical regime which interferes in the owner law dividing in occupation zones. It does not demand the expropriation but it demands edict soil occupation and natural resource control (SILVA, 1997, p.178), determining the law of doing or not doing. Around of Claro brook basin has been subordinated to the Protection Environmental Area EPA Piracicaba Perimeter I, set by the law n 7.438, on July 16, 1991. However, urgently actions are needed due to the critical panorama checked. Cultural Inventory Area It is a historical, landscape, archeological, paleontological, ecological or scientific site which makes the cultural heritage patrimony of the Nation. As it has a public interest, such site is protected through inventories, certificates, watching, registers and even expropriation. The cultural inventory making is ruled by the law n 25/1937 mainly which determines "The cultural inventory in any case could be destroyed, demolished or mutilated" (MACHADO, 1998, p.568). In Sao Paulo state, the object cultural inventory has a surrounding area of 300 m from its limit, where any project which can interfere in the environment, must have been under CONDEPHAAT(Council of Historical, Artistic, Archeological and Tourist Defense Patrimony of Sao Paulo State) approval. Such norm is also validity in the counties. The classical applying of the cultural inventory making has been getting touchable and untouchable objects which have artistic, aesthetic, documental, landscape and tourist value. So, the law allows applying the forest areas too, as the "Edmundo Navarro de Andrade" State Forest. On the Claro brook basin have been registered as cultural inventory monuments: 1) The Rock House of Grao-Mogol; 2) The Railway Station built by Paulista Co. of Railroads; 3) Corumbatai Hydroelectric Power Station is the pioneer and 4) Nursery Tree and the Museum "Edmundo Navarro de Andrade", in totum. Archeological Site When the Brazilian Constitution BC, in 1988 defines the cultural inventory making, (art. 216) as "all the material and immaterial objects taken alone or in group, linked to the identity, the action, the memory of the different groups of the Brazilian society, in which there are: () V the urban group and historical, landscape, artistic, archeological, paleontological, ecological and scientific sites (BRASIL, 1988, p.120). In this way, "urban groups" and "sites" are placed on the same level, related to spaces which have relevant objects for the culture and memory of the Brazilian citizen, in their multiplicity of origins. When urban groups are taken as reference, the protection of the urban steam where the objects of preservation interest are concentrated is possible. On the same way, it can be understood the archeological sites as they have the same importance. So, the law of the inventory making becomes the archeological sites analogs, implying as well as in the enlargement of the social property function. On the other hand, the law n 3.924, July 26, 1961 was not revoked by the BC of 1988, keeping their legal tools on the archeological and pre-historical monuments determining that all of them on the National Territory as well as all the elements found on them are kept under control of the Public Power. The inclusion of archeological or pre-historical lode, and the objects which can have on them, does not prevent the ground property. Permanent Preservation Area PPA There are two kinds of preservation area: one made by the forest law and other made by the Public Management. Both of them, have been foreseen on the Brazilian Forest Code BFC. The first, made by the law effect n 4.771/1965, not only have an economic value but also it has tuition due to its function to protect the water and the soil. They are protection bands and vary according to the length of the river and include the river side forest. The second is the result the Public Management declaratory act. In the area studied, the broad of the PPA is 30 m in each river side due to the characteristic of Claro brook and its tributaries which identifies it with the first kind of preservation area. The Mayor Plan of Rio Claro Urban Development adopted the criteria of the mayor river bed, e.g., the band of land occupied by the river water on
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A. C. Sarti & M. A. Lombardo: Identify Attributes of the Landscape in the Basin of the Claro Brook
its over flooding, as usual set up a landmark by terraces from where the measure of 30 m is made. This one is the second kind of preservation area. Legal Reserve The base of the Legal Reserve LR is also the BFC, changed by the law n 7.803 on July 18, 1989. It is defined as a native vegetal covering of the property in proportion of its total area. It varies from region to region and, in South on the Meridian East and part of the Central West, the minimum limit is 20%, no matter if they are native, primitive or regenerated. There is the owner's obligation in registering the area in the Official Office of the County, but the law does not establish a length of time for such action. By the law effect the adding of the portions of LR of all properties should keep a minimum of 20% of the area covered with forest. What is shown in the studied area is the covering or native forest in 4,25% of the total area, measured through air photos made in 1995 (SARTI, 2001, p.223) demonstrating the distance of the law from the effects of the market invisible hand. Landscaping Attributes with visiting potential The objects and process related to the geological history with the process of vegetal covering formation, with the indigenous culture registers and pre-indigenous, as well as the more recent economic development dynamics due to the industrialization, shows that such resources must be mobilized in a way that the citizen can take the information, building new meanings that can identify it with the place, making the affection feelings stronger and creating opportunities to increase the quality inside of the social exchange. The service which attends the population becomes essential mainly the ones to the adjacent and periurban to Claro brook. This population has no perception of the multiplicity of happenings in a far past, recent past, present and in the one to come, which determine their life condition. Conclusions The results gotten through the studies of the hydrographic basin of Claro brook, establish a meaning among the historical events that context the process which occur on the territory occupation, making objects that had already had a determined meanings. Today, there are others and when potential of visiting is identifying on them, other possibilities are valorized transcending the present. The multiply articulation between time and space distinctively overlay the courses, bringing to a present an interlaced time. The coffee Baron history, is on the same importance level to what happened on the pre-history time with the archeological sites which certifies the indigenous occupation. The study identify that the cultural objects valorized by the community and better preserved, are those produced by the economic, social and politic elite from the recent past while the witness of the first people are let to the abandon and unknown. They live in a impressible imaginary, certifying a far dimension, a far way time too difficult to be noticed. They take to a time to come, occlusioned and obliteraterated. These results also permitted to prove that the natural resources have been taking to the exhaustion. The water attack, is also catastrophic, transforming Claro brook from a diversified ichthyfauna into a sewer. The domestic sewer flux as well as some industrial effluents, take the brook to collapse. The natural covering mainly the native, is reduced to proportion which makes difficult the hydrological natural cycle to occur, interfering in the quantity and quality of the water collected to supply the population. The fragments of the native vegetation, are isolated among themselves having just the brook as element of linking. To get a better genetic changing, the forest linking among the fragments is recommended. The improvement in the quality indicators of the environment, will get on the quality of the visiting experience and its effects will be noticed in the hydrographic basin as a whole. It was noticed that the superposition among the different modalities of management tools, submitting territorial portions to rules edited in different levels of the Public management. It could have been concluded, such event drives to a bigger efficacy. However, it is much more probable that the lack of information about the object to be preserved makes difficult or even makes impossible to obey the most simply rules, mainly in a conjuncture where the rural or urban owners have a patrimonial vision of the nature, placing them far away of the sustainable paradigm. "The landscape and the environmental patrimony, urban or not, are naturally raw material of the leisure and tourism, but, before that, they are inside of the same population quotidian. In this condition, the discussion of vandalism, no place and the democratic process of planning, must be proposed" (YAZIGI, 1996, p.57). "The city needs to have equipments to supply the social demands. It is not more a work place and dwelling, built by economic interest and needs to offer alternatives accessible to everybody, no matter the income level, social class, schooling, skill, ability, age, sex, health, means of transportation and others" (SARTI, 2001, p.116).
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There is a big diversity of information available on the space, at the same there is a lack of access to such information. As the places can get a transformation power, when it is used as educational resource, continued, formal and informal, a visiting program can offer opportunities of appropriation of the place by the citizen, meeting the space (SANTOS, 1988). Bibliography
BRASIL.Constituio da Repblica Federativa do Brasil. So Paulo: Atlas, 1988. 180 p ________. Ministrio da Cultura. Instituto da Patrimnio Histrico e Artstico Nacional. Lei n 3.924 de 26 jul 1961. Dispes sobre os monumentos arqueolgicos e pr-histricos. Disponvel em <www.iphan.gov.br>. Acesso em 3/11/2006. DEAN, W. Rio Claro: um sistema brasileiro de grande lavoura - 1820-1920. Rio de Janeiro: Paz e Terra, 1977. 205 p. MACHADO, P. A. L. Direito ambiental brasileiro. 6 ed. So Paulo: Malheiros, 1998. 782 p. SARTI, A. C. Propostas para delimitao de um parque periurbano para a cidade de Rio Claro (SP). 2001. 283 f. Dissertao (Mestrado em Conservao e Manejo de Recursos) - Centro de Estudos Ambientais, Universidade Estadual Paulista, Rio Claro. SANTOS, M. Espao e mtodo. So Paulo: Nobel, 1988. 88 p. SILVA, J. A. da. Direito ambiental constitucional. 2 ed. So Paulo: Malheiros.1997. 243 p. YZIGI, E. Turismo: Espao, Paisagem e Cultura. So Paulo: Hucitec, 1996. 238 p.
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Urban Environmental Quality of Life: Franca intermediated-sized city in the State of So Paulo, Brazil
Gilda Collet Bruna, Las Raquel Muniz Bomfim & Cristina Kanya Caselli
Presbyterian University Mackenzie, Brazil laisbomfim@netsite.com.br
Our acknowledgement to MACKPESQUISA Abstract In Brazil the intermediate-sized cities offer better quality indicators, urban mobility, shorter travel distance (home to work), small pollution levels; offer green areas and smaller cost of life. Does all this happen in Franca? How the urban and environmental legislations have influence (or not) upon this urban space? In order to answer these questions, this research results1 about Franca, an intermediate sized city in the So Paulo state hinterland, are discussed. Introduction The discussion about environmental urban quality in the beginning of this millennium is strengthened due to the fact that at the first time the Earth urban population will be larger than the rural (DAVIS, 2006). This subject has been target of investigations and proposals, mainly in the poor population concentrations. In Brazil, the rapid urbanization process doesn't happen only at the metropolitan regions and urban agglomerations. A new reality is seen within the cities of the hinterland of the State of So Paulo, particularly, those denominated: intermediate-sized cities, which are presenting problems that before had been exclusive of large centers. This dynamic of today calls attention to the need of new planning instruments and territorial management in a regional scope. As a matter of fact, during the last decades the intermediate-sized cities had been responsible for the positive balance of the State of So Paulo migration that still growths at higher rates than the metropolitan regions. There is a process of undo the metropolises, or a concentrated de-concentration of population, or still the growth of peripheral areas that are pointing out to the reconfiguration and modernization of the metropolis role, as a result of federal programs that had invested in the infrastructure of towns with more than 100 thousand inhabitants, turning dynamic the industrial in the hinterland, what leveraged the economic development of these areas that since then receive population and developed themselves in an accelerated process. It was the period between 1970 and 1985 marked by the Developer State actions. This article goal is to contribute to the reflection about the urban quality concept in an intermediate-sized town of Franca, through the evaluation of urban indicators that are able to promote Public Policies aiming the Municipality Planning and Management. In order to subsidize the research the main urban indicators had been analyzed, through the selection of the main parameters relevant to local implementation. The local legislations that contribute to the urban space quality had been surveyed and it is possible to say that in the case of Franca, the municipality's norms effectively contribute to the urban quality, although there is a huge interval of time between the legislation process and these instruments implementation. This work is part of Las Bomfim the master research being developed at the Presbyterian University Mackenzie at the graduate program in architecture and urban planning, with the financial support of the Mackpesquisa Fund. Indicators of urban quality In the 1980 decade the importance of the towns as centers of local power had been established, as they are places with the larger part of the economy, police and culture. It is within the towns that the majority of the population lives and where the larger natural resources renewable and non-renewable consumption impacts are produced generating the most of the pollution. Therefore it is important to understand the regional and local urban dynamics and the environment existing quality, as well as to study the possibilities that the urban policies promote or not in terms of sustainable development. The territory knowledge demands a high degree of information, thus needing to expand its capability to promote diagnostic, from which it is possible to obtain information for planning and lead local development actions (DAWBOR, 1995). In order to implement these local development actions the performance indicators are utilized in various aspects of the human activities in the territory. These are environmental quality indicators because they should allow to evaluate how the environment is being occupied, if there are negative or positive impacts, affecting or not the quality of an urban area. The indicators can be of quantitative as well as of qualitative order and they can be used in the decision taking process in different levels. For instance, in order to improve the population health levels it is important not only to count on basic sanitation, as well as that the water flows be sided by non-occupied areas green ones in a ribbon of 30 m minimum of width (Law n 7,803); the housing should be isolated or adequate
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grouped in order to enable ventilation in hot climate locals; the public spaces should have places to throw away garbage, potable water to the population and restrooms allowing that the rivers don't carry residues and pollutants; the population should receive sun not only in its dwellings but are can be on a solar envelope during some hours per day, and also have public spaces to leisure and recreation; the flow of motor vehicles should be free so that it won't accumulate toxic gases, and so it is necessary to count on an adequate road dimensioning, forecasting flows in different periods of the day, and also this vehicle circulation should be permeated by green areas of transition, using materials to absorb or reflect and dissipate the urban noises. It is possible thus describe the urban tissue components of an urban sector and measure the impacts, considering the results in terms of quality of urban life. Besides, these qualities so measured can be of different degrees, better or worse, reflected in the indicators of environmental urban quality. Indicators in Brazil: discussion The "National Development Plans" stimulating the hinterland's development as above mentioned, according to Sabia (apud MARTINELLI, 2004), had structured by the first time the use of indicators in Brazil, and this happened due to the demand that these national programs generated, what resulted in the creation of the department of social indicators of the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics. Other authors had elected the 1990's as the mark of the indicators' use in the country, and these have shown themselves as important instruments of territorial management, helping the decisions taking. The increased use of the indicators in Brazil is due to the democratization process of the last decades, also to the non-governmental organization's actuation, and to the historic social problems of social unbalance and poverty, as well as due to a wide diffusion through the communications' means newspapers, magazines and TV. The urban quality indicators are social ones and can be classified in two large groups: (1) those of housing and infrastructure and (2) those of environment and quality of life, which can be listed as follows: dwellings' quality of life proportion; urban services rate; transportation infrastructure; subjective indicators of quality of life; criminality and murders indicators; time sharing; and environmental indicators (JANUZZI, 2003). In construction the main objectives of these indicators are: (1) financing programs reliability and international projects foment; (2) public policies acceptation; (3) and democratization of the information, widening the dialogue between the civil society and the public power, favoring the popular participation in the processes of monitoring, and evaluation of the public policies (KAYANO; CALDAS, 2002). In Brazil the indicators' construction like the one done for Vitria, in Esprito Santo State, that for Curitiba in Paran State, and Belo Horizonte in Minas Gerais State have as their main source the data collected by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics and for this reason they are surveyed each 10 years, involving that way more than two governmental periods, what makes impossible to make the diagnosis for shorter periods of time, so that society could evaluate the public management in one period of government. As these indicators' contribution the first step to their construction should be the territorial regulation, in terms of organization and information, as it is fundamental that the results should be geo referenced. These indicators in general work with the visualization of areas of worst conditions, so that it would be possible to revert these problems found. In terms of the town qualification the indicators reach beyond the measurable physical issues, like Lynch shows about the performance dimensions and the quality of the urban form and environments, looking at the concept of vitality, sense, congruence, access, control, efficiency and equity; His studies are related to subjective evaluations and also constitute an important method of analysis. The urban size, according to Jos Eli da Veiga (2002) doesn't work as indicator of quality, because it is related to the Municipality Indicator of Human Development (IDHM,1998) that as parameters of the Program of Unites Nations for Development (PNUD) they are linked to the offer of health conditions, education and income that not necessarily are found into the intra-urban space. And, among the 50th IDHM first positions (1998), what means half of the small towns based in a rural economy, located in the States of Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul, contrasting to the large towns like Curitiba (18th position) and Rio de Janeiro (45th position). These little towns without shopping centers, cinemas and universities had shown that the criteria involving the urban quality have to consider the regional scale. It is necessary then, to study the municipality of Franca in terms of its political administrative and geographic region through its hydrographic basin area, inserting it in the urban network of the State, in order to make a diagnosis more detailed of its polarization attributes. The case of the municipality of Franca Franca is a municipality of the State of So Paulo, Brazil, well known as an isolated urban center of about 100 to 500 thousand inhabitants, in a non-metropolitan region far from So Paulo, sharing 1.7% of the total State
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Population. According to Feldman (2005) it polarizes 5 towns in the Minas Gerais State and 9 in the State of So Paulo, reaching an influence area of 70 km radius. Franca is well known by its industrial sector of leather and shoes that constitute its economic base structuring an industrial cluster. It is the greatest Brazilian exporter of masculine shoes. This industrial sector is part of the urban structuring, collaborating with the housing construction through partnerships with the public sector through financing for the acquisition of the "own house". This industrial sector participated also in the implementation of the Industrial District in the 1980's when the leather industry was located outside the central area, thus contributing to decrease the rivers' pollution and eliminating the strong smells. Recently it is contributing with the public power to build the solid waste infill construction that started working out at the 2nd semester of 2006. Franca has high sanitation indicators as 99.54% of its urban surface has potable water; 99.03% of the town is served by the sewer network and from these 98% are treated; 98.8% of the urban area is served by litter collection; 99.8% of the dwellings count on electric energy; the urbanization rate is of 98.42% (SEADE, 2007). It's IDHM of 2000 is 0.82 what according the PNUD shows that the municipality reached the high level of human development. All of these indicators show that the municipality is in a high position among the urban system of the country. Nevertheless the intra-urban issues deserve better detailing, mainly in relation to the environmental problems aggravated by the urban drainage that accelerates the soil erosion process. High-rise buildings do not characterize Franca (Fig. 1), and there are no slums. Its urban occupation done in a diffuse way reflects in the low densities levels, as more than 35% of the properties remain vacant, despite the majority of the land parcels be insert in the urban tissue and have public services. The problem is that there are many houses are located in risks areas although they had been approved by the municipal public power. This problem is aggravated by the accidents of the drainage: erosion, flood, and landslide (Fig. 2) (GODI, 2006). This happens in a diffuse way all around the urban territory. Other factors to consider are the lack of the urban tissue organization that is troubled by the large vacant areas and affected also by the main rivers' canalization and also by the lack of tress in the peripheral areas. Related to the urban policies, law n 5,022/98 deals with the Social Housing Plan counts on 3 programs: Our House; Easy land parcel, and Housing of Solidarity aiming the acquisition of lots and the building of housing units to the low income population, through construction material financing, technical assistance to houses upon 70 sqm through the sub-program Safe Hoof and the organization of cooperatives (MENDES, 2003). In Franca there is no specific indicator at the municipality level in order to promote public policies, although in a non conventional way there are studies to elaborate indicators, like the Chart of Potential Erosion Risk done by the Technological Research Institute of So Paulo (IPT) in 1990. From this study was approved law n 4240/1992 instituting the areas of environment interest Canoas river basin and Pouso Alegre river that are important for the supply of potable water. In 1996 it was created the Canoas river protection area, by the Environment Code of the municipality of Franca, which regulates this area land use. After that these legislations had been incorporated by the Master Plan of 2003, defining the macro zoning that divides the urban area in four types: macro zone of preferential urban occupation; macro zone of restrict urban occupation; macro zone of urban expansion; and macro zone of rural occupation. Decree n 7419/1997, according to Godi (2006) had shown there was a significant reduction of the drainage and erosion accidents, because after this decree the public power became responsible to offer parameters to projects and public works of pluvial water, according to the peculiarities of each region of the town, based on the Map of Erosion Potential Risk elaborated by the IPT. Concerning the urban mobility, in 1998 it was done a structural modification, changing the mass transportation system, so that it started to count on electronic ticket and with the possibility of terminals exchange with the same ticket. Besides, it was re-structured the urban route changing from the system neighborhood to neighborhood with diametric lines to the integrated system linking centers, sub centers and neighborhoods counting on radial and circular lines, thus decreasing the period of wait and increasing the system efficiency, besides optimizing the costs for the passengers (BOARETO,2001). Another legislation aiming to increase the urban accessibility is the complementary law n 57/ 2003 that instituted norms to the urban road system defining its hierarchy with the due technical specifications for dimensioning. It treated also of the elements of urban signalization, the sidewalks, and cycle's ways. In 2006 it was built the first part of this urban bicycle way linking the industrial district to the Chico Julio Avenue, what is of much interest to Franca population because industrial workers usually travel by bicycle, even in a difficult topography. There are still two other indicators, which take care of the intermediate-sized towns in So Paulo State. They classify the municipalities, one considering the environmental urban management capability, and the other evaluating the environment urban quality, which survey is from 2000 and 2001. This indicators had been applied only one time, taking care thus of a reality that cannot any more be that of today. Mainly the indicator
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elaborated by Toledo (2005) who considers these as factor of enormous variation, like the public expenses on the environment that depend essentially of the administration in vigor. These studies are: Indicator of Capability of Environment Urban Management in Intermediate-sized cities of the State of So Paulo (IGC), and Indicator of Environment Urban Quality (IQAU). By the IGC indicator Franca had been classified as median pattern, reaching the 16th position in relation to the 28 cities analyzed. By the Martinelli (2004) classification that considers Housing, Safety and Sanitation, Franca had been classified in the group I meaning the higher indicator, with an indicator of 8.37, reaching the 12th position among the intermediate-sized towns of So Paulo State. The worst indicators had been concentrated near the metropolitan regions. Conclusions Franca is noted within the network of Brazilian towns by presenting high social, urban and environment indicators. The higher quality of urban mobility, smaller time from residence to work, low pollution levels, offer of green areas and reduced costs of living nevertheless are not permanent as reality is dynamic and there is an accelerated urban growth process, and also an urban degrading process. For those reasons it is important to preserve these quality parameters in order to guarantee the local attributes. Besides these parameters should be implemented to offer equity of the population access to goods and urban resources, being either in social aspects, or in spatial ones. Relating to the legislative aspect in Franca, it has been searched solution to the local environment problems, what took to the evolution of the legal instruments. Nevertheless it is important to accelerate the dynamic of management shared between the normative and executive spheres. In this term planning, project and management should be based on intra-urban indicators. References
BOARETO, Renato. A evoluo da integrao do sistema de transporte coletivo de franca atravs da bilhetagem eletrnica. Artigo. Evento ANTP. 2001. Disponvel em < http://portal.antp.org.br/Eventos/Congressos/13_ANTP/Trabalhos/121/html/121.html>. Acesso em fevereiro, 2007. CHIQUITO, Elisngela de Almeida. Expanso urbana e meio ambiente nas cidades no-metropolitanas: o caso de Franca, SP. Dissertao de Mestrado em Arquitetura e Urbanismo apresentada USP - EESC. So Carlos. 2006. DAVIS, Mike. Planeta Favela. Traduo de Beatriz Medina. So Paulo, Boitempo, 2006. DOWBOR, Ladislau. Requisitos para um Projeto de Desenvolvimento Local: artigo 1995. Disponvel em <http://federativo.bndes.gov.br/dicas/D/053.htm>. Acesso em maio 2006. ELI DA VEIGA. Cidades Imaginrias: O Brasil menos urbano do que se calcula. Editora Autores Associados, Campinas, So Paulo, 2002. FELDMAN, Sarah. O crescimento das cidades no metropolitanas: a indstria do lote legal em Franca. Artigo. Disponvel em:<www.worldbank.org/urban/symposium2005 /papers / feldman.pdf> Acesso em julho de 2006. GODOI, Alexandre Artioli de Camargo. Desempenho de Equipamentos de Drenagem Urbana da Cidade de Franca. Dissertao de Mestrado em Transporte apresentada Escola de Engenharia de So Carlos. 2006 JANUZZI, Paulo de Martino. Indicadores Sociais no Brasil - Conceitos, Fontes de Dados e Aplicaes. Campinas. Editora Alnea. 2003. KAYANO, Jorge; CALDAS, Eduardo de Lima. Indicadores para o dilogo. GT Indicadores, Srie Indicadores. N8. So Paulo. 2002 MARTINELLI, Patrcia. Qualidade Ambiental Urbana em Cidades Mdias: Proposta de modelo de avaliao para o Estado de So Paulo. Dissertao de Mestrado em Geografia apresentada Unesp. Rio Claro. 2004. MENDES, Rita de Cssia Lopes de Oliveira. Organizao Comunitria em busca da qualidade de vida: dinmicas e lutas (Franca/SP 1991-2002). Dissertao de Mestrado em Servio Social apresentada Unesp. Franca. 2003. TOLEDO, Silvia Rodrigues Bio de. Indicadores da capacidade de gesto ambiental urbana dos governos locais nas cidades mdias do Estado de So Paulo. Dissertao de Mestrado em Geografia apresentada Unesp. Rio Claro. 2005. Sites http://www.seade.gov.br/produtos/perfil/
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Workinggroup 2 Land management and geo information
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Land management and geo information
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Interdisciplinary Information Management for the IT-based Assessment of Plans and Programmes related to the Environment
Frank Iden1, Bjrn Dejoks1 & Dietrich Bangert2
1
SRP / Gesellschaft fr Stadt und Regionalplanung mbH, 2Senatsverwaltung fr Stadtentwicklung Berlin, Germany Dietrich.Bangert@SenStadt.Verwalt-Berlin.de
Abstract Sustainable management of natural resources in metropolitan regions urgently requires actions to avoid and to minimize disadvantageous influences of human activities on the environment. In order to reach this goal potential consequences of these activities have to be analysed and assessed systematically during the early phases of planning processes and preparations of decision-making. This is particularly true for spatial planning of all kinds and on all levels, because in this early stage of the process decisions and even measures are pre-determined which can hardly be rectified at a later state of project. Considering these facts, the so called Strategic Environmental Assessment -Directive (SEA Directive 2001/42/EC) was launched in the European Union to ensure that environmental consequences of certain plans and programmes are identified and assessed during their preparation and before their adoption. All member states of the EU were obligated to transpose the directive into national law. As a consequence today also most of the plans an programmes in the administration of Senate Department of Urban Development Berlin, for example, have to run through the process of the "Strategic Environmental Assessment" (SEA; in German: SUP) whenever new plans have to be established or existing plans have to be changed. The Senate Department of urban developement took these challenges as a chance to develop new and innovative standardised evaluation methods as well as a comprehensive IT-based environmental evaluation support system based on new internet technologies and interoperability standards to integrate and process the distributed and heterogeneous data and information sources. The concept and the developing system for SEA in Berlin may be an example also for other metropolitan areas how to organise department-spread and interdisciplinary geospatial information flow for an effective and more sustainable management of planning processes on the urban environment. Introduction One of the most important challenges caused by world-wide urbanization is the preservation of natural resources in spite of all the inevitable impacts. This can only be reached by monitoring the conditions of the environment and by recognizing possible negative responses at an early stage of planning. The european directive 2001/42/EG on strategic environmental assessment and its adaption to national legislation have created an instrument which allows to take into account environmental issues right from the start of programmes or projects so that decisions can be influenced in time. The instrument which shall be applied in Berlin, its intentions, its methodology and assessment procedures are described in detail by HERBERG, 2007 (contribution to this congress). As the availability of geo-information is very important for the application of this instrument, this aspect is discussed here more intensively. In Berlin, the Senate Department of Urban Development is in charge of the protection of the environment, and it is this administration, too, which has to organise most of the planning projects subject to a strategic environmental assessment. The Senate Department of Urban Development has at its disposal a comprehensive collection of geospatial data, but it have to be complemented with data which is held and stored by several distributed providers in the whole metropolitan area. These data however, is not only distributed, it is also structured very heterogeneously and has to be upgraded for an environmental assessment. For this purpose the city has developed a specific "Information System City and Environment" which can be characterised as an infrastructure for thematic data, which allows for standardised and interadministrative access to heterogeneous sources of data. Methods A certain catalogue of conservation resources (men, animals, plants, biodiversity, soil, climate, air quality, water, landscape, cultural and economical goods) has to be observed obligatorily during the SEA. In order to simplify and to standardize the complex evaluation procedures of all these conservation resources they are pre-evaluated in five steps which are described and discussed by HERBERG (2007). The specific combination of sensitivity and environmental influences resulting from impacts is a major objective of the assessment and is calculated according to rules which allow for easy application of IT-methods. The resulting model-based procedure is illustrated in Fig. 1.
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Fig. 1: Steps of the model-based SEA-evaluation process: Acquisition, preparation and integration of raw data, rule-based processing based on formal evaluation methods for each resource to be protected.
The evaluation procedure in its single steps as shown in the left part of fig. 1 is accompanied by corresponding (geo-)information and data processing models. The main idea behind this theory is to directly and immediately transfer the interdisciplinary and multiple evaluation of environmental influences caused by planning into the process of decision-making and so to integrate environmental assessment into planning continuously and at early planning stages. It is, of course, an important precondition for success of this kind of planning to have reliable and well-prepared information bases provided by the responsible administration branches. This requires a holistic management both of availability of geo data and of permanent assurance of data quality. This applies to input data from various sources and for derived data such as for SEA. Workflow aspects and resulting requirements for IT are shown in fig. 2. Infrastructure For economic and cost effectiveness reasons it is completely impossible to provide or re-establish the necessary availability and quality assurance of data individually in each case of new planning. Instead it is necessary to create a comprehensive infrastructure which allows for repeated use of services, software tools and data in any case of environmental planning. New web-oriented technology and new solutions for organizing data management within the framework of so-called "Public 118
Fig. 2: Steps of workflow and IT-requirements related to the evaluation of the environment.
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Sector Geo Data Infrastructure" are suitable means for connecting the interests of providers of geo data and the specific requirements of data users. In Berlin a powerful infrastructure developed by the Senate Department of Urban development is available for this purpose named "FIS-broker". "FIS" means "interdisciplinary information system", and the connected "broker" provides access to data from various sources and allows their processing independently and neutrally from the source systems by introducing special methods. The FIS-broker has been developed far enough to provide quality assurance modules, models adapted to typical workflows and routines for updating. For example, a dense combination of various environmental information can be shown in a map with three levels, which can be read like a traffic light: A (red): Attention! Planning highly restricted by ecological and legal constraints; B (yellow): Be careful: areas of ecological importance could be affected; C (green): Areas with less importance concerning ecological aspects. The principles of integration of SEA-tools into the superior IT-infrastructure of the Berlin Senate Department of Urban Development are illustrated in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3: Integration of SEA tools into the IT-infrastructure of the Department of Urban Development
Meta Data The description of original data is supposed to stay under the responsibility of the administration in charge, and it should remain connected with the respective original data. This regulation has to be taken into account for IT-application purposes in any case of professional planning. As a great number of internal and external data sources have to be used for SEA, a particular model for meta-data management has been developed. The following categories of attribute are contained in this model: - importance, purpose of contents - data structure - consistence of data - up-to-dateness of data - quality of data - schedule of availability (if applicable: period of renewal of data) - data format Any technical, organizational or legal restrictions on the availability of data are presented by an integration model in such a way that approaches to overcome those difficulties and solutions for compatibility problems can be recognized. The workflow of integration and processing of data is designed for flexibility and repeated procedures and permits modifications of evaluation scales and methods.
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The evaluation results are presented for the whole of the city of Berlin, and all the conservation resources are recorded there. Presenting the spatial information on these resources as maps allows for the use in a varying context and -if needed- by any external information systems too. The FIS-broker can be applied for public information purposes (platform owned web applications) or as standardized web services (fig. 4).
Fig. 4: General information service by FIS-broker
Maintenance of the Infrastructure Data quality, persistence of data structures and constant conditions for geometry and topology have continuously to be assured. This information is stored separately from the range of data processing. For SEA purposes a great number of data sources has to be used. This is due to the tremendous range of indicators which have to be calculated in order to cover all protection resources. Not only maps, but also tables, files, observations and measurement have to be managed and maintained for use with the FIS-broker. It is a big task to provide up-to-dateness, permanent quality and availability for these manifold data bases. Technical Aspects After the complexity of data handling was described the even more complex steps have to be discussed which lead from a variety of factual data-based statements to the resulting ranking of values by predefined scales. This procedure has to be performed automatically along with predefined rules. This framework is subdivided and stored as modules. Thematic maps which are generated automatically do not necessarily have to be accepted as final results, but may be a matter for further crosschecking and validation procedures in order to further upgrade methods and results by experts. In any case the IT-based components are most important for the whole of the assessment procedure. It is not the main purpose of the strong role of IT-components to replace legal or informal planning actions and participation of citizens and organizations. but resulting thematic maps which are generated at early stages of planning and which are designed in such a way that problems or restrictions can be recognized immediately and easily allow for the introduction of a web-service and various kinds of feedback. Results and recommendations Beside the planning problems which are dealt with by SEA the comprehensive and integrative handling of multi-source spatial data originates an important incentive for a combined and open geospatial-data infrastructure to be applied in the two German Federal states of Berlin and Brandenburg. It is one of the most important aspects of this development to successfully overcome the gaps in availability of data and the het120
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erogeneity of data models, data quality and evaluation procedures by management and converging methods, also beyond SEA. In detail the following questions open up favourable aspects for the future: - Where do the single administrative branches based on the described framework define their tabooareas, valuable areas and less important areas? - Which spatially determined ecological risks can be predicted for a certain planning project? - Which one of two alternative planning projects will cause more severe ecological risks? - Is the present land-use plan more (less) favourable to the environment in comparison to a previous status? - Which locations are not suited for a particular project (negative mapping)? - Which locations are particularly favourable for a certain kind of land use? - How do ecological or other potentials of areas develop in space and time ("permanent and automated spatial monitoring") - When and where have critical stages been reached, or rather, when and where are thresholds for warning exceeded? - Which additional space-related knowledge is available by participants of planning and the local population? Literature
DEJOKS, B.; BAGANZ, G. (2007): DV-supported Evaluation Procedures for the Strategic Environmental Assessment in Berlin, Berlin. HERBERG. A. (2007): Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA). A Contribution to Sustainable Urban Design the Berlin Approach. Proceedings of 2nd International Congress on Environmental Planning and Management, Berlin. HERBERG, A.; BRANDL, H.; KPPEL, J.; SCHNEIDER. T. (2006): The Environment Atlas as source for the Strategic Environmental Assessment in Berlin, Berlin. HERBERG, A.; KLLER, J. (2006): Designing a methodological framework for the Strategic Environmental Assessment according to SEA-law for the Comprehensive Community Development Plan - Abstract, p. 4, unpublished. NAGEL, R.; EICHSTDT, W. and EMKE; R. (2006): Qualitative Land-Use Management with Standardized Evaluation Procedures, Berlin. Internet Sources SenStadt online: FIS-broker (http://fbinter.stadt-berlin.de/fb/index.isp) SenStadt online: Digital Environmental Atlas: (http://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/umwelt/umweltatlas/edua_index.shtml)
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A comparison of biotope mapping and assessment method in Korea and Germany

Kyong-Jae Lee, In-Tae Choi, Jin-Woo Choi, Kyung-Suk Kee
Institute for Eco-Plan, Landscape architecture, University of Seoul, Korea ecology@uos.ac.kr
A Introduction 1. Background and study purpose The study of urban ecosystems started with the development in 1973 of the biotope concept through biotope mapping in Bavaria, Germany, when a survey was conducted on biotopes selected as being valuable for protection. Later the scheme grew into a mapping method covering the whole region within the city in order to protect the urban environment and landscape. As an index which reflects indigenous ecosystems and relations between a certain area and the surrounding nature, biotope mapping is certainly a standard for environmentally friendly space planning. Biotope mapping in urban regions in Korea has been influenced by the German mapping technique which integrates such factors as land use, soil surface, and actual vegetation. In 2000, biotope mapping was introduced for the first time in Korea in Seoul and other medium and small-sized cities in the metropolitan area. The purpose of the scheme is to draw up environmental conservation and restoration plans by evaluating the potential of urban ecosystems, and to develop ecological solutions to environmental issues in urban areas. Since the 1990s, German biotope mapping has been standardized by introducing simpler and more clarified assessment methods for uniform application of the Regulation to Intervention of Nature. Against this backdrop, this paper aims to compare Korea's biotope type assessment and individual biotope assessment with Germany's in terms of purpose, considerations, and evaluation procedure, and thereby to contribute to the development of biotope assessment in Korea. 2. Research Area and Methods In order to analyze the German system, the study separately looks at the purpose, procedure, and considerations of assessment and generalized evaluation. As for Korean cases, the study analyzed the purpose, system, considerations, and assessment procedure by categorizing them into either urban planning scale or development project scale. The assessment targets of the urban planning scale were Seoul(Seoul, 2000), Sungnam(Sungnam, 2004), Hanam(Kim, 2005), Goyang(Goyang, 2006), and other provincial capitals. The target regions of the development project scale were the Jukjeon district in Yongin city where biotope mapping-based ecological planning methods were firstly adopted in Korea, the Dong-ji district in Hwaseong city(Korea Institute of Construction Technology, 2002), the Dongbaek and Yeongsin districts in Yongin city, the Bongdam district in Hwaseong city (Kweon, 2003), and Daejang-dong in Seongnam city(Korea National Housing Corporation, 2005). B Theoretical consideration of biotope assessment of Germany In Germany, environmental and ecological planning is an important tool in environmental conservation. As part of such planning, biotope examination introduces physical realities on a factual level, including space-related data to value level (Plachter et al., 2002). In other words, by implementing the scheme we relate natural conditions and development level to social norms and values and physical procedure to normative procedure. This enables the ecological conditions, impacts, and relations to be interpreted from the perspective of social values and, as a result, the policy decisions and specific targets to be set. As one of the essential factors for ecological planning and evaluation, the vision (Leitbild) must be announced in advance in biotope mapping. Here, the vision refers to the general status and direction of development which is pursued within a certain time and space. The vision must be agreed upon by all members through various procedures to make it more concrete. In evaluating the biotope, it is important to set the assessment scale and consideration. The commonly adopted scales are type, complex, and individual unit. Using type-assessment shortens the time to evaluate a vast area. In addition, it is cost-effective to determine some areas which deserve to be protected to preserve biotopes and species inside. However, the distinctiveness of each biotope of a certain type is not taken into account. Complex assessment on a small size area supplements type assessment. As biotope complexes are apparently defined based on wildlife animals and links between their habitats, they are considered distinctive areas for evaluation. However, a small-scale map used for complex assessment shows only outlines rather
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than details and, consequently, the evaluation method can not be applied to the Regulation to Intervention of Nature. Individual unit assessment is the most reliable in that examination considerations are determined on-site. However, this option is expensive due to the variety of small biotopes in urban regions and the similarity in which they are repeatedly affected by human activities. Therefore, it is not efficient to describe and assess hundreds of biotopes per one square kilometer when establishing environmental and ecological planning (Plachter et al., 2002). Evaluation considerations which place value on data are determined according to the recognized problems, social value system, and conditions of the target space. It is impossible to consider all together. For type assessment, several considerations are useful after their availability has been proven: endangered status, rarity, legal protection, environmental features/responsibility from the perspective of world heritage, naturalness, replacement, period of development, reproductivity, potential for development, and representativity. For individual biotope assessment, completeness of typical species of the biotope, diversity unique to the site, size of habitat, biotope connection, naturalness, reproductivity, and potential for development are available. For any assessment, it is essential to incorporate a variety of considerations and to change their combination according to the main issues to be examined. Nevertheless, sometimes they may not be combinable at all. The final assessment outcome should be convincing to any examiner based on the basic data. C. Examination of Korean cases of biotope assessment 1. Urban planning scale Biotope assessment of urban planning scale began in Seoul in 2000, followed by other provincial capitals. The assessment in Seoul consisted of two kinds: type evaluation and individual unit evaluation of natural biotope types and biotope types close to nature. Seongnam city carried out individual unit assessment in order to preserve wildlife habitats and pursue environmentally friendly urban development in 2004. Kim Jung-ho conducted value assessment on each watershed in Hanam city in 2005 to form an ecological plan for land use. The city government of Goyang established an evaluation system based on a decision-making tree by type to reduce the complexity of existing biotope assessment in 2006. Evaluation considerations were naturalness, variety, rarity, water circulation, and potential. In Germany, biotope types are concretely established and evaluation considerations and indexes are clearly set due to the long history of nationwide biotope mapping research. However, this is not the case in Korea, where mapping research is still in its infancy and biotope types are determined by on-site raw data. In addition, evaluation considerations and indexes which are related to assessment purpose are not clearly defined yet. Currently, Korea is at the stage of nationwide biotope mapping research to establish biotope types, and consequently, needs to develop an appropriate biotope assessment system. 2. Development project scale Biotope value assessment of development project scale began in new cities in the capital region Korea. In 2002, when individual biotope unit evaluation was introduced, type assessment was mainly adopted in the Jukjeon district in Yongin city and the Dongji district in Hwaseong city. Afterwards, studies on assessment techniques proposed new concepts including the evaluation of small-scale stream basins which were dominant in Korea, wildlife habitat assessment, and water system examination. Kwon Jeon-Oh emphasized the importance of watershed in ecosystem value assessment and suggested the introduction of a watershed assessment system. The biotope assessment on Daejang-dong in Seongnam city looked at not only biotope type based on flora ecosystem but also wildlife habitats and water system to comprehensively evaluate the value of biotopes there. Also considered in the assessment were naturalness, variety, water circulation, and potential. The evaluation system and considerations varied according to the ecological characteristics of each development area. In Germany, biotope types are clearly established and evaluation is completed at a nationwide urban planning level, which enables a clear and objective assessment when evaluating development projects and understanding the relations between a certain project and broader-scale urban planning. In Korea, however, biotope mapping and assessment remain unavailable at urban planning level. The only source of information available is biotope data independently collected in each project. When evaluating biotopes, the purpose should be established in clear terms and assessment considerations and indexes should be set in relation to the purpose so that the assessment system is easily understood.
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Reference
Goyang City(2006) A Study on Environment-friendly Urban Construction(Landscape Ecological Management, Ecological Mapping). Goyang City, 412p. Kim, Jung-Ho(2005) Ecological Land Use Planning Considering the Characteristics of Urban Ecosystem -A Case Study of Hanam, Kyeonggi Province-. University of Seoul, Graduate School, Dissertation for the degree of doctor, 271p. Korea Institute of Construction Technology(2002) A Study on the Development of Core Technology for Eco-city. Korea Institute of Construction Technology , 338p Korea National Housing Corporation(2005) Ecological Landscape Planning for The 21th century Next Housing Pilot Project. Korea Institute of Construction Technology, 208p. Kwon, Jeon-O(2003) A Study on the Application of the Ecological Evaluation for the Nature-friendly Residential Site Development Planning. University of Seoul, Graduate School, Dissertation for the degree of doctor, 281p. Plachter, H., D. Bernotat, R. Muessner, U. Riecken(2002) Entwicklung und Festlegung von Methodenstandards im Naturschutz. BfN. Schr. R. f. Landschaftspflege u. Naturschutz 70, 566p Seongnam City(2004) A Study on GIS Building of Biotope Grade Valuation and Urban Biotope Map. Seongnam City, 283p Seoul Metropolitan City(2000) The investigation into the present conditions of Biotope and the establishment of guidelines for Eco-city in Seoul for application of the concept of urban ecology into the urban planning. -1'st year Reserch-. Seoul Metropolitan City, 245p.
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Monitoring of uncontrolled urbanization in the metropolitan Istanbul

Hlya Yildirim1, Mehmet Emin zel2, Alpaslan Aka3, Roman Radberger3
1
Kocaeli University, Turkey, 2anakkale University, Turkey, 3Gttingen University, Germany
Abstract We aim to monitor uncontrolled fast urbanization by means of remote sensing and spatially explicit prognosis of land use patterns, using topological and topographical variables. Our study area is part of the Istanbul metropolitan area, located on Kocaeli peninsula, Turkey. Special emphasis is given to the methods that can be operationalized in terms of obtaining area-wide, up-to-date information at minimal costs. Previous attempts at spatial modeling of land use changes clearly show how the model complexity increases from the simpler Markov-type statistical models via regression models towards the recent dynamical (system) models. Our analysis starts with the selection of an appropriate remote sensing technique on the basis of Landsat TM images. From two alternative approaches of digital change detection and post-classification comparison, the latter is chosen because (a) the necessity of major radiometric corrections with most digital change detection techniques and (b) the more comprehensible land use change in a post-classification comparison. For the research area, an increase in urban-industrial land use of about 10 % has been observed for the period 1994-1998. Roughly half of that increase consists of industrial/commercial plants built according to regional plans. The multitemporal mapping is validated by using reference maps, derived from the delineation of aerial photos. The spatial-statistical modeling approach regards the spreading of urban-industrial land use during 1994-1998. On the basis of survey of previous spatial modeling, the following variables are the explanatory ones: land use in 1994, distance to urban-industrial land use in 1994, distance to main roads, altitude, and slope. All variables have been derived from the satellite images and digital terrain model. The multivariate, non-parametric model yields a prediction success of 87 %. However the model does not answer the questions of "why?" and "where?" regarding future land use. We recommended that knowledge-base for the spatial-statistical model is extended to socio-economic data, as opposed to relying on data from remote sensing and cartography. Keywords: Remote Sensing, GIS, Land Use, Image Classification, DEM, Urbanization. Introduction Land-use forms and their concentration levels in rural areas mostly depend on economical and usually short term benefits. These trends are hard to redirect by ecological and/or social planning efforts. Further, especially in countries where the threshold of development is passed or nearly passed by, there is another effect: the migration of population from less developed parts of the country to faster developing parts. Migrants can quickly developed, new, unplanned peripheral industrial and dwelling areas in the region. These developments result in the unplanned transformation of natural forest and agricultural lands into new settlement and small-industry type usage. There is no place for the ecological and environmental concerns in these developments. These short-term economical developments may reach at the proportions where the resultant environmental and other damages are out-of control and can not be compensated by any countermeasures. Controlling and re-directing these developments by administrative measures are difficult, not only due to lack of will-power in the local and central administrations, but also due to the lack of knowledge about the nature, size, form and location of the developments. For controlling and directing land-use forms, there is urgent need for the information and educated-guess work about which areas may become the target of which type of unwanted developments and which parts of the land to be preserved for ecological needs. For large and unregistered areas, such information can not be obtained in a short time by classical ground work. Such tasks can practically and successfully completed only by modern remote sensing techniques supported by geographic information systems and some ground work needed to validate them. Target Area The environment, consisting of bio-, antropo- and geo-systems, can be represented by geo-referenced information obtained by ground work and remote sensing methods. To these added the existing thematic-cartographic maps for social, economical and ecological information, all in the form of a geographic information system, placed in the memory of a computer system. Various mathematical and logical operations are used to feed data to simulation models in the computer and available information is transformed into land-use development and forecast scenarios. Different scenarios provide administration, a basis for various planning options and application possibilities.
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Data in Use and their Analysis In a joint project by Marmara Research Center's (Gebze-Kocaeli) Space Technologies Department and Gttingen University's Institutes for Forsteinrichtung und Ertragskunde, in Kocaeli Peninsula (administratively divided by Istanbul and Kocaeli provinces), we studied the land-cover/land-use changes between 1994-1998, retrospectively. 1994 and 1998 Landsat TM images plus aerial photos (black & white) dated November 1994 and February 1998 were used as the remote sensing material for the GIS system. For the classification of satellite images, ERDAS Imagine is used. They are evaluated by standard methods and used to obtain the resultant land-cover maps (Fig. 1). The evaluation of aerial photos was carried out by 'the soft plotter' system of Institute fr Waldinventur und Walswachtum in Gttingen. For this, an initial digitization of aerial photos was carried out by a high density scanner. This system is capable of very easy and efficient orientation and evaluation with several automatic land-modeling routines. The resultant digital landuse map from the softplotter system was used for ground-truthing device for the satellite images.
Figure 1: Land-Use of study area in 1994 and in 1998
Analysis Early results were indicative of the fact that land-use change trends were in the direction of change of agricultural land into settlement and unplanned industrial type usages. The factors that effect the change -if known- could have been used for forecasting modeling and determination of areas under such treats. When the classification results of 1994 and 1998 images are compared, one can easily see that land-use changes are affected by the newly built autobahn. This new transportation vein helped the carriage of raw materials to the area and helped the development of industry in the region. This is the main reason of new industrial zones between Sultanbeyli and Gebze (Fig-2). Development of dwelling and industrial areas was always at the expense of pastures and agricultural areas. Forest areas were left same in area and in location. They were in hilly areas and are under legal protection, which forbid their usage for ant other purposes. For the settlement locations, most important factors are the distance to another settlement or to the main road and also the slope of hill or the area. Future Trends The autobahn under construction by the Black Sea cost, to the north of the Peninsula will most likely cause similar developments in the near future. Fast population increase in the area and inspection of land-use change trends between 1994-1998 period (i.e., distance to main roads and settlements, land slope, legal restrictions -for example, on forest areas- ) can be modeled and existing models can be parameterized by use of the GIS at hand (Fig. 3). Such an analysis will allow the localization of future
Land Use Agriculture Forestry Urban/Ind.
Area of Cahnge from 1994 to 1998 in Hectares -3120.1 -165.9 +3520.2
Percentage of Area in 1998 compared to 1994 95.3 99.9 109.6
Fig. 2: Development of settlement and industrial areas (in red).
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Hlya Yildirim et al.: Monitoring of uncontrolled urbanization in the metropolitan Istanbul
Fig. 3: Position referenced mathematical statistical modelling system (GIS) used for the analysis.
land-cover land-use change areas. Results of such an analysis are shown in Fig. 4. Here, we used non-parametric discrimination method. This method does not allow us to define the weights of different factors. Results here are in the sense of statistical modeling of land-use changes rather than the foreseeing the future. In the present map, all pixels were given a value of 0 or 1 by an equal probability distribution. In the first round, pixels which has value less than 0.5 were considered as the training areas, while those with larger than 0.5 were test areas. For training areas, a non-parametric discriminant analysis using the nearest 5 pixels was applied. Depending on the result, a new value of 0 or 1 was defined for each pixel. This way, the future
Fig. 4: Results of modelling by discriminant analysis from 1994 to 1998.
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values of test area pixels were re-defined, i.e., 'foreseen'. In the second round, training and test pixels were changed, i.e., those with a probability value larger than 0.5 were training areas and those less than were the test areas. This way, possible future use of all the pixels was defined with the proviso that training and test pixels were made independent of each other. References.
1H. Yildirim, M.E. Ozel, et al., 2001, "Creation of a Three-Dimensional View of Soil Use Capability Classes of Amasya Province Through Digital Elevation Model", Fourth International Symposium "Turkish-German Joint Geodetic Days", Berlin. "Monitoring urban/industrial land use in the Greater Metropolitan Area (Istanbul, Turkey), utilizing the Tasseled Cap transformation and RGB-clustering', 2000, in Proceedings of ASPRS Annual Convention (CD-ROM), Washington, DC, p.12. H.Yildirim, C.Feldktter, A.Akca., 1996, "Monitoring der Landnutzung im Groraum Istanbul mit Fernerkundung and GIS. Fernerkundung und Geo-Informationssysteme in der kologie der Landoberflche, p. 211-224. Devlet Istatistik Enstits (State Statistical Institute), 2000, 'Ekonomik ve Sosyal Gstergeler' (konomische und Soziale Indikatoren)- Auszge aus der amtlichen Statistik fr Kocaeli und Istanbul, published in Ankara. (CD-ROM) Ky Hizmetleri Genel Mdrl, 1987, Istanbul Ili Arazi Varlii (Bodenkarte der Province Istanbul), Ankara. T.M.Lillesand, R.W. Kiefer., 1994, 'Remote sensing and image interperation'. Wiley. New York. 750 p.
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Virtual 3D City Models Flexible User Interface Technology for Complex Urban Information
Jrgen Dllner
Hasso-Plattner-Institut, University of Potsdam, Germany doellner@hpi.uni-potsdam.de, www.hpi.uni-potsdam.de/3d
Abstract Virtual 3D city models become an essential and flexible framework to analyze, integrate, and present complex urban information. In a growing number of application areas such as urban planning, city marketing, homeland security, disaster management, and e-government portals, virtual 3D city models are successfully applied as effective user interface technology. This contribution reports on concepts, implementation, and experience of virtual 3D city models as planning and communication platforms for urban geoinformation. Introduction: About Virtual 3D City Models Virtual 3D city models represent urban spatial data and geo-referenced data under a common metaphor, the virtual city. Their fundamental components include digital terrain models (DTMs), building models, street-space models, green-space models as well as models of city furniture and infrastructure. In general, virtual 3D city model are composed of geo data from a multitude of sources and types. With virtual 3D city models, we can visually represent complex urban information, explore and analyze geoinformation, and manage city model components. Virtual 3D city models, therefore, constitute a major concept in 3D geoinformation systems (3D GIS) and geodata infrastructures (GDI). Virtual 3D city models are used within 3D geovirtual environments (GeoVEs) that serve as the interactive interface between city model contents and the users; for a general introduction to geovisualization we refer to Dykes et al. (2005). Virtual 3D city models are particularly useful to integrate heterogeneous geoinformation. We can represent thematic and application-specific georeferenced data jointly and related to the objects of virtual 3D city models. For example, a real-estate portal can visualize vacancy, year-of-construction, and average monthly rent of buildings by mapping the data onto faade color, faade texture, and roof colors used as visual variables. In this case, virtual 3D city models serve as a tool for urban data mining (Buchholz 2005). Principle Research Directions in the Scope of Virtual 3D City Models The actual development directions are carried out in different disciplines such as geoscience, information systems, computer graphics, and scientific visualization. There are at least five major directions that can be recognized: Towards Automation: One main barrier in developing and applying virtual 3D city models represents the time and cost inefficient creation of model data (Ribarsky & Wasilewski 2002). Manual geometric modelling can be accepted in small-scale virtual 3D city models but fails if virtual 3D city models are required for large urban areas or if they should be managed in the long run. Therefore, virtual 3D city models need to be based on automatic and semiautomatic acquisition methods wherever possible (Frstner 1999). Recent advances in remote sensing and data processing are about to overcome this limitation providing a high degree of automated capturing and processing of geodata such as for detailed building geometry including roofs as well as for vegetation. Towards Integration: Weak integration of maintenance and update processes in administrative workflows represents another bottleneck in developing virtual 3D city models. If the model generation and updating processes are not seamlessly integrated into administrative workflows, then the model's quality lacks with respect to its legal correctness, completeness, and up-to-dateness. Without seamless integration, virtual 3D city models tend to remain isolated and may become rapidly obsolete artefacts. Towards Semantics: Besides Geometry and Graphics: In recent years, most virtual 3D city models have been realized as purely graphical or geometrical models, sometimes represented by virtual "3D worlds". These models focus on presentational tasks and, therefore, aim at a photorealistic resembling of visual urban objects the ultimate goal was "veri-similarity", that is, a virtual 3D city model that comes as close as possible to its physical counterpart, in particular, to its visual appearance. However, if semantic and topological aspects are neglected, these models can almost only be used for visualization purposes but not for thematic queries, analysis tasks, or spatial data mining. Towards Application-Specific Visualization: An increasing number of applications and systems incorporate virtual 3D city models as essential system components in the last years. Examples are IT solutions in the fields of telecommunication, disaster management, homeland security, facility management, real estate portals, logistics, as well as for entertainment and educational purposes. In general, these applica-
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tions and system provide specific functionality on top of the virtual 3D city model, e.g., the PegaPlan-3D network planning system of T-Mobile Germany visualizes and manipulates the configuration of radio network servers and antenna systems. Therefore, virtual 3D city models should be understood as the "3D components" of general-purpose geodata infrastructures. Towards Standardization of Virtual City Models: Since the limited reusability of models inhibits the broader use of 3D city models, a more general modelling approach had to be taken in order to satisfy the model requirements of the various application fields.
CityGML: A Potential Standard for the Interchange of Virtual 3D City Models With CityGML, a first open data model and XML-based format for the storage and exchange of virtual 3D city models becomes available (Kolbe 2005). It is implemented as an application schema for the Geography Markup Language 3 (GML3), the extendible international standard for spatial data exchange issued by the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) and the ISO TC211. CityGML is intended to become an open standard and therefore can be used free of charge.CityGML does not only represents the graphical appearance of city models but especially takes care of the representation of the semantic and thematic properties, taxonomies and aggregations of digital terrain models (DTMs), sites (including buildings, bridges, tunnels, ), vegetation, water bodies, transportation facilities, and city furniture (including traffic lights, traffic signs, billboards, ). The underlying model differentiates five consecutive levels of detail (LOD), where objects become more detailed with increasing LOD regarding both geometry and thematic differentiation. CityGML files can but don't have to contain multiple representations for each object in different LOD simultaneously. Case Study: The Virtual City Model of Berlin For the virtual 3D city model of Berlin a system for integrating, managing, integrating, presenting, and distributing complex urban geoinformation has been developed recently. It has been initiated by the Senate Department of Economics and the Senate Department of Urban Development in order to extend Berlin's geodata infrastructure by a novel, flexible, and state-of-the-art geoinformation technology. As first applications, the virtual 3D city model forms core part of the investor information system hosted at the Berlin Business Location Center, and it represents the basis for ongoing projects in city planning at the architecture working group of the Senate Department of Urban Development. The virtual 3D city model of the city of Berlin acts as an integration platform for 2D and 3D geodata and georeferenced data instead of being only a 3D geometry or graphics model. Its system architecture is modelled by a collection of interrelated subsystems. The architecture ensures that individual subsystems can grow independently and communicate through explicitly defined data interfaces. Its main objectives encompass the management of the underlying geoinformation and its integration into administrative workflows by a central 3D geo-database; the on-demand, on-the-fly integration of georeferenced thematic data with (parts of) the virtual 3D city model, and the dissemination and distribution of the virtual 3D city models through a number of digital media such as Internet, imagery, video, and DVD. The overall architecture of the system is outlined in Fig. 2 and is constituted by the following principal subsystems: 3D Content Management System: It is responsible for creating, integrating, editing, and versioning of the virtual 3D city models and its components, e.g., importing, exporting, grouping, and annotating buildings, vegetation plans, landscape plans, etc. Technically, it provides an interactive access to the 3D geo-database. It is based on LandXplorer (3D Geo 2006), a CityGML-based content management system for virtual 3D city models. 3D Geo-Database System: The database for storing and managing virtual 3D city models is based on the logical structure of CityGML. The database also supports semantic and thematic properties, taxonomies, and aggregations. Its principal object, the city object, represents geo-referenced, geometric entities. Specialized classes of city objects include buildings, green-spaces, street-spaces, transportation networks, water bodies, vegetations, and plants. 3D Editor Systems: The editors are responsible for creating, editing, and geometric modelling of specific 3D objects such as architectural building models or 3D landmark models. For example, in the Berlin project, we apply the ArchiCAD editor for architectural models, whereas 3D Studio Max is used as general-purpose 3D modeller. This approach allows us to support a broad spectrum of digital 3D contents and to fulfil 130
Jrgen Dllner: Virtual 3D City Models Flexible User Interface Technology for Complex Urban Information
specific editing needs of applications and users. In addition, a specialized editor for the ad-hoc creation of 3D building models, called Smart Building Editor, can be applied (Dllner 2005). 3D Presentation System: It provides real-time visualization of and interaction with the virtual 3D city model and is targeted at specific user groups (e.g., general public, experts, and politicians). In the Berlin project, one presentation system has been developed for the Business Location Center, which supports companies considering relocating to Berlin-Brandenburg by presenting all key decision-making factors within the virtual 3D city model. In a showroom, a large-screen projection gives impressive presentations tailored to the specific needs of clients. The presentation system is based on LandXplorer Studio. Content Transformation and Export System: As a complementary functionality, this system is applied for gathering, enclosing, compressing, encrypting, and controlling digital contents of the virtual 3D city model on different media. For example, part of the Berlin 3D city model can be automatically exported to GoogleEarth compliant formats. The implementation is based on a content transformation system provided by (3D Geo 2007).
Conclusions This contribution has outlined the concepts and system architecture of the virtual 3D city model of Berlin, an interactive system for the management, integration, presentation, and distribution of complex urban geoinformation based on a uniform communication metaphor, the virtual city. In our experience, the decoupling of the system's functionality into subsystems for content authoring, editing, storing, and presentation leads to an open, extendible, and transparent geoinformation system. As a fundamental concept, CityGML as well as a number of identified standard GIS formats provide a high degree of interoperability. Innovative visualization techniques beyond photorealism, such as information visualization and illustrative visualization, allow us to address new application areas and improve the quality and usability of the information display. As an essential component of a modern geodata infrastructure, the virtual 3D city model of Berlin seamlessly integrates key information of the cadastral database but keeps the 3D geo-database separated and, therefore, operation and updating processes independent. In our current activities, web-services for the model's contents are under development to further extend the ways the city model can be accessed by third-party applications and systems by industry, administration, and sciences.
Fig. 1: Snapshot from the visual presentation of the Berlin 3D city model.
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Fig. 2: Architecture of the Berlin 3D city model system.
References
3D Geo (2006): LandXplorer Studio Software System, www.3dgeo.de 3D Geo (2007): GoogleEarth Content Transformation, www.3dgeo.de Buchholz, H., Dllner, J. (2005): Visual Data Mining in Large-Scale 3D City Models. GIS Planet 2005 - International Conference on Geographic Information, Estoril, Portugal. Dllner, J., Buchholz, H., Brodersen, F., Glander, T., Jtterschenke, S., Klimetschek, A. (2005): Ad-Hoc Creation of 3D City Models. Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Next Generation 3D City Models, EuroSDR. Dykes, J., MacEachren, A., Kraak, M.-J. (2005): Exploring Geovisualization. Elsevier Amsterdam, Chapter 14, pp. 295312. Frstner, W. (1999): 3D City Models: Automatic and Semiautomatic Acquisition Methods. Proceedings Photogrammetric Week, University of Stuttgart, 291-303. Kolbe, T. H., Grger, G., Plmer, L. (2005): CityGML - Interoperable Access to 3D City Models. To appear in: Proceedings of the first International Symposium on Geo-Information for Disaster Management, Springer Verlag. Homepage of the CityGML initiative: www.citygml.org Ribarsky, W., Wasilewski, T., Faust N.(2002): From Urban Terrain Models to Visible Cities. IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, 22(4):10-15.
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Integrated assessment of land resources and land consumption in city regions

Henning Nuissl1& Dagmar Haase2
Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research UFZ, Leipzig, Germany, 1 Department for Regional and Environmental Sociology, 2Department of Computational Landscape Ecology henning.nuissl@ufz.de
The problem Recent scholarly effort has gathered strong evidence that urban sprawl has serious environmental impacts such as the degradation of soils, disturbance in water cycle, habitat fragmentation and loss in biodiversity (e.g. Johnson 2001). The conversion of natural or agricultural land into urban land hence poses a major challenge to environmental planning and management worldwide. In many parts of Europe and the world this problem is exacerbated by the fact that the population is no longer growing while the amount of land used for settlements and traffic infrastructure is still on the increase (cf. Figure 1). This development contrasts sharply with the aim to protect natural resources (e.g. Kasanko et al. 2006). Consequently several attempts and efforts are undertaken to restrain the cur140 rent dynamics of land consumption. The 130 German Federal government's declaration of intent to reduce the current rate of 120 conversion of non urban to urban land by around 80% within the next 15 years ("30 110 ha goal") is but one example here (Rat fr Nachhaltige Entwicklung 2004). However, 100 it is a major problem of most attempts to preserve land resources and prevent land 90 consumption that they are rather general land consumption population and make only a rough distinction 80 between urban and non-urban land use, thus neglecting the heterogeneity of different types of urban land use (cf. Siedentop 2005). Likewise, the general concern Figure 1: Land consumption (decrease in greenfield land) and populaabout land consumption tends to overlook tion development in the administrative district of Westsachsen that some areas are particularly sensitive ("Leipzig region") 1993-2005 (1993 = 100 to urban development whilst elsewhere land conversion may be less critical. What seems to be required against this background is more sophisticated strategies of urban land use management that are based on a scientific understanding of the various assets and impacts related to a particular land use pattern. However, even though the ongoing research on urban sprawl and its many aspects has in principle led to such an understanding. It is rather difficult to pull the different pieces of knowledge and expertise together so as to come up with an overall evaluation of changing land use patterns at a regional scale. The reason is that analyses and studies on the consequences of how society makes use of its land resources are mostly sectoral, i.e. dedicated to a particular impact of land consumption, and also rather sophisticated. In the following two steps will be made towards an integrated assessment of land resources and land consumption at the city region scale. Firstly, the conceptual distinction between two levels of land use change impacts will be introduced. Secondly, the general layout of a methodology for an integrated assessment of land use change impacts that draws on the expertise from many disciplines, that is manageable in planning practice and that could be applied to specific city regions will be presented.
1999 2000 2004
Levels of land use change impact assessment In order to assess the value and the problems related to land resources and land consumption in urban regions we deem it necessary to distinguish between two analytical "levels" at which these values and problems must be observed. (Here, the notion of "level" does not signify a geographical scale but stands for a particular analytical perspective). Firstly, the change of land use on a particular plot may affect environmental features of this very plot. For instance, the development of formerly agricultural land usually goes along with partly or even entirely seal-
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2005
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
2001
2002
2003
ing the surface of the respective plot. This leads to an increase in evapotranspiration and a decrease in groundwater recharge under this surface (cf. Haase & Nuissl 2007). Likewise this kind of land use transition may lead to an increase in the economic value of the land. Such consequences of land use transition occur directly on, i.e. below, above or adjacent to, the transformed plot of land this is what we call the land unit level of land use transition. Secondly, land use transition may have an impact on the neighbouring areas of where it is actually taking place, i.e. on its broader surrounding; and, vice versa, its impact may depend from the characteristics of these areas. This is the case, for example, if the construction of an industrial estate or the building of a new road cuts an existing habitat in two (e.g. Mehnert et al. 2005) or if the establishment of a new out of town retail facility that attracts many consumers from more or less far away leads to a sharp increase in car traffic in its surroundings (e.g. Cervero 1998). It is obvious that these consequences of land use change do neither occur on the very piece of land the use of which has been transformed, nor can they be understood by just having an eye on what is happening on this particular piece of land. Instead, they are determined by the context in which the transformation of land use is taking place (e.g., the quality of habitats in the area). Therefore, these examples represent the pattern or context level of land use transition. Table 1 provides some examples how land use pattern effects may be attributed to the "unit-" and the "context-level" respectively.
Table 1: Levels of impact assessment for some typical impacts of land use transition
Environmental effect of land use change (impact dimension)
Unit level Neighbourhood effect x x x x x x (x) x x x (x) (x) (x) (x)
Context level Pattern effect Regional effect x
Surface run-off Groundwater recharge Evapotranspiration Filter capacity (of soils) Soil organisms Biodiversity (endangered species) Habitat Integrity Noise Generation of (municipal) tax Maintenance costs Land values; rents Traffic (increase) Quality of life Loss of agricultural land
(x) x x
x x x x
A methodology for the assessment of land resources and land consumption A methodology for the assessment of land resources and land consumption that is both comprehensive (in that it takes account of the effects of land use patterns in many different areas) and applicable in practice (in that it could be used to provide decision makers in land use policy and planning with information on the specific consequences that have to be expected from possible future land use patterns in a particular city region) must be somewhat straightforward. Hence, it is a challenging task to reduce the complexity of scientific knowledge from various disciplines concerning the effects of land use patterns so as to allow its integration into a manageable evaluation procedure. The following aspects should be considered in particular: (1) The amount of data needed to establish a particular effect of land use change should be as small as possible (since in practice it will usually be impossible to gather a broad range of empirical data before decisions on land use policies or plans are made). (2) Correspondingly, the methods for the assessment of the individual effects of land use patterns should apply to different contexts and situations. (3) Likewise, these methods should reflect whether the effect under scrutiny belongs to the "unit-" or the "context-level". Figure 2 illustrates the general elements of the planned methodology: - The starting point is the available land use data. - This data allows calculating the actual amount of different types of land use transition in a particular (case study) area. Note that the typology of land uses which is underlying the calculation of land use transitions 134
Henning Nuissl & Dagmar Haase: Integrated assessment of land resources and land consumption in city regions
Land use data
Land use transition
Recommendations for land use policy
Quantitative / qualitative assessment of impacts Impact 1 Impact 2 Impact.. Impact n Assessment of the overall impact
Integration of information on impacts

Figure 2: Flowchart of an integrated impact assessment of land consumption
Type of land cov er
Example
Structure Pattern (floor and site space)
Mean degree of sealing (%)
Compact multistorey housing stock
60-80
Single and semidetached housing estate
60-80
Prefabricated large scale housing estate
40-60
Figure 3: Characteristic features of three selected types of (residential) urban land use (according to and modified after Haase & Magnucki, 2004)
must be chosen carefully and has to take account of the specific features of the region under scrutiny. Figure 3 shows a part of the urban land use typology developed at UFZ and gives an example of some relevant land use types for urban regions in Eastern Germany. The transfer of such typology to other areas, i.e. regions, might require a modification of classes or the consideration of additional land use types which could not be found in the region where the original typology was set up.
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The resulting data on actual land use transformations serve as the basis for the calculation of the various impacts of these land use transformations. Hence, certain rules (i.e. equations, algorithms) will be applied to the land use transition data in order to derive the respective impact. The next step pulls the information on these impacts together for instance by filling this information into a common matrix (synopsis). This opens up the opportunity for an integrated impact assessment across the different impact dimensions that were calculated for instance by standardizing the impact values according to a common ordinal scale or by applying a cost-benefit analysis. Finally this will allow recommendations for land use policy concerning for instance particularly sensitive areas or particularly questionable types of land use transition.
References
Cervero, R., 1998. The Transit Metropolis, Island Press, Washington DC Haase, D., Magnucki, K., 2004. Die Flchennutzungs- und Stadtentwicklung Leipzigs 1870 bis 2003. Statistischer Quartalsbericht 1, Amt fr Statistik der Stadt Leipzig, 29-31. Haase, D., Nuissl, H., 2007. Does urban sprawl drive changes in the water balance and policy? The case of Leipzig (Germany) 1870 - 2003. Landscape and Urban Planning 80, 1-13 Johnson, M.P., 2001. Environmental impacts of urban sprawl: a survey of the literature and proposed research agenda. Environ. Plann. A 33 (4), 717-735. Kasanko, M., Barredo, J.I., Lavalle, C., McCormick, N., Demicheli, L., Sagris, V., Brezger, A., 2006. Are European Cities becoming dispersed? Landscape and Urban Planning 77, 111-130 Mehnert, D., Haase, D., Lausch, A., Auhagen, A., Dormann, C.F., Seppelt, R., 2005. Bewertung der Habitateignung von Stadtstrukturen unter besonderer Bercksichtigung von Grn- und Brachflchen am Beispiel der Stadt Leipzig. Naturschutz und Landschaftsplanung 2, 54-64 Rat fr Nachhaltige Entwicklung, 2004. Mehr Wert fr Flche: Das "Ziel-30-ha" fr die Nachhaltigkeit in Stadt und Land. Empfehlungen des Rates fr Nachhaltige Entwicklung an die Bundesregierung. texte Nr. 11, Berlin Siedentop, S., 2005. Urban Sprawl - verstehen, messen, steuern : Ansatzpunkte fr ein empirisches Mess- und Evaluationskonzept der urbanen Siedlungsentwicklung. DISP 160, 23-35
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Comparison of Different High Resolution Remote-Sensing Data and Approaches for Mapping the Urban Environment
T. Lakes1, H.-O. Kim2, M. Bochow3, B. Kleinschmit2
Humboldt Universitt zu Berlin, Institute of Geography, Berlin, Germany Technische Universitt Berlin, Institute of Landscape Architecture and Environmental Planning, Berlin, Germany 3 GeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam, Section Remote Sensing, Potsdam, Germany Tobia.Lakes@geo.hu-berlin.de
1 2
1. Introduction An increasing number of people are living in urban areas. According to the last UN/DESA report (2003) the urban population will soon exceed half of the world population. This makes the urban areas some of the most rapidly changing places in the world. The consequences of worldwide urbanization awaken people to the resulting environmental problems and urgent need for urban environmental management (EC 2006). To deal effectively with the pressing state of the urban environment, first of all detailed geo-data collection on a large scale is needed. For this purpose, remote-sensing data has been used for a long time. Particularly, recently developed sensors with very high spatial as well as spectral resolution show new benefits and potentials for mapping the urban environment on a large scale. An overview of different remote-sensing data and approaches is needed to help planners to assess the possibilities in their specific context. In this paper the authors intend to give an insight into their experiences with different remote-sensing data and methods in environmental mapping of urban areas. As application examples urban land-use/land-cover, sealed surfaces, biotopes as well as the distribution of vegetation are addressed. The results are derived from three case studies in Berlin, Dresden, and Seoul. 2. Sensors and study areas In this paper different types of very high resolution remote sensing data are investigated and compared; multispectral airborne scanner data (HRSC-AX), hyperspectral airborne scanner data (HyMap), and satellite data (IKONOS, QuickBird). The technical details are summarized in Tab. 1. Potential applications and methods as well as benefits and drawbacks are discussed in the following.
Tab. 1: Characteristics of the applied remote-sensing data
HRSC-AX Airborne Pan/MS: 0.20 DSM: 1.00 Spectral Res. (nm) R: 642-682 G:530-576 B:450-510 IR:770-814 Radiometric Res. (bit) 8/11 Swath Width (km) 0.8 (Orbit) Height (km) Varying (4.1)* Repetition Rate (days) Varying Type of sensor Geometric Res. (m) Suited for Map Scales Available since Starting from (/km) Provider Up to 1:500 2000 Unknown DLR** HyMap Airborne 3.0 450-2500 nm 128 bands with intervals of 15-20 nm 12-16 1.8 Varying (1.5)* Varying 1:25 000 1:5 000 1996 Unknown DLR-DFD** IKONOS QuickBird Satellite Satellite Nadir: Pan: 0.82 Nadir: Pan: 0.61 MS: 3.20 MS: 2.44 R:450-520 R:450-520 G:520-600 G:520-600 B:630-690 B:630-690 IR:760-900 IR:760-890 11 11 11 16.5 681 km 450 km 3 5 (off-nadir) 1 3 (off-nadir) approx.. 144 (nadir) 1:25 000 1:5 000 2000 2001 ? 28 ? 24 Digital Globe SpaceImaging
* Flying Height in the case studies (HRSC: 4120 m, HyMap: 1500 m) ** DLR-DFD: Deutsches Zentrum fr Luft- und Raumfahrt, Deutsches Fernerkundungsdatenzentrum
The study sites are situated in Berlin, Dresden, and Seoul. These three cities have their own characteristics on the one hand but, at the same time, they all show typical features of urban areas such as a high amount of sealed surfaces and a heterogeneous land use and land cover. Berlin the formerly divided capital of reunited Germany shows development structures ranging from old block development "grnderzeitliche Bebauung mit Hinterhfen" to modern socialist housing "Plattenbauten" and single family homes in the suburbs. Berlin also provides a lot of green space unlike other big cities. Since the fall of the wall large-scale and fast changes have taken place. Dresden situated in the eastern part of Germany was heavily destroyed in the Second World War. It has been rebuilt with predominately socialist building structures in the era of the German
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Democratic Republic, while only a few monumental buildings have been reconstructed. Large parts of the city are characterized by block development and detached house development or by city mansions and single family homes with a varying degree of green space. Seoul the capital of South Korea represents an extremely fast-changing and complex metropolitan area characterized by very high-rise and dense building districts, a large portion of sealed urban surface and only few urban green spaces but forest surrounding the municipal area. Due to rapid changes and a lack of up-to date information on the urban environment, area wide mapping methods have been of great significance in all three of these cities in the last years. 3. Results of the case studies The case studies presented in this paper focus on the mapping of urban environment e.g. sealing, biotope types, development structures and land-use. The applied analysis approaches range from visual interpretation to automated classification methods including pixel- or segment- as well as knowledge-based approaches. In the following data and methods are briefly explained and compared. For a more detailed explanation the reader may refer to the authors' publications in the reference list. 3.1 Comparison of high resolution remote sensing data types The very high geometric, spectral, and radiometric resolution of HRSC-AX, HyMap, IKONOS and QuickBird (see Tab. 1) have extended the applicability of modern remote sensing on extremely heterogeneous as well as compact urban areas providing an alternative to traditionally used aerial photos. The high resolution aerial scanner HRSC-AX data, with a spatial resolution of up to 20 cm, offer a possibility to map at large scales of up to 1:500, similar to the spatial resolution of aerial photos (Lakes 2006; Lakes & Pobloth 2005; Kim et al. 2005a). The high data position accuracy within the range of cm enables the overlaying of auxiliary geodata (e.g. cadastral data) and therefore allowing first-time data acquisition, updating, as well as monitoring. An additional benefit of HRSC-AX data is the digital surface model (DSM, see Fig. 1a). The user-friendliness of the digital and pre-processed format is another advantage because there is no need for film developing, digitizing, aerotriangulation, mosaicking, and georeferencing. Even though the problems with digital scanner data have been substantially reduced within the last years, a few remain, such as insignificant edges and colour fragments at moving objects (see Fig. 1a).
a) HRSC-AX - Exploring the high spatial resolution of aerial scanner. (left: Digital Surface Model, right: multispectral data)
b) HyMap data - Mapping the urban environment with high thematic detail. (left: HyMap, right: spectral profile of a red tile, wavelength from 500-2500 nm)
c) IKONOS - High resolution multispectral satellite data
Fig. 1:. Comparison of different high-resolution remote-sensing data.
Compared to HRSC-AX, the hyperspectal airborne HyMap data offers a lower spatial resolution of about 3 m but provides a very high level of thematic detail by covering a wide spectral range with narrow-separated spectral bands. This offers new opportunities for urban applications such as producing land cover classifications by identifying different surface materials (e.g. roofing materials or vegetation types). From these, surface sealing maps can be directly derived (Heiden et al. 2003; Roessner et al. 2001; Herold et al. 2003). The spatial resolution of up to 3m of airborne hyperspectral scanners like the Hyperspectral Mapper (HyMap) is sufficient for detecting most geo-objects in an urban environment although it is to coarse to derive their geometric shape and boundaries accurately. Here, a combined analysis of high resolution and hyperspectral data is recommended like in Greiwe et al. (2004). Furthermore, the limited availability of hyperspectral scanner data in Europe has prevented its commercial usage until now which will significantly improve with the operation of the ARES scanner (GFZ & DLR) starting in 2007/2008.
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IKONOS and QuickBird satellite data have a lower geometric resolution than HRSC-AX and compared to HyMap the spectal bands of IKONOS and QuickBird from red, green, blue to near infrared cover a relatively narrow spectral range. Different data products of IKONOS and QuickBird are offered by the companies, from which the user can choose. The main advantage of satellite data is commercial availability and regular recording of the same area. In addition the systems of IKONOS and QuickBird are able to turn their sensors up to about 30 in every direction (off-nadir mode) and to take pictures beside their orbit, resulting in very short revisiting frequencies of up to a few days. This provides the opportunity for constant updating of geo-data and monitoring of fast-changing urban areas. But the off-nadir recording also causes problems in urban areas, since particularly in high and densely developed metropolitan regions, tilting of high-rise buildings recorded with their facades and very dark shadows occur, which leads to a high amount of information loss (Fig. 1c). In order to avoid these effects true-nadir recordings are needed, which in turn means a much lower repetition rate of e.g. 144 days for IKONOS (extended e.g. by improper weather conditions during recording). The comparatively narrow recording stripes force the user to merge different scenes with specific angles, recording time as well as data quality, which makes the standardized analysis of large urban areas diffcult. 3.2 Comparison of different analysis approaches These recently available very high resolution remote sensing data products obviously offer possibilities when the users interprets the data visually. Now the challenging research topic is the development of automated mapping approaches for the complex urban environment. A combination of a visual and knowledge-based pixel-oriented classification is proposed by Lakes (2006; Lakes & Pobloth 2005) for the optimal exploitation of the possibilities of the HRSC-data to map urban sealing and biotopes. With a pixel-based multispectral classification initially urban land-cover classes could be separated. The additionally used digital surface model (DSM) enabled to separate different surface classes according to their height, which was particularly helpful for sealed areas (sealed soil vs. building) and vegetation (grass vs. shrubs vs. trees), however the information is limited by smooth edges of high objects and the geometrically lower resolution of 1 m (see Fig. 1a). These results could only be used for a rather coarse study of the environment. Nonetheless due to the limits of the data and the large shadows within in the study area, the additional visual interpretation proved to be a significantly larger source of more detailed information. The developed method can be used for large-scale mapping of land-use and sealing as well as biotopes. Bochow et al. (2006, 2007) developed an automated segment- and knowledge-based approach for the HyMap data, using additional vector data (biotope borders), and a normalized digital surface model (nDSM). The algorithm is conceived to take the boundaries of urban biotopes from an older biotope map or generates them from a vector street layer (i.e. street blocks). The types of the biotopes are then determined by an automatic analysis of different types of input data that were generated from hyperspectral images and a nDSM. The automatic analysis is based on the calculation of numerical features (see Fig. 2) that are designed to numerically capture the characteristics of different biotope types. For each biotope type characteristic features are selected and incorporated into a fuzzy logic model. Such a model has the capability of calculating a so-called similarity value that expresses the similarity of a biotope to the biotope type of the model. For the classification of a biotope all models are applied. The model with the highest similarity value wins the biotope. Up until now, the method was successfully applied for six selected biotope types of the interpretation keys of AG Methodik (1993) and BfN (2002) in this ongoing study. In Seoul, a combined pixel- and segment-based method was developed to classify vegetation-covered areas. Since fallow or denuded land rarely exists in Seoul, the amount of sealed area can be estimated by substracting vegetation-covered area from the total area of a mapping unit like a construction block (Kim et al. 2007). In addition urban green spaces are characterized by certain ornamental trees or plants for aesthetical reasons on the one hand and by typical development corresponding to their uses on the other hand. This enables the automated mapping of urban biotope types as well as vegetation types by using spatial context information to identify typi- Fig. 2: One out of about 2900 computed features for the characterization of urban biotope types. They are cal planting forms (e.g. the green space within the resicomputed on three different levels: for all biotope pixdential areas particularly in apartment districts represent els, all pixels of a certain class, and the segments of "interspace green", which can be normally characterized a certain class. Here an example for the class level is by lawn, ornamental shrubs and trees (Kim 2007)). In given. Input raster data for this example is an unmixorder to classify the vegetation-covered areas automati- ing layer of the class 'deciduous trees'.
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cally with IKONOS and QuickBird satellite data the various urban land cover types are first classified by a pixel-based approach and the result is then used as a thematic layer in the segmentation process. The further classifiation processes follows object-based rules (Kim et al. 2005a). 4. Discussion The initial comparison in this paper showed the general potential of the range of current high resolution remote-sensing data products for a number of environmental planning applications in cities. In the following we want to discuss implications for the selection of suitable data sets and issues of transferability. The main advantage of high resolution remote-sensing data is, compared with the mapping by field surveying or analogue aerial photos, a quick working process through simultaneous recording the of wide-range areas, digital formatting and the direct integration into GIS. The decision of which kind of remote sensing data should be used always depends on the mapping purpose under certain circumstances. HRSC-AX scanner data or comparable scanner data can be recommended for acquiring geometrical precise data for event-based mappings at a specific time or for very detailed interests. HyMap could be used for detailed thematic data, however it cannot be assured to gather the data regularly and also it is still very research-dominated. For the purpose of monitoring the whole urban environment on a smaller scale using satellite data is clearly the most advantageous approach. Another important criterion to consider when chosing suitable remote sensing data and analysis methods is the local urban structure e.g. high-rise built metropolitan areas restrict the applicability of remote sensing data by shaping large shadows and tilted building facades. So for the mapping of urban areas a limit for the off-nadir-recording angle of satellite sensors is needed e.g. not more than about 5 oblique angle in Seoul and about 7 in Berlin are suggested (Kim 2007, Kleinschmit et al. 2006). Apart from sensor characteristics, the operational availability of satellite data is one, perhaps the most, decisive advantage. A defined price for the satellite data exists, in contrast to HRSC- and HyMap-data which are very much research-focussed sensors. This needs to be seen in the wider context of market development in the remote-sensing sector; satellite data has already been operationally available for a number of years, whereas multispectral aerial scanner data (such as the ADS 40 which sensor characteristics can be compared to the HRSC) has only recently been available and hyperspectral data is and will continue to be very much research-dominated for the next years. Furthermore the huge demand for up-to-date information sources in planning and the fast development of remote sensing technology will increase the competition within the market and possibly result in lower prices for both the satellite and airborne sensors in the near future. For an individual application not only the best type of data but also an application-specific method has to be chosen. As was pointed out in the three case studies, the best results were achieved by combined approaches in order to compensate existing disadvantages and at the same time to ensure the optimal exploitation of the very high resolution remote sensing data. Combined methods can be conceived in different ways depending on the objectives of the study, the state of available remote sensing data, the auxiliary geodata available as well as the specific characteristics of the study area. Object-based approaches offer opportunities by using not only spectral information but also object and context related characteristics such as shape, size, texture, of neighbourhoods as well as their hierachical relationship. Above all the inclusion of auxiliary geo data and specialized knowledge in the classification procedure leads to improved results (Frick et al. 2005) and a complete intergration of GIS and remote sensing (Blaschke et al. 2002, Frster & Kleinschmit 2006). The more complex the classification process will be by using auxiliary data and scene- and site-specific characterics, the more accurate, detailed and reliable the classification results will be in this study area. On the other hand it will become increasingly difficult to transfer these methods to a larger area or another study area (Hostert et al. 2005). After all a completely automated method in urban areas can not be realized at present. To map urban areas needs the provision of data on a large scale, which is generalized and is heavily based on context information. Therefore an additional visual interpretation is still and in near future will remain to be of high importance for the spatially high resolution remote sensing data. 5. Conclusions and Outlook In this paper an initial overview was given to prove the potentials of recently available remote-sensing data with very high spatial resolution for the mapping of urban environment. With the increased availability of spatial and spectral resolution data new methods need to be developed; as was shown in the case studies. To support environmental planners in their choice of remote-sensing data and approaches some decisive issues have been identified, such as the level of thematic information, the operational availabilty, the scale of application and the need for regular updates of the mappings. Possibilities and drawbacks of the different data and methods now need to be discussed in more detail. A more comprehensive systematic approach is needed to help urban planners to choose the appropriate data and approaches for a certain application.
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Acknowledgements We want to thank Hartmut Kenneweg who has been involved in a number of projects as a driving force for mapping urban areas with remote-sensing, such as within the graduate program "Perspectives on Urban Ecology the Example of the European Metropolis of Berlin". We would also like to thank the Institute of Planetary Research, DLR Berlin-Adlershof, and the Senate department of Urban Planning, Berlin for the geodata, the DLR-DFD Oberpfaffenhofen, the Umweltamt Dresden, the Seoul Development Institute, and Korea Space-Image Technology for their data and support. References
AG Methodik der Biotopkartierung im besiedelten Bereich (1993): Flchendeckende Biotopkartierung im besiedelten Bereich als Grundlage einer am Naturschutz orientierten Planung. Natur und Landschaft 68: 371-389. Blaschke T., Gler, C. & Lang, S. (2002): Bildverarbeitung in einer integrierten GIS/Fernerkundungsumgebung Trends und Konsequenzen. In: Blaschke, T. (Ed.): Fernerkundung und GIS - Neue Sensoren, innovative Methoden. Heidelberg: Wichmann. p. 1-8. Bochow, M., Peisker, T. Segl K. & Kaufmann, H. (2006): Modelling of urban biotope types from hyperspectral imagery using a fuzzy logic approach. eProceedings of the 2nd workshop of the EARSeL SIG Remote Sensing of Land Use & Land Cover. Bonn, Germany. 25-29 September 2006. Bochow, M., Segl, K. & Kaufmann, H. (2007): An update system for urban biotope maps based on hyperspectral remote sensing data. In: Proc. of the 5th EARSeL SIG IS Workshop on Imaging Spectroscopy, 23rd-25th April 2007, Bruges, Belgium (in press). Bundesamt fr Naturschutz (2002): Systematik der Biotoptypen- und Nutzungstypenkartierung (Kartieranleitung). Standard-Biotoptypen und Nutzungstypen fr die CIR-Luftbild-gesttzte Biotoptypen- und Nutzungstypenkartierung fr die Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Schriftenreihe fr Landschaftspflege und Naturschutz (73). Bonn-Bad Godesberg. European Commission/EC (2006): Communication from the commission on to the council and the European Parliament on Thematic Strategy on the Urban Environment. 12 pp. Fster, M. & Kleinschmit, B. (2006): Integration of ancilliary information into object-based classification for detection of forest structures and habitats. In: Lang, S., Blaschke, T. & Schpfer, E. (Eds.): 1st International Conference on object-based Image Analysis. ISPRS (XXXVI-4/c42): 1-6. Frick, A., Weyer, G., Kenneweg, H. & Kleinschmit, B. (2005): A Knowledge-Based Approach to Vegetation Monitoring with QuickBird Imagery. Proceedings of ISPRS Workshop 2005: High-Resolution Earth Imaging for Geospatial Information. Hannover, Deutschland. 17-20 Mai 2005. Greiwe, A., Bochow, M. & M. Ehlers (2004): Segmentbasierte Fusion geometrisch hoch aufgelster und hyperspektraler Daten zur Verbesserung der Klassifikationsgte am Beispiel einer urbanen Szene. PFG 6/2004: 485-494. Heiden, U., Segl, K., Roessner, S., & Kaufmann, H., (2003): Ecological evaluation of urban biotope types using airborne hyperspectral HyMap data. Proceedings of the 2nd GRSS/ISPRS Joint Workshop on Remote Sensing and Data Fusion over Urban Areas in Berlin: 18-22. Herold, M., Gardner, M., & Roberts, D. (2003): Spectral resolution requirements for mapping urban areas, IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens., 41(9): 1907-1919. Hostert, P., Damm, A., Diermayer, E. & Schiefer, S. (2005): Characterizing Heterogeneous Environments: Hyperspectral versus Geometric Very High Resolution Data for Urban Studies. In: Proceedings of 4th EARSeL Workshop on Imaging Spectroscopy. Warsaw, Poland. 27-29 April 2005. Kim, H.-O. (2007): Beitrag sehr hochauflsender Satellitenfernerkundungsdaten zur Aktualisierung der Biotop- und Nutzungstypenkartierung in Stadtgebieten - Dargestellt am Beispiel von Seoul. Dissertation. Berlin: Berlin University of Technology (submitted). Kim, H.-O., Lakes, T., Kenneweg, H. & Kleinschmit, B. (2005a): Different approaches for urban habitat type mapping the case study of Berlin and Seoul. In: Mller, M. & Wentz, E. (Eds.) The international Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information sciences, Vol. 36, 8/W27. Kleinschmit, B.; Horstert, P.; Coenradie, B. & Haag, L. (2006): Konzeptstudie "Entwicklung eines hybriden Verfahrensansatzes zur Versiegelungskartierung in Berlin". Abschlussbericht. Lakes, T. (2006): Beitrag des Informationsmanagements fr den Einsatz neuer Fernerkundungsdaten in der stdtischen Planung - am Beispiel der Stadtbiotoptypenkartierung mit Flugzeugscannerdaten in Berlin. Dissertation. Berlin: Berlin University of Technology. Lakes, T. & S. Pobloth (2005): The Evolution of Aproaches to Create Urban Habitat Networks - a case study in Berlin. In: Die Erde 136/2005(2): 23-33. Roessner, S., Segl, K., Heiden, U., & Kaufmann, H. (2001): Automated differentiation of urban surface based on airborne hyperspectral imagery. Proceedings of IEEE TGARS 39(7): 1523-1532. United Nations (2003): World Urbanization Prospects: The 2003 Revision. 195 pp.
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Geo-processing in the Study of Irregular Deposits of Civil Construction, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Carla A. Simes, Ana Clara M. Moura, Ilka S. Cintra, Maria das Dores P. Nogueira, Cludia P. Lessa, Maria Teresa P. Aguilar, Maristela S. Palhares
Federal University of Minas Gerais - Dept. of Cartography, Brazil caicasimoes@yahoo.com.br
Abstract The development of this study relied on Geo-processing techniques that would assist in the management of civil construction residues in the capital of Minas Gerais. Thus it becomes a strategic tool in environmental planning through which it was possible to realize predictive studies, with the objective of minimizing the occurrence of clandestine waste deposits and permit interventions concentrated in preventive actions, instead of the corrective measures practiced today.
Map 1
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Map 2
Introduction and Objectives The intense production of solid residues associated with the saturation of sanitary fills and the appearance of clandestine deposits are problems that public administrators currently face. In this context, the generation of residues of civil construction merit special attention, since they represent a considerable volume of the total residue produced by a city. In Belo Horizonte, beyond the significant quantity of material generated, these deposits in inappropriate locales grow in number and in volume, even given the availability of infrastructure appropriate to receive such waste. In an attempt to contribute to the combat and prevention of this type of deposit, this research1 has as an objective the investigation of the principal physical aspects which lead to their appearance. To this end, three questions were posed: 1) Which areas show propensity to receive clandestine deposits? 2) Which areas present physical obstacles for the carts? 3) What is the area of influence of equipment appropriate to receive waste (URPVs e PREs)? Are these in fact accessible to the carts? Methodology A methodological routine was created to make it possible to obtain answers to these questions. The first stage of this routine was restricted to definition of the area of the study. The entire study was developed respecting
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Map 3
the delineated administrative district of the northeast region keeping in mind the availability of a complete, updated geographical database, in addition to presenting the critical problems of clandestine waste deposits. Thirty-four irregular deposits were identified (all of small to medium size), located before 4 already overloaded pieces of equipment, installed to receive just such material: 1 Small Volume Reception Unit (URPV) the only locale in which all deposited material is sent to Recycling Facilities and 3 Waste Reception Points (PRE), as presented in map 2. The second stage consisted of the selection, collection, and posterior treatment of the data to be analyzed using the GIS (Geographical Information System). The data analyzed were: lot occupation; situation of lot front; occurrence of construction; favelas (slums); green areas; squares; declination of land; non-channeled water; declination of stretches of roads; road type; road pavement type; critical clandestine deposit points; equipment URPV and PRE; geo-technical risk areas; and property type. For collection of data, field work was realized using GPS equipment, which registered the localization of determined occurrences, such as clandestine waste deposits. For data which had no spatial references, procedures such as geo-referencing were performed, through a system of projection, and coordinates of the data, and through definition of the initial representation of the data in a vector format. These 15 variables were selected by specialists, who affirmed their influence, in distinct proportions, on this process. In order to quantify the degree of interference of these variables, it is necessary to quantify them, through a attribution of weights and grades, such that a hierarchy of importance could be established.This was made possible by the application of questionnaires given to the specialists, in conformity to the Delphi Method. This represents the third methodological stage developed. In the fourth step a method of cross-referencing the weighted data was developed organized in a manner to respond to the questionnaires utilizing the free software SAGA/UFRJ, assisted by models of spatial analysis (multi-criteria analysis). Finally, the fifth step consisted of the real world validation of obtained results. 144
Carla A. Simes et al.: Geo-processing in the Study of Irregular Deposits of Civil Construction
Map 4
Obtained Results Four cartographic sub-products were obtained. Map 1 "Propensity of the construction waste deposited" sought to identify the most likely areas for the appearance of temporary and irregular waste deposits through the recognition of their inherent physical characteristics. Thus, it was possible to observe that the areas with medium to high propensity were near to "favelas" (slums) which do, in fact, present risk factors for these illegal practices, as observed in the field. In map 2 "Environmental attrition" it was possible to perceive the accessibility of the URPV's and PRE's to carts, keeping in sight the physical obstacles that could impede the ease of transit for these transporters. In accord with the map, within the principal degradation factors encountered were highly inclined routes or routes with high traffic density. In maps 3 and 4, entitled "Adequating Installations Area of Influence of Equipment" and "Adequating Installations Simulation", the main concern was to evaluate, respectively, the areas of influence of each piece of equipment in the Northeast region and identify locales ideal for their installation such that they become easily accessible to carts. Observing map 3, it is noted that the UPRV does not adequately fulfill its role as a waste receptor, keeping in mind its small area of influence, when compared to alternate reception points. In this way, it is seen that the installed UPRV is badly located, as it does not concentrate the material, and therefore doesn't recycle the majority of residues, contributing to the over saturation of landfills. Using the simulation verified in map 4, it is possible to prove the deficiency in location, considering the significant increase in the area of influence of the UPRV. Validation of Results: Three situations were validated: the first consisted of evaluating the degree of coincidence between the areas of propensity with areas in which appear clandestine waste deposits: nearly 60% of the areas of low to medium propensity coincide with areas of mapped deposits. This low correspondence is due to the fact that the comparisons were done to distinct time scales. The estimated data of propensity portray a future scenario, and events which will occur given the reality in which the research was developed. The data proven in the field reflect distinct present processes, which influenced other factors in the appearance of these irregular deposits.
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The data indicate, in this case, the coincidence of these estimates with clandestine deposits which will be established in the future. The second situation evaluated the correspondence between the estimate presented in map 1 and current risk areas: more than 50% of the areas of medium to high propensity coincide with risk areas. This result signaled the necessity to demand increased attention through preventive measures in these areas of medium and high propensity, considering the possibility of worsened environmental impact. Finally, the third situation evaluates the correspondence between types of private property and areas of propensity: nearly 50% of the areas of low to medium propensity coincide with public property: in relation to private property, 90% of the areas of low propensity coincide. Contrary to previous thought, this low correspondence indicated that no direct relationship between the type of property and the establishment of clandestine waste deposits in the Northeast region can be affirmed. Conclusion The research revealed a new point of view surrounding the management of waste in the Northeast region until now unperceived: all infrastructures both planned and installed (URPV's) do not fulfill their roles as required to receive waste generated and recycle it. Despite attenuating the occurrence of clandestine deposits with the installation of PRE's (alternative installations), maximum recycling was not achieved. Reutilization of material was not done in a satisfactory manner since there is a polarization of waste reception by the PRE's (locales where triage of recyclable material is not done) and therefore, consequently, is buried. There is, therefore, a network of disconnected infrastructure that does not perform in an integral manner its purpose, which is the correction of clandestine waste deposits and recycling. Thus it is possible to prove once again that the utilization of the tools of geo-processing in the management of civil construction waste are of fundamental importance, keeping in view the possibility of the development of predictive studies for adequate positioning of infrastructure to receive and recycle generated waste. Bibliographical references
BELO HORIZONTE. Resoluo CONAMA n307, 2000. Disponvel em http://www.mma.gov.br. Acesso em maio/2006. BELO HORIZONTE. Resoluo CONAMA n004, 1985. Disponvel em http://www.mma.gov.br. Acesso em maio/2006. BELO HORIZONTE. Lei n7165 de 27 de agosto de 1996. Institui o plano diretor do municpio de Belo Horizonte. Belo Horizonte, 1996. Disponvel em http://www.pbh.gov.br/procuradoria/index.htm. Acesso em maio/2006. BRASIL, Congresso. Senado. Resoluo n.307, de 2007. Disponvel em: http//www.mma.gov.br/port/conama. Acesso em maio/2006 CINTRA, I. S.Estudo da Viabilidade de Tratamento dos Resduos Slidos Enviados Estao Ecolgica da UFMG In: 18 Congresso Nacional de Engenharia Sanitria e Ambiental, 1997, Foz do Iguau.Anais do Congresso. , 1997. p.360 - 370 MENDONA, Francisco. Geografia e Meio Ambiente. So Paulo, 1993. MOURA, Ana Clara Mouro. Geoprocessamento na gesto e Planejamento Urbano. Belo Horizonte, 2005 RODRIGUES, Arlete Moyss. Produo e Consumo do e no Espao - Problemtica Ambiental Urbana. So Paulo, 1998. SUPERINTENDNCIA DE LIMPEZAS URBANAS. Plano de Gerenciamento de Resduos Slidos de Belo Horizonte Perodo: 2000 - 2004. Belo Horizonte, 2000. SILVA, Paulo Jos. Polticas pblicas e gesto ambiental: Um estudo das prticas de administrao pblica de resduos da construo civil na cidade de Belo Horizonte. Lavras, 2005 VIANNA, M.D.B.; VERONESE, G. Polticas ambientais empresariais. Revista da Administrao Pblica. Rio de Janeiro, 1992. XAVIER-DA-SILVA, Jorge. Geoprocessamento para Anlise Ambiental. Rio de Janeiro, 2001 XAVIER-DA-SILVA, Jorge. Geoprocessamento e Anlise Ambiental. Aplicaes. Rio de Janeiro, 2004
________________________________________________ 1 This research is the result of a joint venture between SLU (Superintendncia de Limpeza Urbana), UFMG/Departamento de Cartografia and VINA Equipamentos e Construes LTDA. Additionally, collaborators include: Maria Teresa Paulino Aguilar, Prof. Dr. Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais,teresa@demc.ufmg.br; Maristela ; Silveira Palhares, Prof. Dr.Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, maristela_palhares@hotmail.com; Maria das Dores Pimentel Nogueira, MSc.,Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais mdnogueira@ufmg.br; Sandra Fiuza, Prof. Arq. MSc., Superintendncia de Limpeza Urbana/ Prefeitura de BeloHorizonte sandramfiuza@yahoo.com.br; Cladia Pires Lessa, Publicitria., VINA - Equipamentos e Construes Ltda. claudiaplessa@hotmail.com.
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GIS Assessment of Environmental Impacts on Urban Forests

Richard Snow & Mary Snow
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Daytona Beach, Florida, USA Richard.Snow@erau.edu
Abstract For many species of vegetation, climatic changes resulting in a temperature difference of a few degrees or a slight variation in rainfall pattern may determine whether a particular species survives or becomes extinct. Unlike earlier climatic events, such as that following the last Ice Age, which slowly took place over long periods of time, forecast climate changes are expected to occur suddenly. Because climate and vegetation are so strongly associated, it is assumed that such rapid changes in climate will affect plant distributions and result in altering the makeup of natural communities. An intensive study was recently completed to determine the effect of climatic change on 15,000 known native vascular plant species found in North America. The analysis assumed that a doubling of carbon dioxide would lead to a 3 Celsius degree increase in global temperatures and based the study on the climatic envelope or maximum and minimum mean annual temperature that each species experiences in its current distribution. The results suggest that with a 3 Celsius degree increase in temperatures, approximately 7 to 11 percent or 1,060 to 1,670 of the species under investigation would be beyond their climatic envelope and at risk for extinction. Rare species, which make up approximately 27 percent of North America's flora, were especially at risk with 10 to 18 percent threatened with extinction. Because climate plays such an important role in the distribution of plant species, the predicted global and regional climatic changes will likely affect a variety of existing vegetation patterns. Some species will migrate forming new associations while others will be lost completely. While environmental impacts are difficult to quantify, this research demonstrates how Geographic Information Systems (GIS) can be used to examine proposed scenarios including rising seas, severe droughts, rainstorms, heat waves, and floods and the associated negative effects on urban forest sustainability. Introduction The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) recently revealed that the warmest years of the past century have taken place since 1990 as the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide has increased from a pre-industrial value of about 280 parts per million (ppm) to current levels of nearly 380 ppm, against the backdrop of the natural range of carbon dioxide concentration during the past 650,000 years, which is between 180 to 300 ppm according to ice core data [1]. Based on a global warming scenario consisting of 1 to 3 Celsius degrees by the year 2100, the IPCC concludes that such change will put the most stress on those systems, such as forests and woodlands, already affected by pollution, thus increasing resource demands, and nonsustainable management practices. Urban forests supply numerous benefits for society, such as carbon sequestration, conservation, and biodiversity as well as research, recreation, and relaxation. Because forests are major components of the biosphere, negative impacts on these ecosystems could have damaging effects on other associated goods and services [2], and research indicates that climate change will be accompanied by significant socioeconomic repercussions [3]. In light of these findings, a GIS assessment of the environmental impacts on urban forests seems essential. Climate Change Scenarios If global warming continues as the IPCC and others have suggested, locations from the equator toward the poles will begin to experience higher temperature profiles which ultimately could lead to rising seas and more severe droughts, rainstorms, heat waves and floods [4]. Locations in the arctic and temperate latitudes are likely to experience warmer and stormier winters. Summers might be hotter with less precipitation, and summer rains will be the result of thunderstorms rather than showers. Of course, there a number of regional factors such as variations in hills, lakes, coastlines, and soils that will affect local climate, so that some areas could experience higher or lower temperatures than the mean global changes [5]. Factors such as groundlevel air temperatures, relative humidity, dew concentrations, exposure to winds, persistence of snow, length of frost-free growing season, and duration and intensity of sunlight vary considerably. However, an increase in temperature of 1 to 3 Celsius degrees over the next century would be equivalent to shifting isotherms pole ward 150 to 550 km [6]. Thus, higher latitude locations can expect to be exposed to higher increases in temperature. Among the most publicized impacts of global warming are rising sea levels. It has been reported that during the past century, sea levels rose by 5 to 10 inches [7]. Although estimates are highly variable, a recently published paper in Nature suggests that by 2100 sea levels will be about 500 mm higher than today as result
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of global warming, with thermal expansion of seawater accounting for over half of this rise [8]. Global warming is most likely to contribute to a 6-inch increase in sea levels by 2050 and an increase of about 14 inches by 2100 [9]. Besides rising seas, there is also the threat that wetlands could dry up in an expansive mid-continent warming [10]. Such potential changes in wetland hydrology and vegetation could result in a dramatic decline in the quality of habitat for breeding birds [11]. A rise in global temperatures would also increase the number and intensity of tropical storms along the coasts. The result might be severe outbreaks of violent weather, which could potentially damage coastal forests through heavy winds and flooding, possibly resetting ecosystems to early successional phases. With 40 percent of the population in the U.S. living within 50 miles of a coastline, such impacts could have a negative effect on the economy as well as coastal ecosystems. Climate change could cause regional wind patterns to shift, which would be accompanied by an increase in wind speed intensity. Such shifts could impact existing rain shadow effects in some regions causing more precipitation on the windward side of mountain ranges while creating even drier conditions on the leeward sides. Fire patterns are likely to be altered as well, which could affect a variety of plant species, even those that are fire resistant or require the presence of fire to regenerate. A study based on a doubling of carbon dioxide levels reveals that wildfires in Canada would undergo a 46 percent increase in seasonal severity [12]. There are unique species such as the bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva) and the giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum), which have maintained their present locations for thousands of years despite substantial climatic change, indicating that some species have a high degree of physiological tolerance to climatic fluctuations. In fact, some stress-tolerant species could benefit from extreme climates if competitors are locally depleted or eliminated. However, for many species of vegetation, climatic changes resulting in a temperature difference of a few degrees or a slight variation in rainfall pattern may determine whether a particular species survives or becomes extinct. Forests Impacts Unlike earlier climatic events, such as that following the last Ice Age, which slowly took place over long periods of time, these forecast variations are expected to occur suddenly with the average rate of warming probably greater than any seen in the last 10,000 years. Because climate and vegetation are so strongly associated, it is assumed that such rapid changes in climate will affect plant distributions and result in altering the makeup of forest communities [13]. History has shown that most species respond individually to climatic change and not as communities. Those individuals that have the ability to migrate likely will do so, resulting in a number of new associations. In addition to differences in migration rates, community types will be altered and new associations will be created due to changes in disturbance regimes and competition. Many species attempting to adapt to this rapidly changing climate will be forced to migrate at rates of speed beyond their abilities, which may be the greatest of all potential threats to biodiversity. Evidence from the fossil pollen record reveals the migration rates of various species since the end of the last glacial period. According to a benchmark study by the Environmental Protection Agency, beech and maples migrate at a rate of 10 to 20 km per century, hemlock migrate at 20 to 25 km per century, and pine and oak species migrate at 30 to 40 km per century [14]. Other research suggests that within the next century plant species may be forced to shift as much as 500 km, which is well beyond the migration rates of many species [15]. Due to temperature increases, the limited availability of water, and other environmental factors, entire forests may disappear, and new ecosystems may take their places. Also, a global average of one-third of the existing forested area could undergo major changes in broad vegetation types with the greatest changes occurring in high latitudes. Both plant and animal communities at high elevations and in high latitudes may have no place to migrate and could be lost completely. Alpine ecosystems are thought to be particularly sensitive to climate change largely due to their low productivity, tight nutrient cycling, and their position at a limit for many plant processes [16]. Research that spanned a 125,000-year record of the forest/steppe border along the eastern Cascade Range of the northwest United States, reports climatic variations are the primary cause of regional vegetation change [17]. Additionally, a study analyzing 19 isolated mountain peaks in the U.S. Great Basin, predicts a loss of 9 to 62 percent of the species currently found at these locations based on a temperature increase of 3 degrees Celsius [18]. The Nature Conservancy Report An intensive analysis to determine the effect of climatic change on 15,000 known native vascular plant species found in North America was conducted by the Nature Conservancy. The researchers assumed that a doubling of carbon dioxide would lead to a 3 Celsius degree increase in global temperatures and based the study on the climatic envelope or maximum and minimum mean annual temperature that each species experiences in its current distribution [19]. The climatic envelope of each of the 15,000 species was compared to the projected rise in average annual temperatures. The researchers found that approximately 7 to 11 percent or some 1,060 148
Richard Snow & Mary Snow: GIS Assessment of Environmental Impacts on Urban Forests
to 1,670 of the species under investigation would be beyond their climatic envelope and at risk for extinction. States in the southeast are projected to have the greatest loss with 25 percent of Florida's flora at risk. This may be due to the number of Appalachian Mountain species in these states that are already at their southern range limits. To put these finding into perspective, during the last two centuries in North America only 90 plant species are believed to have become extinct. Rare species, which make up approximately 27 percent of North America's flora, were especially at risk with 10 to 18 percent threatened with extinction while only 1 to 2 percent of the more common species were considered endangered. In order to determine the potential for migration in the event of global warming, a dispersal-ability scale was calculated based on full data availability for 8,668 species. The scale takes into account factors such as pollination by wind, dispersal by birds and insects, and generation time with most species having an intermediate dispersal potential. The analysis reveals that in a 3 Celsius degree global warming scenario those species with characteristics that limit long-range dispersal would suffer the greatest risk. Additionally, plants that require specific habitat such as wetlands would also be threatened. While the Nature Conservancy's model relies primarily on temperature and does not take into account a number of other environmental factors, it does represent a general picture of the impact climatic change could have on the flora of North America and should give us cause for concern GIS Assessments The principal advantage of a GIS is its ability to allow the user to perform a spatial analysis, which can be described as the investigation of the locations and shapes of geographic attributes and the interactions between these features. Spatial analysis is essential for determining site suitability and potential, for approximating and calculating geographic relationships, and for deducing and comprehending the problems of place. In short, spatial analysis allows one to address those issues associated with location. GIS is a highly effective information and communication technology due to its power to graphically convey knowledge through the universal language of maps. The first modern GIS, the Canadian Geographic Information System (CGIS), was developed in the early 1960s to inventory Canada's natural resources and is acknowledged as a milestone in the development of GIS. The CGIS classified land according to its capability for forestry, agriculture, recreation, and wildlife, and many of the GIS terms and concepts used today originated with the CGIS [20]. The Canadians understood that in order for the CGIS to be an effective environmental tool, accurate and relevant data must be incorporated into the system. The success of the CGIS is evidenced by its continued operation today in mitigating pollution, managing resources, and in land-use planning [21]. For example, in order to examine detailed spatial environmental data, satellite imagery was integrated with a GIS for a region in northern Wisconsin, which allows an assessment of changes in the forest landscape over time [22]. Another GIS was developed to assess the response of alpine plant species distribution to various climatic and land-use scenarios and found that alpine plant species with restricted habitat availability above the tree line will experience severe fragmentation and habitat loss [23]. In Munich, Germany, a GIS was utilized to examine the spatial pattern and environmental functions of the urban forest linking environmental planning and urban forestry with general land-use and structure planning [24]. A GIS analysis of vegetation structure with forest functions and value in Chicago, Illinois, revealed that local urban forests remove 5575 metric tons of air pollutants and sequester approximately 315,800 metric tons of carbon annually [25]. In Chattanooga, Tennessee, a practical GIS was created to map tree locations, and track the type and size of every tree along city streets and in downtown parks in order to maintain a database of tree size and health conditions [26]. And in a unique approach to GIS-based modelling, researchers found that the future threat to the forests of Europe due to climate change is predicted to increase in Scandinavia and Eastern Europe [27]. GIS is generally acknowledged as an influential instrument for modelling and simulation. However, there are a number of factors related to GIS visualization that must be considered. Foremost among these are the spatial data required to generate an accurate forecast. Longitudinal data are necessary to establish past and future long-term patterns and trends. Yet, appropriately extensive climate records might not be available for a given location, which is one of the problems associated with trying to resolve the effect of global warming on urban forests. Although GIS is a proven tool for assessing environmental impacts on forests and woodlands, numerous challenges remain. For instance, when developing GIS models urban forests tend to be treated as isolated elements, which can lead to miscalculations in predicting landscape changes. And while there has been substantial improvement in simulating disturbances within landscapes, it is presently difficult to model global vegetation change at the landscape scale. Despite these and other shortcomings, a well designed GIS can serve as a frontline defence against environmental impacts and is an invaluable instrument through which communities can profit by joining in a process to incorporate spatial information into shared governance for sound and sustainable urban forest management and planning.
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References
[1] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2007. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. [2] Woodwell, G.M. and F.T. Mackenzie, eds. 1995. Biotic Feedbacks in the Global Climatic System: Will the Warming Speed the Warming? New York: Oxford University Press. [3] Winnett, S.M. 1998. Potential Effects of Climate Change on U.S. Forests. Climate Research. 11, 39-49. [4] Stevens, W.K. 1998. If Climate Changes, It May Change Quickly. New York Times, Jan. 27, p. 1. [5] Schwartz, M.W. 1992. Modelling Effects of Habitat Fragmentation on the Ability of Trees to Respond to Climatic Warming. Biodiversity and Conservation. 2, 51-61. [6] Kates, R.W. 1997. Climate Change 1995: Impacts, Adaptations, and Mitigation. Environment. 39(9), 29-33. [7] Stipp, D. 1997. Science Says the Heat Is On. Fortune. 136(11), 126-129. [8] Gregory, J.M. and J. Oerlemans. 1998. Simulated Future Sea-Level Rise Due to Glacier Melt Based on Regionally and Seasonally Resolved Temperature Changes. Nature. 391(6666), 474-476. [9] Edmonson, B. 1997. What if ... the Oceans Rose Three Feet? American Demographics. 19(12), 44. [10] Van Putten, M. 1997. Conservation and Climate Change. International Wildlife. 27(6), 7. [11] Poiani, K. A. and W.C. Johnson. 1993. Potential Effects of Climatic Change on a Semi-permanent Prairie Wetland. Climatic Change. 24(3), 213. [12] Flannigan, M.D. and C.E. Van Wagner. 1991. Climate Change and Wildfire in Canada. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 21(1), 66-72. [13] Graham, R.W. and E.C. Grimm. 1990. Effects of Global Climate Change on the Patterns of Terrestrial Biological Communities. Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 5(9), 289-292. [14] Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1989. The Potential Effects of Global Climate Change on the United States. Washington, D.C.: EPA. [15] Russell, C. and L.E. Morse. 1992. Plants. Biodiversity Network News. 5(2), 4. [16] Walker, D.A., J.C. Halfpenny, D. Marilyn, and C.A. Wessman. 1993. Long-term Studies of Snow-Vegetation Interactions. Bioscience. 43(5), 287. [17] Whitlock, C. and P.J. Bartlein. 1997. Vegetation and Climate Change in Northwest America During the Last 125 KYR. Nature. 388(6637), 57-61. [18] McDonald, K.A. and J.H. Brown. 1992. Using Montane Mammals to Model Extinctions Due to Global Change. Conservation Biology. 6, 409-415. [19] Kutner, L.S. and L.E. Morse. 1996. Reintroduction in a Changing Climate. In Restoring Diversity: Strategies for Reintroduction of Endangered Plants. D.A. Falk, C.I. Millar, and M. Olwell, eds. Island Press. [20] Crain, I.K. 1985. Environmental Information Systems: An Overview. Environment Canada, Ottawa. [21] Heywood, I. 1990. Monitoring for Change: A Canadian Perspective on the Environmental Role for GIS. Mapping Awareness. 4 (9), 24-6. [22] He, H.S., D.J. Mladenoff, V.C. Radeloff, and T.R. Crow. 1998. Integration of GIS Data and Classified Satellite Imagery for Regional Forest Assessment. Ecological Applications. 8(4), 1072-1083. [23] Dirnbck, T., S. Dullinger, and G. Grabherr. 2003. A Regional Impact Assessment of Climate and Land-use Change on Alpine Vegetation. Journal of Biogeography. 30 (3), 401-417. [24] Pauleit, S. and F. Duhme. 2000. GIS Assessment of Munich's Urban Forest Structure for Urban Planning. Journal of Arboriculture. 26(3). [25] McPherson, E.G., D. Nowak, G. Heisler, S. Grimmond, C. Souch, R. Grant and R. Rowntree. 1997. Quantifying Urban Forest Structure, Function, and Value: The Chicago Urban Forest Climate Project. Urban Ecosystems. 1(1), 49-61. [26] J. Brown. 2003. Saving the Urban Forest. Government Technology. September 3. [27] Cassel-Gintz, M. and G. Petschel-Held. 2000. GIS-based Assessment of the Threat to World Forests by Patterns of Non-sustainable Civilisation Nature Interaction. Journal of Environmental Management. 59, 279-298.
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Optimizing ecological landscape functions in urban areas using GISdatabases and remote sensing: Urban forestry as an example
M. Kersting & H. Kenneweg
Institut fr Landschaftsarchitektur und Umweltplanung, Technische Universitt Berlin, Germany Michael.Kersting@tu-berlin.de
Abstract Both due to legislation and to the shortage of land resources in densely populated urban and suburban areas of Germany, multiple use of land resources is a traditional issue of urban planning. Restrictions on land use for the protection of the environment have in general been accepted by investors and the public for a long time. However, the locally decreasing urban population connected with nevertheless increasing land consumption have created new strong challenges to urban land management which require special procedures of optimizing the spatial allocation of conflicting land-use forms and landscape functions. Urban forestry is well suited to represent both the new challenges and new GIS-based approaches to solve resulting problems of urban land management. This contribution emphasizes aspects of data acquisition and data handling in order to support planning which aims at converting conflicts to acceptable compromises. Typical conflicts and the necessity to solve them will be discussed under the view of available versus desirable data bases along an example which is represented by a test area in an Eastern suburb of Berlin. Introduction More than 15 000 ha of urban forest, situated within the city boundaries of Berlin, indicate a high quality of life. Its composition of tree species and age classes is well documented by inventory data within the framework of the forest management plan (to some part obtained by remote sensing methods) and can be analysed by GISmethods. The urban forest is expected to serve multiple requirements. At least three of the resulting ecological forest functions (beside utility functions) superimpose each other on all forest locations, on some locations there can be many more. These forest functions, however, have not yet been defined and recorded in sufficient detail for multipurpose urban planning; they are often conflicting among each other and with the respective local situations. Better coordination and more precisely designed measures are needed which, however, have to be based on sufficiently detailed interdisciplinary information. The research project "Optimizing forest functions under urban conditions", funded by the German Research Council (DFG), aims at models and methods for finding optimum conditions and optimum coordination of forest functions which, particularly in urban areas, are partly antagonistic. This research part is an attempt at a synthesis, and it is based on comprehensive analytical work using GIS data bases, supported by remote sensing. The results are supposed to be transferable to different land-use problems and tasks in other urban areas. Available and desirable data bases Environmental planning and urban planning in many parts of the world is suffering from insufficient or even completely missing spatial information. This is not true for the city of Berlin. The availability of too many different data bases, however, can cause problems as well, if all this information, on the one hand, is dedicated to strongly varying objectives and, on the other hand, is documented under heterogeneous rules and conditions, both in terms of standards/technology and in terms of administrative responsibility. The research project mentioned above firstly has to make a choice among altogether 500 existing different shape files under various topics in order, secondly, to take advantage of as many as 116 selected sources of spatial data. Although the city administration of Berlin has combined most public environmental data as a digital planning device, named "Environmental Information System" (UIS), and it has developed a toolbox to facilitate the use of heterogeneous publicly available data on varying subject matters, called "FIS-broker", the remaining problems are remarkable and can be pinpointed under the following key words: Necessity to use data bases which are neither contained in the UIS nor recorded by in the FIS-broker; Varying and not in any case well defined topicality; Varying map scales and resulting differences of accuracy and detail, either due to the conditions of data acquisition or due to requirements for cartographic presentation purposes; Varying borderlines for identical sites in different data bases, due to different definitions and nomenclatures; Errors due to incomplete or missing control of data acquisition and data validation. Some of the resulting difficulties and approaches to overcome them will show up in the field of urban forestry, particularly illustrated in the specific demonstration site to be discussed below. Neither all of the data bases to be used nor all forest functions can be listed and discussed there, but a typical choice will be presented.
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Utilities for securing sustainable forest management both in terms of forest products and in terms of ecological and recreational functions Forest management plans, guided by sustainability directives, have been developed for more than 200 years in central Europe, primarily aiming at forest products. Today detailed GIS-based digital maps (scale in most cases 1:10 000) containing up to more than 200 information layers (shape files) on soils, vegetation, moisture, tree species, type of mixture, age classes, spatial delineation of long term planning decisions etc. are standard for many forest enterprises, both public-owned and private ones. During the last decades multi-purpose, respectively "multifunctional" forestry, more and more emphazising protective functions and recreation-oriented objectives, has increased its importance in Germany (HUSLER and SCHERER-LORENZEN, 2001). Sustainability, however, is much more challenging and difficult in this context, whereas supporting planning tools are available only at a much less sophisticated small-scale level as compared to traditional utility functions. The procedure of "Forest Function Mapping" has covered almost all forests in Germany since the early seventies of the last century. Multiple functions of one and the same area, which are common for German forests as a rule, can be recognized on the resulting maps, and priority functions and planning measures can be derived from them. An updated version of the directive on forest function mapping has been edited in 2003 (VOLK and SCHIRMER, 2003). For some parts of the country a special master-plan, regarding interdisciplinary aspects and multi-functions of forestry has been worked out. For the city of Berlin and parts of the surrounding German federal state of Brandenburg such a plan, called "Forstlicher Rahmenplan", was developed, but not finally completed and decided on. However, since the forest function maps are produced for a scale as small as 1 : 50 000, it is hardly possible to recognize important details. Moreover, even by the recent directive, some of the functions to be mapped are defined in a very general way as a combination of several functions. As an example, the forest function dedicated to "water protection" contains different sub-functions such as "groundwater-recharge" and "minimizing hazards of floods", which to some extent can contradict each other and can be evaluated independently. In urban areas the existing small-scale forest function maps are not sufficiently well suited to fulfil the planning requirements which are typical and normal under the conditions here. On the one hand, a map scale of at least 1 : 10 000 is needed in order to clearly identify possible conflicts and planning needs. On the other hand, some broadly defined forest functions have to be subdivided into several sub-functions in order to avoid internal incompatibility . As an example, "recreation forest" which in the standard forest function map is only subdivided according to its intensity (i. e. number of visitors per km2) should better be separated according to the requirements of the visitors; visitors who quietly want to enjoy undisturbed nature and scenic landscape must be kept separated from other visitors who noisily want to have game and sports activities, and, in addition, the respective two kinds of recreation forests should be managed in different ways. Furthermore, some new forest functions have been introduced recently and have to be taken into account. Large parts of the forest, even in urban areas, have been chosen to primarily serve the biodiversity directive of the EU and the Natura 2000 network programme. The administration of Berlin has acquired a certification for its forest according to the requirements of both FSC and "Naturland" in order to prove sustainability standards and silviculture in harmony with an undisturbed ecology. Reference areas on close to 10 % of the total forest, which must be taken out of management, are required as a condition for these certificates. New conflicts and planning needs will require new and more restrictive forest functions. Optimizing spatial allocation of all required demands and functions and avoiding or at least minimizing conflicts is an important issue for the multifunctional forest management, and this is a particularly difficult challenge in urban forests. The existing forest-function map has to be improved by additional content, more precision and more detail in order to meet the new level of requirements. Additional information taken from the forest management plan, from the UIS, from special programmes such as urban biotope mapping or from external surveys have to be included in the analytical procedure. Some typical conflicts and needs will be illustrated by the following comparison of two GIS-based maps showing a test area in the Eastern part of Berlin. Why and how to improve forest-function analysis an example aiming at planning purposes and GIS challenges The two map sections to be compared show the same area at the same scale and under the same topic. Map 1 is composed of shape files taken from the forest function map 1 : 50 000, enlarged to the scale of map 2 (in the original: 1 : 10 000). This map, published in 1997, is still valid. Map 2 under the title "More detailed Forest Function Map" is the improved, updated and up-scaled map-version for the same purpose, however, it has been corrected in terms of geo-coordinates, additional and more precise contents and some icons pinpointing conflicts. The necessity of improvement and how it is carried out will be discussed at 6 spots which are marked by figures in both maps.
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M. Kersting & H. Kenneweg: Optimizing ecological landscape functions in urban areas
(1) Close to this spot a hotel and restaurant is situated at the lake shore, surrounded by forest. A part of the forest is dedicated to the function "noise prevention". The hotel has to be protected from noise caused by the busy road. Any human settlement in this position is in conflict with the strongly restricted land use both in the drinking water conservation area, level 2 and neighbouring protected biotopes. Map 2 shows that there are even wells which are under even more severe restrictions. The restaurant is marked as a recreational centre. In map 1, however, the symbol for this is at a wrong position, due to the small scale of the
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source map. The same is true for the car park which is placed more than 200 m away from its correct position. The trail for horseback-riding which is still shown in map 1 has been closed due to severe conflicts on its further course. (2) Forest edges, particularly along lake shores, are important for drinking water conservation, nature conservation, and they are most attractive for visitors. So a connecting axis for recreation is in conflict with several other forest functions. This is clearly visible only on map 2. An additional severe conflict at this spot rises from the standard area of certification, which has to be taken out of management which means that dead trees have to remain, causing liability problems for the forest service if visitors become injured. (3) Another severe conflict which was additionally included on map 2 is caused by the illegal lakeshore beaches. There is a high pressure of visitors who may bring pets, garbage or chemicals without control directly beside the drinking water wells. Moreover, valuable forest and lakeshore biotopes can be destroyed. (4) Wrong position of recreation centres which can neither be found in the field nor be understood from map contents characterizes the poor quality of map 1. Map 2 contains much more information for analytical purposes: an illegal lakeshore beach, biotope areas in the forest, the real position of trails. (5) Forest edges towards human settlements very often are connected with conflicts. Housing areas tend to invade the forest. Remaining splintered forest lots, surrounded by private homes, loose much of their value in terms of ecological forest functions (they may gain economic value instead). Forest boundaries on older maps rarely represent the real situation along "invasive" edges of the city. On the other hand, forest can spread towards the city in some cases, one of which is shown on map 2. Old deposit of unknown, but possibly dangerous materials gradually develop towards forest. The mixture of private and public property of forest land in this kind of situation complicates all kinds of planning and forest management. (6) Beside another standard area for certification soil protection conflicts with intensive recreation at this spot. Conclusion and perspective Multiple-function land use (here: forestry) does not grow automatically, but requires intensive planning and evaluation processes. These can only succeed, if they are based on complete, correct, sufficiently detailed and up-to-date information. Today in most cases this means GIS-based data. GIS, however, and the existence of many data sets do not necessarily contribute to easy analytical work. Many of the problems according to the German phrase "The devil hides himself among the details!" could not be mentioned in this short paper. Better standards for data and new tools to handle them will help to facilitate work even in challenging conditions. References
HUSLER, A. and SCHERER-LORENZEN, M., 2001: Sustainable Forest Management in Germany: The Ecosystem Approach of the Biodiversity Convention reconsidered." BfN-Skripten 51. German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, 65 pp KENNEWEG, H. and KERSTING, M., 2005: Zur Weiterentwicklung der WFK in Ballungsrumen. Tagungsband, Tagung der Projektgruppe Forstliche Landespflege, Dresden 27. u. 28. Juni 2005, 12 pp. VOLK, H. and SCHIRMER, C. (editors), 2003: Leitfaden zur Kartierung der Schutz- und Erholungsfunktionen des Waldes (Waldfunktionenkartierung), Projektgruppe Forstliche Landespflege. Frankfurt, 107 pp.
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Environmental monitoring and urban development: using modern remote-sensing methods

A. Frick1, B. Coenradie2, H. Kenneweg3
1 LUP GmbH, Potsdam, 2 Digitale Dienste Berlin, 3 Institut fr Landschaftsarchitektur und Umweltplanung, TU Berlin; Germany annett.frick@lup-umwelt.de
Abstract The importance of remote sensing for the monitoring of urban areas is steadily increasing, especially with the new generation of high resolution (HR), very high resolution (VHR) and hyperspectral sensors. The main objective of this paper is the presentation of different approaches to gain information from VHR multispectral imagery for the monitoring of settlement structure on large scales and the transfer of those methods and results to smaller scales and medium resolution imagery. A special focus lies on the evaluation of surface sealing and urban indices like site-occupancy-index and floor-space-index. Three different applications ranging from knowledge-based classification over modelling to a hybrid mapping approach are presented. Advantages and remaining problems are discussed. Introduction One of the major environmental concerns of the German Government is to reduce the loss of unsealed surfaces from currently 93 to 30 hectares per day in 2020. Up-to-date information about surface sealing is one of the basic facts for federal, Federal State and local authorities in Germany. These data are used as an input for modelling (urban climate, water balance) as well as for evaluation processes (soil protection). For the synchronous mapping of large areas satellite remote sensing is a powerful tool. But measurements and categorisations of surface sealing in the urban environment still represent a special challenge. Among different reflections of surfaces made up of natural or artificial materials, often mixed up on a small scale, the existence of buildings often complicates an exact analysis of the ground (e.g. through shadows or side looking sensors). Those effects have to be taken into account in the course of developing new applications. As far as additional geo-data are available and suitable they should thus be integrated into the analysis process. The choice of satellite imagery depends on the objective and the designated level of accuracy. With the increasing geometric resolution of modern sensors also the range of potential applications for urban areas broadened. Further development in (hyper-)spectral resolution will follow and thus induce hope for the next higher step in quality. The satellite sensors used for the studies had different geometric, radiometric and spectral characteristics (see table 1). Knowledge-based extraction of urban indices from VHR imagery (QuickBird) The main objective of the first application was the development of semi-automated methods to gain information from QuickBird imagery for the monitoring of settlement structure on the large scale. Pixel based classification methods were used in a hybrid classification scheme to keep the highly detailed information and to allow for the derivation of quantitative indicators as described in FRICK (2006). Since the transferability of those procedures is essential for an objective and repeatable monitoring, the classification system was built upon a knowledge base. The knowledge base was mainly used to create training areas and signatures for the final classification process. Three different classes of rules were taken into account: formalised experience of the human interpreter (e.g. buildings have shadows) spectral characteristics derived from a large set of samples (e.g. tarmac is very dark) 'old' land-use data (e.g. CORINE) The computation of urban indices depends on appropriate reference areas (e.g. blocks, land parcels etc.). The German topographic information system (ATKIS) includes streets and settlement borders. Those features were combined to form blocks of similar urban structure and serve as reference areas. Three different indices were of interest in this study: surface sealing, site-occupancy-index (GRZ) and floorspace-index (GFZ). For the last, the area and number of floors of single residential or industrial buildings are essential. Only buildings with an area > 50m were considered, smaller buildings were regarded as garages or shacks. The determination of the number of floors is quite difficult to realise with remote sensing and can be estimated only roughly. Since the exact time of scene capture is known, the shadow length can be converted to object height with appropriate ratios depending on the sun inclination. This is of course a coarse approximation but can be used to estimate the height of a building fairly well, as validation with cadastral data has shown.
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Table 1: characteristics of the different sensors
Sensor
Geometric resolution Spectral resolution PAN/MS QuickBird 0.61/2.44 blue: 450-520 green: 520-600 red: 630-690 NIR: 760-900 Pan: 450-900 IRS-1D LISS-III 5.8/23.5 green: 520-590 IRS-P6 LISSred: 620-680 III/LISS-IV NIR: 770-860 SWIR: 1550-1700 Pan: 500-750 SPOT 5 5/10 (SWIR:20) green: 500-590 red: 610-680 NIR: 780-890 SWIR: 1580-1750 Pan: 480-710
Radiometric resolution 11 bit
Urban indices studied surface sealing site-occupancyindex floor-space-index surface sealing site-occupancyindex floor-space-index surface sealing
7 bit
8 bit
For every reference area the indices were calculated after the classification process (see figure 1 for a subset of results). In order to validate results a visual analysis was conducted simultaneously. Compared with the visually examined indices the mean error for the calculation of the GRZ was 2.6%. The mean error for the extraction of the GFZ amounted to 9.4%. The validation for surface sealing was performed with randomly scattered points and reached an overall accuracy of 91%. The potential of VHR satellite data for urban monitoring is very high for the investigated indices surface sealing and site-occupancy-index. The floor-spaceindex can only roughly be estimated with remote-sensing methods. The automated derivation of building outlines and building heights works very well Figure 1: Left: subset of the study area Schwedt, QuickBird (RGB: 3,2,1). for simply formed buildings. For Right: Results for the automatically derived GRZ (on reference blocks). complex buildings and buildings overgrown by trees manual interaction is needed. Since the first applies to most buildings, the discussed approach can strongly reduce manual work. The knowledge-based classification scheme proved to be transferable to different study areas and settlement types. The transfer of those highly accurate and detailed results in smaller scales, and thus larger areas will be described in section 2. Regression tree modelling of urban indices with IRS imagery Highly detailed urban monitoring in the classic way demands remotely sensed imagery with an appropriate geometric resolution (VHR). The acquirement of those data at short intervals for large areas often exceeds the financial means of environmental administration. Satellite images with medium geometric resolution as, for instance, the Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) are much cheaper and more easily available. The information on highly detailed urban indices is still present in those data though only implicitly, thus a modelling approach is necessary. Regression tree modelling (for a detailed description see BREIMAN et al., 1984) can be a very effective data mining tool to represent complex relationships between parameters as for instance texture within satellite imagery and surface sealing on the ground. A simple linear equation often is not suitable to describe those relations. Instead a hierarchically nested regression tree can be of much higher predictive power and accuracy. Thus a lot of interesting and promising studies on modelling urban indices, especially the surface sealing, with remote sensing data and regression trees have been conducted, e.g. by SCHULER & KASTDALEN, 2005; HEROLD et al., 2003a; YANG et al., 2003; HEROLD et al., 2003b. The objective of this study was to model urban indices for the whole state of Brandenburg (30 000 km) with ATKIS-blocks serving as reference areas (see section 1). A regression-tree model was built with the help 156
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of six small test sites. QuickBird imagery was available for those test sites and with the methods described in section 1 urban indices for 7679 test blocks were extracted. IRS imagery from the same year was then used to build a regression-tree model. Over 470 indices, ratios and texture measures were examined, 329 were finally used for the model. Accuracy assessment was conducted in two different ways. First a 10-fold cross validation of the models was performed. The results show a good relationship for surface sealing and site-occupancy-index whereas the relationship is much weaker for the floor-space-index. Additionally 1665 randomly selected blocks were examined and compared with airborne orthophotos. The results show a mean error of 5.7% for the site-occupancy-index and a mean error of 23.4% for the floor-space-index. The bad results for the floor-space-index have several reasons, firstly the radiometric and geometric resolution of IRS is not sufficient to model a parameter that depends highly on the accurate mapping of shadow, secondly the number of floors can differ very much with the housing style, thus additional information on the settlement type and age is necessary to improve the model. The indices surface sealing and site-occupancy-index were modelled with a good overall accuracy and serve within the regional administration as an important input for analytical questions. Hybrid mapping of surface sealing with Spot5 imagery A new hybrid mapping approach was developed for Berlin with the objective to produce a homogenous and reproducible surface sealing map for the entire city. Therefore SPOT 5 data as well as geo-data from the Berlin Digital Environmental Atlas, the information system "Stadt und Umwelt" (ISU), and the digital cadastral map ("Automatisierte Liegenschaftskarte" ALK) were integrated into the classification process (COENRADIE et al. 2006). The automated and cost-effective
Figure 2: Hybrid approach to the mapping of surface sealing in Berlin - Results for the rule-based classification (subset).
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approach derives information about the degree of sealing for census units of the Berlin Digital Environmental Atlas. Since precise measurements on a 'm-level' were not required, HR satellite data (4 m up to 10 m) represent an excellent source of information. The classification process is based on three major steps. Firstly, different degrees of vegetation as well as object-classes like bare soils and artificial surfaces were distinguished using operational methods in a hierarchical spectral classification scheme. Furthermore buildings of the ALK were added to that spectral differentiation to fix built-up areas. Also, shadowed surfaces were separated to reduce classification errors. Secondly, during a rule-based classification, the classes were re-classified to categories of degrees of sealing (figure 2). Geo-data of the ISU that subdivide the entire city into differently structured area types were integrated to a rule base and were found very useful for stratification. In the next step the output of the pixel-based classification was aggregated to census units by means of GIS. Shadows were classified through contextual analysis. The final result is composed of the degree of sealing for each unit: total, non-built-up and built-up. The method was evaluated concerning the reliability, repeatability and transferability by analysing a second SPOT5-scene. An extensive accuracy assessment was performed to estimate the absolute accuracy of the derived map. Due to the fact that high accuracy levels were reached the new sealing information will be integrated in the ISU of Berlin for updating the present one. Conclusions Urban sprawl around a metropolis like Berlin and shrinking cities in rural areas require the control and action of the German regional Administration. Not only within the framework of landscape planning extensive urban monitoring tasks have to be fulfilled, also for disaster management, e.g. the risk assessment for floods. But up-to-date information on urban structure is often missing. Remote sensing represents a very helpful tool to monitor urban structures and changes over long periods of time. Remaining issues, as the improvement in accuracy for some indices, could be addressed with the availability of new sensors especially with the new hyperspectral satellite EnMap and with the further improvement of models through the integration of other sources of information, e.g. cadastral data. The combination of VHR and hyperspectral data for extracting more detailed object features will be a main focus within future research. References
Breiman, L., Friedman, J., Olshen, R. & C. Stone: Classification and Regression Trees. Chapman and Hall. New York. 1984. Frick, A. : Urban Monitoring with QUICKBIRD Imagery through a knowledge-based extraction of indices. Proceedings ISPRS Workshop - Fifth International Symposium. Turkish German Joint Geodetic days. Berlin. 2006. Coenradie, B, Kleinschmit, B, Hostert, P., & L. Haag: Ein hybrider Verfahrensansatz zur Versiegelungskartierung. In: Seyfert, E. (Hrsg.): Publikationen der Deutschen Gesellschaft fr Photogrammetrie, Fernerkundung und Geoinformation (DGPF) e.V., Band 15. 2006 Herold, M., X. Liu & K. C. Clarke: Spatial Metrics and Image Texture for Mapping Urban Land Use. Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing. 69 (9). 2003a. Herold, N. D., Koeln, G. & D. Cunningham: Mapping Impervious Surfaces and Forest Canopy Using Classification and Regression Tree (CART) Analysis. ASPRS 2003 Annual Conference Proceedings, Anchorage, Alaska. 2003b. Schuler, D. V. & L. Kastdalen: Impervious surface mapping in Southern Norway. 31st International Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment, St. Petersburg, Russia. 2005. Yang, L., Huang, C., Wylie, B., Homer, C., and M. Coan: An approach for mapping large-area impervious surfaces: Synergistic use of Landsat 7 ETM+ and high spatial resolution imagery. Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing, 29 (2). 2003.
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European directives, environmental planning and geographic information: The need of standardisation
Torsten Lipp
University of Potsdam, Institute for Geoecology, Germany tlipp@uni-potsdam.de
1. Introduction The INSPIRE Directive, which should come into effect until 2013, aims to harmonise digital spatial information on European level. Investigations on the monetary advantage of this harmonisation estimates a benefit of 200 - 300 m per annum for more efficient EIA (Environmental impact assessment) and SEA (Strategic environmental assessment) processes (FDS 2003). Within the same study the Habitat Directive (92/ 43/EEC) and the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC, WFD) are mentioned as directives, which will profiteer from the aims of INSPIRE, without naming precise amounts. The programmes of measures which are to set up following the WFD are again obligatory to SEA at least in Germany (UVPG, Appendix 3). The following text describes the influence of these directives (Habitat and WFD), the similarities and needed data for the implementations of both directives as well as the main activities of INSPIRE to support the use of spatial data for environmental planning. 2. European directives, influencing environmental planning Within the last years, mainly the Habitats Directive and the Water Framework Directive influenced European environmental planning activities. The Habitat Directive aims to establish a network of valuable natural habitats (Sites of Community Interest, SCI) across Europe. The WFD reaches to establish a good water status for all waters by 2015 by elaborating superior river basin management plans and more detailed programmes of measures. There are several cross-references within the directives to each other, e.g.: The Habitat Directive mentions plans and projects, which could influence the SCI negatively (Article 6); potentially also the programmes of measures can have negative effects The WFD names several directives and policies supporting the programmes of measures; among them are also the management plans of the Habitat Directive (Annex VI) The river basin management plans due to the WFD have to inquire and represent conservation areas like the SCIs (Article 6, appendix IV) Article 4 of the WFD determines, that within 15 years all objectives in these conservation areas (e.g. SCI) have to be full filled Article 8 of the WFD states, that monitoring programmes in the conservation areas should consider the binding statements of the relevant directives; one of them is the Habitat Directive. As both directives influence one another, the use of similar or at least easily exchangeable data would be of great advantage (Table 1). The main topic of the WFD is water quality, but it also takes into account the morphology, structural aspects and the surrounding land use influencing the water bodies. Correspondingly, the Habitat Directive is mainly focused on the SCI, but considers plans and projects disturbing these areas from surroundings, too. Further more, both directives are cross border orientated. The Habitat Directive aims to establish a European wide, transnational network of habitats within bio-geographical regions. The WFD is dedicated to river basins which extend national borders, too. Therefore the management plans following both directives must fit to each other and also to other plans within the involved countries. As nowadays environmental planning is elaborated by using digital data, a European wide standard for digTable 1: Comparison of WFD and Habitat directive (WENDLER 2007) ital, mainly spatial data sets is Habitat Directive: WFD: necessary. Thus, there are variAssessment parameter Assessment components of aquatic Assessment components of water bodies species and natural habitat types ous different data standards Natural habitat types Surface water within countries, and even more bodies: eco-logical Area, distribution, structure and chemical state within Europe (MLLER 2006, Water biology: typical Typical species, indicator species BERNARD 2004). There is not Species composition aquatic species and Ground water: Population structure indicator species only the need for horizontal intechemical state and Species abundance amount Population structure gration of information (e.g. Chemical, Groundwater level, Quality of habitats Quantity physiochemical, conductivity, between administrative districts (area, distribution of habitat parts, Quality morphological quality pollutants habitat structures) Quality of structure components, or states) but also vertical one dangerous ingredients (e.g. from river basin level to Disturbance of species and natural Punctual diffuse matter imports, Disturbance of Water bodies local level), as for downscaling habitat types change in the amount of water, other anthropogenic pressures a harmonised data standard is
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crucial, too. While the WFD gives explicit hints to use Geographical information systems (GIS) for producing maps, storing data and elaborate monitoring procedures (EUROPEAN COMMISSION 2003), the Habitat Directive does not. But never the less, the process of declaration of the SCIs can only work, using spatial digital data sets. Therefore the standard data forms for each SCI have to be submitted digitally to the commission, while they where validated by the European Topic Centre for Nature Conservation (ETC/NC). That this is still in ongoing process with some problems is stated e.g. by BRUNS (2006) and LFU (2005). Also and even more for the monitoring and reporting procedures harmonised spatial data are necessary. 2.1 Data needs for complex plans and programmes To elaborate management plans due to the Habitat Directive, not only information about the protected species is needed, but also for there ecological environment, including soil, vegetation, water and air. To recognize conflicts and aspects which could disturb the habitats, human activities must be known either. The specification of SCI conservation aims is based on the information of the standard data forms, which exist for each site. The standard data forms contain the following information: Site identification (e.g. typ, code), Site location (e.g. coordinates, area, altitude, administrative and biogeographic region)
Coordination district River Havel basin
Natura 2000 Sites within the River Havel basin
Figure 1: Wide parts of the river Havel basin consists of Natura 2000 Sites (Senatsverwaltung fr Stadtentwicklung et al., n.d.)
Ecological information (e.g. habitat types and species including assessment, Site description (e.g. character, quality, importance and vulnerability) Site Protection status and correlation with CORINE biotopes Impacts and activities around the site Attached maps and slides (e.g. aerial photos) For the WFD there is a need to describe the following (EUROPEAN COMMISSION 2003b): General conditions of the river basin district that should include the establishment of reference conditions for surface waters; Register of protected areas; Identification of significant pressures and assessment of their impacts; Economic analysis of water uses. Also the WFD uses CORINE Landcover data sets to identify biotopes and land use systems influenced by groundwater. Thus, this data may be sufficient for river basin management plans, but they are to coarse for the programme of measures or Habitat management plans. The minimum extension of the mapping units of the CORINE data is 25 ha (STEINNOCHER et al. 2006). The following example from the river Havel basin (23860 km) is showing that this resolution is not sufficient for Habitat management plans. 160
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There are about 450 SCIs, covering wide areas of the catchment area. Most of them are very small (< 10 km), but some of them extend about 90 - 130 km. The largest is the "Oberlausitzer Teiche" (131 km). Especially the explicit water depending sites like "Unter Havel" or "Mittlere Havel" force the harmonised elaborating of management plans and programmes of measures and the use and exchange of spatial data. But also small sites like "Weies Fenn and Dnen Heide" (3441-301) which comprises only 1,8 km contains sites depending on (ground) water, e.g. 3160 (Dystropical lakes), 4010 (Northern Atlantic wet heaths with Erica tetralix), 7140 (Transition mires and quaking bogs), 91D1 und 91D2 (Bog woodland with petula or pinus), according to the standard data form. Recent accurate stock taking in the SCI 3441-301 discovers (LPR LANDSCHAFTSPLANUNG GBR, 2006), that some of the expected habitats do not exist within the area, like 3160 (Dystropical lakes) and 4010 (Northern Atlantic wet heaths with Erica tetralix), others do exist, without being mentioned in the standard data form (e.g. 3150 Natural eutrophic lakes with Magnopotamion or Hydrocharition type vegetation, 4030 European dry heats). This actual information should be used for updating the standard data form but also for the elaborating of the programme of measure. Further more, the ecological experts who did the habitat mapping of the site, give advice to investigate hydrologic circumstances, to proof the possibilities of ground water rising. This important information should be taken into consideration for the programme of measures, too, remembering that the WFD is asked to contribute to reach the SCIs targets. As this example shows there are strong relationships in the elaborating of plans and programmes due to WFD and Habitat Directive. The exchange of data would be helpful and explicit rules for data exchange are necessary, to facilitate transdisciplinary elaboration. The upcoming INSPIRE directive aims to deliver such rules. 3. The INSPIRE approach The INSPIRE directive sets the legal and technical rules to harmonise European data standards and enable the common use and exchange of spatial data sets. The main focus of the directive is environmental infor-
The SCI 3441-301 in the map of Natura 2000 Sites of the B-report (Berliner Senatsver-waltung et al., n.d.). (see Beetzsee as location refer-ence)
The landuse information based on CORINE data sets consist of only 10 categories. Within this extract one could identify arable land, sparsely settled zone, coniferous forest, deciduous forest and grassland
The precise stock taking for the similar sites due to the Habitat directive discovers about 80 biotopes (LPR LANDSCHAFTSPLANUNG GBR, 2006
Figure 2: Examples for similar information with different levels of detail due to WFD and Habitat Directive
mation. It does not demand to produce new data, but will give a consistent framework of standards, to allow the European wide use and exchange of environmental data with spatial reference. The basic principles of the INSPIRE Directive are (BERNARD 2006): To support distributed geodata and geodata services for effective geographic information processing Semantic and technical interoperability for the integration of distributed geographic information Re-utilisation of geographic information, also between different institutions Provision of geographic information for comprehensive use of all levels Good discovery and usability of geographic information To reach the aims of the directive, mainly three components are important. These are metadata, interoperability of spatial data and spatial data services and network services. Metadata should contain information e.g. about the rights to use spatial data sets, about quality and validity of spatial data and the responsible authority handling such data (Article 5). To guarantee interoperability, the directive demands among others a common framework for the unique identification of spatial objects, the relationship between spatial objects and the
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key attributes and the corresponding multilingual thesauri commonly required for policies which may have an impact on the environment (Article 7). Further more, INSPIRE demands to install a network which contains the following features (Article 11): Discovery services View services Download services Transformation services and Services to invoke spatial data services. These components should lead to a common use and re-use of spatial data, especially in the spatial data themes listed in the annexes, which contains in annex I Hydrography including river basins and sub basins according to the WFD and protected sites including SCIs. In annex II elements like elevation, geology and land cover are mentioned which are important for management plans, too. In annex III soil, land use, utility and governmental as well as environmental monitoring facilities are mentioned as spatial data themes. 4. Discussion As described in the text, environmental planning is very much influenced by European directives mainly by the Habitat Directive and the Water Framework Directive (and also the Directive of Strategic Environmental Assessment). These directives aiming for similar goals, like sustainability and conservation of biological diversity. There are quiet a lot of cross references but the important question of the spatial data handling is not very much in focus. Thus, a new approach, the upcoming INSPIRE Directive, aims to deliver a framework for the use and exchange of spatial, especially environmental data sets. It addresses to the topics of the discussed directives, too, but does not force to create new data sets. It mainly focus on organising harmonised standards for data description (metadata), the free use of different software products (interoperability) and the technical feasibility to exchange data (network services). As today there are still a lot of problems in data exchange within only one country and much more between countries, there is an essential need for such a framework in Europe. European environmental planning therefore should use the advantages of INSPIRE for the harmonization of data formats. As nature and landscape stay still unique and demands of the actors are from a great variety, this will not lead to uniform plans, but to a better planning. The programmes of measures, which have to be set in force until 2009, will profiteer, when INSPIRE is already adopted and the cross references between Habitat Directive and WFD come to live. References
BERNARD, L., ANNONI, A., KANELLOPOULOS, Y. & P. SMITS 2004: Towards the implementation of the European Spatial data infrastructure - getting the process right, 7th AGILE Conf. on Geographic Information Science BERNARD, L. 2006: Europische Geodateninfrastrukturen - Status, Herausforderungen und Perspektiven, Vermessung + Geoinformation 1+2/2006, 83 - 86 BRUNS, S. 2006: Natura 2000-Data Management in Saxony, NaturProtection GIS, proceedings of the international symposium on Geoinformatics in European nature protection, Dresden, 55 - 62 EUROPEAN COMMISSION 2003: Common implementation strategy for the Water framework directive. Guidance document No. 9. Implementing the geographical information systems (GIS) elements of the WFD EUROPEAN COMMISSION 2003b: Common implementation strategy for the Water framework directive (2000/60/EC). Guidance document No. 11. Planning process EUROPEAN COMMISSION 2003c: Interpretation manual of European Union habitats FDS (INSPIRE FRAMEWORK DEFINITION SUPPORT WORKING GRPOUP, MAX CRAGLIA 2003: Contribution to the extended impact assessment of INSPIRE, available online: http://www.ec-gis.org/inspire/(30.03.2007) LPR LANDSCHAFTSPLANUNG GBR 2006: Terrestrische Biotoptypenkartierung- und Lebensraumkartierung in FFHGebieten im Naturpark Westhavelland (FFH-Gebiet mit der Landes-Nummer 478) LFU (BAYRISCHES LANDESAMT FR UMWELTSCHUTZ) 2005: Umsetzung von Natura 2000 in Bayern abschlieende Gebietsmeldung 2004, www.lfu.de MLLER, H., 2006: Spatial Data Infrastructure in Germany - Principles and Initiatives, in: Schrenk, M., (ed.): CORP 2006 & Geomedia06, Proceedings, 75 - 82 SENATSVERWALTUNG FR STADTENTWICKLUNG BERLIN, ET AL (ed.) n.d.: Bericht ber die Umsetzung der Anhnge II, III und IV der Richtlinie 2000/60/EG im Koordinierungsraum Havel (B-Bericht) STEINNOCHER, K., BANKO, G., KSTL, M. & F. PETRINI-MONTEFERRI, 2006: European Spatial indicators - temporal development and quality aspects, in: Schrenk, M., (ed.): CORP 2006 & Geomedia06, Proceedings, 201 - 207 WENDLER, W. 2007: Bewirtschaftungsplanung nach WRRL versus FFH- Managementplanung, Naturschutz und Landschaftsplanung, 39. (3), 73 - 78
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Remote Sensing and GIS Contribution to Natural Hazard Assessment in the Vienna Area
B. Theilen-Willige1, H. Wenzel2, B. Neuhuser2 & M. Papathoma-Koehle2
1 Technical University of Berlin, Germany 2VCE Consult GmbH, Vienna, Austria Barbara.Theilen-Willige@t-online.de
Abstract The assessment of potential natural hazards in urban environments is fundamental for planning purposes and disaster preparedness, especially with regard to supervision and maintenance of extended lifeline facilities. GIS techniques are already in common use for regional vulnerability analysis. This paper presents an application that utilises geographic information system (GIS) and remote sensing tools to evaluate the potential of natural hazards in the Vienna area. Satellite imageries and digital elevation data of the Vienna area are investigated for detecting sites prone to natural hazards. Digital image processing methods are used to enhance satellite data and to derive morphometric maps from digital elevation data in order to contribute to the detection of causal factors for example related to landslides or to local site conditions influencing earthquake damage intensity and to earthquake induced secondary effects such as liquefaction, soil amplification or compaction. Maps visualizing the potential natural hazards sites are produced for urban development planning in the area of Vienna. 1. Introduction This contribution is concerned with natural environmental factors, especially with improving the understanding of the influence of environmental factors and of natural hazards on civil infrastructure and on damage accumulation prognostics in the urban areas, in this study of the Vienna area. It addresses problems caused by extreme geologic processes and hazards as earthquakes, flooding and landslides. The use of GIS integrated remote sensing data in the scope of environmental studies has been a continuous process taking place over the last decades (GUPTA,2003). 2. Methods In order to establish a cost effective method for getting a quick overview of determining factors influencing environment and potential damage intensity in hazard prone areas it is recommended to start analysing those causal factors and their complex interactions first based on remote sensing and GIS methodologies and later step by step, going into details. The goal is to develop a multi-sensor and multi-risk approach in a GIS environment to assess the potential for natural hazard on a regional basis. This approach enables to asses the geo-hazards in respect to their complex dependencies. The various data sets as LANDSAT TM data, topographic, geological and geophysical data from the investigation areas are integrated as layers into GIS using the software ArcGIS 9.1 of ESRI. The GIS integrated evaluation of the georeferenced satellite imageries allows the storage of the results in a standard form such as vector-formats (point-, line- or polygon shape-files). Various digital image processing tools delivered by ENVI Software/ CREASO were tested, as for finding the best suited LANDSAT Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) band combinations or contrast stretching parameters. The imageries were merged with the panchromatic Band 8 of LANDSAT ETM to get the spatial resolution of 15 m. Standard approaches of digital image processing with regard to the extraction of natural hazard relevant information used for this study are methods like classification for land use and vegetation information, and processing of the thermal Band 6 for deriving surface temperature information. For the investigation of vegetation anomalies that might be related to subsurface structures and landslides the NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) was calculated based on the available LANDSAT ETM Bands 3 and 4. The evaluation of digital topographic data is of great importance as it contributes to the detection of the specific geomorphologic/ topographic settings of hazard prone areas. Data of the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM, Febr.2000) are used to provide accurate digital elevation information. A systematic GIS approach is recommended extracting geomorphometric parameters based on Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data as part of a multi-hazard information system. Fig.1 shows how the causal factors influencing natural hazard susceptibility in the Vienna area are extracted systematically: From slope gradient maps are extracted those areas with the steepest slopes and from curvature maps the areas with the highest curvature as these are more susceptible to landslides, from height maps the lowest areas susceptible to flooding, from flow accumulations maps areas with highest flow accumulations. Height maps help to search for topographic depressions, which are often linked with water accumulations and wetlands. Linear morphologic features (lineaments) visible on hillshade maps and LANDSAT imageries are often related to traces of faults and fractures in the subsurface.
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Figure 1: Extraction of causal or preparatory, geomorphometric factors influencing natural hazard susceptibility based on SRTM and LANDSAT data demonstrated by the example of the Vienna area, Austria
3. Evaluations of LANDSAT and SRTM Data For Detecting Areas Prone To Natural Hazards 3.1. Earthquake Damage Amplification due to Local Site Conditions One important factor that must be accounted for in local hazard studies is the site response caused by the surface conditions. Earthquake damage may vary locally, being a function of the type of structures in the subsurface and/or soil mechanical ground conditions, as for example of faults and fractures, lithology or ground water table [Gupta, 2003]. Evaluations of remote sensing data can help considerably to identify vulnerable areas, to enhance mapping, and to improve evacuation planning. Remote sensing data can be used to map factors that are related to the occurrence of higher earthquake shock and / or earthquake induced secondary effects: factors such as liquefaction or landslides. Previous earthquakes have indicated that the damage and loss of life are mostly concentrated in areas underlain by deposits of soft soil and high ground water tables as for example the Mexico City earthquake in 1985 (Steinwachs,1988). Soft soils amplify shear waves and ,thus, amplify ground shaking. The monitoring of urban development is of great importance for disaster preparedness as buildings constructed on former lakes and wetlands have a higher damage potential during earthquakes due to longer and higher vibrations. Another approach to detect the influence of local site conditions on earthquake damage intensity is the lineament analysis based on SRTM derived morphometric maps and on LANDSAT data. The lineament analysis based on satellite imageries can help to delineate local fracture systems and faults that might influence seismic wave propagation and influence the intensity of seismic shock. As ground movements such as surface fault rupture, liquefaction, landslides, lateral spreading, soil amplification and compaction are important with regard to extended lifeline systems of Vienna, a most detailed study of subsurface structures is necessary. Intersecting fault zones could cause constructive interference of multiple reflections of seismic waves at the boundaries between fault zones and surrounding rocks. Seismic waves travelling in the subsurface might be refracted at sharply outlined discontinuities as faults, and, thus, arrive at a summation effect that influences the damage intensity. Fault segments, their bends and intersection are more apt to concentrate stress. The highest risk must be anticipated in junctions of differently oriented ruptures, especially where one intersects the other. Those areas can be considered as being more exposed to earthquake shock due to amplification of guided seismic waves along crossing fault zones and to soil amplification. Therefore special attention is focussed on precise mapping of traces of faults on remote sensing data, predominantly on areas with distinct expressed lineaments, as well as on areas with intersecting / overlapping lineaments and on areas with unconsolidated sedimentary covers. 164
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Fig.2 summarizes some of the causal factors by presenting the lowest areas with higher groundwater tables, unconsolidated sedimentary covers, steeper slopes with higher curvatures, and lineaments that might be related to subsurface structures.
Figure 2: Causal factors influencing damage intensity and secondary effects during stronger earthquakes such as high ground water tables (potential of liquefaction), intersection of distinct visible lineaments and higher density of lineaments (potential of soil amplification), high slope degrees and curvatures (potential of landslides)
3.2. Detection of Areas Prone to Landslides Usually the same factors and/ or similar factor combinations can be stated in relation to landslide phenomena, although not with the same weight, because each single case has its own peculiarities . Some of these causal factors as steep slope gradients, high curvature, critical lithologic units and high fault and fracture density can be extracted and visualized as layers in a GIS. The maps in a GIS environment allow the delineation of areas susceptible to slope failure and the better understanding of the complex interaction among the different factors (Fig.3). 4. Conclusions Satellite observations can help considerably to show vulnerable areas, enhance mapping and ameliorate the understanding of hazards. The main advantages to be outlined refer to the spatially extending information collection and the monitoring capabilities. Thus, the path of integration of satellite data analysis results into hazard zone mapping in urban areas and demonstrates that it can be easily adopted for other urban environments. Acknowledgements The support of the European Community, Project funded by the European Community under the 'Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development Programme', Contract N : EVG1-CT2002-00061, Project N : EVG1-2001-00061, Brussels, is kindly acknowledged. References
DECKER,K., PERESSON,H., & HINSCH,R. (2005): Active tectonics and Quaternary basin formation along the Vienna Basin Transform fault.- Quaternary Science Reviews 24, 307-322 FH,D., H. Bachmann, F. Bay, D. Giardini, P. Huggenberger, F. Kind, K. Lang, S. Sellami, T. WENK, FUCHS, W., GRILL, R. (1984). Map: geologische Karte von Wien und Umgebung (1:200:000). Geologische Bundesanstalt (GBA), Vienna.
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GUPTA,R.P.(2003): Remote Sensing in Geology.- Springer-Verlag, Berlin- Heidelberg-New York HAMMERL,Chr.&.LENHARDT W: Erdbeben in sterreich. Leykam Verlag, 1997. HINSCH,R. & DECKER,K.(2003): Do seismic slip deficits indicate an underestimated earthquake potential along the Vienna Basin Transfer Fault System?.- Terra Nova, Vol 15, No. 5, 343-349 HINSCH,R., DECKER,K. & WAGREICH,M.(2005): A short review of Environmental Tectonics of the Vienna Basin and the Rhine Graben area.- Austrian Journal of Earth Sciences, Volume 97, Vienna 2005, 6-15 MAYER-ROSA,D., RTTENER,E.,FH,D. et al.(1997): Erdbebengefhrdung und Mikrozonierung in der Schweiz.- NFP 31- Schlussbericht, vdf, Hochschulverlag an der ETH Zrich SCHMID, H.P. & WAGREICH, M. (2001): Simulating the stratigraphic architecture of the Lower to Middle Miocene central Vienna Basin (Austria). - Abstr. EUG 2001, Strasbourg SCHNEIDER,G.(2004): Erdbeben - Eine Einfhrung fr Geowissenschaftler und Bauingenieure.- Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, Elsevier, Mnchen SPEIGHT, J.G. (1980): The role of topography in controllong throughflow generation: a discussion, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, Bd.5, S.187-191 STEINWACHS,M.(1988): Das Erdbeben am 19.September 1985 in Mexiko - Ingenieurseismologische Aspekte eines multiplen Subduktionsbebens. in; Steinwachs M. (ed). Ausbreitungen von Erschtterungen im Boden und Bauwerk. 3.Jt. DGEB, Trans Tech.Publications,1988, Clausthal THEILEN-WILLIGE,B.(2002): Beitrag der Fernerkundung zur Erdbebenvorsorge - Fernerkundungsmethoden bei der Erfassung von durch Erdbeben und durch Erdbebenfolgeschden gefhrdeten Bereichen.- in: FIEDLER,F.(2002),Hrsg.): Naturkatastrophen in Mittelgebirgsregionen, Verlag fr Wissenschaft und Forschung GmbH, VWF,Berlin, 245-270 WOOD,J. (2004): The Geomorphological Characterisation of Digital Elevation Models.- Thesis, http://www.soi.city.ac.uk/~jwo/phd/ Satellite data: SRTM DEM: ftp://e0srp01u.ecs.nasa.gov/srtm/version1/Eurasia/, http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org/SELECTION/inputCoord.asp LANDSAT ETM Daten: http://glcfapp.umiacs.umd.edu:8080/esdi/index.jsp
Figure 3: Causal factors influencing landslide susceptibility derived from satellite and geologic data as slope degree and curvature, height, and the lithologic and tectonic setting
Landslides are concentrated were following factors overlap: steep slopes, high curvature, high lineament density, heights between 250 and 350 m, and outcrop of Molasse sediments. Landslide data: Geologischen Bundesanstalt Wien,2007
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Thinking about Crime and Space: The Case in Istanbul

Gulsen Yilmaz
Gazi University, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ankara, Turkey gulseny@gazi.edu.tr
Introduction Crime is spatial fact as much as it is social fact. Crime is not random. Any crime (form burglary to murder) consists of four dimensions, the law, the offender, the target and the place. Crime consumes space, therefore it is embedded in to the space, and crime makes a mark while existing in space. There is situations like that you may see the mark also crime or incident disappear. While handling crime concept, time and space are accepted as symmetrical. However, if crime space is defined on establishing relations, there may exist time and space congestion. Crime exists with the appearance of spatial inequality like unemployment and poverty. Crime as being a socio-spatial fact (Farooq, 1999), displays that the distribution is related with both social and physical structure. The aim of this paper is to examine the neglected connection between space and crime. Firstly the types of representation of "crime" fact defined by different approaches, advantages and disadvantages stated in these approaches and the transformations in the new world are discussed comprehensively. And then, the analysis in Istanbul will be handled according to the local dynamics which are embedded in space and crime characteristics as a new identity of city. Crime, Space and Built Environment Location is the basic and necessary feature to clarify the crime distribution and characteristics of offenders, should be on a place that affects the crime probability (Wu, 2001). Displayed here is to describe two "location" concepts including awareness space and activity space that is known that criminal person or suspect have, within the concept of "spatial behaviour of offenders theory" aiming to search offenders. Known space is the mental map that belongs to the offender's living area. This map is based on personnel observations, friends' advices or similar information resources and shows how a person will find a certain shop, restaurant or train station. Benjamin emphasizes the importance of cognitive and perception maps in space representation (Gregory, 1991). Subject crime is the area in which these maps are used; human behaves rational according to his map. In known space there is activity space and the house of criminal person, working place, entertainment, shopping areas etc. are the routine activity areas of the offenders. In nodal point within this activity spaces, it is observed that the criminal person commits a crime far from the places he is known. Another analytical approach that arises in crime distribution theories is "hot spots". Hot spots are described as sensitive areas or spaces in which crimes in certain level concentrates during certain periods (Canter,1998; Anselin et al, 2000'de Sherman and Weisburd,1995). Hot spots theory aims to analyze the place and time changes of crimes. Most appropriate spatial description type is possible with the use of point representation. With point representation it is aimed to find the specific points to be intervene by explaining crimes in cities. Representation of characteristics special to location (Massey, 1994) is important in the world experiencing transformation (in the global-local context). Hot spot in the representation of crime may be seen as an advantage by reason of to ensure the characteristics of crime special to location. Crime facts with proactive local (Cooke, 1989) can be brought into light with different characteristics in local of global. Crime geography and maps are changing in the world in relations and it come into existence the necessity of to be described on fluids. Maps formed on flow can be used for representation of crime for the space representation. In the analysis in relations, both graphic and non graphic data entries may be realized in layers. Layer is total of details owning same geometrical features (point, line, area) and common descriptive features, for example building layer, road layer, crime layer etc. In this situation by assessing in layers graphic and non graphic data which belongs to certain area relations are tried to be exposed. Another problem of world in relations is that crime can be committed on network by computer technology. Everything became electronic including information as times ago crime is also electronic. Assessed economically, with the changes in bank accounts burglary can be committed. Or assessed politically, affects of terror crimes may cause cross border results. All this examples explicitly displays the advantages of representation of crime (flow on network) with fluid space. Crime space is the space that is described on nodal points and paths. Parallel to this vision controlling the network centre is controlling the structure (Offner, 2000). In this context controlling the crime center can be seen as the first phase to decrease the crime or intervene to the crime. If it is assessed according to this vision defending that equal distribution of networks as space is not in question, crime also does not spread equally and that causes creation of inequality in space. As to Offner, spaces involving homogeneous flows frustrate to do analysis based on inequalities. Relative to that, crime will take place on space dynamics changed with the
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different interest groups strategic games and economic realities instead of spaces including homogeneous flows. There are localities with advantageous in the regions in which there is no crime or few. Importance of crime point was determined with the geographical position in the past but now it is determined on flow. According to Berger space has more important influence than time to constitute personal experience. Starting from this vision it can be thought that we may perceive crime on space. For example if my house got burgled I do not think that I live in 21. Century but I think the security problem of my district. In this event, my perception on space overbalances I have the chance to intervene the space, I may move more secure district as I thought. This example supports the vision of representation spaces related to daily path (Gregory, 1994). In this theoretical context, Crime is embedded in space. There is a important question. That is "Does bad urban planning lead to higher crime and violence?" Not on its own, since there are many badly-planned places in the world that have low crime rates. But, if one asks, "can urban planning help reduce urban crime and violence?" then the answer is, yes. How planners create safe districts? Lets we discuss in Istanbul case. The Impact of Urbanisation Historically, Istanbul has developed along the Sea of Marmara, the Bosporus and the Golden Horn. Today Istanbul has grown as the largest city of Turkey it is following the trends in other cities of the world since the beginning of 1980. Istanbul has a new face in the process of E.U. Istanbul underwent a population explosion in the post 1950 period by the migration from rural to urban areas The city's population which was only about a million in 1950 reached 2.2 million in 1970. According to the 1990 census, the city has about 8 million inhabitants and. Istanbul is the largest city of Turkey in terms of population (approximately 13 million people) and economic activity. When we analysed urbanization process, it is easily seen that Istanbul has a dual spatial and organizational structure Istanbul has include not only squatter settlement, but also, mass housing areas, and street venders and shopping malls etc.( Figure 1). The gini coefficient -the indicator of inequality- in Istanbul was inclining (Iik; Pinarciolu, 2001) and triggering the polarization. As a result of this, the rate of crimes is in Istanbul has been steadily increasing without planning.
Figure 1: Existing Land use Source: derived from the JICA data base, 2004
Crime in Istanbul Istanbul receives an estimated 500,000 migrants each year from the rural areas of the country, most of whom become squatters (Tekeli, 1994). As squatter developments become organized so the crime. The old city is surrounded by squatters, which include sixty-five percent of all buildings in Istanbul. In these areas the dominant economic activities are as informal as the housing. In these areas crime rate is the higher than the other part. Istanbul never witnessed a social crime as it is in South Africa or Brazil cases but there is a fear of others. The consequence was two-fold; "hiding" behind the rising walls of the settlements in the city and "diverging" from the urban centre to the new settlements constructed at the periphery. "Others" are mostly the immigrants who live in bad conditions without any health, education or dwelling security; mostly unemployed or working for illegal sectors and living in the derelict areas at the urban centre. Additionally, as the social and spatial privileges of the new elites inclined, the differences crystallized triggered the new elites' feel of "under threat". No doubt this fear is exaggerated and canalized by a shepherd's pipe to "secured lands"; whether at 168
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the urban centre -stressing the walls, digital security systems and security guards; or at the periphery- emphasizing the distance to the urban violence. As a result there are many projects for the new elites, since a life in Bosporus, the forestry areas or water basins can only by afforded by this class. These housing projects exchange the city values into capital by the promise of "privileged life"; relying on the lack of planning tradition in the city. Crime in Istanbul is analyzed in two different scales, one is general urban planning and the second is environmental planning. Firstly at an urban scale, crime in Istanbul is analysed but terrorism related crimes were not included. The most common crimes are robbery, burglary and assault in Istanbul. There are 24000 policemen in Security organizations and approximately 1 policeman correspondence to nearly 400 persons. Analysis result shows that police district are distributed evenly (Figure 2). According to General Directorate of Security Crime has increasing due to differentiation in the income levels, lack of efficient urban infrastructure, rapid urbanization, increasing informal structure.
Figure 2: Security Facilities and Police District in Istanbul Source: derived from the JICA data base, 2004
Planned environments in Istanbul have produced unforeseen criminogenic side-effects. Especially after the second bride, the traffic/pedestrian segregation schemes are boomed which have provided more opportune locations for street crime and offender escape routes. Land use and circulation patterns are effected crime structure in Istanbul. The spatial distribution of crime and crime structures are investigated and their links with the local characteristics of districts (32 district municipalities in Istanbul Metropolitan Area) are investigated in this paper. There are important findings according to spatial analysis based on General Directorate of Security data (2005) these are mainly as follows: There is a relationship between crime in Istanbul and the level of education and age. The crime ratio was high where the ratio of the young age group was high. High crime rate triggered the emergence of gated communities, more protected Eminn, Beyoglu, Beyolu, ili, Beikta, Kadiky, defined as a Central Business Districts crime rate Is higher than other parts of the city. In CBD and its surroundings are lively and busy areas during the day and people feel safe because they can be seen and heard by others. However, once the shops are closed the activity ceases and the fear of crime has risen. Not only in squatter areas but also in regular housing areas crime rate has become high Considering cultural diversity and subcultures in Istanbul, crime prevention is important issue both planners and mangers In mix use areas especially in new sub centres crime ratio are lower than other parts. Despite high ratio of population increase due to migration, the difference between the expectations of the migrants and what they really face and the low number of policemen per person due to the facts that the population is still attached to its traditions and customs and that face to face communication has not yet ended. Secondly, in terms of environmental planning, the design of city center, green areas and public spaces in housing areas have the important nodes in the crime pattern. There are isolated and unsheltered areas in areas behind of the city centers in Istanbul. There is no enough enlightenment in parks generally especially in housing districts. It increases the fear of crime and crime rate.
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The design and management of the environment influences human behavior, Security criteria was not undertaken in the design of urban park, for this reason design and also urban furniture did not provide secure environment. Conclusion Istanbul is a city with a positive outlook for the future. Among the world's leading cities, Istanbul will be offer one of the most secure urban environments, if planning become more efficient. Historically, Istanbul's crime rate has registered significantly below that of most large metropolitan areas. Although the Turkish population is made up of 26 different ethnic and religious groups; including the Muslims, Christians and Jews and their various denominations; these groups have lived together harmoniously for centuries. But now the rate of crime has been an alarming rate. Because there are different communal mental maps stemmed from discrete subcultures in Istanbul. Crime scenes are generally located in centers. The studies are inadequate because of lack of individual profile and individual dependent crime. Yet the general statistics about Istanbul do not represents the crime, they render an opinion. The crime analysis of spatial distribution in Istanbul shows that urban areas in Istanbul is not planned and regular , it is spontaneous and intermittent. Crime is the main contributor to the decline of quality of life in Istanbul. Crime should have been a leading of concern of the planners. Planners and the planning process can provide valuable components in effective approaches to preventing crime and improving community safety, which almost inevitably require long-term, strategic and multi-disciplinary interventions for Istanbul. In sum, it is clear that, efficient urban and environmental planning on a broad scale crime can be reduced and also cut out. To prevent crime it is important to describe congruent and different localities, specifities of sites. References
Cooke P., (1989) The Contested Terrain of Locality Studies, Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie 80, 1422. Canter, P. R. 1998, "Geographic Information Systems and Crime Analysis in Baltimore County, Maryland", Crime Mapping and Crime Prevention. Crime Prevention Studies, Eds. D. Weisburd and T. McEven, Vol: 8, Monsey, Criminal Justice Press, New York, pp. 157-190. Farooq, A. 1999, Social and Spatial Implications of Community-Based Residential Environments on Crime in Urban Settings, Ph.D. Thesis submitted to Georgia Institute of Technology. Finke, R. A. and J. Battle, 1996, Chaotic Cognition: Principles and Applications, Lawrence Erbaum Associates, Marvok. Pp. 1-64, Gregory, 1991, "Interventions in the Historical Geography of Modernity: Social Theory, Spatiality, and the Politics of Representation", Geografiska Annaler, 73 B (1), pp. 17-44. Wu, T. 2001, Analysing Crime Spatial Patterns Using Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System Technologies: Investigating the Urban Opportunity Structure Model of Jackson, Mississippi, Ph.D. Thesis submitted to Lousiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College. Seidman, S. B. 1987, "Relational Models for Social Systems", Environmental Planning B. Planning and Design, Vol: 14, pp. 135-148. Massey, D. 1994, "The Political Place of Locality Studies, Space Place and Gender, Polity Cambridge", Environment and Planning A 23, pp 267-281. Offner, J. M. 2000," 'Territorial Deregulation': Local authorities at Risk from Technical Networks", International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, Vol: 24.1. JICA data base, 2004 Istanbul Metropoliten Planning. GDS, (2000), General Directorate of Security, Archive Data GDS, (2002), General Directorate of Security, Su ve Sulu Profili, APK Yayin No:162, Ankara. Iik, O. and Pinarciolu, M. (2001) Nbetlee Yoksulluk: Sultanbeyli rnei, Iletiim yayinlari 1. baski, Istanbul; Iik, O. and Pinarciolu, M. Melih (2001) Poverty in turn: Sultanbeyli case, Iletiim, 1st press, Istanbul IPD, (2005), Istanbul Police Department, Archive Data. Tekeli, I., ( 1994 )the Developent of the ?stanbul Metropolitan Area: Urban Administration and Planning, IULA-EMME Yayini.
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Hybrid Approach for the Mapping of Sealing with High-Resolution Satellite Data in an Urban Environment
B. Coenradie3, L. Haag1, A. Damm2, P. Hostert2, B. Kleinschmit1
Technische Universitt Berlin, Landscape Architecture and Environmental Planning Humboldt-Universitt zu Berlin, Geography, Geomatics Department Digitale Dienste Berlin Leilah.Haag.1@TU-Berlin.de
1 2 3
Abstract An operational and cost-effective approach was developed to map the degree of sealing in the urban area of Berlin. Therefore multi-spectral SPOT 5 data in addition to geo-data were integrated into the classification process. The area types of the information system "Stadt und Umwelt" of the Digital Environmental Atlas of Berlin were categorised by remote sensing related criteria to initialise the analysis process for the satellite data. These categories were an important input to perform stratification and knowledge-based decisions during the classification process. Additionally, a grid of reference areas was sampled to ensure that the approach is reproducible and to enable future monitoring. In a first step, different vegetation coverage and other relevant object-classes (i.e. sand, artificial material) were separated in a spectral classification. Subsequently, these classes are re-classified into sealing categories using a rule-based classification including information from additional geo-data. Finally, the pixel-wise mapping results were aggregated into reference units. An extensive accuracy assessment was performed to estimate the absolute accuracy of the map. Furthermore, an alternative SPOT 5 satellite scene was used to evaluate the repeatability and reliability of the developed approach. The quality assessment exhibited high accuracy levels. The method is general enough to work with different satellite data with a spatial resolution of 4 m to 10 m. The high level of automation guarantees a fast operation, even for large datasets. The derived map will update current information on the degree of sealing in the Berlin Digital Environmental Atlas. Introduction In Germany, sealing data are regularly used by authorities at the federal and state level. Such data are required to support a wide range of administrative decisions and spatially explicit, environmental applications (Arnold & Gibbons, 1996; Lu & Weng, 2006). At present, there only exist heterogeneous and inaccurate data sets for Berlin (Haag 2006). Therefore a hybrid mapping approach was developed for the Berlin Senate, Department of Urban Development. In the context of the Digital Environmental Atlas, that provides digital information on the environment and ecology of Berlin, the map of soil sealing is presented in the internet (Senate Department of Urban Development 2007). The method is based on high-resolution satellite images and geo-data with the objective to provide a homogeneous, accurate, and reproducible sealing map for the entire city (Harris & Ventura, 1995). Through a combination of existing geo-data and high-resolution SPOT 5 data a high accuracy as well as the determination between the non-built-up and built-up degree of sealing is achieved. Moreover, the possibility for a monitoring of sealing was an important aspect in the development of this approach. Methods Land-use data from the information system "Stadt und Umwelt" (ISU) of the Berlin Digital Environmental Atlas, the digital cadastral map ("Automatisierte Liegenschaftskarte" ALK) and the 1:5.000 scale map of Berlin ("Karte von Berlin 1:5.000") were integrated into the classification process. The census blocks derived from the ISU were used as spatial reference units. The overall degree of sealing of a reference unit is defined as the sum of built-up areas and non-built-up but sealed surfaces. Satellite remote sensing represents one source of information among others. In the study, all the advantages like up-to-dateness and simultaneous mapping of large areas were used by analysing a high-resolution SPOT 5 scene from September 2005 (Ehlers, 2006; Phinn et al., 2002; Small, 2003). In a first step, the builtup areas were extracted from the cadastral map. Up-to-date data is available for the entire area of Berlin and for nearly all land-use types. The analysis of remote-sensing data is thus exclusively focused on the non-builtup areas. The land-use types of the ISU were categorised by remote sensing related criteria to initialise the analysis process for the satellite data. These categories were an important input to perform a stratification and to define knowledge-based decisions during the classification process.
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In the context of a hierarchical spectral classification scheme, surfaces with different degrees of vegetation coverage as well as other relevant object-classes (i.e. bare soils, sand, artificial materials) were separated. For this purpose only approved methods were selected and combined with each other (figures 1 and 2). Subsequently, these classes were re-classified into sealing categories using a rule-based classification including information from the above mentioned geo-data. Finally, the pixel-wise mapping results were aggregated for the spatial units. The result is composed of the degree of sealing for each unit: total, non-built-up and builtup.
Figure 1: Hybrid mapping approach - classification scheme A
A grid of reference areas was sampled for future monitoring and to ensure that the approach is reproducible. To prove the possibility of using the method again for monitoring aspects, a sensitivity study was additionally carried out to evaluate the repeatability and reliability of the developed hybrid approach. For this purpose, an alternative SPOT5 scene from 2006 was used. The scene parameters were set entirely differently compared to the dataset from 2005 to illuminate the effects of different phenology and varying shade fractions. Both scenes were processed in the same way and subsequently compared. Results and Discussion The results of an extensive accuracy assessment allow statistically secured statements on the level of area types as well as blocks. The calculation of independent sealing data for verification is based on current digital aerial photographs. A stratified random sample of one percent or at least five blocks per area type was extracted. Due to information on the built-up environment from the digital cadastral map, the verification is only accomplished on non-built-up surfaces. In the sensitivity analysis the good agreement between the sealing information for 2005 and 2006 should be highlighted (figure 3). An averaged variance of 3.8 percent of sealing can be observed for all validation points which represent non-change areas. This result shows the suitability of the approach for monitoring tasks. The approach is sensitive to changes above 5 percent of sealing. Effects of illumination conditions and different phenological states of vegetation are the main reason for scattering. Sealing information cannot be derived in shaded areas. Accordingly, the information was estimated considering surrounding values. The fractions of shaded surfaces vary extremely between both scenes; in 2005 the shaded area sums up to 9.5 km, whereas in 2006 the shaded area was only 1.9 km. Hence, the shadow variation affected the derivation of the sealing information. 172
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Figure 2: Hybrid mapping approach - classification scheme B
Conclusions The intention of developing an operational and cost-effective approach to map the degree of sealing in the urban area of Berlin has been achieved. The method is based on high-resolution satellite images and geodata with the objective to provide a homogeneous, accurate, and reproducible sealing map for the entire city. The repeatability and reliability of the developed approach enables future reapplications for monitoring aspects in Berlin. Furthermore the hybrid approach is assignable for other cities, if comparable geo-data is available. Acknowledgment This study was financed by the Senate Department of Urban Development in Berlin. We also kindly acknowledge the support and constructive remarks by the staff of the Senate Department of Urban Development in Berlin. References
Arnold, C. & Gibbons, C.J. (1996): Impervious surface coverage: The emergence of a key environmental indicator. In: Journal of the American Planning Associations, 62(2), pp. 243-258. Ehlers, M (2006): New developments and trends for urban remote sensing. In: Weng, Q. & Quattrochi, D.A. (eds.) (2006): Urban Remote Sensing. CRC Press Inc. Haag, L. (2006): Wie hoch sind die Versiegelungsgrade in Berlin wirklich? - Ein Methodenvergleich. Diploma thesis TU-Berlin (unpublished), Berlin. Harris, P.M. & Ventura, S.J. (1995): The integration of geographic data with remotely-sensed imagery to improve classification in urban area. In: Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 61(8), pp. 993-998.
Figure 3: Comparison of the degree in sealing for 2005 and 2006 for 305 block areas
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Figure 4: Extract of the spectral classification, the rule-based classification and the final map of the degree of sealing in Berlin Lu, D. & Weng, Q.H. (2006): Use of impervious surface in urban land-use classification. In: Remote Sensing of Environment, 102(1-2), pp. 146-160. Phinn, S., Stanford, M., Scarth, P., Murray, A.T. & Shyy, P.T. (2002): Monitoring the composition of urban environments based on the vegetation-impervious surface-soil (VIS) model by subpixel analysis techniques. In: International Journal of Remote Sensing, 23(20), pp. 4131-4153. Senate Department of Urban Development (2007): Berlin Digital Environmental Atlas. http://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/umwelt/umweltatlas/edua_index.shtml, Berlin. Small, C. (2003): High spatial resolution spectral mixture analysis of urvan reflectance. In. Remote Sensing of Environment, 88, pp. 170-186.
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Land cover change by rapid industrialization over a decade and its impact on environment
Mehmet Emin zel1, Hlya Yildirim2 Alparslan Aka3
1 anakkale OM University (OM) anakkale,Turkey; 2Kocaeli University(KOU), Izmit,Turkey; 3Universitt Gttingen, Germany hulya.yildirim@kou.edu.tr
Abstract The rapid uncontrolled industrialization and population growth in an area requires fast assessment for the actual land-cover/land-use (LC/LU) maps in order to avoid overuse and damaging of the landscape beyond sustainability. Modern remote sensing and information technologies fit well for long term monitoring of such effects. In the present exercise, a region of Gebze County 50 km east of metropolitan Istanbul is considered, as a pilot site for analyzing such rapid change and its effects on environment. We considered LC/LU maps of the region over the years starting from 1986 for a number of years by satellite images.Comparisona are made between the observed patterns and the land-use patterns projected by the government planning offices in the region in 1986. It is observed that proposed LC/LU patterns are overshooting the planned areas in much less than a decade. Our mapping ends in 1999 just before the 17 August Marmara Earthquake devastating the area to a large extent. Present results may also be used for before-and after-earthquake-inventory comparisons in many areas. Key words: Remote Sensing, Geographic Information Systems, temporal changes in LC/LU, Image Classification. Introduction Since several decades, multi-temporal high resolution satellite images and their analysis have become a strong tool for monitoring environment for urban expansion, vegetation cover, soil degradation, and several types of land-cover/land-use (LC/LU) changes (Aka 1989; Yildirim et al., 1995). Uses of space based techniques allow one to obtain valuable knowledge in relatively short time intervals and cost-effective ways. Satellite image classification and resultant LC/LU maps with proper specifications serve as an essential database for planning and administrative actions. The integration of such remote sensing data into a geographic information system (GIS) offers a wide range of new perspectives for the monitoring analysis, evaluation and interpretation, in combination with auxiliary digital information such as digitized maps (zel et al., 1999). The pilot study area chosen is in the area of county of Gebze, in Kocaeli Peninsula, in north-western Turkey. The county is situated on the immediate eastern border of Istanbul Province. Recently, uncontrolled and unregulated construction and industrialization activities with parallel urbanization efforts have presented difficult problems for planning and presumably sustainable development efforts. Present work aims at the digital documentation of LC/LU changes resulting from such activities. By use of multi-temporal satellite images, a comparison will be made between the land-use patterns at different and the land-use projected by the regional administration for the same area. Material And The Analysis The study area is an area of 85 km2 centered at coordinates of (41 N, 29 E) including Gebze (Figure 1), a county (pop.270.000 in 2005) It is in the half-way between Istanbul (pop.10 million) and Izmit (pop.300.000). 3 satellite images covering the interval 1986-1998 and existing planning map of the area are used for the analysis. Resultant figures are obtained through the use of ERDAS Imagine software and a Maximum Likelyhood (ML) was the main tool of classification. Main image classes and subclasses used were (1) Industry/Roads (INDUSTRY), (2) Urban areas (URBAN and URBAN GREEN), (3) Forest (DENSE FOREST and OPEN FOREST), (4) Agriculture and Pastures (PASTURE) and (5) Water surfaces (WATER). ARC/INFO was used as the geographic information system (GIS) to integrate and jointly analyse all the images and maps brought to same scales. Analysis were carried out by comparing the classification results for years 1986, 1993 and 1998 with each other and with the 1/25.000 scale planning/forecasting map of the Gebze county dated 1986. Results And Discussion (1) LC/ LU Statistics for 1986, 1993 and 1998 In Table 1 is summarized the areal size of resultant LC/LU classes for 1986, 1993 and 1998 for the entire project area of A=105.5 square kilometers. The coverage in the region at the beginning is overwhelmingly (70%) NATUREL, i.e., (FOREST and PASTURE) while artificial (MAN MADE) surfaces (INDUSTRY and URBAN) are 30% only.
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Table 1. LC/LU classes in the area in 1986, 1993 and 1998 (*)
Years LC/LU classes URBAN INDUSTRY DENSE FOREST OPEN FOREST PASTURE T O T A L Combined classes MAN-MADE covers NATURAL covers FORESTALL
1986 2 Area ( km ) 28.3 3.2 2.8 29.9 41.2 105.5 31.6 73.9 32.7
1993 2 % Area (km ) 26.9 3.1 2.7 28.3 39.0 100.0 30.0 70.0 31.1 39.3 12.3 9.4 27.5 17.0 105.5 51.6 53.9 36.9
1998 2 % Area( km ) 37.3 11.6 8.9 26.1 16.1 100.0 48.9 51.1 35.0 37.9 19.7 20.8 16.3 10.7 105.5 57.6 47.9 37.1
% 35.9 18.7 19.7 15.5 10.1 100.0 54.6 45.4 35.2
(*)Percentages refer to the total size of the study area, 105.5 square kilometers.
In 1993, we see that natural coverage, has decreased by about 1/3 of their area so that only 51% can be collected under NATURAL umbrella. The MAN-MADE classes however, increased by as much as half of their earlier sizes, reaching 49%. Within this, the INDUSTRY increased by ~4-fold indicating a strong pressure over the NATURAL areas. (2) Comparison of Actual and Projected Land Uses during the interval Although 1986 distribution of LC/LU classes are quite in line with planning, classifications observed in 1993 and in 1998 show larger and larger deviations (Table 2).
Table 2: Comparison of 1986 LC/LU planning to actual LC/LU in 1993 and 1998.
(A): Comparison of 1986 planning to 2 main actual LC / LU classes in 1993. Actual Land Use: Actual Land INDUSTRY Use: URBAN 2 2 % Area(km ) Area (km ) 2.6 21.8 1.7 4.9 40.6 18.5 0.1 0.8 0.1 3.0 24.8 8.5 1.4 5.9 12.0 12.0 100.0 34.7
(B):Comparison of 1986 planning to 2 main actual LC / LU classes in 998. Actual Land Use: Actual Land INDUSTRY Use: URBAN 2 2 Area(km ) % Area (km ) % 4.0 20.5 4.0 1.5 4.7 55.7 22.0 21.1 0.4 0.7 1.0 0.4 6.2 31.5 7.7 20.3 4.6 7.2 23.3 18.0 19.7 100.0 37.9 100.0
Projected Land-Use Industry Urban Dense Forest Open Forest Pasture Total
% 4.8 53.4 0.4 24.4 17.0 100.0
There are also problems of location of INDUSTRY and URBAN classes within the region, not clearly seen in Table 2. While the URBAN class is somewhat in alignment with planning, only about one-fifth of INDUSTRY were found in regions which were spared for such use in the planning. There is also a further mixing: 40 % of INDUSTRY lies in regions designated for future URBAN use. This decreases to 22 % in 1998, meaning that INDUSTRY started invading the natural areas (such as PASTURE) during the 1993-1998 interval. As a summary, no single LC/LU classes were correctly predicted even for the next 5-6 years, let alone for and above a decade, except for FOREST areas, for which strong legal protection. Actually the DENSE FOREST area in 1998 goes even, to the positive side, not far from the originally planned boundaries in 1986. All this brings again, use and necessity of proper tools for timely monitoring, which will also timely revisions. (3) Contingency Table for 1998-Classification Results Classification errors are usually evaluated by a so called 'contingency table' (Lillesand and Kiefer, 1994). We give such a table for 1998 for which a high resolution (6m) multicolor image from Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) image, at about the same time as 1998 LANDSAT TM image. This was used as the 'ground truth' to estimate the 'incorrect class assignments'. against the 'actual' IRS class values. It may not be a full substitute for an actual ground truthing and results will only be indicative of general mixing trends among the LC/LU 176
Mehmet Emin zel, Hlya Yilirim Alparslan Aka: Land cover change by rapid industrialization
classes. However, due to compensating nature of 'omission' and 'commission' errors, the 'overall accuracy' (80 %) is rather reliable. Results of this analysis are presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Contingency Table for 1998 LC/LU classification results.
Urban Urban Industry Dense forest Open forest Pasture TOTAL Producers accuracy 41.8% 2.6% 1.5% 0.4% 1.1% 47.7% 88%
Industry 5.5% 15.8% 0.5% 0.4% 0.7% 22.9% 69%
Dense forest 0.9% 0.3% 15.4% 3.0% 0.2% 19.8% 78%
Open forest 0.5% 0.3% 1.0% 4.2% 0.2% 6.2% 68%
Pasture TOTAL 0.2% 0.2% 0.0% 0.4% 2.6% 3.5% 77%
Users accuracy
85% 49.0% 82% 19.2% 83% 18.5% 51% 8.4% 54% 4.7% 100% 100% 100% Overall ac-. curacy: 80%
In Table 3 a number of noticeable differences in individual class behavior are observed. The reported overall accuracy (80 %) is well above the producer's accuracy of PASTURE and OPEN FOREST classes. They may be incorrectly assigned to each other by the ML algorithm. For INDUSTRY, mixing with URBAN is also quite significant (up to 25 %), while, for URBAN, the confusion with INDUSTRY is not high (only 5 % or so). This is probably due to the fact that, for a newly growing (uncontrolled) industrial 'seed area', some housing near (or within) the same region develops, helping to the increase of confusion. Conclusions We can draw the following conclusions from the above analysis: (1) Despite some mixing, (NATURAL vs MAN-MADE), the work reveals that, within < 10 years, LC/LU developments changes: change is predominantly farming (PASTURE) and forest utilization to that of URBANINDUSTRIAL use. Fig 3 indicates LC/LU classes over the years as a bar chart for Graphical inspection. It clearly show that, the pace of change (i.e., rate of industrialization and urbanization) has accelerated during 1993-1998 interval. Conversion of LC/LU classes into FOREST, URBAN, and INDUSTRY from 1986 to 1998 is given by Fig 2. (2) Planning and timely monitoring of MAN MADE classes are definitely 'problematic'. Both classes were 'out of control' in a short time ( 5 years), in area coverage, as well as in their geographical distributions. One reason in this quick and unchecked deviation is the lack of modern monitoring techniques (i.e., satellite images and GIS) for the control of the planning. After this study, Gebze County decided to initiate a program for creating and using its own GIS system (Yildirim et al., 2000). (3) As present exercise indicate, satellite remote sensing, digital image processing combined with information management systems form a strong and effective tool for monitoring and assessment of changes and deviations from actual plans in an economic and timely way. (4) 1999 Marmara Earthquake which occured 1 year after the 1998 TM image used here, can be taken as a new start for a more controlled urbanization / industrialization process in line with sustainable development and efficient planning principles; i.e., the earthquake may have had its own unexpectedly 'positive' pressure on the use of modern and effective techniques for LU / LC planning, management and monitoring of large areas for the regional administrations. (5) Although the differences are rather minor, European Union LC/LU classification standards (Perdigo, 2002) known as CORINE does not fully overlap with the present classification classes. The main reason for this difference is the fact that very rapid industrialization and fast population growth in the area have dictated their own specific classes. If need arises, these classes can be converted into CORINE classes, with some minor modifications. References
Aka, A. 1989. Permanente Luftbildistichprobe. Allg.Forst-u. Jagd-Ztg. 160(4), 65-69. Huss, J. (ed.), 'Luftbildmessung und Fernerkundung in der Forstwirtschaft', 1984,Karlsruhe:Qichmann, 406 pages. Lillesand, T. M. and Kiefer, R. W., C., 1994. Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation, 3rd edn., New York, Wiley & Sons. zel M.E., Yildirim H., Alparslan E., Aydner C., Elita S., Divan J., Daci M., Dnerta A., Erkan B.,1999."Development of a GIS Data Base of Yeilirmak Watershed Using RS and GIS", 3rd Turkish German Geodetic Days,Berlin, proceedings, Germany, 2,589-598.
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Perdigo, V., Steenmans, L., 2002, 'Corine Land Cover: Latest Developments', http: // www. desertification. Yildirim H., Alparslan E. & zel M.E.: 'Temporal Change Detection by Principal Component Transformation on Satellite Imagery', presented at IEEE, 1995, Int. Geosci. & Rem. Sensing, Firenze, Italy, 2, 1227-1229. Yildirim H., zel M. E., ztrk Y.& Gafarov, R.; 'Gebze County GIS Infrastructure', MRC Space Technologies Group, Project number 24.2.004, Final Report, March 27, 2000.
Fig 1: Location of study area (frame).
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Time and Space Geographical Readings in the Bragantina Region Water Basins So Paulo/Minas Gerais Brazil
Almerinda Antonia Barbosa Fadini1, Joo Luiz de Moraes Hoeffel1 & Pompeu Figueiredo de Carvalho2
1
Universidade So Francisco, Universidade 2 Estadual Paulista; So Paulo Brazil
joaoluiz@saofrancisco.edu.br Abstract The construction of D. Pedro I Highway, the Cantareira Water Supply System, and of additional lanes for the Ferno Dias Highway intensified many social and environmental impacts in the diverse water basins of the Bragantina Region (southeastern Brazil). Standing out among these are those that directly affect water resources and local biodiversity, in addition to cultural changes. In this context, two water basins were studied Moinho Creek, in the State of So Paulo (SP) and Cadete Stream in the State of Minas Gerais (MG), both in the Bragantina Region. The Moinho Creek Water Basin located in Nazar Paulista-SP had a considerable part of its fertile lands flooded by the Atibainha River Reservoir which integrates the Cantareira System; however this area still maintains some rural aspects that can be seen mainly in the local population's way of life. This district's mountainous area with hilltops covered with Atlantic Forest, the presence of the reservoir, ease of access, and overall scenic beauty are provoking a change in the geographical arrangement of land use in the Moinho Basin, mainly due to increasing tourism. The Cadete Stream Water Basin located in the District of Monte Verde, Camanducaia-MG, is characterized by the presence of established tourism activities and which have created serious environmental problems due to the absence of appropriate basic sanitation and by use of areas that are very steep and inappropriate for urban expansion and the development of tourism facilities. Social and environmental transformations in both water basins are not being accompanied by appropriate environmental planning or effective involvement of the local population. Considering this picture, this research work's objective is to characterize social and environmental changes and impacts that are taking place in these two water basins through interpretation and temporal analyses of thematic maps of land use made through geoprocessing technology. This cartographic work has made it possible to identify and interpret the main environmental impacts in the study areas. These results are contributing to the elaboration of a proposal for participatory environmental planning and environmental education programs. The Bragantina Water Basins and their environmental problems The water basins located in southern Minas Gerais and in northeastern So Paulo State belong to the Bragantina Region and have experienced a series of socioenvironmental changes in the last decades due to construction and further widening of important regional highways and creation of the Cantareira of Water Supply System. Standing out among these are intense cultural changes and impacts affecting water resources and local biodiversity (HOEFFEL, MACHADO & FADINI, 2005). In this context, two water basins were selected and their socioenvironmental problems studied. These basins were those of Moinho Creek, in the State of So Paulo, and Cadete Stream in the State of Minas Gerais. The Moinho Creek water basin located in the municipal district of Nazar Paulista, So Paulo, Brazil, had a considerable part of its fertile land flooded by the construction of the Atibainha River Reservoir, part of the Cantareira Water Supply System. Nonetheless, this district still maintains some rural characteristics which can be seen mainly in the local population's way of life. This mountainous landscape, with hills still covered with remnants of Atlantic Forest, the presence of the lake created by the dam, easy access, and the landscape's scenic beauty are determining a change in the geographical arrangement of land uses in this basin, mainly due to an increase in tourism (FADINI & CARVALHO, 2004). The Cadete Stream water basin located in the District of Monte Verde, municipal district of CamanducaiaMinas Gerais State, is characterized by the presence of established tourism activities which have resulted in serious socioenvironmental problems from the absence of appropriate sanitation and by the use of very steep areas located in the Mantiqueira Mountain Range for urban development and the expansion of tourism. In both water basins, these socioenvironmental transformations are not being accompanied by appropriate environmental planning or effective involvement of the local population. In this context, the objectives of this research are to analyze on-going socioenvironmental changes and impacts and to contribute to the development of a participatory environmental planning proposal for these basins, using interpretation and temporal analyses of thematic maps and appropriate maps of land uses for the years 1972 and 2004 (Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4), created through geoprocessing technology (FADINI, 2005).
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Legend for all figures: 1 - Limits 2 - Hydrography 3 - Hydrography outside the water basin 4 - Highway 5 - Appropriate 6 - Underused 7 - Overused 8 - Urban Area
Methodological procedures Temporal diagnoses of land use transformations for Moinho Creek and Cadete Stream water basins were obtained by methodological procedures in three phases. This process resulted in critical analyses of thematic maps created from topographical maps, aerial pictures, satellite images, and from field Figure 1: Map of area in appropriate, underused, and overused land uses work (with the support of GPS) and Moinho Creek Water Basin - 1972 through digital processing with a Geographic Information System (GIS). In the first phase, the following maps were produced: hydrography, Areas of Permanent Preservation (APP), soil type, declivity (slope), and land use for 1972 and 2004. The second phase involved GIS analyses of declivity and soil layers to generate mapped classes of land use capacity. In the third phase, analyses that took into consideration both the maps of different land uses for the years 1972 and 2004 and maps of land use capacity classes led to maps showing areas that were in environmentally appropriate land use for the respective years. This last phase of our methods allowed for a diagnoFigure 2: Map of area in appropriate, underused, and overused land uses sis of land use transformations, Moinho Creek Water Basin - 2004 relationships to the location of Areas of Permanent Preservation (APP), and analyses of appropriate land use (FADINI, 1998; 2005). Geographical Changes in the Water Basins It was verified that land uses considered appropriate those being explored inside the limits imposed by the classification of use capacity and respecting Areas of Permanent Preservation are increasing in the Moinho Creek water basin. This is due to a natural restoration of forests in high declivity areas. However, the importance of eucalyptus forestry in these areas was also verified. It is recommended that future conversion to this land use be avoided and that current eucalyptus plantations be replaced by native species so that an integrated restoration of these important potential preservation areas can be obtained. In the Cadete Stream water basin, a high increase in urban area was verified for the study period, demonstrating that over the last 33 years an intense spatial dynamic happened in the Monte Verde District. Uses considered appropriate in this basin generally did not show a significant change during the study period. Nonetheless changes to the most appropriate land use were associated with recovery of forests in high declivity areas. In this basin, it is also recommended that eucalyptus forestry should also be avoided and restoration of these lands with native species be undertaken. 180
A. A. B. Fadini et al.: Time and Space Geographical Readings in the Bragantina Region Water Basins
The areas classified as underused those that could support agriculture with a more intensive use of the soil, as they have both low declivity and fertile soils both in the Moinho Creek as well as in the Cadete Stream water basin are increasing, although in a minor way. It was observed that these areas are being used mainly for pastures, even though they could support annual and perennial crops, provided conservation practices were respected. Regarding areas that are being overused areas with uses above their environmental capacity, occupying high declivity, fragile soils, APP's and so generating degradation at critical levels, it was verified that such overuse stands out in the Moinho Creek water basin.. Although these uses decreased over the analyzed years, they continue to dominate the landscape, representing for more than half of the whole area. In the Cadete Stream water basin, the data demonstrate a drop in overuse areas. These data should nonetheless be considered in environmental planning because these uses, especially for pastures and urban expansion, are occupying areas of low use capacity and APP's and could generate serious soil erosion and water conservation problems.
Figure 3: Map of area in appropriate, underused, and overused land uses Cadete Stream Water Basin - 1972
Time and Space Brief Considerations One relevant aspect that emerges from this research is the recognition Figure 4: Map of area in appropriate, underused, and overused land uses that the Bragantina Region suffers Cadete Stream Water Basin - 2004 the dynamics of an external time (external temporal context), specifically that of great metropolises, which demand huge infrastructure and expansion projects, in contrast with the region's internal time. This situation provokes profound impacts on the environment and to local communities. It is indispensable that we consider these social time contexts in the planning of great spaces which command the accumulation of capital. As pointed by Harvey (2000), "capitalism is always under the impulsion to accelerate turnover time, to speed up the circulation of capital and consequently to revolutionize the time of horizons of development. All sorts of mechanisms exist for coordinating between capital dynamics working to different temporal rhythms. Capitalism thereby produces a geographical landscape (of space relations, of territorial organization, and of systems of places linked in a global division of labor and of functions) appropriate to its own dynamic of accumulation at a particular moment of its history, only to have to destroy and rebuild that geographical landscape to accommodate accumulation at a later date". In this context, it is expected that our environmental diagnosis can be used to support planning and environmental management of both water basins studied. Such time-space analyses can form a basis for regionally integrative efforts to adopt corrective and preventative measures. However, it is recommended that this process be followed by a study that involves local communities, in order to identify the perception and expec-
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tations of these social actors and to establish, through a participatory action, the environmental sustainability of these water basins. References
FADINI, Almerinda A. B. Impactos do Uso das Terras na Bacia Hidrogrfica do Rio Jundia (SP). Dissertao de Mestrado. Rio Claro-SP: UNESP, 1998. FADINI, Almerinda A. B. e CARVALHO, Pompeu F. de. Os usos das guas do Moinho - Um estudo na Bacia Hidrogrfica do Ribeiro do Moinho - Nazar Paulista-SP. II Encontro da ANPPAS. Indaiatuba: ANPPAS, 2004, p. 01-20 (CD ROM). FADINI, Almerinda A. B. Sustentabilidade e Identidade Local - Pauta para um planejamento ambiental em sub-bacias hidrogrficas da Regio Bragantina. Tese de Doutorado. Rio Claro-SP: UNESP, 2005. HARVEY, David. Spaces of hope. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000, p. 58-9. HOEFFEL, Joo Luiz, MACHADO, Micheli K. & FADINI, Almerinda A. B. Mltiplos olhares, Usos conflitantes Concepes ambientais e turismo na APA do Sistema Cantareira. OLAM - Cincia & Tecnologia. Percepo, Interpretao e Representao do Meio Ambiente, Rio Claro, v. 5, n. 1, Maio/2005, p.119-45. (CD-ROM).
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Reality-based virtual 3D city models for urban planning

K. Ulm
CyberCity AG, Switzerland kulm@cybercity.tv
Introduction Reality-based 3D city models generated using airborne data (i.e. stereo aerial imagery or laserscanner data) are predominantly used in urban planning, architecture and marketing (e.g. tourism, real estate promotion). The demand to use real-time virtual reality to improve the understanding of complex project information and also to communicate this complexity to the public is growing. 3D visualization, instead of 2D maps and drawings, reflects a virtual image of the environment, which is what people are used to seeing. Intelligent measurement and semi-automatic procedures by CyberCity AG reduce labor costs and turnaround time, while ensuring geospatial accuracy and photo-realism. CyberCity generates textured 3D city models of large areas semi-automatically from stereo aerial images or laserscanner data and developed the specialized software CyberCity-Modeler (CC-Modeler). The 3D building data fulfills format (e.g. SHP, MDB, DXF, FLT), technical (e.g. Level-of-Detail, texture optimization) and quality (e.g. accuracy, up-to-date) requirements for the use within Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Visualization. The interactive and web-based 3D visualization with the professional tool TerrainView-Globe respectively TerrainView-Web (ViewTec AG) enables planners, engineers and decision makers to test, view and evaluate the spatial and visual impacts of changing project conditions and parameters in real time within a detailed, spatially accurate, georeferenced computer environment. The understanding of the complex project information can be improved and a successful community-outreach program including visualization, multi-media and web-streaming of huge 3D sceneries containing high-resolution landscape and city models can be achieved. Semi-automatic generation of textured 3D city models from airborne data By using photogrammtery it is possible to determine the three-dimensional coordinates of the building roof points by measurement in two photographic aerial images taken from different positions during an aerial flight campaign. CyberCity developed its own software CyberCity-Modeler to cost-efficiently create 3D city models using photogrammetry but also using laser scanner data (LIDAR: LIght Detection And Ranging). Generally, different Level-of-Details (LOD) can be derived from various input data. We differentiate between (see Figure 1) buildings with flat roofs (so called block models), buildings with main roof structures and buildings with detailed superstructures like dormers, chimneys etc. If cadastral data like planimetric building footprints from terrestrial surveying are available, even roof overhangs can be created easily by extruding the 2D polygon to the 3D roof structure. By being flexible in the creation of different LODs from the same source data, it is always possible to tailor the 3D data to be produced to the customer project needs and to its budget range.
Figure 1: Level-of-Details (A: Block model with flat roof, B: Main roof structures, C: Main roofs with detailed superstructures, D: Roof overhangs).
The accuracy of the final 3D data output depends on the source data. For detailed roof structures it can be approx. 0.2m when using stereo aerial images of a representative fraction scale of 1:5'000 with forward overlap 60% and side overlap 30% or digital imagery with a ground sample distance of approx. 0.1m. On the other hand, if main roof structures are derived from stereo satellite scenes (e.g. Quickbird, IKONOS) with a resolution of approx. 0.6-1m, an accuracy of approx. 1.5m can be achieved. To get photo-realistic virtual building models, different kinds of textures (representative facade picture) may be applied. Large areas can be textured easily using generic textures chosen from an available library of sample regional textures, which brings along the advantage that large areas can be textured with low costs and the disadvantage that specific walls do not appear as they do in reality. To meet the requirement of most customers and industries to have the real appearance of the actual wall, CyberCity developed a procedure to semi-automatically apply facade textures using oblique aerial images. CyberCity markets the 3D model,
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Figure 2: 3D model of Zurich International Airport, Switzerland, derived from stereo aerial images by CyberCity AG and used for GIS, planning, engineering and visualization in ArcGlobe (ESRI). Courtesy of Unique (Flughafen Zrich AG).
Orthophoto and Digital Terrain Model of Hamburg, Germany, and applied this texturing procedure for the inner city of Hamburg (Figure 3) as well as for the 3D model of Salzburg (Figure 4).
Figure 3: 3D City Model of Hamburg, Germany, with semi-automatic texturing using oblique aerial images. Left: St. Michaelis Church. Right: City Hall Hamburg. Courtesy of the State Office for Geo-Information and Survey (LGV) of the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg.
Figure 4: 3D City Model of Los Angeles, USA. Photo-realistic textures in the Little Tokyo district. Courtesy of CyberCity AG.
The most photo-realistic textures are obtained when acquiring terrestrial digital photographs of the buildings on site and the cleaning of the images from disturbing objects such as trees or cars etc. These high quality textures are mostly required when simulating the view of a pedestrian or from a car in simulation and urban planning applications (Figure 2 and Figure 5). 3D city models by CyberCity AG are exported to GIS formats like shapefile and geodatabase for analysis in ArcGIS 9 (ESRI Inc.), to standard CAD formats (e.g. DXF) and to the real-time format OpenFlight support184
K. Ulm: Reality-based virtual 3D city models for urban planning
ing multiple Level-of-Detail (LOD) for interactive visualization e.g. in TerrainView-Globe. This variability in formats increases the value of the 3D data for customers not only from the local government by allowing the use in several departments by several users in a number of different systems, which legitimates the initial investment in the production of such data.
Figure 5: 3D Model along the COS path, Los Angeles, USA. Videos of the internal inspection of the sewer were integrated as hyperlinks into the real-time visualization with TerrainViewGlobe (ViewTec AG).
The Need for 3D in urban planning The demand to use real-time virtual reality to improve the understanding of complex project information and also to communicate this complexity to the public is growing. The added value provided by a three-dimensional environment compared to a 2D plan is significant. 3D visualization, instead of 2D maps and drawings, reflects a virtual image of the environment, which is what people are used to seeing. One currently available visualization solution is TerrainView-Globe, which combines the obvious advantages of virtual planning in a software tool tailored to these challenges. It enables the display of immense geodatasets like digital terrain models textured with orthophotos and huge textured 3D city models in an interactive mode and includes functionality to combine the existing virtual environment with planning alternatives. Therefore, the future situation of a planning hot spot is visualized and several visual impacts can be taken into account during the planning process when comparing several alternatives. This powerful solution was also used in the Central Outfall Sewer (COS) project of the city of Los Angeles Department of Public Works Bureau of Engineering, which is a part of a larger effort to rehabilitate the entire city sewer system. The project included the creation of a geospatially accurate 3D terrain and city model along the COS path. The model included maintenance-hole structures, connecting sewers, street names, proposed construction sites and 3D buildings to name only a few. The model enables planners, engineers and decision makers to test, view and evaluate the spatial and visual impacts of changing project conditions and parameters in real time within a detailed, spatially accurate, georeferenced computer environment. Videos of the internal inspection of the sewer were integrated as hyperlinks to the corresponding location in the sewer. The understanding of the complex project information was improved and a successful community-outreach program including multi-media and web-streaming was achieved. The availability of the model helps the engineers to reduce the amount of time needed for field visits, which also reduced internal costs. Local governments find themselves often confronted with complex decision processes about larger restructuring projects of Old Town areas and investment projects (e.g. a new shopping center, commercial area, industrial site). To discuss the Pros and Cons of the project, many meetings with the local citizens have to be hold. Using a web-based interactive visualization (e.g. with TerrainView-Web), all parties involved in the decision-making process can fly via internet interactively through the virtual 3D city model. When a new road construction was planned, TerrainView-Web helped to demonstrate and visualize the possible alternatives (variant planning) on the Internet. The impact on the natural landscape becomes most clear in the 3D virtual representation of the situation. Besides the terrain, image data and 3D city models it is also possible to show various 3D objects like bridges (Figure 6). Once an investment project like a commercial area is realized, it is important for the operator of the site to acquire customers, e.g. companies searching for a new office location. The operator may be a real estate com-
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pany or a local government. As it is not only the price that governs the decision making process but also aspects like connectivity to public transport, local infrastructure and the location of the site in a larger context, TerrainView-Web is an excellent web-based platform for business development and business location marketing. The Benefit of 3D Being able to use standard airborne data such as stereo aerial/satellite imagery or laser scanner data to create accurate, detailed and textured 3D city models efficiently, the next step into the third dimen- Figure 6: 3D Scene with planned highway with bridge. Courtesy of CyberCity AG, FMM GmbH, ViewTec AG. sion for a number of applications like urban planning, GIS analysis, engineering, architecture and also city marketing, tourism can be taken. Besides the cost-efficient data generation feasibility and availability, software solutions like TerrainView-Globe (ViewTec AG) and ArcGlobe (ESRI Inc.) as well as web-based solutions like TerrainView-Web allow the visualization of 3D datasets combined with further information and its analysis to fulfill the requirements of GIS users and to set the foundation for 3D in a number of industries. This makes 3D not only highly beneficial in urban planning, but also for applications in tourism, telecommunication planning, engineering and architecture, homeland security, game design, real estate management and lots more.
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GEOkomm: Network Activities for Urban Research and Planning of the Urban Environment
P. A. Hecker
GEOkomm networks, Potsdam;, Germany peter.a.hecker@geokomm.net
Abstract Urban planning, particularly environmental planning, has to be based both on precise and reliable spatial data bases and on professional services for data processing and deriving meaningful information from multiple data sets for the respective planning purposes and preparing decisions. City administrations in many cases are unable to provide all these required data and services by their own capabilities; they have to cooperate instead with scientific institutions and with commercial planning bureaus. As in many cases complex analyses and solutions are required instead of the specific narrow-band services which in general are offered by small and medium enterprises (SMEs) or scientific institutions, it can become quite complicated to arrange well-suited service-teams. GEOkomm networks is introduced by this contribution as an example for optimizing cooperation and the required services. Regional cooperation for international services All kinds of data to be applied to spatially related planning purposes, nowadays on the one hand are derived from geo information (such as remote sensing data) and, on the other hand, are developed to new digital data sets; online digital maps or even 3D-animations have developed to the most common form of presenting planning contents. Therefore a wide range of specialized software empowering so called GIS-technology is used. All kinds of data processing and management of voluminous datasets are developed and performed by GIStechnology. Predominantly small and medium enterprises (beside some research institutes) are active in this field. SMEs, in general, are too small for successfully offering their specialized services on their own on the market which is dominated by big complex projects on the international level. The resulting problem can be overcome by two approaches: - Cooperation with the existing research institutions in the region; - Cooperation of several SMEs which are able to support each other by offering complementary services of different profile and thus covering the whole chain of value adding contributions to the final product or complex service. In the most complex environment of metropolitan districts and other forms of urban sprawl all kinds of planning procedures require rapidly changing, in some parts very particular, in other parts most comprehensive or most accurate and detailed information in order to meet specific planning objectives, to enable participation of citizens and interest groups and thus to support political decision finding. The resulting challenges are sometimes surprising and often their handling has to take place under extreme pressure of schedules. An administration run by the state or a municipality, only based on its own capacities, normally cannot cope with such requirements. It will need support both for rising research need and for coping with large unexpected workloads. Under the given economic restrictions individual small research institutions or planning enterprises can neither keep prepared to offer the required knowledge and experience as comprehensive and as well managed as demanded at any time, nor are they sufficiently flexible to cope with larger assignments, if they are coming in surprisingly and have to be carried out under pressure of time and towards very specific solutions. The possible problems as reported above may be solved quickly and flexibly by a coordinating centre which is funded by a certain number of individual institutions and enterprises, if this coordination centre is in possession of comprehensive information on the available technical and knowledge capacities in the respective region. This centre is able to work without much staff of its own. The GEOkomm networks, as an example, claim the ability to coordinate and manage all geo information requirements at least in the metropolitan region of Berlin. Common access to geo information, which is standardized among the network members, defines the most important connecting element between the member institutions. As a combined and connected framework or team GEOkomm networks are strong enough to even compete on the international market (HECKER, 2005). Network partners and their profiles Under the umbrella of GEOkomm networks enterprises and research institutions have joint together in order to cover the whole chain of value adding contributions from data acquisition by satellite, aircraft or field suvey
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up to the final product or service which meets all the requirements of the customer or the final user of the provided services. At present most important customers are public administrations in Germany in charge of planning tasks such as urban planning or landscape planning. Another group of final users of the offered services are big companies in the real estate business, power or water supply etc. The profiles of the cooperating enterprises, guided by GEOkomm, are characterized predominantly by remote sensing, data analyses and development of software to be applied for optimizing geo data infrastructure. The four most important highlights of competence are advertised under the slogans "geotainment", "remote sensing", "GALILEOTM" (navigation) and "SDI" (spatial data infrastructure). Internal working groups are active in these fields (GEOKOMM, 2006). Research activities Although GEOkomm networks does not exist longer than 2 years, member firms successfully performed joint research projects. At present one more ambitious project has to be emphasized which is at its starting point and which will investigate the use of hyperspectral remote sensing data for planning purposes. Together with the big research institutes GeoForschungszentrum Potsdam (GFZ) and Deutsches Zentrum fr Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR) some participating SMEs are developing methods to be used for environmental monitoring purposes in urban areas. More detailed information on GEOkomm, its intentions and its work will be presented in the introduction poster to the Urbenvironcongress and its joint exhibition. Some of the GEOkomm member institutions will present papers on the typical application of geo information for urban research and urban environmental planning purposes during the congress. References
P. A. HECKER (editor), 2005: Wertschpfung in der Geoinformationswirtschaft. Berlin/Potsdam, 104 pp GEOkomm networks, 2006: Knowledge - Experience - Ideas. Information leaflet, 15 pp
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The Use of Geomatic Techniques in the Management of Land Partitioning and Occupation
E. U. Rosa1 & L. Pimentel da Silva2
1
City of Rio de Janeiro Council, Brazil, 2 University of State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil erosa@pcrj.rj.gov.br
Abstract The urban process over the last decades has been characterized by the growth in population and the number of new buildings. In the 50s, one third of the world population dwelled in cities. Nowadays, half of this population resides in large urban centers and in Brazil it has not been any different from this. Presently, about 80% of the Brazilian population lives in cities. The growth of impermeable areas and their influence on urban environment, specially on hydrologic phenomena has led to increasing likelihood of floods and the dissemination of diseases carried by water, thus increasing the demand for technologies that can solve the new paradigms on land occupation. This paper presents a contribution to the management of urban occupation with the aid of geomatic techniques. The methodology used involves the application of "overlay" techniques and the establishment of topologic relationships between the basic information levels such as urban zones, lots, public places and buildings. The use of these basic information layers has enabled us to survey the number of pieces of land that do not comply with the urban legislation. The methodology presented here consists of a tool for the management of land occupation and optimises the use of conventional methods of command and control. The water basin of Jacarepagu Lowland, a peripheral urban area and Rio de Janeiro's expansion area, has been chosen as case study. The results indicate that 70,27% of the lots in the Rio Morto catchment are not in compliance with the legislation for the area. The methodology developed in this study has objectively and clearly stated operational aspects, thus enabling its use in other areas. Introduction Since mid XX century, there has been a steady increase in the world's population, nowadays estimated in 6,5 billion people with about 48.7% living in urban areas, in contrast to 29% in 1950. It is expected that by the year 2008, 50% of the world's population will be living in urban centers (UN, 2005). When analyzed as a whole, 11 countries house about 4 billion people (61.5%), and all of them have at present high urbanization rates in their territories. They are: China, India, the USA, Indonesia, Brazil, Pakistan, the Russian Federation, Bangladesh, Nigeria, Japan and Mexico. In this group, eight countries are considered developing countries. In Latin America, the average urbanization rate is of 76.14%, and in Brazil this process has affected the whole country, since 80% of it is population now resides in urban centers, in comparison to the 36.2% in 1950 (MINISTRY OF CITIES, 2006). Urbanization disturbs the ecological balance causing qualitative and quantitative environmental changes, mainly to the water resources. In this context, the imperviousness resulting from urbanization leads to a sensible reduction in the infiltration rates, thus decreasing water storage in the aquifers and consequently affecting the baseflow. Runoff is intensified, increasing in speed, frequency and magnitude the stream peek flow, occasionally resulting in floods. The uncontrolled population growth may contribute to qualitative and quantitative water resources exhaustion. Urbanization also implies changes to river courses and the bottoms of valleys which are gradually covered by roads and other urban equipment, leading to the siltation of plains and the higher frequence of floods. Additionally, urbanization contributes to a change in the precipitation amount, a rise in temperature, changes to the micro-climate and to the spreading of some diseases (SCHUELER, 1994; PIMENTEL DA SILVA et al., 2005). Although the legislation that regulates land partitioning and occupation has existed in the city of Rio de Janeiro since mid XIX century, this legislation has been inefficient, due to the dynamic character of the urbanization process. Despite the body of rules prescribed by the government that regulates over various aspects of urbanization configuration process with preventive measures (urban plans, master plans, urban development plans, etc.), corrective measures (re-ordainment-programmes such as Favela-Bairro [turning slums into districts]) and effective measures (policies to provide housing and infrastructure), these often reveal the contradictory complexity of their norms and regulations, involving conflicting planning concepts and thus being systematically disrespected by social agents. They also show a historical lack of social concern clearly expressed in the several models of urban management carried out in the city. Only recently has this issue begun to be addressed. Therefore, it is absolutely essential that, not only in Brazil but in the world, the demand for efficiency in urban planning and management processes, takes into consideration the different social, economic, political and environmental vectors. On the other hand, the success of this process is closely related to the possibility
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of capturing, assessing the consistency, classifying, storing and analysing spatial-time data derived from the process itself, as well as the correct availability of this information and, if necessary, its immediate correction, to maximize the efficiency of the planning process and management. In this context, the Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are in line with the new paradigm. The GIS's are interactive computer based systems that use data and models to identify and solve spatial-time problems. Additionally, as the GIS's analyse and cross the compiled data to graphically represent the spatial-time phenomena, they provide greater accuracy in the decision making process (MALCZEWSKI, 1999). To this purpose, this article aims to present a methodology that encompasses the systematic assessment of the urban zoning and occupation, integrating it to the environmental planning and management, particularly that of water resources. The methodology presented allows for the monitoring of the urban process, with constant data supply and update, as well as fast combination, analysis and spatial visualization of the available data, so as to contribute to the decision making process in the urban environment. Additionally, this methodology allows interface with other similar urban systems, such as IPTU1 and licensing systems. Methodology The methodological approach suggested here uses digital cartographic basis on cadastral scale of the area under study, stored in a database, and includes: (i) a representation of the urban zoning plan and its respective sub zones; (ii) a representation of the information plan on the lots, as well as the building plan with its respective polygons designed, that is, with identification and area attributes; (iii) the creation of access route plans, such as highways, roads and streets. The determination of the value of the lot areas and buildings has been made based on the respective digital representations projected on the horizontal plan. Based on the information plans it is proceeded to establish the relevant topographic relationships between the lot plans and the urban building plans, in accordance with the zoning legislation. After establishing the relevant relations, the next stage is to enter the data in the data bank with the records related to the buildings in each lot, together with the total area projected for each building in its respective lot. As this is a computer based operation carried out in the database, when relating the area occupied, expressed in the horizontal projection of the buildings, to the area in each lot, an occupation rate is calculated, thus producing a theme based information plan representing the lots in the area under study according to their occupation rate. This plan is classified according to the occupation percentage rate in relation to the zone/sub zone where the lot is located, thus allowing for a spatial visualization of the lots which are not in accordance with the indices established in the legislation. Results The methodology presented here was applied to the case study of the Morto River catchment with 9,4 km of drainage area in Jacarepagu, an area in expansion in the city of Rio de Janeiro (Figure 1). Currently, about 12% of the catchment area is occupied by dwellings, restaurants, recreational areas and a water park. There are also some industries in the area, especially pharmaceuticals. Regarding the zoning (Law n 322 of 3rd March 1976 Partitioning and Occupation in Jacarepagu), there are special zones 1 and 5, or ZE-1 and ZE5, in the catchment area. The legislation for ZE-1 does not allow for the parcelling or route planning, except in the case of subdividing lots which have at least 1000 m and are abutting existing public places. In the case of the ZE-5, there is a subdivision in A-23, A45A, A-45B2 . The legislation regulates the application of index-based criteria, such as Minimum Recommended Lot Area, Area Usage Index (AUI), Total Building Area (TBA) and also Occupation Rate (OR). The Occupation Rate (OR) index directly reflects the percentage of the lot area occupied by the building in the horizontal projection and is, therefore, an important tool for the zoning management and occupation of urban areas. This index can also be used as an indicator of the imperviousness of the catchment area. The digital mapping in a 1/2000 scale was adopted for these studies (IPP, 2004) and ArcGis (ESRI) system, together with Microsoft Access were used to generate and manipulate Figure 1: Localization of Morto River Catchment, Jacarepagu City of Rio de Janeiro - Brazil the plans of information. After applying the pro190
E. U. Rosa & L. Pimentel da Silva: The Use of Geomatic Techniques
posed methodology, a total of 156 out of 222 lots were identified, or 70,27%, presented OR values not complying with urban legislation for the study area. In Figure 2, the non-complying lots were represented in red. A greater percentage of irregular lots is found in the zone/sub zone ZE-5/A-45B, where there is a greater number of residential lots, as well as middle class condominiums. The lots located in the sub zone A-23 were not taken into consideration because the area related to this zoning is very small in comparison to the total catchment area, and does not have any lots. Conclusion This paper presented a methodology based on geomatic techniques to control urban occupation integrating it to water resources management. The methodology involves mathematical operations from digital thematic maps that result in the information plans about the occupation rates in the lots. Furthermore, a final thematic map can be generated pointing out the lots, which are not complying with the urban legislation. This methodology was demonstrated through its application in a case study on Morto river catchment area in Jacarepagu, an area in expansion in the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It was identified that 70,27% of the lots located in the Morto River catchment area were not complying with the current urban legislation. It Figure 2: Lots Not in Compliance with the Occupation Rate is important to emphasize that this methodology (OR) for Morto River Catchment Area does not intend to replace the existing mechanisms of command and control, but to act as an extra tool to increase the precision in the decision making process, integrating both urban and water resources management. The proposed methodology does not only present the catchment as an area of integrated urban and water resource planning, but also allows for scenario simulations concerning both urban occupational growth and water resource studies, especially by simulating the effects of imperviousness on the stream flow chart on the urban flood control studies. Finally, the methodology created enables a greater interface with other similar urban systems such as IPTU and licensing systems. References
UN - United Nations Department of economic and Social Affairs. Population Division (2006). World Urbanization Prospects: The 2005 Revision. Working Paper No ESA/P/WP/200 MINISTRY OF CITIES, National Environmental Sanitation Secretary - Territory Management and Integrated Urban Waters. Cooperation Brazil-Italy in Environmental Sanitation. Braslia, 2005, 270 p (in Portuguese). IPP - Municipal Urban Institute Pereira Passos. Database (armazm de dados). Socio-economics and mapping information for City of Rio de Janeiro. Available in: http://www.armazemdedados.rio.rj.gov.br/princ_int.htm, Acess in: 14 set. 2000. MALCZEWSKI, J.,GIS and Multicriteria Decision Analysis. New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1999. PIMENTEL DA SILVA, L; KAUFFMANN, M. O. & ROSA, E.U. 2005. Urban Growth and Life Quality: Application of Indicators in Integrated Water and Urban Planning. In: Seventh IAHS Scientific Assembly-Sustainable Water Management Solutions for Large Cities - Red Book. Foz do Iguau, PR, Brazil. SCHUELER, T.R. 1994. The importance of imperviousness. Watershed Protection Techniques, 1(3):100-111.
________________________________________________ 1 IPTU - Urban Housing and Land Tax. 2 In the specific case of the OR for sub zone A-45A, the same values apply for residential areas, regardless the fact that they are for one or more families, as well as for commercial areas, that means 30% of the lot area. However, for the sub zone A-45B the use is also residential, again, for one or more families, but the value is 10% of the lot area. Still in the same context, for the sub zone A-23, it is established a 30% lot area occupation rate for residential and commercial use.
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Evaluation Model for Socio-economic Sustainability

Eduardo Ercolani Saldanha, Liane da Silva Bueno & Marcus Polette
Federal University of Santa Catarina, Brazil lianebueno@gmail.com
Abstract One of the biggest difficulties related to environmental assessment is understanding the dynamics of the environment in which one is working. Many studies are currently being carried out in the field of sustainable development, including those which deal with tools and methodologies for evaluating the sustainability of land occupation processes. However, data available on the social, economic, ecological, political, environmental and institutional realities of Brazilian municipalities show a low correlation with the principles of integrated management. This has made it difficult to formulate environmental plans and programs which address the most urgent priorities of local communities. For this reason, extensive research was carried out on the sustainable development indicators used by the United Nations, as well as on corresponding indicators used at national, state and municipal levels. This research served toward understanding the meaning and application of such indicators for the stakeholders involved in configuring the new master plan for the city of Garopaba, A town located in the state of Santa Catarina Estate, south Brazil. The practical result of this process was the creation of an evaluation model for socio-environmental sustainability, presented in this paper. The model is based on what is effectively measured through the identification of "pressure", "state" and "response of governance" causality factors, which best represent the circumstances observed in the municipality. It is hoped that this initiative will promote the intersectorial and institutional integration of the municipality of Garopaba, and guide the decision-making process in the quest for common objectives. Key words: Sustainable Development; Socio-environmental indicators; Decision-making. Introduction The study of natural and social dynamics and the processes of socio-environmental degradation makes it plain to see that understanding the environmental management of urban spaces and regional development needs to be expanded and reconstructed. This includes: the re-evaluation of the actual concept of urban management; the power structures of local stakeholders engaged in the process of searching for adequate solutions; the public policies in force; techno-scientific interventions; the use of communication tools; the role of social institutions; and community experience in relation to the social and economic use of natural resources. To this end, a common reference system is required which is able to interpret a series of measurements according to their level of significance for the system as a whole; which in turn would make it possible to determine their degree of sustainability. However, given the size and complexity of this objective, a denominator must be created in order to obtain the degree of vulnerability of a situation in the most simple and objective way. The work presented in this paper purports to structure quantitative and qualitative data within a context of analysis that takes into account economic, social, environmental and institutional aspects in relation to a determined geographical space. The creation of an evaluation model for socio-environmental sustainability should be grounded on the principles of participative management methods, the integration of environmental concerns with political economics, the promotion of appropriately directed public policies, and the mitigation of land use conflicts. This will enable the making of fundamental decisions and the promotion of actions which will guide a given locality, city or region in the definition of its strategic and sustainable goals and objectives. Methodology In order to reach the proposed objectives, enable the reader to undertake a critical analysis and apply our evaluation model of socio-environmental sustainability, an inductive, descriptive exploratory delimitation was chosen, via qualitative analysis of transdisciplinary empirical data. The proposal for this model was constructed upon the requisites established in Chapter 40 of Agenda 21, "Information for Decision-Making", as guide for identifying the principal socio-economic characteristics and related problems of a given geographical space. This type of identification facilitates the analysis of environmental aspects and the relation these have to institutional issues. Due to the need to use scientifically valid parameters adjusted to the political system and relevant to the management process, we adopted the "dimensions of sustainability" approach used by the UN Commission for Sustainable Development. This approach was adapted to: the principal causal factors identified in the municipality of Garopaba (pressures caused by humans as well as by nature); the state of the environment;
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Eduardo Ercolani Saldanha et al.: Evaluation Model for Socio-economic Sustainability
Figure 1: Application scheme of the evaluation model of socio-environmental sustainability.
the state of reference as proposed by national and international literature and identified by the local community; and the respective responses of government institutions. In order to adhere to the principle of legitimacy in environmental planning, a participatory process was applied In local meeting addressing the municipalitys urban master plan. The issues raised for discussion were analyzed according to their category within the scopes of pressure, state and or response, as perceived by community representatives and specialists from Garopaba City Hall. Figure 01 to follow illustrates the application of the model. Table 01 below shows the indicators proposed. For each causality factor, there should be a specific group of environmental indicators that correspond to its characteristics, or is related to its two neighboring factors. The "pressure" indicators provide a measurement of the causes of change in the state of sustainable development, be it positive or negative. We can group as pressure indicators all of the human activities that affect ecosystems and generally are not under control. Examples of these are the impacts of tourists during summer holidays, and real estate speculation. "State" indicators provide a synthesis of the status or the health of the environment in question. They are a measurement of the situation of sustainable development or a particular aspect of it, at a specific point in time. Qualitative and quantitative indicators such as security and sewage treatment can be grouped into this category. "Response" indicators (also called governance response indicators) provide a measurement of the willingness and efficacy of society to be able to come up with solutions to the "pressure" indicators and their respective impacts. This can be done via policy options, interventions and other responses that attempt to correct the changes in "state", in efforts to achieve sustainable development. Conclusion We highlight that, as a fundamental means to achieving the intended objectives, the diagnosis conducted should be adjusted to specific demands and should focus on necessity and sufficiency, as well as on time and resource limitations. In this light, the use of the data modeling method proposed in this paper was based upon the information obtained through research conducted in conjunction with Garopaba's City Hall, the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE), the Institute of Applied Economic Research (IPEA), as well as the analysis of national and international publications. This research can be considered to present a review of the state-of-the-art of the topic being analyzed, because it proposes a methodological structure for socio-environmental evaluation associated with a group of selected indicators based on their relevance to the local, state or national context. Although the degree of participation is limited, the proposed evaluation model of socio-environmental sustainability can be classified as a so-called "mixed approach", since the concept of the model is oriented predominantly by specialists. However, the level of significance attributed the indicators of pressure, state and response of governance can be observed directly in this instrument by the stakeholders involved in the decision-making process, and these stakeholders also ponder the results. It is hoped that the model presented and the selected socio-environmental indicators will be suitably used in the analysis of the current situation and future tendencies of the municipality of Garopaba. It is also hoped that this model could help to guide the government in its management of public policies at all levels of man-
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agement and social participation, including the techno-scientific community and the diverse levels of political representation of Brazil. References
BRASIL. Programa Nacional de Amostra Domiciliar. Censo Demogrfico. Disponvel em http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/pnad>. BELLEN, H. Van. Indicadores de sustentabilidade. Ed. FGV. Rio de janeiro, 2005. DAHL, Arthur. Sustainability indicators. International Institute of Sustainable Development. <http://www.iisd.org/cgsdi/members.asp> HAMMOND, A. Environmental indicators. World Resources Institute. http://www.wri.org/pubs/pubs_description.cfm?pid=2516>. UNITED NATIONS. Commission of Sustainable Development-CSD. <http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/natlinfo/indicators/isd.htm. WORLD BANK. World Development Indicators. <http://devdata.worldbank.org/wdi2006/contents/Section3.htm>. Table 1: Proposal of indicators of socio-environmental sustainability
PROPOSAL OF INDICATORS OF SOCIO -ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTENTABILITY ACCORDING TO PRESSURE-STATE -RESPONSE CRITERIA
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Workinggroup 3 Water in the urban environment
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Water in the urban environment
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A decision support system for planning decentral rain water management measures in urban zones of Korea
Kyung Ho Kwon and Heiko Diestel
Technical University of Berlin, AquaEcoMundi Germany kwonkhberlin@hotmail.com
Abstract A decision support system was developed with the program language "Visual Basic 6" consisting of two simulation packages. The first package assists in identifying the appropriate water management strategy for a given region under the given natural and infrastructural conditions. The following items are dealt with in this package: climatic, soil water, energy and radiation balances, quantitative balances of rain water use, of the urban waters and of the infiltration structures as well as the calculation of the peak discharge and of the corresponding dimensions of sewage conduits. The second package assists in determining the specific combination of technical measures and in dimensioning the relevant engineering structures for settlements in the different regions of Korea. A combination of the following measures was chosen here: the use as well as the infiltration of water from rains, the retention with a supplemental cistern for water use and buffer capacity, properly timed evacuation of the cisterns with pumps in connection with weather forecasts and provision of energy saving discharge procedures. Two modules for finding the best dimensions and characteristics of the engineering structures are available in the decision support system: with the dimension/effect-module one can simulate the hydrologic effects of engineering structures with predetermined dimensions and characteristics. With the effect/dimension-module one can define the desired objectives and determine those combinations of engineering structures with various properties with which the defined aims can be achieved, evaluated by a cost/benefit analysis. 1 Introduction For the development of urban areas the implementation of decentral water management measures with the aims of more sustainable water balances, reduced sewage discharges and improved city climate is of high significance(Diestel.2004, Diestel and Schmidt, 1998). In this context, adequate reactions to the water inputs from rain storms are essential. The traditional "pipe-and-filter" planning philosophy is too weak a basis for tackling the issues of water supply and disposal of megacities and smaller settlements. A decision support system ("DSS") is offered here to assist in the complex task of finding the optimal combination of decentral rain water management measures ("drwm"). It consists of two simulation packages and allows, in the second package, the operation with two modules, depending on the planning objective. 2 Description of the decision support system 2.1 Simulation package I: Identification of the appropriate water management strategy This package operates on a daily data basis and has six components with which an optimal combination of drwm-strategies as well as the potential water use, evaporation and percolation can be identified (Tab. 1). 2.2 Simulation package II: Determining the specific combination of technical measures and dimensioning the relevant engineering structures In most areas of Korea very high precipitation depths and intensities as well as long rain storms occur in the summer, often accompanied by typhoons. Water scarcities frequently prevail during spring. Thus, there is an urgent need for saving potable water by adequate water use strategies and for reducing peak flows by retention and infiltration measures. Simulation Package II, which works on a one-hour time interval, simulates scenarios of installation and use Fig.1) Combination of different drwm-structures designed to achieve these aims. The technical drwm-system simulated consists of two cisterns (A and B) and a per- Fig. 1: Combination of different drwm-structures
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Tab. 1: Simulation Package I: Components and description
Component Input data Climatic balance Precipitation., air temperature. (min/max), relative humidity, wind speed, radiation, catchment and green area Data for climatic balance, soil texture, rooting depth Processing FAO Penman-Monteith method to estimate ETo (reference evapotranspiration)
Output data and Application (Determination resp. estimation of: ) Monthly climatic balance for the catchment /green area ratio. (the water balances resulting with different vegetation types and covers) Daily ETc under soil water stress conditions, water content and percolation in the root zone (the required soil textures for greened areas under given water balance situations) Daily net radiation and latent heat (the modification of the energy balance by vegetation) Daily and monthly water balance, sum of the used rainwater and supplementary potable water supplied (the water balances of rain water use facilities) Daily Ew, overflow and amount of supplementary potable water supplied (the areal demand for urban waters and their catchments) maximum volume, dimensions and quantity of overflow (the optimal volumes and dimensions of infiltration structures for the purpoe of disposal of runoff through retention and infiltration)
Soil water balance
daily soil water balance models of ATV-DVWK and FAO
Energy and radiation balances Quantitative balances of rain water use
Data for soil water balance
Quantitative balances of the urban waters
Precipitation, Rainwater,requirements for the households, number of connected households, catchment and green area Precipitation, data for climat. balance, water surface area, catchment area Probable precipitation, infiltration rate of soil, dimensions of the structures
Calculation of radiation balance, which is equivalent to evapotranspired water. Time distribution of required rainwater, quantitative balances of rain water use with optional number of households, catchment area and tank size Ew Penman: Evaporation from water surface
Quantitative balances of the infiltration structures
Calculation of necessary volume for disposal of runoff, which arises in each duration and return period of rainfall
colation block (see Fig.1). Cistern A is combined with the rain water use installation and has an overflow into cistern B. Cistern B has an outflow at the lower edge, through which rain water exits into the canal, so that potential retention volume can be provided without energy input. The diameter of this exit outflow can be varied. When also cistern B is full, rain water flows onto the percolation block, where it can infiltrate. In order to avoid over-dimensioning of the structures and thus to reduce construction costs, two emergency pumps are integrated into both cisterns which are connected to the flood alarm system. They start pumping at the alarm level which corresponds to expected precipitations of 80 or 120 mm within 12 hours. Further components of the system are sketched in Fig. 1.
Tab. 2: Input data: Dimensions of the structures
Structure Siltation tank Cistern A Cistern B Daily storage tank Percolation block of exit outflow Setting of the emergency pump Flood warning system
Width (m) 2 4 4 2 4
Length (m) 2 6 6 2 6
Depth (m) 1 3 3 2 3
3
Vol. (m3) 4 72 Minimum depth:0.4m 72 8 Minimum depth:0.3m 64.8 Pore vol.0.9 4 mm 3 Cistern B: 6 m /hr
Cistern A:
6 m /hr
Alarm level I :more than 80 mm within 12 ho urs
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Kyung Ho Kwon and Heiko Diestel: A decision support system for planning decentral rain water management
2.2.1 The dimension/effect-module In this module the hydrologic and hydraulic effects of differently dimensioned structures are simulated on a one-hour time basis. The dimensions of structures given in Table 2 serve as input. The results for August 24, 2003 are shown in Fig. 2: water level changes in cisterns A and B, percolation block as well as intensities of in/outflow. Tab.3 shows the simulation results for the whole year 2003.
Fig. 2: Simulation results: dynamic responses in the technical structures Tab. 3: Simulation results: values for the year 2003
Rainwater balance Total precipitation water use Infiltration Outflow into sewage Through emergency pump Exit outflow 2461.02 m /a 1676.05 m (68%) 3 111.4 m (5%) 3 673.57 m (27%) 3 451.42 m (18%) 3 222.15 m (9%)
3 3
Water use balance The total demanded 3 Water except 5429.64 m /a drinking Used rain water Potable water input 1676.05 m (31%) 3 3753.59 m (69%)
3
2.2.2 The effect/dimension-module From Table 4 it can be seen that with few variants of the dimensions of four technical elements and of the warning system, a large number of system variants arises.
Tab. 4: Combination of technical variants with different dimensions for simulation scenarios
Structure Dimensions
Cistern A Depth (T: m) Cross sectional 2 area (Sj: m ) S1,,S5 =1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3% of A E
Cistern B Depth (T: m) Cross sectional 2 area (Sj: m ) S1,,S5 =1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3% of A E
Percolation block Depth (Ti: m) T1 , T2 , T3 Cross sectional area (Sj: m2 ) S1,,S5 =1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3% of A E
Variants 5 (T x Sj) 5 (T x Sj) 2 AE : Catchment area(1223.3 m ) Dimensions of the structures (one example) 3 3 Nr. 6750 110.1 m 110.1 m 2 2 (3m x 36.7m ) (3m x 36.7m )
Flood warning system Alarm level I und II: within 12 hours more than 80 or 120 mm precipitation. Emergency pump settings 0, 7.2, 14.4 m 3 /hr 15 (Ti x Sj = 3 x 5) 3 2x3 Total variants : 5 x 5 x 3 x 5 x 3 x 2 x 3 = 6750 184.5 m 2 (5m x 36.7m )
3
Exit outflow Diameter 4 mm 8 mm 12 mm
12mm
Alarm level II: 3 14.4 m /hr
The simulation of the effects of these 6750 variants is carried out consecutively.
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Fig. 3: Evaluation of the effects of technical variants
The hydrologic and hydraulic effects of these variants are classified and plotted according to criteria which can be recognized on the ordinates and abscissas in Fig. 3. For the year 2003 (total water demand except potable water 2938.99 m3, annual precipitation 2461.29 m3 , maximum inflow intensity 78.9 m3/h) the variant Nr. 6750 demonstrates that a technical system with a high degree of rain water use can have an unacceptably low proportion of yearly percolation. But this variant can have a quite satisfactory capacity to achieve a low maximum outflow intensity relative to a high inflow intensity. From the data base, lists of systems with specific characteristics according to the three criteria mentioned can be extracted. Listings based on the cost/benefit analysis can be produced (Fig.4). The data base required can be produced by the user of the DSS. References
Fig. 4: Listing of the variants according to the cost/benefitanalysis
Diestel, H.. 2004. Dezentrale Abflussbewirtschaftung- Eine wichtige Aufgabe der Gegenwart. In Space and Theories: eInterviews with Distinguisched Scholars. Hrsg. KRIHS (Korea Research Institute for Human Settlements). ISBN 89460-3350-9 93300. Seoul Korea. Diestel, H. und M. Schmidt. 1998. Wasserwirtschaftliche Vision: Die abflusslose Innenstadt : ein richtiger Ansatz? In: Senatsverwaltung fr Stadtentwicklung, Umweltschutz und Technologie: Zukunft Wasser, Tagungsband zum Symposium zur Nachhaltigkeit im Wasserwesen vom 17.-19.6.98. This project was financed by the Korean Institute of Construction Technology.
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The Environmental Impacts of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment: Mitigation Measures and Applicability in Developing Countries
May A. Massoud1, Joumana A. Nasr1,2, Akram Tarhini3,4, Jawaria Tareen1
Department of Environmental Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, American University of Beirut, Lebanon Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Hamburg-Harburg, Hamburg, Germany Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Beirut Arab University, Lebanon 4 Council for Development and Reconstruction, Beirut, Lebanon mm35@aub.edu.lb
1 2 3
Abstract Decentralized wastewater treatment is based on the concept of treating, disposing or reusing the wastewater near the generation point. The failure of such systems is probable if not well designed and maintained. Any failure will cause negative environmental impacts. This paper sheds light on the common environmental impacts of decentralized systems. Moreover, it discusses some mitigation and more precisely preventive measures that could be taken to avoid such failures. In addition, the applicability of such systems in the developing world taking Lebanon as a case study is assessed. Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Wastewater treatment, in general, varies between an entirely centralized system to an entirely decentralized system with the cluster system in between. The centralized systems are usually publicly owned. They serve large communities and collect and treat large volumes of wastewater. The decentralized systems, more precisely the on site systems, are considered as alternatives to the conventional centralized systems (USEPA, 2004). They serve individual homes and buildings. Contrarily to the centralized systems, the decentralized ones treat and dispose or reuse the wastewater near the generation point (USEPA, 2004). As for the cluster systems, these can be considered as either centralized or decentralized. They serve more than one household and up to a 100 or sometimes more (USEPA, 2004). They are mostly used where the soil conditions are not favorable for On-Site treatment. Wastewater is transported from the households to the common treatment and disposal facility (Wilderer and Schreff, 2000). Environmental Impacts, Mitigation and Preventive Measures The failure of any type of decentralized wastewater treatment system is probable. Any deficiency in the treatment system, especially the conventional decentralized system such as septic tanks and subsurface infiltration systems may lead to various environmental impacts. These impacts are commonly related to the leaching of any of the typical wastewater pollutants. The Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), if not well removed, can cause low dissolved oxygen concentrations in surface water, taste and odor in well water and leaching of soils and rock into ground and surface water (USEPA, 2002). The Total Suspended Solids (TSS) can clog the soil infiltrative surface and if discharged in surface water, it can harm the aquatic life through the formation of sludge layers (USEPA, 2002). Nitrogen in raw wastewater is in the form of organic matter or ammonia (USEPA, 2002). The bacteria transform the ammonia into nitrites and then nitrate. The nitrates are major groundwater pollutants and can cause, if greater than 10 mg/l, methemoglobinimia in children and pregnancy problems (USEPA, 2002). Moreover, nitrogen being an important nutrient can cause excessive algal growth that can block the sunlight and thus affect aquatic life. As algae die, the bacteria decomposes them using oxygen, thus reducing the available oxygen in surface water. Phosphorous, is another pollutant of concern from onsite wastewater treatment system. Being an important nutrient, alike nitrogen, phosphorous can cause eutriphication and oxygen depletion in surface water (USEPA, 2002). As for the pathogens, different bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasites can be present in wastewater effluent. Various health problems may result from these pathogens through ingestion, respiration or contact. Mitigating the problem is such a hard issue because it usually requires design or site adjustments, if minor repairs would not serve the purpose. For example the problem of nitrates in groundwater could be solved through denitrification and denitrification relates mainly to the site soil characteristics and the location of the system in the soil profile (USEPA, 2002). As for the phosphorus in groundwater, the solution could mainly be through retardation of phosphorus contamination. This retardation is related to the site soil characteristics and the distance between the discharge point and the water. The pathogens are of no difference. Reducing pathogens in groundwater is affected by the site soil characteristics and designed hydraulic rate (USEPA, 2002). As such, avoiding such a failure through preventive measures is much more efficient than any mitigation measure. Preventing the pollution caused by any treatment system could be done through a proper technology and design selection process as well as a proper management strategy (USEPA, 2002). Deciding on a
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good technology is deciding on the "Most Appropriate Technology". The pillars of the "Most Appropriate Technology" are the affordability and the appropriateness (Grau, 1996). The former relates to the economic conditions of a community while the latter relates to the environmental and social conditions. From the affordability point of view, the community should be able to finance the implementation, operation and maintenance of the system. Moreover, the efficiency of the technology in relation to its cost is a major factor (Ho, 2005). From the appropriateness point of view, environmental as well as social factors should be considered. Environmentally, the system and design chosen should conserve the environmental quality and resources (Ho, 2005). This could be quite guaranteed through a thorough evaluation of the carrying capacity of the receiving environment and a study of the wastewater itself (Jantrania, 1998). In what concerns the receiving environment, the surface and groundwater should be checked, this is in addition to the ecosystem, the geology, and the soil quality. As for the wastewater parameters, the source should be known, in addition to the daily average flow, the peak flow, the characteristics and the seasonal variability in terms of quality and quantity (Jantrania, 1998). Socially, the system should be convenient to the skills and knowledge of the local community, especially when dealing with developing countries and small communities. For a better management and maintenance of any system, the local habits, lifestyle, and cultural heritage should be fully respected and the public acceptance considered (Tsagarakis, Mara and Angelakis, 2001). An appropriate management strategy is another vital preventive measure. The main elements of a successful strategy are the clear specification of goals, public education, dissemination of technical guidelines for the people responsible for the site, record keeping, periodic program evaluation, effective legal enforcement and continuous funding and regular maintenance (USEPA, 2002). Maintenance should mainly focus on avoiding hydraulic failure of the system, especially in the case of onsite systems. As such, mainly the system's holding capacity should be respected. The pumping of the tank should be scheduled or else the sludge may accumulate and clog the absorption field. The haphazard alteration of the landscape of infiltration field should be avoided (USEPA, 2002). Applicability in Developing Countries Billions of people all over the world lack access to adequate sanitation. The majority of these are in the developing countries (Ho, 2003). In fact, both centralized and decentralized wastewater treatment systems coexisted over the past years (Wilderer and Schreff, 2000). Despite the fact that the decentralized systems are much more suitable for the developing countries, their use is still very limited (Bakir, 2001). Their applicability in such countries is directly related to the institutional and technical suitability (r). The institutional suitability mainly relates to the managerial and financial aspects. In the developing world, successful planning and management are most often inexistent leading to a high probability of treatment system failure. For decentralized systems the environmental impacts of failure are minimal as compared to centralized systems because of the low population density served by one unit. Moreover, any failure would not affect the whole community as is the case with centralized systems (Bakir, 2001). As such, adopting the decentralized methods for wastewater treatment is more suitable for such weakly planned countries especially if proper planning and management are out of question for a reason or another. As for the cost, the centralized wastewater treatment and management is quite costly. Both the investment and the maintenance costs are relatively high. Therefore, it is unaffordable and consequently unsuitable or inapplicable for low income developing countries (Bakir, 2001). On the other hand, decentralized systems do not require large amounts of money to be installed and maintained. They are systems that do not put a burden on the community because the investment could be gradual. It can take the form of response to demand. Moreover, the most costly component in centralized systems, the network, is less costly for cluster systems and even inexistent for onsite systems. The technical suitability relates mostly to the choice of technology. The choice of technology is one of the very crucial factors that affect the success of the project. All over the world in general, and in developing countries in particular, the choice of technology is not site specific (Volkman, 2003). Many systems are not successful simply because they are copied from Western treatment systems without any consideration for the appropriateness of the technology to the climate, geology, culture and technical skills (Volkman, 2003). Decision makers, engineers and the people are not much comfortable with the implementation of decentralized systems because of the lack of enough knowledge in the fields. As a result of the lack of technical and institutional suitability, many wastewater treatment projects in the developing world were not successful. Untreated wastewater is being discharged to water bodies and agricultural fields (Volkman, 2003). The health and monetary cost of such practices is very high (Volkman, 2003). For example, the Plague epidemic in India, because of wastewater, during the year 1994, resulted in $200 million loss from touristic revenues (Volkman, 2003). In Peru, the government spent on the Cholera epidemic caused by wastewater much more than all what was spent on water and sanitation over the preceding 10 years (Volkman, 2003). 202
May A. Massoud et al.: The Environmental Impacts of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment
The case of Lebanon Wastewater management is one of the biggest challenges to the Lebanese government. Up to 1998, only about 59% of the housings are connected to a sewerage network (Balamand University/Lebanese University/gGmbH, 2004). Traditional pits which end up discharging wastewater in the groundwater are used in many cities and villages. As such, many groundwater resources are already contaminated. Some improvements have been made regarding the sewerage network and wastewater treatment in some places, but still little is being achieved. It is to be noted that in many cases the network is there but the treatment plant is not and vice versa. The only centralized large scale wastewater treatment plant exist in "Ghadir" (Balamand University/Lebanese University/gGmbH, 2004). The treatment is primary treatment and the discharge goes immediately to the Mediterranean Sea. In recent years some small scale decentralized wastewater treatment plants in rural areas have been constructed and still the majority of the untreated wastewater is being discharged to water bodies. Out of these plants only few are operational. The rest of the plants are either operational but ineffective or abandoned or incomplete or constructed but not commissioned. The failure in the sector is mainly due to the inapplicability of the advanced decentralized systems applied to the managerial and financial situations in the villages as well as the technical suitability. The wastewater management as a whole in Lebanon is very weak and unorganized. Theoretically, the plan of the Lebanese government is based on two fundamental considerations. The first relates to the compliance with the signed convention of protecting the Mediterranean Sea from pollution and the second protecting of inland water sources from pollution. Practically, a lot of bodies are responsible for the wastewater sector and little work is being done. The responsibilities and tasks are vaguely and unclearly divided between the Ministry of Energy and Water, the Ministry of Environment, the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Public Health, the Council for Development and Reconstruction, and the municipalities. What adds on the managerial problem is the regulatory issue. No one comprehensive environmental law exists in the country. Specific issues are addressed in sector laws and regulations with no enforcement. As for the standards, minimum water and wastewater standards exist with no guidelines for wastewater reuse in the country (Balamand University/Lebanese University/gGmbH, 2004). Based on the study conducted in three villages of the Al-Chouf Caza in Lebanon, the lack of laws and their implementation was clear. In one village getting rid of wastewater takes place through septic tanks. Unfortunately, no laws concerning emptying the tanks are being implemented. Many tanks infiltrate their content into the soil and others seep on the streets. As for "Mazraat El Chouf", the wastewater is transported to 3 successive ponds far from the village. The raw sewage enters the first pond and follows continuous treatment in successive ponds. The process is natural and is carried out by the action of algae and bacteria. Seepage into the soil and then to the river takes place without any regulatory penalty. These ponds are used simply because the money for a treatment plant is not available. Moreover, unfortunately the use of such system is considered better than the conventional decentralized systems simply because the wastewater is removed from the houses' vicinity. The money for implementation, operation and/or maintenance is not available most of the times. The study conducted in the "Chouf" area assures the issue. A functioning treatment plant exists in "Bchetfine" village. Despite that, the plant suffers from intermittent electrical supply with no stand by generator because of lack of money. Moreover, the money for maintenance is not easily available and the road to the plant is not easy. The municipality is having hard time to get the money needed especially that many villagers are not paying the municipal taxes because of the financial situation in the country as a whole. Moreover, some houses are still not connected to the plant mainly for financial reasons. Furthermore, the technologies used are most often beyond the capabilities of the local people to operate and maintain effectively and efficiently. Instead of using well organized and maintained conventional decentralized systems decision makers go for more complicated decentralized systems such as activated sludge, extended aeration or anaerobic digestion. Moreover, often the NGOs responsible for the project have a low capability to choose the design and supervise the builders. Despite that they do not seek technical advice from an engineer thus leading to a choice of technology which is not successful. As for the maintenance, when the execution is ended, the maintenance role is given to the municipalities which do not have the fund and expertise to do this job. Acknowledgement Special thanks are extended to the Lebanese National Council for Scientific Research (LNCRS) and the American University of Beirut Research Board for funding this research project. References
Bakir, H. (2001). Wastewater management services in water stressed countries: guiding principles and options for sustainable development. The 2nd Asian Conference of Water and Wastewater Management. Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran, 8-9 September.
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Balamand University/Lebanese University/gGmbH, 2004. Prospects of Efficient Wastewater Management and Water Reuse in Lebanon.Country Study Lebanon, Prepared within the Framework of the EMWater Project. Grau, P. (1996). Low cost wastewater treatment. Water Science and Technology, 33 (8), 39-46. Ho, G. (2003). Small water and wastewater systems: pathways to sustainable development? Water Science and Technology, 48 (11-12), 7-14. Ho, G. (2005). Technology for sustainability: the role of onsite, small and community scale technology. Water Science and Technology, 51 (10), 15-20. Jantrania, A. 1998. Integrated planning using on-site wastewater systems. Division of On-Site Sewage and Water Services, Virginia Department of Health. Tsagarakis, K.P., Mara, D.D. and Angelakis, A.N. (2001). Wastewater management in Greece: experience and lessons for developing countries. Water Science and Technology, 44 (6), 163-172. USEPA (United States Agency for International Development), 2004. Valuing Decentralized Wastewater Technologies, A Catalogue of Benefits, Cost, and Economic Analysis Techniques. USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency). (2002). On Site Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual (EPA/625/R-00/008). Volkman, S. (2003). Sustainable wastewater treatment and Reuse in urban areas of the developing world. Retrieved December, 2006, from Michigan Technological University, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Master's International Program Web Site. Wilderer, P.A and Schreff, D. (2000). Decentralized and centralized wastewater management: a challenge for technology developers. Water Science and Technology, 41 (1), 1-8.
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Sustainable water and sanitation systems in existing housing estates of international cities
Thorsten Schuetze1 & Kyung-Ho Kwon2
1
Technical University Delft, Faculty Architecture, Netherland, 2 Technical University of Berlin, Faculty of Architecture,Germany t.schuetze@tudelft.nl
Keywords: architecture, urbanism, decentralized water systems, ecological sanitation, recycling, remodelling, existing housing estates, Europe, Asia 1. Introduction Beside the well known advantages of central water supply and waste water management systems they also include a lot of disadvantages. The main handicaps of conventional central systems for waste water treatment are that sewage streams with different characteristics and noxiousnesses are mixed and nutrients are eliminated. Leakages in the sewage system, overflows of mixed sewers but also the discharge of treated sewage are leading to the pollution of ground- and surface waters. Sewer systems incur high costs and the lockup of capital for long periods of time even decades and they are not safe against catastrophes. Furthermore, adapting to changing demographic structures, user behaviour, changing precipitation patterns as well as new technologies for sanitation involves high constructive and financial effort. The supply of drinking water also bears significant disadvantages because drinking water only is supplied and a complex system of mains is required. This can lead to high water losses due to leaking pipelines and has a negative impact on the quality of the supplied water, because of pipeline materials, leakages and long holding time. Decentralized systems for sewage treatment and ecological sanitation (ecosan) provide manifold advantages and the possibilities of changes for the positive. They allow the separation of waste water streams with different characteristics (see figure 1), which allow for an efficient treatment and high-quality utilization of nutrients [2]. The protection of ground- and surface water is achieved by the avoidance of waste water, the decentralized treatment of different substances and waste water streams. Figure 1: Disposition of nutrients and percentages of specific The freshwater demand can be reduced by the material flows in relation to the total volume of domestic waste reuse of recycled waste water as service water. water. The percentage is calculated with the average water conBy saving majorly on canalization the construc- sumption of household in Hamburg/ Germany, 117 l per resident tion of alternative water systems only incurs and day and nutrients per resident and day [1]. [3] capital lockup for relatively short periods (<30 years). The systems are adaptable to changing demographic structures, changing precipitation patterns as well as new sustainable technologies for sanitation, and are insusceptible to catastrophes and malfunctions. Furthermore they have the advantage of short pipeline lengths, minimized water losses and close water cycles. [3] The potentials for the application of decentralized sustainable water and sanitation systems in existing buildings for domestic use in the cities Hamburg in Germany and Seoul in Korea are investigated and a sophisticated evaluation according to social, economic and ecological criteria is conducted in the framework of the described research. The results are compared with the common procedure of remodel- Figure 2: Water consumption of standard households and of ling and renovation works and also with the water saving households with different toilet types in Seoul with characteristics and effects of the existing central information about the quantity of specific sewage flows. [3
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systems for drinking water supply and sewage treatment in cities; the differences as well as the potential are shown. To allow the transferability of the results of investigations the housing estates have a high inhabitant density which is above average. In Hamburg it is 13.7 m per inhabitant and 72,774 inhabitants per km, in Seoul it is 15.67 m per inhabitant and 63,797 inhabitants per km. Compared with the average density of the city areas the density in Seoul is 3.2 times higher and in Hamburg is 32 times higher. The floor area ratio (FAR) of the housing in Hamburg is 3.6 (only 10% of all buildings in Hamburg have a FAR which is above 1.2). [3] 2. Materials and Methods The method of this research is the qualitative and as far as possible quantitative analysis of approved decentralized ecological water management and sanitation systems on the bases of recent research results and of investigations by the author. Their applicability in the framework of remodelling and renovation works of existing urban housing estates as well as the user acceptance has been examined in Germany and the Republic of Korea. 3. Results and Discussion The starting basis for the design of sustainable water and sanitation systems in existing housing etsates is the minimization of the water demand in private households. A comparably low water consumption in households without loss of comfort and without changing behaviour of the users can be ensured by the application of water saving fittings (so called flow rate delimiters), household appliances (e.g. washing machines and dish washers) and water saving toilets (with cleaning flow rates of about 2 litres (for flushing after urination) and respectively 3 litres (for flushing after defecation)). With these measures the water consumption can be reduced with minimal investment costs, minimal operating costs and without loss of comfort by approx. 1/3 in Hamburg (from 117 l per resident and day to 81 litres per resident and day) and in Seoul by 38% (from 208 litres per resident and day to 129 l per resident and day). An advanced reduction of the drinking water consumption can be achieved by the substitution of drinking water with so called service water (e.g. rainwater or purified waste water) which can and may be used for toilette flushing, laundry, cleaning and watering purpose, according to the legal basic conditions in Germany and Korea. The proportion of the service water demand in relation to the total water demand of these water saving households is estimated with 26% in Seoul (33 litres/r*d) and 38% in Hamburg (30 litres/r*d) for toilets. Measures for the recycling of gray water from bathrooms and the utilization of service water can cover the service water demand in the investigated housing estates in both cities by 100% (see below). Hence the drinking water demand compared to standard households can be reduced in Hamburg by 56% (from 117 to 51 litres/r*d) and in Seoul by 54% (from 208 to 96 litres/r*d). [3] The investigated alternative measures for the treatment of sewage can be assigned to two types: "decentralized rainwater conditioning" and "decentralized waste water conditioning", which include also the production of service water. The results for the application of different measures in the investigated housing estates are described below. Decentralized rainwater conditioning is the starting basis for the realization of decentralized water systems. It can be used for the sustainable development as well as for the redevelopment of rural and urban human settlements [4]: - Measures for rainwater utilization may not be counted as a credit for the calculation of measures for the retention of rainwater and flood control. The service water demand in Hamburg is covered maximum with 26% in Hamburg and 25% in Seoul, due to the natural and structural basic conditions (climate, high population density and comparable small rainwater catchment area). Due to the different precipitation patterns in Hamburg and Seoul the required inhabitant specific tank volume for the storage of rainwater has to be in Seoul almost 8 times higher (0,66m/inhabitant) than in Hamburg (0,09m/inhabitant). The amount is equivalent to 9% of the total water demand of water saving households. Rainwater catchments from greened roofs reduce the degree of efficiency. The related construction work for this purpose does not limit the utilization of real estate and buildings in the investigated housing estates. - Measures for extensive greening of roofs contribute substantially to the retention of rainwater and may be counted as credit for the calculation of infiltration systems. Together with intensive greening measures of roofs and buildings they contribute to an increase of the evaporation ratio thus approximating the micro climate to natural conditions. By irrigation with reclaimed waste water positive interactions can be achieved (e.g. decomposition of remaining nutrients, like Phosphorous). - Measures for infiltration of rainwater and reclaimed waste water with shallow pits and infiltration ditch systems out of plastic, allow the complete retention of precipitation events up to dimensioning precipitation events with a rainwater contribution frequency of 0,01/a. The related construction work for this purpose does not limit use of real estate and buildings in the investigated housing estates and are cheaper than rainwater utilization systems. Decentralized waste water conditioning can be also used for sustainable development: 206
Thorsten Schuetze & Kyung-Ho Kwon: Sustainable water and sanitation systems in existing housing estates
- Measures for the recycling of gray water (with Sequency Batch Reactors or Membrane Activation Systems) from bathrooms and the utilization of service water can cover the service water demand in the investigated housing estates in Hamburg and Seoul by 100% (~ 37 and 26% of the total water demand). In Hamburg, the measures are linked to additional required space (0,06 m/resident), while in Seoul no additional space is required. - Measures for the conditioning of waste water (brown- and gray water) with Sequency Batch Reactors or Membrane Activation Systems can be utilized for the realization of waste water free real estates in Hamburg and Figure 3: Percentages of the retained nutrients in domestic Seoul. The purified and hygienically harmless waste water for the decentralized treatment systems 1 (with ferwater with bathing- or service water quality can mentation of black water), system 2 (with combined treatment be infiltrated, for artificial groundwater recharge, of black water and grey water from kitchen) and the described system 3 (with urine separation, brow, and grey water treator be used for irrigation, e.g. that of intensive ment). [3 greenings of buildings (as above). The required constructions can be integrated in Seoul in the area of existing septic tanks, and in Hamburg underneath a part of the courtyard and do not limit the degree of use of real estate and buildings in the investigated housing estates. The small amount of sludge will be treated in a pre-composting facility (retting container, see below) - Measures for the pre-treatment of brown- and gray water with pre-composting facilities (retting container) can be integrated in the housing estates in Hamburg and Seoul outside, below ground without additionally occupying space inside the buildings. With this measure, more than 1/3 of the contained nutrients can be separated and utilized, and the amount of sludge from the waste water treatment can be significantly reduced. The small amounts of retting (pre-composted faeces, solids and sludge) are removed from the filter bags in the holding tanks regularly, 2 - 1 times a year, for further treatment. - Measures for the collection of yellow water (urine) can be integrated in the housing estates in Hamburg and Seoul underground, outside the buildings, without additionally requiring space inside the buildings and reduce the emissions of nutrients and micro pollutants in the environment. In the case of a country-wide application, the required amount of Nitrogen in agriculture could be covered by 32% in the Republic of Korea and to 11% in Germany. The demand of phosphorous could be covered by 13% in Korea and by 11% in Germany. Hence the collected urine could be used to substitute chemical fertilizers and support organically farming. The collected yellow water is removed regularly from the housing estates with trucks, with a capacity of 15 tons; In Seoul once in a week and in Hamburg once in a month. In the case of an area wide application, 480 trucks would be required in Seoul and 80 in Hamburg each making three trips per day 5 times a week. - Measures for the fermentation of black water, biogas production and utilization in a combined heat and power generator require comparatively much space, in relation to the small volume of the treated waste water. They can only be realized outside the buildings with additional construction effort. The expenditure for the transportation of the treated residues is also relatively high and is equivalent to 4.6-times that of the collected yellow water but the emission of nutrients and micro pollutants into the environment are reduced to the greatest possible degree. [3] In order to determine the transferability of the findings in the testing areas and to compare the existing central systems for drinking water supply and waste water treatment in Hamburg and Seoul a system (system 3) has been chosen, which can be used for both housing estates and is comprised of the following single measures: - Rainwater retention- and infiltration (with reclaimed waste water) with mould and plastic infiltration ditch systems - Recycling of gray water from the bathrooms and service water utilization - Waste water treatment (brown- and gray water) - Pre-treatment of brown and yellow water by retting in filter bags (retting holding tanks) - Collection of yellow water Collected rainwater is not utilized for the service water supply due to the low coverage ratio of the service water demand of 25 - 26% In Seoul and Hamburg.
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In the framework of the research also the application of two other systems were investigated which have not been chosen for the comparison. They also comprise rainwater retention and infiltration as well as the recycling of grey water but they are based on the combined treatment of brown and yellow water. The system based on the fermentation of black water, kitchen waste, biogas production and utilization in a combined heat and power generator (system 1) has not been chosen for the system, due to the layout of the existing housing estates, the comparatively high space demand as well as the large investment costs and working expenses. The combined treatment of black- and grey water from the kitchen (system 2) hasn't been chosen due to the high content of nutrients (see figure 3) and micro-pollutants in the treated sewage compared with the chosen ecosan based system. 4. Conclusions and Recommendations According to the findings of the investigations in two existing housing estates in Hamburg and Seoul, alternative water systems based on ecological sanitation are already realizable at present; with feasible constructive and technical effort as well as low additional cost compared to conventional construction costs. They can be implemented area-wide and allow the appropriate treatment of the specific material flows. Furthermore they do allow the reuse of nutrients which are in conventional systems either discharged with the sewage effluent or eliminated. Due to very different climate conditions and the transferability of the single measures which have been described in the framework of the described research, the basic conditions for a wide distribution can be fulfilled. Hence it may be expected, that alternative water systems and sewage free housing estates are realizable in many international cities with different natural and structural basic conditions. According to results from surveys in Seoul [5] and experiences in Germany and Europe, a high user acceptance of the system may be expected. At present admittedly, there are many barriers to realizing alternative water systems. For Hamburg and Seoul the main barriers are both the existing infrastructure, the structure of the fees incurred by implementing the alternative system and the institutional and legal framework. In Seoul there is the added problem of the present fees for drinking and waste water which do not cover the actual real costs. While decentralized rainwater management increasingly is recognized as a sustainable measure, the acceptance of ecological sanitation of stakeholders is low, especially in urban areas, because there is great doubt regarding its acceptance by end-users as well as its profitability and feasibility. According to stakeholder interviews in the Republic of Korea [6], 89% of the interviewees think that decentralized measures are not feasible yet, and 67% of them think that this will be still the case in 20 years. However decentralized environmental sound measures for waste water management are accepted by most stakeholders; presently in particular with regard to the optimization of the efficiency of central sewage treatment plants (regarding rainwater management).More than 50% of the stakeholders think that the feasibility for the decentralized treatment of urine and faeces will be good and very good in 100 years. Scientifically supervised pilot projects and additional research regarding the integration and service of decentralized environmental sound water and sanitation systems as well as regarding the optimization of institutional and legal frameworks can help to dispel the doubts and to mark the beginning of a paradigm shift in water management especially for areas which are not yet equipped with sewer systems or waste water treatment plants. References
[1] Otterpohl R. (2001), Design of highly efficient source control sanitation and practical experiences. In: Decentralised Sanitation and Reuse, p: 164 - 179 (Lens P., Zeemann G. and Lettinga G., Eds) IWA Publ. [2] Otterpohl, R. (2004). Innovative Technologies for Decentralised Water-, Wastewater and Biowaste Management in Urban and Peri-Urban Areas. In: Water Science & Technology, Vol 48 No 11 p: 23-32, Hamburg, Germany [3] Schuetze, T, (2005). Dezentrale Wassersysteme im Wohnungsbau internationaler Grossstaedte am Beipiel der Staedte Hamburg in Deutschland und Seoul in Sued-Korea. Dissertation, University Hannover, Department Landscape and Architecture [4] Schuetze, T, (2006). Decentralized Rainwater management - Solution for sustainable (re)development and independency. Proceedings IWA World Water Conference, Beijing, China, Rainwater Harvesting Task Force, "Rainwater Harvesting and Management" 11.09.2006; Beijing, China, p: 163-170 [5] Schuetze, T (2004). Survey in private households of Korea regarding sanitary behaviour and exposure to water. In: [3]; Seoul, Republic of Korea [6] Medilanski, E, Schuetze, T (2004). The potential of introducing measures at the source (MAS) on urban sanitation in Seoul, Korea. In: [3], Hamburg, Germany
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Environmental Degradation of Rivers in the State of Rio de Janeiro

Llian Alves de Arajo
Public Attorney's Office State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil liaraujo@mp.rj.gov.br
Abstract This work contains the results of research conducted on environmental degradation of rivers in the State of Rio de Janeiro. The database contained 305 environmental civil enquiries to investigate environmental damage caused to rivers, and carried out and headed by the Public Prosecutor's Office of the state of Rio de Janeiro. The geographic scope of the work included 70 out of 92 cities in the state, and covered rivers in urban and rural areas. Five categories of environmental degradation in relation to the rivers' natural elements were analyzed: (1) Water Degradation, (2) Riverbank Degradation, (3) Riverbed Degradation, (4) Riverbank and Riverbed Degradation, and (5) Water / Riverbank / Riverbed Degradation. The category that stood out was Water Degradation, totaling 198 incidents, followed by riverbank degradation (192); Riverbank and Riverbed Degradation (135); Riverbed Degradation (28), and Water/Riverbank/Riverbed Degradation (4). The criterion used for classification was to ascertain the river's element or elements that degradation activity identified had the most significant impact on. Twenty-five degradation activities were found, according to the degradation categories above, including a total of 557 incidents, with 365 (65.53%) related to urban rivers and 192 (34.47%) to rural area rivers. The deforestation of river FMPs (Marginal Protection Strips), in the Riverbank Degradation category placed first with 62 incidents, followed by domestic waste contamination with 58 incidents, and industrial waste contamination with 48 incidents, both part of the Water Degradation category. With 48 incidents, the different construction activities on the FMP, from the Riverbank Degradation category, also stood out. The other activities had a number of incidents ranging from 3 to 27. Introduction This work aims at giving a panoramic view of environmental degradation in urban and rural area rivers Rio de Janeiro, emphasizing the spatialization of the events, the quantitative aspect and the typology. Thus, the following specific goals are defined: (a) identifying and organizing into a hierarchy the kinds of river environmental degradation (b) identifying factors condition and cause environmental degradation in rivers; (c) identifying the spatial distribution for the environmental degradation of rivers, in urban and rural areas; (d) assessing the problems faced by rivers in the domain of the Law and of Environmental Management. Geographical Scope The research covers 70 out of a total 92 cities in the State of Rio de Janeiro, SE Brazil, with an area of 43,864.30km, which makes it the 4th smallest Brazilian state. However, it ranks 2nd in the Brazilian GNP and 3rd in population. Data from year 2000 found a population in the state of 14,391,282, where 96.04% (13,821,466) lived in urban areas and only 3.96% (569,816) in rural areas. (CIDE, 2004) Given the nature of the cases surveyed, characterized as being related to river degradation, our focus of interest, in every one of the 70 cities, it covers the local river systems, which form river basins, where we highlight the rivers and the APP Permanent Preservation Area along these rivers, which corresponds to the FMP Borderline Protection Strip (FMP). For systematizing the data researched and analyzed as regards the degradation of river environments we also considered river distribution, or sections of these rivers, in urban and in rural areas, classifying rivers as urban or rural, as a consequence of the location of the cases of environmental degradation that are reported and that form the sampling universe for the research work. It must however be said that identifying the kinds of river degradation is linked to the activities that cause such decay, and that, due to the fact that there are occurrences outside urban areas, these are not related only to land or animal farming, a characteristic of the rural scenario, but also to activities that are complementary to urban affairs (rubbish dumps, water collection for residential developments, sand extraction for civil engineering work, the construction of PCHs Small Hydro-electric Power Plants, etc.), or activities related to the structure of rural land ownership (dam construction, water course deviations, deforestation in FMP areas, impacts on rivers and water sources, water collecting, etc.). Urban rivers are those that go through consolidated urban developments, that is, those that satisfy criteria such as: (a) being legally acknowledged by the Government; (b) existence of at least four of the following urban infrastructure elements: roadways with pluvial collection networks; water mains supply; sewage networks; power supply and street lighting; solid waste collection and its treatment; (c) demographic density over 5,000 people per km.
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The references were then considered, which linked the watercourse to the urban nuclei in the cities, with the identification of what is urban and, similarly, the references that linked the watercourse or farms and orchards, and the locations that had predominantly rural features (including the use of photographic records), to classify them as rural. Materials and Methods The data was collected during Oct/Nov/Dec, 2003, in 305 ICAs Civil Environmental Enquiries on the occurrence of environmental degradation in rivers, started and headed by the Public Attorney's Office State of Rio de Janeiro (MPRJ), in the domain of its institutional actions aimed at protecting the environment. The inquests contain the description of the fact reported where a summarized account is given of the activities that, according to the report, would be causing the river degradation. This account usually identifies the activity or activities that would be affecting a particular natural element or elements that form the river, and causing environmental degradation. A definition was prepared, based on the preliminary reading of these inquests, of environmental degradation according to the natural elements that form the rivers: (a) Water Considered as a resource, covering the water and its fauna; (b) Riverbank FMP element, covering the soil and its topography, land flora and fauna; (c) River bed the minor river bed was considered, corresponding to the river trough, including the soil, its topography, (sides and bottom of the trough), and the water flora). Five categories of environmental degradation were set according to these natural elements, with the identification of 25 activities linked to them as they are pointed as the causing agents of degradation, where a certain number of these activities is associated to each category: 1) Water Degradation: As a result of Water Pollution this category stems from 6 activities: (1.1) Industrial waste release; (1.2) Domestic waste release; (1.3) Release of assorted effluents; (1.4) Accidental leak; (1.5) Rubbish and construction waste discharges; (1.6) Rubbish dumping. As a consequence of collection caused by the very activity of water collection: (1.7) Collection. 2) River margin degradation (FMP): This category stems from 6 activities: (2.1) Illegal Settlements; (2.2) Housing Developments; (2.3) Landfills; (2.4) FMP Deforestation around water sources; (2.5) Deforestation of river FMPs; (2.6) Assorted building work. 3) River Bed Degradation: This category results from 3 activities: (3.1) Landfill; (3.2) Dam; (3.3) Assorted Building work. 4) FMP and River Bed Degradation: This category results from 8 activities: (4.1) Changes to natural river course; (4.2) Channeling; (4.3) Landfill; (4.4) Assorted Construction Work; (4.5) Mining; (4.6) Waste Release and Silting; (4.7) Deficiency of Public Cleaning and Maintenance Services; (4.8) Dredging. 5) Water, River Bed and River Bank Degradation: This category results from 1 activity: (5.1) Construction of Small Hydroelectric Power Plants (PCH). Results In the 305 civil enquiries studied 557 occurrences of environmental river degradation were found, with 365 (65.53%) of them happening in rivers located in urban areas and 192 (34.47%) in rural areas. Of the 557 occurrences, 198 form the water degradation category, corresponding to 35.55%; 192 are in the river bank degradation category, corresponding to 34.47%; 135 are in the FMP and river bed degradation category, corresponding to 24.23%; 28 form the river bed degradation category, corresponding to 5.03% and 4 form the water, river bank and river bed degradation category, corresponding to 0.72%. Of the percentage of water degradation events, corresponding to 35.55%, 10.77% took place in urban areas and 24.78% in rural areas. For river bank degradation, a 34.47%, 22.62% were in urban areas and 11.85% in rural areas. For FMP and river bed degradation occurrences, at 24.23%, 15.80% were in urban areas and 8.43% in rural areas. For river bed degradation occurrences, at 5.03%, 2.34% were in urban areas and 2.69% in rural areas. The total percentage for water, river banks and river bed degradation was in urban areas. It is possible to see, therefore, the predominance of urban areas events, of 3 out of the 5 degradation categories. River margin degradation, represented by river bordering and water source FMPs, in spite of being placed second in number of events (192), presented the degrading activity that rook first place among the 25 activities classified, that is: river FMP deforestation had 62 events which, added to the number of deforestation occurrences in water source FMP areas, with 13 events, totals 75 deforestation events in Rio de Janeiro rivers. One should consider, however, that this figure refers only to events where deforestation was clearly mentioned in the enquiries or was what motivated its installation; one should also consider that other activities that 210
Llian Alves de Arajo: Environmental Degradation of Rivers in the State of Rio de Janeiro
take place in the FMP always result in deforestation, or worsen scenarios for cleared areas as a result of previous deforestation actions, aimed at having the land for farming uses or settlement (Ex: illegal settlements, housing developments, assorted construction work, landfills, dams, channelling, etc.). In second place was the degrading activity of releasing domestic waste into river waters, with 58 occurrences, which belongs to the water degradation category (198), which was in first place in the summation of the events for the 5 classified categories. In third place were 2 degrading activities, each one with 48 occurrences: the release of industrial waste into river waters, contained in the water degradation category, and construction work in river and in water source FMPs, of the river bank degradation category. In the percentages related to the total number of events (557), river FMP deforestation represents 11.13% which, added to the 2.33% related to water source deforestation totals 13.46%. Domestic waste releases represent 10.41% and industrial waste releases, as well as assorted construction work in the FMP represent, each one of them, 8.62%. The 4 most important activities totaled 41.01% of the bulk of events. The 21 remaining activities represent a variation between 0.72% and 4.85%, totaling 58.99% of the events that form the sample. For triggering factors, the elements that cause Water Degradation (35.55%) were water pollution (32.86%) and water collection for mains supplying (2.69%). In relation to triggering factors for water pollution these were identified in the domain of water used for effluent dilution, made in an inadequate and irregular manner, which disregards the strict norms and standards on releases. It was also possible to identify pollution as a result of environmental accidents which lead to leaks and/or releases, casual or intended, of chemical and/or organic substances and other pollutants, liquid or solid, that affect river waters. In this context it was possible to identify industrial waste releases (8.62%), domestic waste releases (10.41%), assorted effluent releases (3.77%), accidental leaks (0.72%), rubbish and construction waste releases (4.85%) and leachate flows from dumps (4.49%). Such factors damage the multiple uses for the waters, in their social and economic aspects, when provoking an adverse change to their quality, with damaging consequences to the water ecosystem (fauna and flora) and to public health. Water degradation as a consequence of collection for water supplying has a triggering factor which is the very collection procedure, carried out in a technically inadequate and unlawful fashion (2.69%), by private companies, with no license from Government, causing adverse changes to the flow regime and to water availability. The triggering factors for River Margin Degradation (34.47%) are marked by the use of, and illegal occupation of, the land, given the private appropriation of the FMPs that border rivers and surround water sources, held by the Law as being Permanent Preservation Areas, collectively owned, and causing ciliary vegetation and soil degradation in river bordering areas, preventing environmental preservation of the river environment and harming the urban order. FMP use and occupation took place through illegal settlements characterized as slums (4.67%), housing development construction (4.13%), landfills (execution3.59%), deforestation, with alteration or removal of the ciliary vegetation around water sources (2.33%) and that which borders rivers (11.13%), and assorted construction work (8.62%). Triggering factors for river bed degradation (5.03%) were landfill execution on minor river beds (1.08%), dam construction (2.69%) and other construction work in river troughs (1.26%). FMP and river bed degradation (24.23%) was caused by a larger number of factors, such as: change of natural river course (4.31%), channeling (1,97), landfills (2.87%), other construction work (3.41%), mining (3.05%), waste release with subsequent silting (4.13%), inefficacy of public cleaning/maintenance services (3.95%) and dredging work (0.54%). The factors that produced interventions on the water body were marked by their irregular character and by the lack of licensing from the appropriate Government office (SERLA). The same took place with the mining activity, carried out in a clandestine way, with no recuperation for the degraded area, disregarding the regular environmental licensing process. Water/River Margin/River Bed Degradation (0.72%) was represented by the threat of relevant environmental damage which may arise from the implementation of projects to build Small Hydro-electric Power Plants (PCHs), of enormous impact on the river environment, with direct repercussions on the river basin. Such a threat was characterized by the lack of information and doubts people had regarding the environmental feasibility of the enterprise, the regular character of the environmental permit and the efficacy of the EIA/RIMA. In relation to conditioning factors (indirect causes) it was found that the environmental degradation of rivers results from the association of two factors, social-environmental and institutional. The social-environmental factor includes: several anthropic actions and activities carried out by the common citizen (individual taxpayers), that damage the river environment; extreme poverty, leading to illegal settlements and slum growth on river margins, and water pollution (social-environmental impacts); negligence in complying with urban and
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rural environmental control norms, on the part of industry sectors (commercial and industrial companies, and farmers) and several kinds of private interest bodies. The institutional factor includes: lack or inefficacy of structural and non-structural actions in the domain of public policies, resulting from the commitment of the city and state governments, in specific sectors, such as environment-friendly water and sewage services, and housing (low income); incipient interaction between the management of water resources and the Environmental and Urban Management; inefficacy in the exercise of police power by environmental control bodies in Rio de Janeiro (CECA, FEEMA, SERLA, IEF), related to inspecting the enforcement of protection norms that apply to water courses, to the prevention and repression of deforestation and to the use and occupation of FMPs that border rivers and surround water sources. It also includes: failures related to the SLAP Polluting Activity Licensing System, in relation to the enforcement of the obligations set by Environmental Licensing procedures, preparation of the EIA/RIMA and connection to the self-controlling PROCON-GUA programme, on the part of industries; lack of specific Environmental Education Programmes aimed at averting damage to river environments, and of Environmental Recovery Programmes; activities that are damaging to the river environment, carried out by the Government itself, be it when providing services as when implementing public works and, still, through omission in relation to fulfilling its role in protecting the environment. As regards the spatial distribution of the events, in urban and rural areas, in the 305 civil enquiries (IC) that formed the sample, it was possible to identify 114 rivers affected by degradation events. Conclusion The express frequency of Water Degradation and River Margin Degradation, presenting a difference that is of little significance, added to the considerable percentage of FMP and river bed degradation, results in a 94.25% event percentage, which shows that all the natural elements inherent to our rivers are being severely damaged. The different types of environmental river degradation in Rio de Janeiro, and their triggering factors, are not set or influenced by their location in the urban or rural area, being different only in the number of events, as these concentrate in urban areas, amplified by the degree of urbanizing and industrialization of the groups of cities studied. Recommendations 1. That the granting of the use of water for collection, or dilution and marking of river-bordering and watersurrounding FMPs (SERLA) become mandatory requirements for the Environmental Licensing (FEEMA/SLAP), an important factor to integrate the Water Resources Management System and the Environmental Management System; 2. Connection between FMP boundary setting to a re-forestation programme, associated to environmental education, with technical support offered to owners, and legal mechanisms so that they can assume the recovery of permanent preservation areas and enforce the principle of social responsibility in ownership. 3. Inclusion of the Water Resources and River Environment Protection Act into the Director Plans of the cities; 4. Implementation of the Polluting Activity Licensing Programme (SLAP) by City Governments under the monitoring of FEEMA; 5. As regards illegal settlements in the FMP, we recommend the registration and mapping of critical and risky areas, and removal and re-settling programmes that include housing solutions for low income populations, as well as preventive measures to avoid new invasions. 6. Programmes aimed at raising awareness of city Legislative and Executive Authorities, on the inclusion of environmental planning in city public policies, to adjust public works to Environmental Law, aiming at avoiding the implementation of projects in permanent preservation areas of river environments and avoiding omission in the execution of their institutional task of environmental protection. 7. River pollution cleaning programmes that include improvements to water and sewage infrastructure, and to environmental control bodies, in relation to inspection, with the creation of mechanisms that force the creation of Sewage Treatment Stations (ETEs) and Industrial Waste Treatment Stations (ETEIs). Bibliography
CIDE, Centro de Informaes e Dados do Rio de Janeiro. Anurio Estatstico do Estado do Rio de Janeiro. Rio de Janeiro: CIDE, 2004. Page 623.
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The impact of the human activities from the Bucharest Urban Agglomeration on the quality of water in the Arges River Lower Watershed
Cristian Ioja1, Maria Patroescu1, Marius Matache1, Radu Damian2
University of Bucharest, Centre for Environmental Research and Impact Studies, Romania Technical University of Civil Engineering cristi@portiledefier.ro
1 2
Abstract The urban agglomeration of Bucharest represents the largest conglomerate of environmental degradation sources in Romania (industrial units, residential areas, mobile sources, hospitals etc.). The effects of the anthropogenic activities are affecting directly or indirectly by all environment components and have a direct correspondence in the population health state. The negative effects on the lower sector of the Arges River watershed are emphasised by the lack of functionality of the Bucharest wastewater treatment plant. For this reason, critical areas in terms of water quality were emphasised (4th and 5th water quality classes according to the Romanian standards) for the rivers Dambovita, Arges, Ciorogarla and Sabar. The main issues are generated by the organic compounds, nutrients, detergents, petroleum products, phenols and bacteriological indicators. Downstream of the Bucharest urban agglomeration, the use of freshwater and groundwater resources by the local communities is not possible, leading to a low-competitiveness economy. The degradation of water quality in the Arges River watershed lower sector represents a special concern for the expectant navigation channel Arges-Dunare, aiming to connect Bucharest with the 7th pan-European corridor. Key words: environmental quality, Arges River Lower Watershed, Bucharest urban agglomeration 1. Introduction The Arges River Lower Watershed is located in the southern part of Romania, overposing the Bucharest metropolitan area; it is part of the central sector of the Romanian Plain, characterised by altitudes between 80 and 250 m, low amplitude of the relief, low river slopes and intense deposition processes. The climate is temperate-continental with strong excessively accents from the Eastern part of the continent, characterised by annual average temperatures between 9 and 11 C, the amount of precipitations varied between 500 and 600 mm and the 4-seasons presence. From a hydrological point of view, the water flow varies during the year depending on the contribution of the upstream regions, with a maximum in May June and a minimum in September October. The riparian and aquatic ecosystems along the river have been strongly modified, only low surfaces of floodplain forests remaining intact today. Due to the water quality degradation for the two main rivers Dambovita (upstream of Bucharest) and Arges (after the junction with Dambovita River), the aquatic ecosystems were strongly simplified [1]. The anthropogenic factors are decisive for the water quality dynamic in the lower sector for the Arges River watershed, the releases of wastewater (without any treatment) resulted in the Bucharest urban agglomeration (the largest in Romania over 2 milions of people), enhancing the water degradation [2]. The assessment of water quality downstream of urban agglomerations has its fundament in several studies that emphasised their incidence in water quality and draw attention on the need to establish wastewater treatment plants in order to reduce their impact [3], [4], [5], [6]. 2. Methods In order to assess the water quality in the lower watershed of the Arges River, we quantified and established the hierarchy of the degradation sources. For this reason, a six sampling points network has been established: four sampling points on the Arges River (4), one on Dambovita
Figure 1: Distribution of environmental degradation sources in the lower sector of the Arges River lower watershed
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River (1) and one on Sabar River (1). In these six locations, between March 2006 and February 2007, we collected samples for the most important indicators for freshwater bodies. The results were compared with those obtained the Romanian Waters national company within the national programme for water monitoring. 3. Categories of water degradation sources The degradation sources of the water bodies are the set of anthropogenic activities that exceed the support capacity of the aquatic ecosystems and enforce significant changes in the functions and structure of the natural ecosystems and human communities. Depending on the sources nature, in the lower watershed of the Arges River identified industrial, municipal, agricultural, hospital-originated and other (municipal and industrial waste landfills, infrastructure etc.) categories of degradation sources [1] (Fig. 1). 3.1. Industrial sources The industrial sources are represented by units from the Bucharest urban agglomeration (having a high density) and from the urban centres from the metropolitan area that through their nature and dimensions, determine water degradation issues. The industrial sources are responsible for the presence in water of the special toxic compounds, but also other significant changes of the water quality parameters. Most of the industrial sources evacuate the wastewater in the urban sewerage system (those from the Bucharest urban agglomeration) or straight into the natural receptors (Arge, Sabar, Dambovita, Colentina, etc.). The amounts of wastewater is in some cases quite high (990 000 m3/month by Vitan thermoelectrical powerplant, 581970 m3/month by SICOMED SA, 170000 m3/month by FAUR SA) (CCMESI, 1999). From the qualitative point of view, the biggest problems appear for the units that involve hazardous substances in their production process (cyanide, bases, acids, heavy metals, oil compounds etc.), where the risk for additional charging of the wastewater and subsequently of the receptor rivers is maximum. Examples from this category are units from the: machine industry and metallurgical industry (URBIS SA, FAUR SA, TURBOMECANICA SA, METALURGICA SA, IFMA SA, GRIRO SA, CFR Grivia workshops etc.) where compounds such as cyanides, chromate, strong acids and bases etc.; chemical industry (Dudeti-Policolor industrial area, SC SINTOFARM SA, etc.), using high amounts of chemical compounds posing a high toxicity risk (hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, sulphuric acid, ammonia, oil compounds, detergents, alkaline compounds etc.; energy-producing industry (through the thermoelectric powerplants), where the oil compounds generate special problems in what concerns the wastewater quality. In addition to these mentioned above, several other industrial branches contribute to the degradation of the water quality, through the specific compounds they use in their technological processes: building materials industry (CESAROM SA, GRANITUL SA etc.), representing an important source of suspended matters, with negative impact on the sewerage system; food, textile and wood processing industry (SC GRIVIA SA, SC COM PLEVNEI SA, PIPERA SA etc.), evacuating important amounts of water with a high content of organic compounds. Most of the industrial units that use toxic compounds already have their own treatment facilities for water quality improvement, but due to the age of these installations or the improper manipulation, their efficiency is not the expected one. Thus, the units belonging to the machine industry and chemical industry hold stations for neutralising the acid and alkaline waters (SC METALURGICA SA, GIRUETA SA, POLICOLOR SA, PIPERA SA, SC DANUBIANA SA, SC FILAN SA, TURBOMECANICA SA, URBIS SA, UMEB SA etc.), most of them established in the '70s, but still being used. Some other industrial units hold settling tanks, separators or filters for holding the suspended matters, oil compounds or fatty compounds (SC GRANITUL SA, METALURGICA SA, PROGRESUL SA, POLICOLOR SA, PIPERA SA, GLINA SA, FLAROS SA, thermoelectric powerplants etc.). Very few units have their pre-treatment plants, most of them being constructed now (PIPERA SA, ICE FELIX SA, etc.), are being conserved (METALURGICA SA, CONECT SA, IEMI SA etc.) or they are not working properly (IFMA SA, PIELOREX SA, etc.). For the industrial sources, it is required to consider not only as a pollutants source, but also as the most important water consumer, several units from Bucharest being registered as high-consuming units (thermoelectric powerplants, SICOMED, SINTOFRAM, POLICOLOR, IMGB, PIPERA, etc.) 3.2. Agricultural sources Agricultural activities hold, as coverage area, the largest percentage of the economical activities in the Arges River lower watershed. Due to its intensive character of the cultivations (mechanisation, use of chemical fer-
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Cristian Ioja et al.: The impact of the human activities from the Bucharest Urban Agglomeration
tilisers, irrigations), the agricultural sources contribute to the degradation of the freshwater and groundwater quality. In what concerns the plants cultivations, the problems are determined by the improper use of the chemical fertilisers and pesticides (including DDT). By comparing the amount of chemical and natural fertilisers used, a special place is occupied by the vegetables and technical plants-cultivated areas, where the higher profitability allows additional costs related to the use of chemical compounds and mechanical maintenance (Colibai, Greaca, Adunaii-Cop|ceni, V|r|ti). For the livestock growth activities, the issues that appear are related to the improper positioning of the production units in relation with other functional areas or due the the improper use of the wastes reduction installations. Thus, as specific characteristics they have the high amounts of organic compounds that reach the natural aquatic receptors. The most important livestock growth farms from the lower watershed of the Arges Rive are SC Agricom Prod SRL Valea Dragului (3800 swine), SC Agronutrisco SRL Mih|ileti (217000 poultry), SC Golden Chicken SRL Mih|ileti (180052 poultry), SC GAT Ferme SRL Mih|ileti, SC Avicola Mih|ileti (153000 poultry), SC Mixalim Mih|ileti (89700 poultry), SC Avicola Buftea (105000 poultry), SC Avicola Frumuani (374000 poultry), Avicola Crevedia (450000 poultry). The livestock growth farms are influencing the quality of the receptors mainly in what concerns the oxygen indicators (dissolved oxygen, chemical oxygen demand COD, biochemical oxygen demand BOD) and nutrients (ammonium, nitrite, nitrate), where the maximum admitted concentrations are exceeded. 3.3. Municipal sources The municipal sources from the lower watershed of Arges River should be approached as a problem generator (wastewater) and consumers (cold water, hot water). In most of the cases, the wastewater are released in the receptors only with a mechanical treatment. Thus, the following localities have their own treatment plant or use those of economic agents: Buftea, Otopeni, Baloteti, Bragadiru, Br|neti, M|gurele, 1 Decembrie. The localities Popeti-Leordeni, Chitila, Pantelimon and Voluntari release their wastewater in the Bucharest sewerage system, which subsequently transfers them to the Dambovita River without any treatment. The other localities release their wastewater on a chaotic base, as they do not have a centralised sewerage system. 3.4. Hospital-originated sources Most of the hospital-originated sources are located within Bucharest, 31 of them having problems related to the wastewater management. Excepting the Bucharest hospitals, which release the wastewater in the city sewerage system, the other hospitals are using as receptors for their wastewater the neighbouring rivers (The Psychiatric Hospital from B|l|ceanca Dmbovia River, Domneti Hospital Sabar River, "Ana Aslan" Geriatrics Hospital Pas|rea River). The hospital-originated wastewater are characterised by frequent exceeding of the oxygen indicators, nutrients and detergents, being potential sources of biological contamination for the freshwater bodies. 3.5. Other categories of sources Important due to the effects they might generate at local level on the water quality are the wastes deposits (Glina, Vidra, Chiajna), the run-off resulting from precipitations (mainly in the urban communities) and abandoned infrastructure works (Arges Danube channel). 4. Water quality in the Arges River lower watershed Water quality in the lower watershed of the Arges River decreases once the river receives the wastewater from Bucharest urban agglomeration. Thus, when entering the influence area of Bucharest urban agglomeration, the Arges River water can be framed in the 1st and 2nd category of quality, with casual exceeding for COD, BOD, ammonium, nitrate. A first qualitative change is noticed after the junction with Sabar River, which collects the wastewater from Jilava and Vidra (chaotic waste depositing, area with industrial activities with impact on the environment). The changes appear for the indicators of organic load, heavy metals and nutrients, passing from the 2nd class of quality into 3rd and 4th class. But the most important change appears after the junction with Dambovita River, when the water passes from the 2nd class of quality into the 4th and 5th class of quality. The main issues are related to COD, BOD, dissolved oxygen, nutrients, anionic detergents, oil compounds and some pesticides. This fact draws attention on the stringent need to finish the Bucharest wastewater treatment plant, as a first step in the process regarding the ecological restoration of the lower watershed of the Arges River. In order to increase the attractiveness of the southern and south-eastern area of Bucharest metropolitan area, the ecological restoration of the Arges River lower watershed is a compulsory step, due to the lack of water resources of a good quality affecting the region. This aspect if very important for the future development of Bucharest,
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which strongly needs areas for transferring the environmentalimpact activities and spaceconsuming ones [7], [8]. Also important, if to be used for navigation, in order to connect Bucharest as part of the 7th Pan-European Corridor, an improvement in what regards the water quality is also required [1]. Acknowledgements The research has been funded by the Romanian Ministry of Education and Research through the CEEX programme as part of the project "Integrated environmental impact assessment of the anthropogenic factors on the water quality in the Arges River lower watershed as a premise for ecological restoration". References
[1] Ioja, C. (2006), Metode si tehnici de evaluare a calitatii mediului in aria metropolitana a municipiului Bucuresti, teza de doctorat, Universitatea din Bucuresti, Bucuresti [2] Ioj|, C. (2005), Metropolizarea i calitatea mediului, Comunic|ri de Geografie, Editura Universit|ii din Bucureti, pg. 279-284 [3] Bassand, M., N. Thai Ti, J. Tarradellas, A. Cunha, J.C. Bolay (2000), Metropolisation, crise ecologique et developpement durable: l`eau et l`habitat precaire a Ho Chi Minh Ville, Presses Universitaire Romandes, Lausannes [4] Bolay, J.C., Thai Thi Ngoc Du (1999), Sustainable development urbanization and environmental risks: the priority of local action in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, Journal of Urban Technology, vol. 6, no.2, pag. 65-85 [5] Lacourt, C., Sylvette Puissant (1999), La metropolisation: Croissance, diversite, fracture, Anthropos, Paris [6] Girija, T. R., Mahanta, C., Chandramouli, V. (2006) Water Quality Assessment of an Untreated Effluent Impacted Urban Stream: The Bharalu Tributary of the Brahmaputra River, India, Environmental Monitoring Assessment, DOI 10.1007/s10661-006-9391-6 [7] White, R. (2002), Building the ecological city, Woodhead Publishing in Environmental Management, London [8] P|troescu, Maria, Marta Cenac-Mehedini, (1999), Scenarii de restructurare ecologic| urban| specifice ariei urbane i metropolitane a Bucuretiului, Analele Universit|ii Spiru Haret, Seria Geografie, 2
Figure 2: Freshwater quality in the influence area of Bucharest
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Landscape Imperviousness Index: An Indicator of Water Conservation in Urban Areas

M.O. Kauffmann1, L. Pimentel da Silva2 & M. Kleiman1
1 Institute for Research on Urban and Regional Planning IPPUR/UFRJ, Brazil; 2Environmental Engineering Department, UERJ, Brazil marciakauf@gmail.com
Abstract The process of urban growth, one of the key features of modern reality, has led to the gradual increase of environmental impacts, especially on the water resources. The strategies used to understand, deal with and reverse this situation have been intensified, with the urban environmental indicators playing an important role. The Landscape Imperviousness Index (TI) presented in this paper, may be considered an excellent indicator of environmental impact related to urban planning and its integration to water resources. The immediate consequence of having this index simultaneously included in the urban legislation and in that of water resources, means recognizing the importance of the urban watershed as an unit for planning and management. This indicator contributes not only to the study of anthropogenic actions on the water resources and the environment, but also, to the issues of water quality and conservation in urban areas, as demonstrated in this study. Besides that, the TI is often used as a parameter in water models for the simulation and forecast of floods in urban basins. This index also includes in its composition several other parameters related to environmental impacts such as air pollution, a rise in temperature, the green areas per inhabitant ratio and lack of infrastructure services. The study of the historical development of TI in a given area, here represented by the water basin of Jacarepagu lowland, an area in expansion in the city of Rio de Janeiro, can, not only provide us with measurable evidence of the increase of the environmental impact and the degradation of the water resources, but also with qualitative aspects about the agents and their relations in the process of occupation of urban areas. It is believed that the historical analysis and the TI definition can contribute to the adoption of more immediate and pressing measures, as well as the formulation of future strategies for urban sustainability. This index can also be used for public information and, since it is directly related to the physical conditions of the water basin, it becomes a useful tool, easily identified. Introduction The process of urban growth has been marked by serious environmental impacts often associated with decline in the living standards. In the Brazilian case, the rapid urban growth and the swelling of several areas in the mega cities have, among other reasons, been associated with a lack of state planning and policies that could effectively respond to this dynamics, thus creating several social, economic and environmental problems. This model of land and water management (Kleiman & Kauffmann, 2006) has failed to deal with the problem of floods, which also result from the urban population growth and the increasing imperviousness of the soil in the catchment basins. This issue has been frequently mentioned in the urban legislation and in several studies including that of Hall (1984), which have warned that, an increase in the imperviousness of the watersheds has a direct effect on groundwater (aquifers) storage and on urban drainage, significantly changing the runoffs, and contributing to the increase in the frequency of floods. The advantage of using the Land Imperviousness Index (TI), first demonstrated in Kauffmann (2003), lies in the fact that among other reasons, this index can include a series of important parameters to limit and control urban growth, aiming at its sustainability. These parameters are population and housing density, availability of green areas, water quality and the existence of urban infrastructure services. The use of this indicator (TI) as a parameter applied to the watershed, the basis for the planning and management of water resources, may represent a new approach and an important strategy to directly linking the management of water resources to urban planning (Kauffmann & Pimentel da Silva, 2005; Pimentel da Silva et al., 2005; Kleiman & Kauffmann, 2006). Especially if included in the urban legislation, the (TI) indicator can minimize the flexibility caused by the distortions of some key parameters for the control and projection of urban growth. It can also be integrated to hydrologic modelling systems that simulate the effects of imperviousness on streamflow. Methodology Aiming at assessing the importance of using the TI as a parameter to measure sustainability and as an indicator for water conservation in urban areas, it was adopted in this study the same criteria applied in Kauffmann (2003). This methodology comprises the use of Equations 1 and 2, and classification standards to assess catchments water quality (Table 1) presented by Schueler (1994, apud Sleavin et al., 2000), resulting in TI(b in Table 3). In Equation 1, the imperviousness index is related to permeable area, availability of green areas
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per inhabitant (Ferrari, 1979 and Ferreira dos Santos, 1988) and to population density, resulting in TI(c) Table 3. Equation 2 relates the imperviousness index to urban legislation parameters, resulting in TI(a and d in Table 3). Table 2 presents parameters definitions used on the imperviousness index formulation. Then, comparing the actual catchment's imperviousness rate to the values of TI(a), TI(b), TI(c) and TI(d) Table 3, the catchment present condition can be assessed and, eventually, scenarios can be simulated and limits set for future catchment's imperviousness/occupation rates.
Table 1: Catchment Impact Classes and Imperviousness Index (adapted from Schueler apud Sleavin et al., 2000) - TI (b)
Catchment Degradation
Eroded Catchments Impacted Catchments Degraded Catchments
Imperviousness Index
10-15% 16-25% > 25%
Eq.1
Eq.2
i=n
TP = TZi (AVi D i ) and TI(c) = 1 TP

i=1
TI(a and d) = TZ i { (TIlotes i C i ) + TI vias i }

i=1
i=n
Table 2: Parameters Definition used in Equations 1 and 2

Parameters
TP TZi AV i Di N TI TIlotes i Ci Clotes i Ce i TIvias i TPlotes i
Description
Sum of permeable area rate (green) Parcel area rate, calculated from total catchment area (AT) and parcelling class or sector areas (AZ i): TZi = AZ i /AT Minimum recommended green area per inhabitant (area/hab) Recommended population density (hab/area) Total number of catchments or planning area parcelling types or classes Sum of impermeable area rates Lot area imperviousness index, which might be considered equal to the lot area occupation index (TO i) if not established on Legislation Ci is urban legislation allowed building area rate, equals the sum of rate for lot building (C lotes i) and for public building
(schools, nurseries, health care centers etc) (C e i), estimated from: C i = Clotes i + Ce i
C rresponding to the rate of total area for building site for lots and estimated according to the building site for public use (PU i) which is specified in urban legislation: Clotes i = 1 - PUi Rate corresponding to public area of building site for urb an public construction. Given by Ce i = PUi - TIvias i Index for streets (estimated based on lots index). Its calculation is based on PU i and Ce i: TIvias = PUi Ce i Permeable Lot rate
Follows results of applying this methodology to Morto river catchment, situated in Jacarepagu, an area of urban growth in the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Results The area under study, the Morto river catchment, is situated in Lot 3 of Jacarepagu basin, in the district of Vargem Grande, Administrative Area of Barra da Tijuca (XXIV RA), Planning Area 4, an area in expansion in the city of Rio de Janeiro. Figure 1 shows the location of the Morto River catchment in relation to the drainage area of Jacarepagu, Administrative Areas and in Brazil. At present, catchment has a low urban occupation rate and remainig areas of lush vegetation, which stresses the importance of applying this methodolgy to assess the urban sustainabilty of the area. The zoning and parcelling of the Morto river catchment, regulated by the Municipal Ordinance n 3221 (please see the zoning of the Morto River catchment in Figure 2) , Decree 3.0462 ("Plano Piloto") and the Project for Urban Development of Vargem Grande and Vargem Pequena areas ("PEU das Vargens"3), was then applied to the area under study and the corresponding imperviousness index, for each assumption ((TI(a), TI(b), TI(c) and TI(d)) is presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Morto River Catchment Landscape Imperviousness Index Parameterization
Reference Index
TIlotes TItotal
Plano Piloto Legislation Adopting TIlotes = TO (a)

10 % 12.96 %
Water Quality TItotal = 25% (b)

53.69 % 25 %
Green Area per Inhabitant (c)

58.91 % 26.44 %
PEU das Vargens Legislation (d)

50% (sector C), 40% (sector E) and 20% (sector H) 18,74%
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M.O. Kauffmann et al.: Landscape Imperviousness Index: An Indicator of Water Conservation in Urban Areas
Figure 1 - Morto River Catchment, Jacarepagu, City of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Figure 2 - Morto River Catchment. Legislation Zoning - ZE 1 and ZE 5
The catchment landscape imperviousness index (TI) estimated for the Morto river catchment shown in Table 3 and the present landscape imperviousness estimated from 1999 air photos survey (equals 2.5%, calculated considering as impermeable the sum of projected roof areas, roads and sidewalks), were applied as the impermeable area parameter for IPH II hydrological model (Germano et al., 1998 and Tucci and Campana, 1993). In Figure 3, these simulations are presented. As expected, as catchment imperviousness index rises, so do both stream peak flow and time to peak. Therefore, as catchment impervious surface increases, so does the risk of urban flooding, demonstrating the importance of TI indicator also for urban flooding management.
35,00 30,00 Streamflow (m3/s) 25,00 20,00 15,00 10,00 5,00 0,00 1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49 52 55 Time (dt=30 minutes)
TItotal = 2.5% TItotal = 12.96 % TItotal=18.74% TItotal=26.44%
Figure 3: Stream Flow Simulations for Different Catchment Landscape Imperviousness Index (TI)
Conclusion Based on the example given, it can be noted the importance of TI, not only to confirm the use of the Basin as a planning unit, since TI is closely related to basin total area, but also to study the effects of increasing basin's impervious surface on water resource systems. This study emphasizes the need for thorough research into the effects of imperviousness on the hydrologic system and the importance of having mechanisms to control urban occupation included in the legislation on urban and water resources. To this purpose, it endorses the use of TI as an interesting urban-environmental indicator and as a parameter to assess sustainability and water conservation in urban areas. Additionally, the use of TI can incorporate the analysis of new quantitative and qualitative aspects, thus enabling the new added parameters to detect situations on the sustainability continuum. In TI calculation, the parameter related to the availability of infrastructure services in the catchment, may include the rate for streets weighed by factors that reduce the imperviousness index of streets due to the use of pavement surfaces that are more or less permeable to the infiltration of stormwater. In the same way, the different situations concerning urban drainage, both of private lots or public streets and areas, may be represented by a parameter that is adjusted by indexes expressing quantitative and qualitative aspects, including among others techniques to reduce outflow and to store stormwater. Also, the parameter on the availability of green areas may incorporate alternative solutions such as green roofs, suspended gardens, among others, that provide thermal, visual and emotional comfort. The TI indicator besides having in its calculation the above mentioned attributes, may also support planning decisions and actions by means of the historical analysis, relating the physical reality (the catchment) that
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is the target of the project to the projected results, the legislation and its objective application. It can also detect the dynamics of sustainability development and how it can be achieved, bringing to light the contradictions in the interests of the agents involved, thus supporting and giving the tools for a better understanding of this historic and collective process. References
Ferrari, C. (1979) Course on Integrated Municipal Planning. Town Planning (second edn). Pioneira, So Paulo, Brazil (in Portuguese). Ferreira dos Santos, C. N. (1988) The City as a Playing Card Game. Niteri, EDUFF - Editora Universitria de So Paulo, Projeto Editores Associados Ltda, Brazil (in Portuguese). Germano, A., Tucci, C. E. M. & Silveira, A. L. L. (1998) Estimating IPH II parameters for some urban Brazilian catchments. Brazilian J. Water Resour. (RBRH) 3(4), 103-120. (in Portuguese). Hall, M. J. (1984) Urban Hydrology. Elsevier Ltd, Belfast, Ireland. Kauffmann, M. O. (2003) Urban expansion and life quality: proposal for development of sustainability indicators applied to urban legislation. Masters Dissertation, Environmental Engineering, FEN/UERJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (in Portuguese). Kauffmann, M. O. & Pimentel da Silva, L. (2005). Land Imperviousness Index: A Resource to Implement the Watershed as a Unit for Urban Planning Integrated to Water Resources Management. In: ANPUR XI National Conference . Salvador, BA, Brazil (in Portuguese). Kleiman, M. & Kauffmann, M. O. (2006). Impacts of a Model of Land and Water Management in Paraba do Sul Shared River Basin: The Committee for Integration of Paraba do Sul River Basin - CEIVAP - So Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, Brazil. In: 5 Iberian Congress of Water Planning and Management, Faro, Portugal. Zaragoza: Fundacin Nueva Cultura del gua (in Portuguese). Pimentel da Silva, L; Kauffmann, M. O. & Rosa, E.U. (2005). Urban Growth and Life Quality: Application of Indicators in Integrated Water and Urban Planning. In: Seventh IAHS Scientific Assembly-Sustainable Water Management Solutions for Large Cities - Red Book. Foz do Iguau, PR, Brazil. Schueler, T. R. (1994) The Importance of Imperviousness. Watershed Prot. Tech. 1(3), 100-111. Sleavin, W. J., Civco, D. L., Prisole, S. & Giannotti, L. (2000) Measuring impervious surfaces for non-point source pollution modeling. In: Proceedings of the ASPRS Annual Conference (May 2000, Washington DC), 11p. (in http://resac.uconn.edu/publications/tech_papers/pdf_paper/asprs2000wdsl.pdf).
________________________________________________ 1 Municipal Ordinance from March, 3rd 1976, regulates the zoning of the area establishing ZE 1 and ZE 5. 2 Municipal Ordinance from April, 4th 1982 details the Zoning of Jacarepagu Basin and is here related to ZE 5 of the basin. 3 PLC n 72/2004 also refers to ZE 5 of the Morto River catchment and revises existing ordinance.
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Development for the Biotope Assessment Method that Introduces the Watershed Concept in Urban Planning
Bong-Ho Han, Suk-Hwan Hong, Jung-Hee Bae, Jeong-In Kwak
Institute for Eco-Plan, Landscape architecture, University of Seoul, Korea hanho@uos.ac.kr
Introduction The division of space into ecological units and their assessment are important during urban planning. Freeman(1999) collected data on the countryside in suburban areas where the pressure for development is high, through which an ecological approach to urban planning was emphasized. Biotope mapping of the boundaries of certain plant or animal communities onto a map is an ecosystem assessment method applicable to space planning(Sukopp, 1990). Vegetation is often used as an ecological space division standard(Atkinson, 1985) as it reflects the topography, soils and artificial changes of a given area(Motwkin et al., 1999). Influenced by this trend, biotope mapping has normally been conducted based on a vegetation study as it has been found to be effective in environmental conservation and management. However, with respect to development, the method has had limited effects. The method has been useful in preserving good ecosystems, but not protecting wildlife habitats in land use(Rutledge, 2001) or maintaining aquatic environments. Wildlife tends to live in basins consistent with the watershed(Seo, 2000), which is influenced by a variety of factors, such as tree density, soil layers and water system structure(Morrison et al., 1999), other than just by certain kinds of plants. Sixty seven percent of Korean land is mountainous region; therefore, topographical changes on a local scale can result in diverse ecosystems. The diversity and complexity of biotope structures limits the collection of data using remote sensing. Besides, with the use of a biotope study and evaluation that focuses on plants, it is impossible to approach complex watershed biotope comprehensively. As a result, a growing number of large-scale development projects, which protect only good biotopes, are carried out without a comprehensive understanding of complex biotope. In order to pursue the environmentally friendly development of farm land and mountainous regions within suburban areas, the aims of this study were to propose environmentally friendly development planning method by using biotope mapping and considering the ecological characteristics of small watershed. Research Area and Methods This study was performed on an area of about 100ha in Daejang-dong Bundang-gu Sungnam city, close to the city of Seoul, planned for development into a residential area. Research and analyses for ecological planning was carried out on the entire basin area, including both the planned residential area and its ecosystems. Consequently, the total area of the study area with the watershed was about 232ha, i.e. 2.3 times larger than the expected residential area. Ecological planning was conducted to mitigate the ecological impact on the target region in Daejang-dong, which consisted of three stages: data collection and analysis, assessment and planning. In the data collection and analysis, both environmental factors and ecological structures were considered. The environmental factors included the topography, water system, small watershed and microclimate. The ecological structure was divided into vegetation and animal structure, with the former including actual vegetation, land use and the latter, wild birds, amphibians and index mammals. Based on the data collection and analyses in the first stage, ecological assessment and planning were carried out. The ecological assessment was performed on biotopes, wildlife habitats and water system, with the results integrated. To assess the biotopes, a biotope type assessment method was adopted, with a minimal area of vegetation structure used to distinguish the spaces. With respect to the wildlife habitats and the water system, where the limit of the boundaries are hard to define, the watershed of the primary water system was used (Table 1). In this study, both large and specific classifications were used, which reflected Bastian's(1994) biotope type assessment method. A total area of 32.9% was assessed as being grade 1, with most of this area situated in the upper portion and along the mountain ridges. For the wildlife habitat assessment, the research area was divided at equal intervals into six grades, based on the watershed in the primary water system, which was determined using the Horton-Strahler method, based on the diversity and rarity. In order to assess the water system, we compared the size and structure of streamlet and quantity of water within each watershed and length of the streamlet, with the highest and lowest scores attained. The gap
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between the highest and lowest points was divided at equal intervals into six grades, with the watershed system then assessed as one of those grades.
Table 1. Ecological Assessment by Biotopes and Basins
Means Target Index of Conditions Unit
? Type of vegetation structure Appearance of wildlife ? Site of appearance and Wildlife habitat animals-wild birds, mammals, egg-laying of wildlife assessment and amphibians animals Scale of water system-stream ? Water quantity and Water system order + water quantity + slope streamlet structure by assessment structure water system Biotope assessment Biotope type assessment General assessment Comprehensive assessment of biotopes, wildlife habitats, and water system
Minimal area of vegetation structure Area of first watershed
Area of first watershed Minimal area of vegetation structure + Area of first watershed
Ecological Condition and Assessment A microclimate analysis indicated that wet arable lands, such as paddy fields and forests with rich vegetation, had low temperatures. A topographical analysis indicated the land was mainly within a north-south valley, most of which had a southward slope. An aquatic study also showed the existence of a north-south valley. With respect to the vegetation, there were a number of wild oak trees(43.4%) and several woody plant communities in the wetlands(2.3%). Overall, the forest vegetation was in good shape, with wet grasslands in the lower part of the forests. Within the research area, 1,222 wild birds(22 species) and three kinds of mammals, as well as their traces, were found. Amphibian spawn and dead bodies were found at 41 spots around the paddy fields mainly on the eastside; especially, spawn of toads(Bufo gargarizars) and salamanders(Hynobius leechil) were found in masses. In other words, the study area exhibited the co-existence of mixed and diverse species within forests, rivers, arable lands and wetlands. It is important to preserve spawning places and habitats of amphibians. A biotope type assessment indicated that the oak forests and woody plant communities in the wetlands were in good conditions. A watershed-based wildlife habitat and water system assessment revealed high grade gentle forest slopes in the south and west. Due to the relatively large watershed, there was enough water in these areas. In contrast, in the north and east there were steep slopes, with a small watershed, which were assessed as being low grade. Figure 1 shows the comprehensive results of the ecological assessment of the research area, which describes the biotope, wildlife habitat and water system grades, and major amphibian and wild bird habitats, as well as the low-temperature areas. The figure shows the ecosystem of the upper parts of the ridges and slopes at the peripheries and of the entire basins in the south and east were in good shape. Therefore, ecosystem improvement projects, such as securing and restoring stable habitats, should be implemented, focusing on the southern and eastern parts of the study area. Ecological Planning Ecological planning consists of ecosystem preservation and development, the biotope network, habitat making and restoration, as well as green system plan. In ecosystem preservation and development planning, biotopes in good conditions were identified as needing to be preserved. Apart from this, and biotopes with the potential to be nurtured into habitats were also recognized. Sorting out biotopes revealed that the south eastern area, which was assessed as being high in terms of wildlife habitat, indicated a need for a high level of preservation. The ecological network was established based on the wildlife pathways, habitats and forest areas. The biotopes that have been destroyed by human activities need to be restored, with habitats formed to guarantee safe inhabitation and movement in the places where a variety of wild birds and amphibians live; the ecosystems also need to be connected. This study proposes parks and greens that are appropriate to the characteristics of each space. To this end, parks and greens were classified into two types: ecologically important connections, as well as cross zones between ecological corridors and forest belts.
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Bong-Ho Han et al.: Development for the Biotope Assessment Method that Introduces the Watershed Concept
Conclusion This study looked at biotope mapping based on the vegetation ecosystem and watershed, which reflected the animal ecosystem and aquatic environment for the development of areas of rich plants and animals in an environmentally friendly manner. Biotope mapping based on the vegetation ecosystem, the biotope assessment would have only limited effects in diffusing good ecosystems and preserving diverse ecosystems. As a result, development planning based on such an assessment is likely to isolate good ecosystems and undermine wildlife habitats. When combined with a watershed-based wildlife habitat assessment; however, ecologically valuable areas can be protected as wildlife habitats. Division of space in this manner results in the preservation of good ecosystems and the restoration of those that have been destroyed. Even though small areas are highly valued, they are relatively hard to protect due to their size. The applications of biotope mapping and space planning, which reflect the ecological features of a watershed, have been proven to be appropriate for regions with a complex topography. Reference
Figure 1. Overview of the ecological conditions and assessment
Atkinson, I. A. E.(1985) Derivation of vegetation mapping units for an ecological survey of Tongariro National Park North Island, New Zealand. N. Z. J. Bot. 23: 361-378. Bastian, O.(1994) Eine gestufte Biotopbewertung in der rtlichen Landschaftsplanung - mit Beispielen aus dem Modellprojekt Sachsen Landschaftsplan Stausee Quitzdorf bei Niesky/Oberlausitz -. Bund Deutscher Landschaftsarchitekten. Freeman, C.(1999) Geographic Information systems and the conservation of urban biodiversity. Urban Policy Res. 17(1): 51-61. Motwkin, G., P. Wilson, D. R. Foster and A. Allen(1999) Vegetation patterns in heterogeneous landscapes: The importance of history and environment. Journal of Vegetation Science 10: 903-920. Rutledge, D.T.(2001) Change in land cover and wildlife habitats in two watershed in the lower peninsula of Michigan, 271p. Seo, Chang-Wan(2000) Wild boar(Sus scrofa coreanus Heude) habitat modeling using GIS and logistic regression. Thesis of degree of doctor in Seoul National University, 104p. Sukopp, H.(1990) Urban ecology - plants and plant communities in urban environments -. SPB Academic Publishing.
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Seeking a Sustainable Design for Flood Area Occupation: The So Paulo, Brazil Case
D. F. Pessoa
Centro Universitrio Nove de Julho (UNINOVE) So Paulo, Brazil denisefpessoa@hotmail.com
Abstract This paper focuses on the Tiete River that crosses the metropolitan area of the city of So Paulo, Brazil, and makes a critical analysis of the implications of a deleterious growth pattern that has been established in the area. Most of the So Paulo urban fabric is located in the Tiete River basin. Its flood area is very extensive, and because it is difficulty to control the water level throughout the year, the basin was left unoccupied until the first quarter of the 20th century, when the city rose to a leading position in the country's economy. Urbanization occurred on the fringe of the flood area, which soon was viewed as a potential area for occupation. In the beginning of the 20th century, studies were made to straighten the course of the river and control the flood area. The Tiete is a meandering river. The straightening and channeling of its course was designed to open the region to urban settlement, and represented an excellent opportunity for real estate investment. The channeling of the river was carried out between the 1940s and the 1960s, coinciding with a new federal highway policy and the establishment of the car industry. The drained area also offered a possibility of constructing an expressway (the Marginal Beltway) to meet the increase in vehicle circulation triggered by the growing number of cars in the city. The expressway eventually suffocated the river, but once it was built, its shoreline could no longer be considered feasible for establishing a leisure area, as it used to be. The present work points out the faults of the occupation of the Tiete River flood area, and the urban design pattern followed by many cities in Brazil. It also presents an approach for sustainable recovery of the area and proposes urban design alternatives for recovering this kind of occupation. Introduction Until the last quarter of the 19th century, So Paulo was a small village. With the development of coffee plantations at the end of the 19th century and the industrialization occurring at the beginning of the 20th century, the city witnessed tremendous growth. The urban fabric spread out across the flood area of the Tiete, Tamanduatei and Anhangabau rivers. A number of studies have been made since this time to channel these rivers. The Tiete River begins 22 kilometers from the Atlantic Ocean. Although it is so close to the sea, its course penetrates the interior of the country. Carved by its geological formation, the river runs a course of moderate speed. In the rainy season, the water speed increases, swelling the volume of the river and consequently causing flooding, erosion of the river bed and recarving of a meandering course that slows the water speed (Ohtake, 1991). This process has taken place over millions of years. Each curve of the river was carefully sculpted by nature, and like everything else done by nature, it has a function. In the 1940s, a long process began to turn the portion of the river that crosses the city of So Paulo into a canal. The upshot was that the length of the portion crossing the metropolitan area was reduced to almost half. The original 46 km of the meandering river was turned into a 26 km canal. The works ended in the 1960s and the part of the drained flood area occupied by the curves of the river received two seven lanes expressways, one on either side of the canal, where 700,000 vehicles a day now circulate. After the works were concluded, the shore could no longer be used for recreation, fishing, walking, etc, because the expressways were too close to the watercourse and there was no pedestrian access to its banks. In the 1950s, the car industry was installed in So Paulo, after which the urban design decisions were primarily based on passenger car circulation. Most fast growing Brazilian cities adopted this pattern, which became a symbol of progress and modernization: expressways without traffic lights that allow nonstop driving. The idea of sacrificing contact with nature and quality of life for modernization was well-accepted at the time by planners and the overall population. This picture started to change from the 1980s onward, due to the chaotic traffic, air pollution and high cost of gas. Nevertheless, the car industry continued to invest in Brazil, and the status associated with owing a car still has very strong appeal. Meanwhile, the investments in public transportation, especially to build the metro system, have been very modest. The Strategic Master Plan of the City of So Paulo From the 1980's on, the concern for environmental protection has became a more recurrent topic on the federal, state and municipal government agenda. The Federal Constitution of Brazil, Articles 182 and 183 224
D. F. Pessoa: Seeking a Sustainable Design for Flood Area Occupation: The So Paulo, Brazil Case
(Federal Law /88), triggered a ten-year-long discussion in the Brazilian National Congress, which strove to promote an adequate urban development plan. These Articles established the general direction for urban planning policies designed to organize the urban development, and gave rise to the "Statute of the City" (Federal Law 10.257/2001). The Statute established urban policy mechanisms to improve the quality of life in the cities and required that municipal governments develop a master plan. In 2002, the municipal government of So Paulo approved the Strategic Master Plan of the City (Municipal Law 13.430/2002). One of the main novelties of the plan was the recognition that environmental issues were of crucial importance. The municipality was divided into two macro zones of environmental protection. The main points addressed by the Strategic Master Plan of concern to this paper are those related to rivers and flood areas, as outlined below: Creation of linear parks in valleys, along with the community infrastructure needed to develop leisure and recreational activities Removal of communities located in risky flood areas and building of appropriate housing somewhere not far from where they were before Creation of legal instruments requiring large constructions and owners of large buildings (enterprises that consume large amounts of water) to install equipment to reuse the grey water for non-drinking purposes Introduction of sewage treatment systems Improving the urban drainage system by implementing the Municipal Drainage Master Plan of So Paulo, integrated with the Macro-Drainage Master Plan of the Alto Tiete Hydrographic Basin and establishing parameters for its flood area and for future damn construction Promoting policies, habits and actions to protect natural resources Reducing and controlling pollution of all kinds Enlarging the country's Green Belt Preservation of the ecosystem and landscape Considering that most of the city's urban area is located inside the Tiete River Basin and that the river has a severe level of degradation, the recommendations of the Master Plan are unfortunately very vague. They are general guidelines that do not address the Tiete River specifically or even rivers in general. The only specific guidelines concern the two watersheds that supply part of the city: Billings and Guarapiranga, which are threatened by serious degradation that affects the water quality. The goal of creating linear parks in valleys, along with the community infrastructure to support leisure and recreational activities may offer an opportunity to recover the Tiete River. However, the concept of a linear park should be clearly defined so that it is not misconstrued as any green strip with trees and some sort of vegetation. A linear park should at least restore the shrubbery that protects the water, but this would be absolutely impossible today because the Marginal Beltway runs too close to the river banks. In addition, this type of park should promote the use of the river not only by human beings but also by fish, birds, insects and the entire ecological order that supports it. The Widening of the Tiete River Bed In 1995, the Japan Bank for International Cooperation financed the works for widening the bed of the Tiete River. The first channeling project increased the river flow to 440m/seg, but this soon became insufficient. Many works followed to increase its flow. The last project boosted the flow to 1050 m/sec, which is supposedly enough to meet the current demand ("O Estado de So Paulo," 10/31/2002, C3). The project provided the banks with a sloped concrete wall. The ultimate goal of the work was to end the flooding of the river that occurs every year during the summer. Up to now, the flood control seems to have been successful. However, the concrete wall made the banks unfeasible for animal life because it cannot support the growth of plants, and consequently the existence of insects that feed frogs, fishes and birds, not to mention precluding its use for human beings. Because of the steep-sloped walls, people cannot walk to the water. The Recovery of the Tiete River Major changes will have to be made in the city in order to recover the river, especially in the transport system, because the maintenance of the Marginal Beltway precludes restoring and providing access to the river banks. With the imminent shortage of drinking water worldwide, this could be an opportunity to reconsider maintaining river degradation in detriment to an urban transport system based on passenger cars, as is the case today. In 1984 Oscar Niemeyer designed a project for the area, which would remove the south lanes of the Marginal Beltway to make room for a linear park, in an attempt to recover the river and give back to the city the tranquility it once enjoyed (Projeto Tiet, 1991). He was greatly criticized at the time on claims that he was ignoring the city's vital dependence on the expressway. It is true that the circulation system depended a great
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deal on the Tiete Marginal Beltway at the time, and even more so today. The importance of Niemeyer's project was to provoke a debate about the quality of life in So Paulo and to call attention to its relation to the deterioration of the natural environment. Conclusion Although the problems created by an urban pattern that is detrimental to the environment are well-known, its reversion is not simple. It would involve radical transformations in the city, such as building a subway network that meets urban transport demands (the city depends on only 5 metro lines today). Some of the needed changes reach beyond the So Paulo metropolitan area, such as the sewage system of neighboring municipalities that are served by the Tiete River waters, like Guarulhos, which has no sewage treatment system in place (O Estado de So Paulo, 4/9/2007). Such a recovery would also imply a change in the economic guidelines, which would cease to promote the car industry. This would obviously affect the industry and would have a strong impact not only on the Brazilian but also on the international economy. Of all the changes needed, those involving technology are the most feasible and can be done in a relatively short period of time. Those involving major changes in the economic prospects, however, are very difficult to accomplish. Life in So Paulo is very stressful, and this is greatly attributed to the deterioration of the environment. Recovering natural settings would improve the quality of life and make life more pleasant. For this to occur, humanistic needs must become a priority in detriment to economic interests. References:
AB'SABER, Aziz Nacib. Geomorfologia do Stio Urbano de So Paulo. So Paulo, Faculdade de Filoso?a, Cincias e Letras da Universidade de So Paulo, 1958. BRITO, F. Saturnino Rodrigues de. Notes sur le Trac Sanitaire des Villes. Paris, Impriperie et Librairie des Chemains de Fer, 1916. FERREIRA, Leila da Costa e Viola, Eduardo (orgs.). Incertezas de Sustentabilidade na Globalizao. Campinas: Unicamp, 1996. OHTAKE, Ricardo. O Livro do Rio Tiet. So Paulo, Estdio Ro Projetos e Edies, 1991. PESSOA, Denise Falco. Utopia e Cidades: Proposies. So Paulo, Annablume, 2006 SEABRA, Odete C de Lima. Meandros dos Rios nas Meandros do Poder: Tiet e Pinheiros (Doutorado) Faculdade de Geografia, Universidade de So Paulo, 1987. Estatuto da Cidade- Federal Law 10.257/2001 O Estado de So Paulo, 31/10/2002, C3 http://www.saopaulo.sp.gov.br/projetosestrategicos/pe30_calha_tiete.htm http://www.rededasaguas.org.br/nucleo/na_hidrografia.htm
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Ability and willingness to pay for drinking water in a peri-urban area in Ganga delta where the groundwater aquifer is contaminated with arsenic
S. Chatterjee and B. Sen Gupta
School of Civil Engineering, Queen's University Belfast. United Kingdom B.Sengupta@qub.ac.uk
Introduction Arsenic contamination in groundwater has been envisaged as a problem of global concern. The consumption of contaminated groundwater in the deltaic plain in India (West Bengal) and Bangladesh has caused adverse health effects amongst the population. Groundwater extracted from the various arsenic contaminated aquifers by shallow tube wells can no longer be considered safe for drinking and cooking purpose. Therefore, provision for treatment of the groundwater and proper distribution of the decontaminated water at an affordable price is the major concern of drinking water provider. Given today's emphasis on responsible fiscal planning, structural adjustments, and the disengagement of the government in all but essential sectors, it is vital to be able to predict with reasonable accuracy the financial and economic viability of any publicly funded project. Tariffs must be designed so that at least the operation and maintenance cost can be recovered. A key concept in such a planning methodology is that of 'willingness to pay' (Mitchell and Carson, 1989; Cummings et al., 1986). If people are willing to pay for the full costs of a particular service, then it is a clear indication that the service is valued and most likely to be used and maintained. Further, it may be possible to generate funds to sustain and replicate such projects. In other words, the idea is to ascertain whether the cost of such systems and their sustainability can be gauged in view of the consumers' willingness to pay (WTP) an appropriate price for the service. Objectives of the study The primary objective of this study was to determine the factors (variables) and their influence on consumers' WTP for arsenic free water in lower Bengal Delta near Calcutta. The factors expected to influence the willingness to pay were identified. The logistic regression analysis has been carried out using the factors as independent variables and WTP as dependent variable. The analysis leads to the probability of consumers' WTP more for water and reveals the influence of each factor on WTP. An additional objective was to test and validate a rapid appraisal method (CVM) as a potential tool for planner in designing peri urban water supply system and the information derived from it would help the water authorities improve their decision-making on appropriate levels of service, cost recovery policies, and water pricing. Study Design and methology In order to achieve the objectives of the study, the proposed research design was tested in a peri urban locality for a range of economic and environmental conditions. In this study that covered 50 households, consumers were provided with necessary information on the use of contaminated groundwater and its adverse ill effect. The consumer were presented with the hypothetical situation where they would be provided with arsenic free water and asked if they would be willing to pay for it. The study was conducted in North 24 Parganas district (Kasimpur), approximately 25 km from Cathe main city Calcutta in India. The total area of the study area is 2.0 km2, with the population of 3700 people. The average annual income of the families is US$ 800/annum.The main source of water in the area is 20 shallow wells and tube wells which are used for drinking as well as irrigation purposes. The area was chosen because it is known that 70% of the tube wells in the area had arsenic concentrations above 0.05 mg/l. An in situ treatment plant had been set up in the area for treating the arsenic affected aquifer with the financial assistance of the European commission. The questionnaire for the survey is designed to determine the maximum amount of money the household is willing to pay for a commodity or service. WTP studies are also termed "contingent valuation" studies because the respondent is asked about what he or she would do in a hypothetical (or contingent) situation. The interview questionnaire is designed and pre-tested, usually drawing on discussions with local families or community (Panchayat) leaders. Initially a draft questionnaire had been prepared and checked and was amended with a group of specialist before it took the final form. In each questionnaire, an explanatory letter was attached to explain the ethical considerations and to facilitate the questionnaire filling. Selection of the attributes The model used the following variables to ascertain the consumers' WTP for water:
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Consumers' perception and satisfaction about the present quality of water used for drinking and cooking family income household size water consumption in the family awareness about arsenic in the area age education of the head of the family who takes the decision means of getting the drinking water ( owned tube well or community) the health condition of the family members the value of the Start Bid (SBID) made Because of the dichotomous structure of the dependent variable (WTP), a non-linear probabilistic model had been used for estimation. Results and discussions Correlation analysis The correlation coefficient between each of these variables and WTP has been estimated to check their degree of association. In many cases, the correlation coefficients are found to be significantly high (Table 1). As expected, the correlation between WTP and income of the household, awareness about arsenic, dissatisfaction (no satisfaction) with respect to quality of water as perceived by the respondent, health condition of the family are significantly positive. On the other hand, the correlation coefficient with respect to age, education and occupation (agriculture=1) are found to be negatively correlated though they are not quite significant. Contrary to maintained belief, no significant association is observed between WTP and household size, education and water consumption. The correlation between start bid and willingness to pay is found to be significantly positive. Choice of appropriate econometric model The analysis was carried out category-wise with regression coefficients obtained as shown in Table 2. It was observed that Chi-square -values were quite significant, indicating the goodness-of-fit of models. Calculation of Willingness to pay Based on the awareness level and satisfaction with the present available water quality, the samples can be divided into sub groups (Table 3). For each of these sub-groups the regression equation can be written asWTP = a + b*(expense) + c*(SBid) For each subgroup equation, the regression equation is run to obtain the value of a, b and c. The alternative values of the Starting Bid (0, 10, 20, 30) and the average expenditure estimated for each sub-group are substituted in the above equation to get the estimated WTP (corresponding to each value of the SBID) for that particular sub-group. Estimated revenue and cost recovery potential The willingness-to-pay bids can be used to estimate the likelihood of connection to and revenue generated from the provision of supplying arsenic free water. Such a computation helps to determine whether the provision of such services would be economically sustainable. The connection frequencies and revenue estimates is plotted in Figure1. At Rs 20 per month the connection frequency is approximately 32 percent , while at Rs25 the figure is 22%. The plot of revenue against monthly tariff indicates that at Rs20/month monthly tariff, the revenue yield would be Rs680 per 100 family per month and connection frequency will be 34%. The same revenue yield will be Rs 540 per 100 families corresponding to 36% connection frequency and Rs 550 per 100 families corresponding to 22% connection. Therefore, any tariff in the range of Rs 20 per month should achieve the dual objectives of a reasonably high connection frequency and high cost recovery. Conclusion Arsenic contamination of groundwater is an issue of global concern. The objective of the study was to determine the willingness to pay for arsenic free groundwater in a rural setup and the factors influencing WTP. The analysis revealed the awareness amongst the people regarding the presence of arsenic in the groundwater significantly affects the odds of paying more for the arsenic free water. It has been observed that due to lack of awareness about the presence of arsenic in the groundwater and its harmful consequence amongst the people in the study area, the willingness to pay for better water quality is quite low.
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S. Chatterjee and B. Sen Gupta: Ability and willingness to pay for drinking water
Reference
Cummings, R.G., Brookshire, D.S., Schulze, W.D. (eds) (1986), Valuing environmental goods: a state of the arts assessment of the contingent valuation method. Totowa, NJ: Roweman and Allanheld. Mitchell, R.C., Carson, R.T. (1989), Using surveys to value public goods: the contingent valuation method, Washington, DC: Resource for the Future.
Table 1: Correlation matrix between WTP and socioeconomic values
Variables No of households Water consumption Occupation Income Age Awareness Satisfaction with present available water quality Education of the respondent Health condition of the family Initial Bid
** Correlation is significant at 0.01 level( 2 tailed) * Correlation is significant at 0.05 level( 2 tailed) Table 2: SPSS output
Variable NO_OF_HO WATER_CO OCCUPATI INCOME AWARENES HAPPY_WI AGE EDUCATIO HEALTH_C MEANS_OF SBid Constant B -.1604 .0013 -1.6269 .5288 2.9215 -1.6388 -.0741 1.4699 -.7392 -2.0798 0.1852 1.4689 S.E. 1.0434 .0187 1.4135 .3448 1.2595 1.0090 .0567 1.3004 1.1944 2.4473 1.6761 2.9491 Wald .0236 .0051 1.3248 2.3517 5.3804 2.6379 1.7070 1.2777 .3830 .7222 2.3121 .2481
Parametrics 0.011 0.024 -.052 0.292** -.123 0.469** -.295* -.044 -.301* 0.6**
df 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Sig .8778 .9428 .2497 .0251 .0204 .0143 .1914 .2583 .0360 .3954 .0267 .6184
R .0000 .0000 .0000 .0769 .2383 -.1035 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0000 .0235
Exp(B) .8518 1.0013 .1965 7.6969 18.5699 .1942 .9286 0.3488 .4775 .1250 3.415
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Table 3: Estimation of median WTP
Happy/ Unhappy with the present quality of water Happy
Aware/ not aware about arsenic Not aware Aware
No of samples
Coeff of Income
Coeff of bid
Constant
Bids
Avg Proj income WTP
Median WTP
2 6
0 1.41
0 -0.55
0 -0.37
Unhappy
Not aware
28
-0.04
0.97
0.05
Aware
-0.02
0.79
0.35
10 20 10 20 30 40 10 20 30 40 10 20 30 40
9000 10800
0 8.41 2.91 -2.59 -8.09 9.59 19.32 29.05 38.78 8.16 16.10 24.04 31.98
0 0.16
4900
24.19
6500
20.07
Connection frequencies and monthly revenue (per 100 households)

800 700 120.00 100.00 80.00 60.00 40.00 20.00 0.00 120
Revenues (Rs)
600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 20 40 60 Monthly tariff (Rs) 80 100
%Household connected
Figure 1: Revenue and Connection frequency vs monthly tariff (Indian Rs)
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Increasing the ability of water hyacinth for removing heavy metals

Medhat Ibrahim1,2 & Traugott Scheytt2
Spectroscopy Department, National Research Centre, Dokki, Cairo, Egypt Technische Universitt Berlin, Fachgebiet Hydrogeologie, Berlin, Germany medhat.ibrahim@mailbox.TU-Berlin.DE
1 2
Abstract Increase of available water resource is an environmental challenge. In Egypt the reuse of treated sewage water could be a solution for increasing water demand. Accordingly this paper presents an approach to increase the ability for the aquatic plant water hyacinth to mediate heavy metals. The plant was treated with 0.1 N acetic acid, and then dried and its dry matter is used for mediation. A mechanism of metals uptake is described using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) as well as molecular modelling technique. FTIR proves the transport of acetate to the plant through the existence of C=O at 1740.4 cm-1. Modelling indicates that COOH is attracting hexahydrated divalent metals. Consequently, acetylated plant dry matter shows the ability to mediate metals. As an application example the treated plant could mediate cadmium from a synthetic solution containing 1 mg/l. Within 2.o hours 70.0 % of Cd could be removed from water. Introduction By the middle of 90s Egypt has already fully utilized its water resources. Furthermore, by 2025 Egypt is expected to suffer from water scarcity. That is why Egypt needs to manage the existing water on one hand and study other possible resources on the other [1]. One of the possible solutions is reuse of the sewage water, which could solve part of the water demand in Egypt and/or compensate for water shortage in the near future. One of the limitations is that some factories used to discharge their wastewater directly to urban systems without adequate treatment. This discharge contains several pollutants, mainly heavy metals. This in turn makes the process of sewage water treatment more expensive and needs extra efforts. Furthermore, one of biggest treatment stations is Abu Rawash, Giza has a unique problem such that although Cairo University and National Research Centre are treating their chemical waste some institutes are still disposing their chemicals without adequate treatment to the urban system, which affects the quality of treatment at this stations. Although two stages of treatments are used, heavy metals still make the reused water limited in its applications. One of the recommended methods to overcome this problem is utilizing the plant and/or bacteria for third stage treatment. The aquatic plant water hyacinth as seen in figure 1, is growing abundantly in Egypt as well as tropical and subtropical regions of the world. The phenomena of metals uptake by this plant were observed earlier by many researchers [2-4]. Nowadays, the plant is used extensively as a phytoremediation tool [5-8]. In our previous work heavy metals are assumed to hydrate in the aquatic environment as hexahydrated divalent metal ions [9]. Acetic acid as well as acetate group was subjected to Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) and Density Functional Theory (DFT) modelling study [10 -11] to describe the geometry and vibrational characteristics of acetate group. The interaction between divalent metals and organic structure Figure 1: Water hyacinth plant, which is used is assumed to take place via acetate group. Furthermore the as a phytoremediation tool. interaction is likely to happen with divalent heavy metals in its hexahydrated form [12-13]. Based on our previous model as well as FTIR studies, the present paper is conducted and point out the possibility of mediating heavy metals by aquatic plant. The plant was treated with acetic acid and then used as dry matter. The mechanism of removal is studied using molecular modelling technique based on experimental FTIR spectroscopy measurements. For verification the dry acetylated plant is immersed in 1mg/l Cd solution to test its ability for metal mediation. Material and Methods The water hyacinths were collected from the Nile, and then subjected to acetylation with acetic acid up to 0.5 N for 19.0 hours. 0.1 N was chosen as the plant could survive in 0.1 N for long time rather than higher acid normalities. A synthetic solution of 1 mg/l Cd was prepared by diluting 1000 mg/l standard that is purchased from Merck, Germany.
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The plant is divided into root and shoot, washed thoroughly then dried at 65 C till constant weight. One gram of shoot, root, mixture 1:1 root and shoot were immersed in 1.0 mg/l Cd. The same is done with fenugreek seeds for comparison. Water samples were collected at 0.0, 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 hours respectively. Instrumentations The FTIR spectra were collected for water hyacinth samples using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer JASCO, FTIR- 300 E., in the range of 400 to 4000 cm-1, at Spectroscopy Department, National Research Centre, Egypt. NovAA 400 Jena flame atomic absorption spectrometer, at Geochemical Laboratory, Technical University of Berlin, Germany was used for the determination of Cd. The operational conditions were 3.0 mA lamp current, 228.8 nm spectral line, 8.0 mm burner height, 5.0 s measuring time, using air acetylene flame. Computational Details All calculations were performed with the Gaussian 98 [14] suite of programs on the CRAY supercomputer at Juelich Research Center, Germany. The geometries were fully optimized without imposing external symmetry constraints using DFT correlation functional Becke's three parameter methods with the Lee, Yang and Parr correlation functional, B3LYP [15-17]. Geometry is optimized using LANL1DZ basis set, which is used for atoms beyond the third row of the periodic table. There after a force constant calculation was performed to obtain the infrared frequencies and the corresponding infrared intensities. The spectra were calculated at the same level of theory. The vibrational spectra were calculated as a test for the optimized structure, whereas no negative frequencies were obtained. Results and Discussions The distribution by sector of annual water consumption is 7 % for Domestic sector, 5 % for industrial sector and finally 88 % for agricultural sector. Egypt depends mainly on Nile water (55.5 km3/year), which is about 97.0% of water demand in Egypt [18]. By 2025 the reused water in Egypt, which could participate in water demand, could be estimated with 8.0 km3/year (agricultural drainage) 2.4 km3/year (sewage water) [19-20]. Water hyacinth could be a promising tool for participating in the treatment challenges as it is available in Egypt and flourish all the year. The plant could be used as it is for phytoremediation furthermore could be also used as dry matter as in the following Removal of Heavy Metals from Water The FTIR spectrum of water hyacinth root and shoot before as well as after acetylation is indicated in figure 2. The assignment was such that, OH band of water appears at 3388.3 cm-1 then the CH of CH2 and CH3 bands at 2922.6 and 2852.2 cm-1 respectively. The stretching band of C=O which is the characteristic band of acetate appears at 1740.4 cm-1. The C-O at 1634.4 cm-1 which is may attributed to CHO, while at 1516.7 cm-1 is the asymmetric stretching of COO. The OH at 1422.2 cm-1 is due to the phenolic compounds. The CH of CH2 is seen again at 1371.1 cm-1 then at 1035.6 cm-1 comes the CH of CH2. The last part of the spectrum could be attributed to the stretching vibration of metal oxides. As Treated Shoot indicated in the figure the C=O band at C-O-C OH 1740.4 cm-1comes as a result of acetylaMetal Oxide Shoot tion process. It appears in both root and CH C-O CH3 shoot. This indicates that acetate group CH2 CH C=O transported to the plant, which will affect CH2 the process of heavy metals uptake by plant. The most important thing is that Treated Root shoot contains acetate group as indicatRoot ed by the presence of C=O while root has not this group before acid treatment. 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 Using the model B3LYP/LANL1DZ an -1 Wavenumber [cm ] optimized structure of hydrated Cd, Pb, Cu, Fe and Zn are obtained. As in figure Figure 2. FTIR spectrum of acetic acid treated plant as compared 3- a divalent metal ion shows octahedral with the untreated plant
Absorbance
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Medhat Ibrahim & Traugott Scheytt: Increasing the ability of water hyacinth for removing heavy metals
arrangement with 6 co-ordinated water ligand. Hexahydrated divalent metal is stable and has global minimum in accordance with Th symmetry. The structure of which can be represented as [M(H2O)6]2+; where M is Cd, Pb, Cu, Fe and Zn. Acetic acid which is one of the simplest structures containing acetate group is chosen as a model molecule representing the plant after acid treatment. As indicated in figure 3.b a stable structures of acetylated hexahydrated metal is obtained using the same model B3LYP/LANL1DZ. The mechanism of metal uptake could be explained such that; acetate group could interact with hexahydrated metal via hydrogen bond of A B acetate. The existance of acetate in the plant enhance Figure 3: (A) Model structure of hexahydrated divalent metal the process of uptake even in dry matter. ([M(H2O)6]2+) whereas M=Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn. Each metal is Accordingly when the dry plant is placed in a attached with 6 water molecules as Th symmetry. solution it acts as a phytoremdiation tool; as the (B) Proposed model which describes the interaction between effect of acetate group the metal in its hexahy- hexahydrated divalent metal and acetic acid through acetate drated form is interacted with the plant so that group. COO- is attracting the hexahydrated metal ions. The molecular configuration as in figure 3-a is changed as metal ions found their thermodynamically favoured position within acetic acid as in figure 2-b. It is worth to mention that when the plant is used in dry matter it could remove metals according to this model. Application of the model To illustrate the validity of the model Table 1. Concentrations of Cd (mg/l) as a function of time by water hyacinth treated sample was immersed in root, shoot and their 1:1 mixture as compared with fenugreek plant seeds. 1.0 mg/l Cd for 3.0 hours. Table 1 Time, hours Root ( R ) Shoot ( S ) R + S Fenugreek indicates that about 70% of Cd 0.0 1.1700 1.1700 1.1700 1.1700 could be removed from water by 1.0 0.2847 0.3674 0.2980 1.2040 this treatment. Furthermore, plant 2.0 0.2169 0.3272 0.2986 1.0750 root has the removal ability more 3.0 0.2156 0.2987 0.2751 1.0750 than shoot. Furthermore adding root to shoot as 1:1 even enhance the ability of shoot for removal. As compared to normal plant, fenugreek seeds have no ability for removal which indicates that water hyacinth possess the ability of metal uptake in one hand and the treatment is allowing this phenomena even in dry matter. Conclusion As far as water hyacinth is treated with 0.1 N acetic acid C=O appeared in the FTIR spectrum of the plant, which indicate the transport of acetate into the plant. According to our model treated plant acts as a phytoremediation tool even in dry matter. The dry plant could remove heavy metals from polluted water in one hand and may be used in artificial wetland to increase the removal process of metals. This increases the benefits of the plant in phytoremdiation purposes. Accordingly the proposed treated plant could be a useful tool for participating in mediation of heavy metals from polluted water. References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] H. I. Abdel-Shafy and R. O. Aly, CEJOEM 8 (2002) 3. C. Wolverton and R. C. Macdonald, NASA, Technical Memorandum, TM-X-72731, Washington, D.C., 1976. S. Murmato and Y. Oki, Bull. Environ. Conatm. Toxicology, 30 (1983) 170. M. Ibrahim, M.Sc. thesis, Physics department, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, 1996. F. W. Ntengwe, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 30 (2005) 726. K. Youngchul, D.L. Giokas, Jin-Woo Lee and P.A. Paraskevas, Desalination, 189 (2006) 229. K. Skinner, N. Wright and E.Porter-Goff, Environmental Pollution, 145 ( 2007) 234. E. Mathias, M. W.H. Evangelou and A. Schaeffer, Chemosphere, 66 (2007) 816.
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[9]
M.Ibrahim and Kh. Elnagar, Bull. NRC, Egypt, 29 (2004), 535.
[10] M. Ibrahim, E. Koglin, Acta Chim. Slov. 51 (2004) 453. [11] M. Ibrahim, A. Nada and D.-E Kamal, Indian Journal of Pure and Applied Physics, 43 (2005) 911. [12] M. Ibrahim and H. El-Haes, Int. J. Environment and Pollution, 23 (2005) 417. [13] M. Ibrahim and M. Abd-el-Al, Int. J. Environment and Pollution, In Press. [14] M. J. Frisch et. Al., Gaussian, Inc., Pittsburgh PA. (1998). [15] A. D. Becke, J. Chem.Phys.. 98 (1993) 5648. [16] C. Lee, W. Yang, and R. G. Parr, Phys. Rev. B. 37, (1988) 785. [17] B. Miehlich, A. Savin, H. Stoll, and H. Preuss, Chem. Phys. Lett. 157 (1989)200. [18] J. P. M. Dijkman Environmental Action Plan of Egypt. A Working Paper on Water Resources. Directorate of General International Cooperation, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Netherlands, (1993). pp. 116-127. [19] S. Abdel-Dayem "Water quality issues in Egypt." Italian-Egyptian Study Days on the Environment, Cairo 9-20 October, (1994) pp. 81-92. [20] M. A. El-Kassas (1998). Freshwater Problem in Egypt in Land, Water and Soil. M. El-Razaz (ed.). Educational Palace General Organization Publ., Cairo
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Vulnerability With Respect To Water And Wastewater System In Megacity Delhi/India

Reena Singh and Thomas Krafft
GEOMED, Geographisches Institut, Universitt zu Kln, Albertus-Magnus-Platz, D-50923 Kln (Germany) rushtoreena@rediffmail.com
Abstract A quantitative and qualitative undersupply of basic infrastructure particularly relating to water and wastewater is one of the major problems faced by urban citizens. Unplanned rapid expansion of Delhi has resulted in proliferation of informal settlements, which are grossly plagued with inadequate infrastructure facilities. This study is based on comprehensive household survey which attempts to analyse water and wastewater related vulnerability of different social groups due to changes in the physical, socio-economical, infrastructural environments of the city. There is significant inequality in the regional distribution of water and sanitation services, depending on the social status of the respective neighbourhoods. In this respect certain types and degrees of vulnerability exist, particularly among the marginalized population in the informal settlements characterized by near absence of civic infrastructure and higher levels of exposures. Introduction Urbanisation in India is so fast that the infrastructure facilities and services provided to support large concentrations of population are adequate, neither quantitatively nor qualitatively. Realising the need for urban sector development, the union government launched Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) in 2005 aiming at development and expansion of physical infrastructure, attaching high priority to its access by urban poor. A major issue confronting Delhi's unruly expansion and development is the frequent violation of the planning and development control norms. The rapid increase in demand of basic infrastructure by 14 million populations and skewed distribution of investment towards affluent zones resulted in the rapid expansion of illegal, unplanned and unserviced settlements, with overcrowded and unhealthy living conditions. MPD - 21 (the Third Master Plan for Delhi for the period 2001-2021) envisages a population of 23 million by 2021 with a total water requirement of 8365 mld and an estimated sewer generation of 6692 mld demanding its proper management (CPCB, 2004). Conceptual Framework and Research Design: Vulnerability in this case refers to the susceptibility of various social groups facing deprivations of public services, in particular with regard to existing water and sanitation system in a given environment that threatens their social and physical well being. It thus implies some external and internal dimensions that may increasingly predispose people to risk (Bhole, 2006). This study conceptualises the integration of social vulnerability with wastewater related nuisance through interlinkages between the components of Wastewater and Vulnerability and its impact on urban health (Fig.1). The external and internal side of vulnerability is analysed through a sequence of parameters identified in the field. The study intends to grasp a holistic picture of the city, therefore a deductive approach was adapted. On the basis of the available information and local experience three different areas were selected where wastewater related problems were best perceived and was representative of the heterogeneous nature of the city. Purposive-random sampling technique was applied to choose the respondent household from various kind of settlement including Jhuggi Jhompri (JJ) clusters, resettlement areas, planned quarters, unauthorised colonies and urban village located at central, east and south districts, covering a total of 696 households. Fig.1: Conceptual Framework (Draft: R.Singh)
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Status of Wastewater Generation and Sewer Coverage: The Conventional method for estimation of generated wastewater is, derived at 80% of the water supplied. However, this may not be realistic in the areas like Delhi. Field experience shows that, although the water supplied by Delhi Jal Board was less, people fulfilled their water consumption demand from various other sources which has not been correctly gauged by the government estimation record as they are 'informal' in nature. This also attests supply variability by the city. The level of water supply in the city center is the Estimated Average Per Capita Wastewater Generation highest, whereas in south and east district it (lpcd) in Different Types of Settlements ranges low between 18-122 lpcd although 120 the demand in these areas are considered 100 to be high as these fall in medium to high residential areas. Area where water is pro80 vided does not necessarily have correspon60 ding sewer pipes to remove the wastewater generated. The level of wastewater gener40 ation from authorized colonies is highest (112 lpcd) followed by unauthorised settle20 ment (78 lpcd) and urban villages (65 lpcd) 0 whereas the generation of wastewater from JJ clusters Unathorised Resettlement Authorised Urban Village the JJ clusters was as low as 37 lpcd Colonies Colonies Colonies (Fig.2). This may be attributed to the facts ( N=696) Type of Colony that the provision of water supply in JJ clusters was the lowest. Moreover, toilet facility was not available at households; therefore the residents had relied on public convenience or paid toilets. This also limited the frequency of toilet use, since each visit costs around a rupee. As per present policy, no sewer facility is provided in JJ clusters and unauthorized colonies. Open drainage with pools of stagnant water around them, garbage dumps and uncleared mucks are common sight in such areas attesting its unhygienic setting. Lack of own water and toilet facilities forces people to carry out activities like bathing, defecating and washing clothes at public water points. In the absence of proper drainage facilities, wastewater gets accumulated at various places in the form of cess pools and muddy pits. These also act as breading grounds for various disease carrying vectors. In such condition physical contact with the flooded wastewater is unavoidable. Most of the residents seem unconcerned about the filth and bad odour. While people occasionally clean the drains inside their own houses, there is a general apathy towards the open drains in the immediate neighbourhood. Informal status of the settlement, lower level of water supply, poor economic condition, unfavourable water accessibility location and restrictive water usage habit of marginalized population were major reasons for lower wastewater generation from these informal and poor colonies. But such restrictive water usage habits and minimum wastewater generation did not protect them from facing various wastewater related nuisance at their household and immediate neighbourhood. Insufficient and poor sewage network contributed immensely too. Authorized and resettlement colonies were comparatively better placed than JJ clusters and unauthorised colonies with regards to the sewer coverage (Fig.3). The informal settlement quarters usually connected privately to the sewer or used septic tanks. The planned and authorized colonies too were not completely aloof of the wastewater disposal problems. Most of the sewer lines were old and poorly maintained. Apart from the wastewater disposal problem in the household and immediate neighbourhood, other related problems were choking drains due to the dumping of garbage, stagnant sewage and unclear muck breeding mosquitoes and emitting fowl odour. Monsoon brought menace to the residents, when overflowing of sewage and water logging in the area remains persistent for days and weeks. Sewage mixing with the water supply due to backflow was also frequently reported to be common during the rainy season. 236
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Reena Singh and Thomas Krafft: Vulnerability With Respect To Water And Wastewater System In Megacity Delhi/India
Human Exposures and Health Risks Insufficient sewer network and improper sewage disposal led to various kinds of wastewater related problems in different settlement colonies. People developed their mechanism to deal with the situation within their given resources. But human exposure to wastewater remained unavoidable. Exposure occurs when humans encounter the contaminants within the given environment. A range of health effects may then occur from minor illness, to death, depending upon the intrinsic harmfulness of the pollutant, the severity of exposure and the susceptibility of the individual concerned. The problem of wastewater disposal was so serious that houses got flooded, and this was almost a daily occurrence. People usually had to drain the sewer manually and in the process getting in physical contact with raw sewage was common. Since the narrow lanes remained flooded even during the non-monsoon period, even contacting them in the usual movement outside the house was unavoidable. Children were even reported falling in the open drains while playing. Apart from such direct human exposures, sewage nuisance also affected human health through indirect routes like seepage to fresh water sources. Water supply lines running close to the open drains were a major source of pollution of fresh water through intake of contaminated sewage due to leakages. It was widely reported that due to decrease in pressure the sewage accumulating around the water pipes entered the joints and got mixed with the fresh water. Handpumps located beside open sewer pumped odorous water which was probably due to the seepages of the sewage contaminants to ground water. But in the absence of other potable water sources people had to use contaminated handpump water, although in some localities these handpumps were painted red indicating it to be unsafe for use. Usage of water from such unsafe points, physical contact with raw sewage, unhygienic local surrounding serving as breeding ground for disease carrying vectors acted as risk factors for public and environmental health. People usually failed to perceive the hazard associated with such exposures until it strikes as major outbreaks. Health effect was seen as an outcome of exposure and vulnerabilities. It must be made clear at this point that this is not a pure epidemiological study and therefore no attempt was made to establish a relation between the kind of diseases and wastewater nuisance. But the resultant field experience showed that some causal relationship between the water condition of the localities and commonly reported illnesses cannot be overlooked. Illnesses like fever and cold, which were extensively reported from all kind of localities and was taken to be a regular phenomenon. Dysentery, vomiting and diarrhea were common and widely reported from all the residential localities (Fig.4). This can be confidently blamed upon water related problems. Skin irritation and rashes were also highly reported from localities where exposure to raw sewage was more and unavoidable. Malarial cases were high in JJ clusters, unauthorised and resettlement colonies (although the mosquito infestation is prominent is Delhi irrespective of the kind of colony) but poor people usually lacked the preventive measures and therefore were more exposed to this problem. Findings: Vulnerability of Social Groups Vulnerability of social group is primarily analysed through the level of income, period of stay, nearness to open drain, connection to sewer system, physical contact with sewage, frequency of sanitation services and their sources of drinking water. Simultaneously, perception and resource capacity of the social groups are analysed with the help of factors like their family size, economic and educational status, perception and awareness towards the problem and related risks, coping strategies and level of social networking. Lack of access to safe drinking water, improper sanitation facilities, closeness to open drains and physical contact with raw sewer constitute the harmful aspects for exposure. People belonging to different socio-economic strata, gender and age groups develop varying levels of resistance to the harmful perturbations. People's perception plays a very important role in understanding the level of risk awareness among individuals and social groups. The manner in which an individual or social group perceives existing problem affects the extent of their exposure and moulds their response towards it. The level of risk and exposure is higher in the informal settlements, which are characterized by the near absence of public infrastructure, high population density and narrow lanes which
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are easily flooded by community wastewater (Singh, 2006). The availability of drinking water is also critical here as it is only available from community taps for very short and uncertain periods of time. Since the income level of people in such areas is low, they cannot avail themselves of costly water tanker supplies. In the absence of sewer facility in informal settlements, people used community toilets, connected to open drain privately or took to open defecation or on-site disposal mechanism in the form of septic tanks. There was no regular cleaning services provided by the city as these areas are '' unauthorised''. Social networking and the concept of community participation is almost non existent among the residents in these areas. The marginalized population of the informal residential quarters seemed to be depending completely upon the government for sewer provision and maintenance. But the legal status of their settlement hindered their ability to put across their voice strongly to the city management. This further lowered their coping capability. Planned settlements, however, possessing comparatively better levels of civic facilities and higher income levels were at a medium to lower level of risk from water and wastewater related hazards. Although water and wastewater related problems were not completely absent in these areas, people's awareness of such civic uncertainties and their ability to cope with them increased their resilience, placing them at a medium to low level of vulnerability. Discussion The finding of this study highlights institutional deficiencies on the part of city government for providing adequate water supply and sanitation services to its citizens. The provision of basic services depended upon the legal status of the residential quarters. Limited infrastructure provision to marginalized population coupled with unfavorable policies further limited its access to urban poor. This resulted in community restoring to illegal, unhealthy and environmentally unsafe practices. Threats pertaining to infrastructural stress and improper maintenance existed even for the residents in planned settlement quarters, who are socio-economically better placed than their counterpart in the informal settlement areas, but their coping capability with respect to education, risk awareness and social networking was higher thereby the impact upon them was comparatively reduced. Thus, the study reiterates that resource capability and awareness of the community plays important role in placing them on the vulnerability scale. Although sanitation and hygiene is an individual decision, but provision of basic infrastructure and its proper maintenance remains an important responsibility of civic body. Efficient urban governance, favourable policies towards effective planning implementations and a conducive socio-economic setting for community participation and citizen's awareness at local level is important to deal with these ''informal challenge''. Acknowledgements Authors of this paper would like to thank the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Research Foundation, DFG) for funding the project. We also extend our acknowledgements to all the project members including Prof. F.Kraas, Prof. W. Mauser, Dr. A. Loew, S. Neibergal and V. Selbach for their support and special thanks goes to Prof. S.K. Aggarwal for his intellectual inputs and advices. References
Bohle, H.G. (2006) Vulnerability, Human Security and Resilience in Rapidly Growing Urban Areas in Wuyi, W., Krafft, T., and Kraas, F., eds. (2006). Global change, Urbanisation and Health. China Meteorological Press. Beijing: 187-195. Central Pollution Control Board (2004), Status of Sewerage and sewage treatment plants in Delhi, CUPS/57/2004-05, CPCB, New Delhi. Singh, R., et, al. (2006): A New Approach to Analyse Water Related Vulnerability in Megacities: Case Study of Delhi. In: WHOCC Newsletter No. 10, Bonn: 4-7.
Source for Figures 2, 3 and 4 are household survey conducted in Delhi by the author and team during 2005-06.
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Cyanobacteria in urban water supply reservoirs: case study of Vargem das Flores, Brazil
Eduardo von Sperling & Lenora Nunes Ludolf Gomes
Federal University of Minas Gerais, Department of Sanitary, Belo Horizonte, Brazil eduardo@desa.ufmg.br
Introduction Eutrophication of water supply reservoirs is one of the most severe problems in the management of these water bodies. Causes of eutrophication are closely related to nutrient input from point sources (usually sewage discharge) as well from diffuse sources (agriculture and other anthropic activities) in the drainage basin. The onset of eutrophication can bring severe impairments to the water quality, such as algal blooms, oxygen deficit, bad odours and excessive macrophyte growth. Blooms of cyanobacteria (or Cyanophyceae algae) is a serious concern for Brazilian authorities, since the worldwide first reported deaths of human beings, caused by the ingestion of water contamined with cyanotoxins, were registered in this country in 1996 (Azevedo et. al., 1996; Carmichael et. al., 2001). Since that time, a strong surveillance of the quality of water supply reservoirs has been carried out. Most cyanobacteria have maximum growth rates above 25 C and are therefore favoured by higher temperatures. Blue-green algae or cyanobacteria are primitive microalgae with plant chlorophyll. These ancient and remarkable organisms may inhabit quite diverse environments. They have long been recognized as a water quality problem in lakes and reservoirs due to their potencial toxicity and to their capacity to impact offflavours to drinking water (Hitzfeld et. al., 2000). Consequently many water utilities are concerned about controlling cyanobacteria input to the treatment plant. Cyanobacteria present a range of characteristics that give them a clear competitive growth advantage over planktonic algae in certain environmental conditions. They are not favoured by high light intensity and require little energy to maintain cell structure and function (Mur et. al., 1999). Moreover they present a buoyancy regulation capacity due to the possession of gas vacuoles within their cells. This is important in avoiding light damage in high-light environments, such as tropic lakes, or in gaining access to light in turbid or low-clarity water (Haider et. al., 2003). Cyanobacteria are also able to store phosphorus (luxury uptake), what is useful to allow continued growth under conditions of fluctuating nutrient concentrations. They are also not grazed by the zooplankton, since they are not a preferred food for this aquatic community (Chorus & Bartram, 1999). Case study: Vargem das Flores The paper presents the case study of Vargem das Flores Reservoir, which is located close to the city of Belo Horizonte, Brazil. It has a surface area of 5.5 km2, a volume of 0.044 km3 and a maximum depth of 23 m. The main uses of the water body are human and industrial supply, as well as recreational activities (due to its periurban location). The local climate presents two well defined periods: rainy season (October to March) and dry season (April to September), with an average yearly precipitation of 1500 mm. Air relative humidity ranges from 65 % (August and September) to 80 % (December), with an insolation average value of 2600 hours/year. Materials and Methods Since the filling of the reservoir, in the year 1973, a broad monitoring programme (monthly frequency, four sampling points, three depths, Figure 1) has been carried out, covering the most relevant physical, chemical and biological parameters, which have been analysed according to the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (AWWA). Moreover a complementary monitoring programme, focusing on nutrients and phytoplankton evolution, has been performed since February/2005. Results and Discussion A summary of the most relevant physical, chemical and biological parameters, according to the long term monitoring programme, is presented bellow: Secchi depth: in the range 0.8 to 2.3 m; higher values are obtained in the winter period (generally from July to September);
Fig.1: Vargem das Flores Reservoir and water sampling points
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Dissolved oxygen: higher in the winter period due to enhanced gas dissolution; epilimnion: 6 to 7.5 mg/L; metalimnion: 3 to 7 mg/L; hypolimnion: 1 to 4 mg/L; the water body circulation can be observed in the month of June; pH: surface: 7 to 8; bottom: 6.5 to 7.5; Turbidity: surface: 3 to 20 NTU; bottom: 3 to 100 NTU; seasonal variations, with lowest values in April, highest values in the rainy season (November-March); homogeneity during circulation; COD: surface: 2 to 25 mg/L; bottom: 2 to 15 mg/L; parameter with low spatial variations; Fe: surface: 0.1 to 3 mg/L; bottom: 0.1 to 9 mg/L (resuspension during circulation period); Total phosphate (PO4): surface: 0.01 to 0.2 mg/L; bottom: 0.01 to 0.35 mg/L; resuspension during circulation; higher values in cold periods, due to reduced phytoplankton assimilation; Ammonium nitrogen (N-NH4): surface: 0.1 to 1 mg/L; bottom: 0.1 to 2 mg/L; Nitrate nitrogen (N-NO3): surface: around 0.01 mg/L; bottom: 0.05 to 0.4 mg/L; In the last two years a clear trend in nutrient reduction in the water body (Figure 2) has been observed. Chlorophyll a: 2 to 11 ?g/L. Phytoplankton: Although cyanobacteria have been frequently found in the reservoir, their dominance over other phytoplankton taxa as well as the species occurring in the latest period (September to December, 2006) indicate changes in the group interactions within the aquatic system. In previous years the currently dominant cyanobacteria genus was Microcystis, which is able to produce cyanotoxins (microcystin toxins). The predominant cyanobacteria taxon found last summer, Aphanocapsa sp, is part of the picoplankton (cells size between 1 - 3 m) and it has been described as a potential toxic genus. Although the toxicity of the strains were not determined in the present study, the potential toxicity of these species must be considered. According to Giani et al. (2005) the evaluation of cyanobacterial abundance and toxicity in 22 lakes in southern Quebec showed that Aphanocapsa genus may have been associated with toxicity, especially in the lakes where Anabaena and Microcystis were not dominant.
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Nutrient concentration has been suggested as a factor that influences the water bloom toxicity and blooms dominated by Microcystis were previous associated with high phosphorus concentrations (Rapala and Sivonen, 1998). However the reduction in nutrients input, through sewage treatment, has not reduced algae populations. As an example, total phytoplankton in the euphotic zone reached 15,643 individuals/mL in January/07 indicating here the importance of diffuse pollution for the phytoplankton growth. To better evaluate the relevance of the changes in species dominance within the cyanobacterial community is important to understand the population dynamics of these species and its response to the environmental changes in the reservoir. The role of the environmental factors in the cyanobacterial community occurrence is expected to be understood with the proper analysis of all data and the monitoring continuity. Figure 3 shows the behaviour of TN/TP in the last 2 years of monitoring. The results point out to the prevalence of phosphorus as limiting nutrient. It can be seen that the highest TN/TP values are generally registered in the winter time (June-July) when the lake is circulating and also in December/January, while the lowest ones are found usually in March, following the rainy period. This is probably due to a larger phosphorus assimilation rate by the algae in periods of higher water transparency, what happens in the winter time .Researches carried out in another tropical urban reservoir (Pampulha Lake, Brazil) have shown a clear increase in TN/TP 240
Eduardo von Sperling & Lenora Nunes Ludolf Gomes: Cyanobacteria in urban water supply reservoirs
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ratios proportional to the distance from sewage discharge, i.e., in that case phosphorus was turning progressively limited (Pinto-Coelho et. al., 2003).The slightly upward trend of TN/TP in Vargem das Flores Reservoir in 2005-7 leads to the conclusion that, most recently, phosphorus has consolidated its role as limiting nutrient, what should avoid the dominance of cyanobacteria, as extensively reported in the technical literature (Forsberg & Ryding, 1979; Smith, 1983; Shapiro, 1990 and 1997; Cooke et. al., 1993; Chorus & Bartram, 1999). However an opposite trend has been registered in Lake Vargem das Flores, where blooms of Microcystis aeruginosa and Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii could not be coupled with low TN/TP ratios. Researches in Salto Grande Reservoir, Brazil (Deberdt, 2002) have also shown a reverse trend to the conventional assumption, i.e., cyanobacteria growth has been registered under conditions of high TN/TP. This means that other factors (grazing, sedimentation) may be involved in the complex relationship between TN/TP values and cyanobacterial blooms. Moreover it should be observed that high TN/TP values do not obligatorily means phosphorus deficiency. This could point out to high phosphorus recycling rates, which are a frequent issue in tropical aquatic systems. There are no simple and universal options for lake management to control cyanobacteria growth, since they will depend on local characteristics and also on the availability of financial resources. The adopted measures should have preferably a preventive character, in order to control the onset of blue-green algae blooms. The use of algicides should be avoided, considering the possible effect of lysing cyanobacterial cells and releasing intracellular toxins into solution. For the restoration of Lake Vargem das Flores several preventive and corrective techniques are currently under implementation. Some of the adopted measures, under a preventive point of view, include limitation of agricultural use in the watershed, control of recreational activities, erosion control by hydroseeding and use of natural wetlands. In order to minimise algae input in the water treatment plant (abstraction by multiple-depth offtakes), physical barriers or booms (similar to those used for oil spills) are being tested to keep scums away from intakes. Also an air curtain device, which has been successfully evaluated in a pilot model, will be installed around the water intake tower, preventing hence phytoplankton from reaching the abstraction point. Conclusions As consequence of anthropogenic pressure, represented by sewage discharge and agricultural activities, Lake Vargem das Flores has been subject to pollution problems, more specifically related to eutrophication. Cyanobacterial blooms occur frequently in the water body, leading to a serious concern about the production of toxic metabolites. Results of a three decades monitoring programme show that dominance of cyanobacteria is not coupled with low N/P values, as usually assumed in the technical literature. Moreover new strains of potentially toxic cyanobacteria have been recently identified, leading to the need of the development of biomolecular techniques for their proper evaluation. The implementation of preventive and corrective techniques has been undertaken, pointing out a general improvement of the water quality, but not avoiding the onset of cyanobacterial blooms. Currently two corrective measures are being implemented (installation of physical barriers and air curtain device), which should prevent algae input in the water treatment plant. References
Azevedo, S.M.F.O., Evans, W.R., Carmichael, W.W. & Namikoshi, M. (1996) First report of mycrocystins from a Brazilian isolate of the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa. Journal of Applied Phycology 6, 261-265.
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Carmichael, W.W., Azevedo, S.M.F.O., An, J., Molica, R.J.R., Jochimsen, E.M., Lau, S., Rinehart, K.I, Shaw, G.R. & Eaglesham, G.K. (2001) Human fatalities from cyanobacteria: chemical and biological evidence for cyanotoxins. Environmental Health Perspectives, 109 (7), 663-668. Chorus, I. & Bartram, J. (1999) Toxic cyanobacteria in water: a guide to public health consequences, monitoring and management. World Health Organisation. London. Cooke, G.D., Welch, E.B, Peterson, S.A. & Newroth, P.R. (1993) Restoration and management of lakes and reservoirs. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton. Deberdt, G.L.B. (2002) Cyanobacterial studies in reservoir with high trophic degree (in Portuguese). PhD Thesis, University of So Paulo, Brazil. Forsberg, C.G. & Ryding, S.O. (1979) Eutrophication parameters and trophic state indices in 30 Swedish waste water receiving lakes. Arch. Hydrobiol. 89,189-207 Giani, A., Bird, D.F., Praire, Y.T. & Lawrence, J.F. Empirical study of cyanobacterial toxicity along a trophic gradient of lakes. Can. J. Aquat. Sci. 62:2100-2109, 2005. Haider S., Naithani V., Viswanathan P.N. & Kakkar P. (2003) Cyanobacterial toxins: a growing environmental concern. Chemosphere 52, 1-21 Hitzfeld,B.C., Hoger, S.J. & Dietrich, D.R. (2000) Cyanobacterial toxins: removal during drinking water treatment and human risk assessment. Environm. Health Perspect. 108, 113-122 Mur, L.R., Skulberg, O.M. and Utkilen, H. (1999) Cyanobacteria in the environment. In: Chorus, I. and Bartram, J. (Ed.) Toxic cyanobacteria in water: a guide to public health consequences, monitoring and management. World Health Organization, London and New York, 15-40. Pinto-Coelho, R., Bezerra-Neto, J.F., Giani, A., Macedo, C.F., Figueiredo, C.C. & Carvalho, E.A. (2003) The collapse of Daphnia laevis (Birge, 1878) population in Pampulha Reservoir, Brazil. Acta Limnologica Brasiliensia 15, 53-70 Rapala, J., Sivonen, K. Assessment of environmental conditions that favor hepatotoxic and neurotoxic Anabaena spp. Strains cultured under light limitation at different temperatures. Microb. Ecol., 36: 181-192, 1998. Shapiro, J. (1990) Current beliefs regarding dominance by blue-greens: the case for the importance of CO2 and pH. Verh. Internat. Verein Limnol. 24, 38-54. Shapiro, J. (1997) The role of carbon dioxide in the iniciation and maintenance of blue-green dominance in lakes. Freshwat. Biol. 37, 307-323. Smith, V.H. (1983) Low nitrogen to phosphorus ratios favor dominance by blue-green algae in lake phytoplankton. Science 221: 669-671
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Water management in Brazilian cities: institutional and environmental issues, new water services law and new opportunities in regulation
A.L. Britto
PROURB The Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil anabrittoster@gmail.com
Abstract Access to water supply and sanitation services is one of the most pressing concerns in Brazil today. Striking social inequalities persist even in large Brazilian cities, where regular service systems are still inexistent in some areas. In recent decades, water pollution has increased sharply as sanitation services have fallen behind drinking-water services. The country has had to deal with complex circumstances and now faces an accumulation of social and environmental deficiencies. We can analyze the causes of these deficiencies by characterizing two kinds of issues in urban water management: institutional and environmental conflicts. The former kind concerns the relationship between municipalities, which, according to Brazilian law, are responsible for the provision of services, and the Basic Water, and Sanitation State Companies (Companhias Estaduais de Saneamento Bsico CESB's), which are granted concession of the services in most Brazilian cities. The environmental conflicts, on the other hand, involve issues that local and state governments alike have had to face: the pollution of waterways due to the discharge of wastewater into rainwater sewers; the pollution of groundwater due to illegal use; of rivers, which are supply sources, due to uncontrolled urban growth into catchment areas. Since the beginning of the 1990s, the federal government has tried to ensure a more dependable provision of water supply services with the introduction of new management models. Nevertheless, until the beginning of President Lula's first term, the organization of water supply services was still based on the model created by the last nationwide policy, the PLANASA of the 1970s, which was based on the concession of water services to the CESBs and on the centralization of water supply service management at the state level. Hence institutional conflicts remain significant. However, a new management structure and solution is now made possible as a law, ratified in December 2006, defines a new regulation to the provision of water services to the country. The aim of this paper is to examine the opportunities this new law has brought forward to the regulation of institutional and environmental water conflicts in Brazilian urban areas. The definition of a new regulatory mark for water supply services It has taken more than 20 years for the definition of a regulatory frame for the underlying rules of water and sanitation services in Brazil. Different from other Latin American countries, which, in the last few years, have undergone privatization processes; in Brazil, in the sector of water supply and sanitation, the model of regionalized public management alongside the delegation of services to the Basic Sanitation State Companies (Companhias Estaduais de Saneamento Bsico CESB's) still remains. Data from the National System of Information on Sanitation (Sistema Nacional de Informaes em Saneamento SNIS) show that throughout the last years, some of these companies have undergone processes of institutional, technical and economical recuperation, reflecting on the improvement of services to their populations. However, in the vast majority of the states, the relations between the municipalities, responsible for the services, and the State Companies, which withhold the concession of the services, are still highly asymmetrical. The concession contracts, until today based on the format established within the framework of the National Sanitation Plan of the 70s (Plano Nacional de Saneamento PLANASA), still favor the CESBs with disadvantages to municipal interests. The great majority of the contracts leave little margin for municipal action. The municipalities thus lose control over fundamental aspects of sanitation policies, such as in fare regulations and over decisions on investments, essential matters for urban planning and management. When in face of this authoritarian model, imposed by state companies, reactions from the municipalities are diverse. There are those that find within the model a justification for their lack of responsibility in managing the services. And there are others that claim responsibilities, questioning the CESBs, and thus giving way to processes of municipalizing these services. In the majority of the cases, these processes give way to legal strife, involving indemnities for infrastructures and for fixed assets within the municipal territories that may go on for years and years. In the case of the state capitals, and mostly within those where the state government is in opposition to the municipal government, these conflicts are even sharper, for it is normally within these municipalities that the CESBs are granted greater incomes. The State Companies do not wish to lose these concessions and argument that they vouch for the good functioning of a system of crossed subsidies, which make possible to invest financial resources from the richer capitals into smaller and poorer municipalities. The
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argument is valid inasmuch in its social dimension as in its dimension for the preservation of environmental quality and for the reduction of negative outcomes in a larger scale; however there is not much transparency within the systems of crossed subsidies implemented by the State Companies. At the basis of the conflict between State Companies and municipalities is the inexistence of a regulatory frame up to the beginning of 2007, which would regulate the provision of services. The definition of this frame and of a National Sanitation Policy were considered essential matters for the National Sanitation Secretary of the Ministry of the Cities (Secretaria Nacional de Saneamento do Ministrio das Cidades), established in the first mandate of President Lula, which began in 2003. An Inter-ministry Committee (Grupo de Trabalho Interministerial GTI) was then formed for the elaboration of a bill, which would define the judicial-legal framework of the sector. After various meetings of the GTI, among them ten regional seminars and one national seminar, public consultation via Internet and public approval in City Councils and Health Councils, a new regulatory frame in the form of a bill (Projeto de Lei PL 5296/05) was finally consolidated and passed on to the Chamber of Deputies by the presidency. The guiding principle of the bill was that water supply and sanitation services were essential. The directives for them in the bill were: - all people have the right to live in a healthy environment; the promotion and preservation of which are of responsibility of the government the and collectivity; - it is the government obligation to promote environmental welfare, through the enforcement of policies and actions and through the universal and equal provision of necessary public services; - all are guaranteed the right to adequate and growing levels of environmental welfare as well as the right to demand preventive, mitigation, compensatory or reparatory actions from those responsible for deleterious or potentially deleterious activities to environmental welfare. Both public and private agents who develop actions of interest for the provision of water, of sanitary sewage and for the management of urban rain flow and solid waste are subject to the directives of basic public sanitation services, for the bill withheld an ample concept of sanitation. This is an important matter, and it represents an important change because the model of State Company concessions was based on a restrictive concept of sanitation (basic sanitation), limited to the provision of water and of sanitary sewage. This definition of basic sanitation that clearly gave priority to such essential systems as water supply and sewage but left aside drainage of rain waters and the collection of solid residues brought about, within certain Brazilian cities, situations of extreme environmental vulnerability and contributed to the degradation of the water bodies. The systems we refer to demand integrated and complementary planning, which was gradually left aside due to the separated structures of planning and management established by the prevailing concept of basic sanitation. The absence of integration between the systems was radicalized with the mode of water and sewage provision implemented by the State Companies. In the vast majority of the Brazilian cities, the systems of sewage collection, managed by the CESBs, had planning and actions disconnected from the system of rainwater collection, managed by the municipalities. This rendered weak results as to the preservation of the quality of the water bodies, which received the effluents. On the other hand, the absence of integrating of different urban policies, such as those related to sanitary sewage, to those related to the regulation of land use, and to those related to the protection of water sources, has generated such problems as the proliferation of irregular occupations (without infrastructure for sewage and solid waste collection) on river banks and in protected catchments areas. The consequence is that today the vast majority of existing urban rivers are polluted, either because of untreated domestic sewage or because of contaminated drainage water from uncollected sewage and/ or garbage. The perspective of integrated planning of the systems and of a broad concept of sanitation present within the bill contributes towards the elaboration of solutions to this environmental problem. We have verified, however, that if there were positive aspects in the treatment of environmental issues, the Ministry of the Cities' bill did not respond to the institutional conflicts between the CESBs and the municipalities. These conflicts are originated by the fact that the definition of the competencies of the different federative entities (national government, states governments, and municipal governments) is not clearly defined in the Brazilian Constitution. The matter is yet quite significant in those metropolitan areas and urban agglomerations where the infrastructure for water provision and sewage treatment attend to more than one municipality alone, thus forming integrated and complementary systems. In these particular cases, it is not clear whether the services are of the municipality's or of superior level, the state's competency. In the perspective adopted by the bill, this problem would be constitutional and would thus not be solved by means of an ordinary civil law, no matter how important this law may be. The draft was based on the understanding that the matter of the competency of water supply and sewage services was still polemic and was thus more a matter to be solved by the Supreme Federal Court's interpretation of the Constitution than otherwise. In its extreme, the Ministry's draft sought to respect the Federal Constitution, hence guaranteeing municipal competency for the 244
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provision of basic public sanitation services (water and sewage) and, at the same time, preserving state functions, so that the latter may yet define forms of integrating public duties of common interest which make up the body of urban services. The bill yet sought for new institutional arrangements between the states and municipalities by means of new kinds of associated managements. The pillars of the bill proposed by de Ministry of the cities were: planning, regulation and inspection; user's rights, and accountability. Even though we may consider that in its conception the bill held the belief of water supply and sanitation as a public services, what is reflected in the political position of the team that coordinates the Sanitation Secretary of the Ministry of the Cities, it is fact that the draft bill allows for municipal governments freedom to choose among different forms of services provision: concession to the states companies (CESBs); direct municipal management (by a municipal autarchy or by municipal services); associated management of the services among new forms of cooperation between federative entities; and concession to private companies. In the case of concession to private companies the draft called for a municipal authorizing law which defined the terms for the delegation of services, preceded by an audition and public consultation as well as the necessity of an established plan; that yet defined as administrative fraud any delegation of services which did not follow legislation. The bill defined regulative criteria, based on the constitutional principle that whoever grants the service has the power to regulate it (Article 175 of the Federal Constitution). It yet emphasized that the provision of a service of any kind should thus be subjected to permanent regulation and inspection by an organ or entity with administrative, technical and financial autonomy, which integrated the direct or indirect administration of the entitled body to the services, or by a public association. Another important bill's aspect is that economical-financial sustainability of the services was to be ensured by resources obtained by means of charging fares or taxes as to guarantee: the recovery of expenses and expenditures incurred throughout the provision of efficient and efficacious services; the possibility of generating resources for direct or indirect investments with the objective of extending the services to the whole of the population; full access to services by low income citizens by means of subsidized fares or taxes or of direct subsidies to all those proven to not have economic conditions to pay full costs. The new water services law In the Chamber of Deputies, the bill 5296/05 gained around 800 amendments, notably by groups linked either to the state companies or to the private sectors. From this moment on, war was declared for the modification of the bill. This war opposed on one side the Federal Government allied to the social movements of the National Water and Sanitation Front (Frente Nacional de Saneamento FNSA), corporations and municipal services and representative organisms of the Mayors who intransigently defend the bill 5296/05 in its original form and on the other side, the AESBE, the Association which unites all state companies, thus defending the amendments. After a long period of debates and concessions from either side, an agreement was finally reached, approved and sanctioned by the president in January 2007. Even though various aspects of the original bill of the Ministry of the Cities were left aside, some central aspects for the remaking of the sector were preserved: the adoption of a broad definition of sanitation, where basic sanitation embraces the services of water provision, sanitary sewage, rain water drainage system, and collection and disposal of solid waste, thus contributing to the integration of sectors within the framework of the planning of the infrastructural networks, until today inexistent. the inclusion of planning as a fundamental tool for the development of this new concept of basic sanitation, as to ensure quality and efficiency in public expenditures as well as sustainability and durability of the projects; hence, the elaboration of municipal sanitary plans become necessary conditions for the municipalities and State Companies to have access to resources alongside the federal government; the basic sanitary plan thus becomes an indispensable condition for the validation of contracts for the provision of water and sanitation services and for their delegation; the plan is formulated by the municipality, which then has the prerogative of supervising investments made within its territory; the preservation of citizens and users rights, ensuring to everyone rights to receive efficient, planned, regulated and permanently inspected services; the creation of colligated bodies for the exercise of social control, composed by entities of civil society and with the capacity to discuss habitation, sanitation and transportation policies; the guarantee of publicity of all reports, studies, decisions and instruments related to the regulation and inspection of services and to the rights and duties of users, and the guarantee of full access to infor-
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mation on services provided as well as periodical reports on the quality of the services provided in water and sanitation, on the practice and rights, until today still unknown to the general public; the definition of rules for planning, regulation and inspection of services, to be undertaken by those entitled to/ responsible for the services; the demand for public audition and consultation for the delegation of services; the prohibition of access to resources of the federal government in cases of onerous delegation, i.e., in cases in which the concessionary pays the municipality for the right to provide services. the possibility for diverse new institutional arrangements between federative entities, to be regulated by the law of public associations approved in 2005. Despite advancements, some matters have still not reached a solution within the framework of the new National Law. The new law does not define nor deliberate on the nomination/ responsibility of the services, and the conflict of competencies between state government and municipal governments in areas where infrastructures are shared by two or more municipalities, such as in urban areas, remains. This matter of the definition of the public authority on water services in metropolitan areas is conditional to the trial of the Supreme Federal Court of two Direct Legal Actions of Unconstitutionality (Aes Diretas de Inconstitucionalidade ADIS), the ADIS 1842 of the state of Rio de Janeiro and the 2077 of the state of Bahia, which dispute the nomination/responsibility of services in metropolitan areas and urban agglomerations. In both these states, two state laws assign to the states governments the competency to decide on the provision of services of water supply and sanitation in metropolitan areas as well as in other areas where one system serves two or more municipalities. The constitutionality of these laws is on trial. The votes in the partial trials of two direct legal actions of unconstitutionality (Adis) in March 2006 indicate that the Supreme Federal Court's inclination is to overthrow the state laws. However, the ministers who voted demonstrated by different forms that there is no full municipal sovereignty or authority when in face of interdependent networks. According to their interpretations, the decisions and actions related to the organization and to the form of providing services of water supply and sewage collection should be made and taken by a collegiate body of all municipalities involved. It is also important to emphasize that in establishing clear-cut rules for the provision of services, the new law diminishes risks for private investors and gives way to broadening the private participation in the provision of water and sanitation services. The lack of rules has been until today an impediment for the entrance of great international water companies in the Brazilian market of water supply and sanitation services. Between the 5.560 Brazilian municipalities, there are today 65 concessions of water services to private companies. These private services are located mostly in riche municipalities. Now, with clear, established norms, with the ratification of the National Water and Sanitation Law, the participation of the private sector may grow. It remains to be seen how a compromise with the universalization of the services to the whole of the population and not merely to the profits of shareholders will be secured. This is a central matter, overall in Brazil, where institutionally and technically capacitated municipalities to control the provision of services by big private companies are scarce and where the deficit in access to services is concentrated in the poorest municipalities and among the populations of lowest income. References
ABICAIL, Marcos Thadeu. Uma Nova Agenda para o Saneamento. In: O pensamento do setor de saneamento no Brasil. Perspectivas Futuras. Srie Modernizao do Setor de Saneamento,16, pp.115-135. Braslia Ministrio do Planejamento e Oramento - Secretaria de Poltica Urbana / IPEA, 2002 BRITTO, A. L. N. P., SILVA, Ricardo Toledo. Water management in the cities of Brasil. Conflicts and new opportunities in regulation. In: Urban Water Conflicts: an analysis on the origins and nature of water-related unrest and conflicts in the urban setting ed.Paris : UNESCO, 2006, v.1, p. 39-52. HELLER, Leo. Acesso aos servios de abastecimento de gua e esgotamento sanitrio no Brasil: consideraes histricas, conjunturais e prospectivas. Working Paper Number CBS-73-06, Centre for Brazilian Studies University of Oxford junho/2006 MINISTRIO DAS CIDADES. Secretaria Nacional de Saneamento Ambiental Caderno de Saneamento Ambiental, outubro de 2004. MINISTRIO DAS CIDADES. Secretaria Nacional de Saneamento Ambiental. Grupo de Trabalho Interministerial de Saneamento Ambiental. Diretrizes para os servios pblicos de saneamento bsico e a Poltica Nacional de Saneamento Ambiental - PNSA (anteprojeto de lei), Junho de 2004 SNIS- Sistema Nacional de Informaes em Saneamento, 2004. In: http://www.snis.gov.br
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Urban water management is the North setting a good example for the megacities of the South?
H. Lehn
Institute for Technology Assessment and Systems Analysis, Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe GmbH, Germany lehn@itas.fzk.de
Key words: cities; leapfrogging, sewage infrastructure, semi centralised systems Introduction The year 2007 marks a turning point in human development. For the first time ever, the majority of the world's population will no longer live in rural areas, but in cities. Until the year 2030 mankind will increase by another 2,1 billion. 1,9 billion (90%) will pack into the cities of the developing or threshold countries [UN 2006]. The area covered by cities with more than 100.000 inhabitants grew even faster than the population and reached a total of 410.000 sq km in the year 2000. Supply with and access to drinking water, and sewage treatment are the bases for human life in dignity within the city. In key reference II.8 the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation requires to halve by 2015 the proportion of people unable to reach or afford safe drinking water or who do not have access to basic sanitation [UN 2002]. Furthermore sustainable water supply and sewage treatment is the indispensable prerequisite for a stable existence of cities within their catchment areas. The urban sewage infrastructure developed in Europe in the late 19th century could not be established in many cities of the South for several reasons: High costs for construction and maintenance of an expensive pipe network and the lack of water under arid or semiarid climate conditions. Cities of developing countries need affordable systems with a reduced pipe network, with a high cleaning performance and with a reduced demand of fresh water. The question comes up whether more decentralised technologies fit with the requirements of a sustainable water management and the needs of sustainable water infrastructure in the fast growing cities. Requirements for sustainable sanitation In order to comply with the central request of the Brundtland Report [WCED 1987], to meet the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (inter-generative justice), water infrastructure may not raise long lasting negative effects e.g. on ground water or the oceans whose water bodies sustain for dozens or hundreds of years. To fulfil the requirement of intra-generative justice special attention has additionally to be given to polluted surface water, causing negative effects on areas situated downstream of e.g. a megacity or a metropolitan area. In table 1 basic requirements of sustainable sanitation systems (SuSan) are compiled.
Table 1: Requirements of sustainable sanitation systems (SuSan)
1 Ecological dimension 1.1 Prevention of eutrophication of the oceans 1.2 Avoidance of high fluxes of material and energy as long as based on non -renewable resources 1.3 Water quality similar to primordial cond ition (groundwater and surface water) 1.4 Water saving under arid or semiarid climate conditions 2 Economic dimension 2.1 Prevention of nutrient losses 2.2 Avoidance of nonflexible systems with high capital commitment 2.3 Technology capable for export 2.4 Low vulnerability by natural catastrophes, war or terrorism 3 Social dimension 3.1 Dry and hygienically unobjectionable settlements 3.2 As comfortable as the classical system 3.3 Internalisation of toxic and hygienic risks 3.4 High-quality usage of water bodies (ground water: drinking; surface water: bathing)
The classical urban sewage system lacking sustainability Three technical components are characterising the classical urban sewerage system: sewerage network, sewage treatment plant and storage pond compare figure 1. The sewerage system comprises municipal
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sewers and private house drains. Because of severe damages 7 % of the municipal sewers (31.000 km of 445.000 km) had to be repaired immediately or in short term, an additional 10 % (45.000 km) in the medium term. The restoration costs for these 17 % of the total urban sewerage system have been estimated to sum up to 45 billion . In the year 2000 1,6 billion were spent for restoration and replacement, an amount which seems to be sufficient just to maintain the actual conditions but which is not enough for any improvement [ATV 2001]. About 500.000 km (40 %) of the private house drains are estimated to need rehabilitation. Considering this data the question arises whether the current sewer system network complies with requirement 2.2 (table 1). More than 90 % of the sewer material is stone ware or concrete. Both materials require considerable amounts of energy during production a contradiction to requirement 1.2 (table 1). If leaky sewers are situated above the groundwater table the sewage exfiltrates into the groundwater. The resulting pollution depends on the ratio between exfiltrating sewage and groundwater resources and the chemical and hygienic composition of the sewage. A volume between 31 million m/a and 445 million m/a of exfiltrating sewage was estimated for the Federal Republic of Germany before unification [Dohmann et al. 1999]. If the sewers are below the ground water table ground water infiltrates into the sewers and dilutes the sewage. As a result of this dilution the purification process in the treatment plants is less effective and the probability of combined sewage overflow rises. Increased pollution of surface waters is the consequence of both effects. Sewage treatment plants are designed for a volume doubling the one normally flowing in during dry periods. In case of heavy rainfall the mixture of rain and waste water in combined sewers increases up to 100 times and more compared to dry weather. The excess volume of sewage bypasses the treatment plants (combined sewage overflow) and reaches streams and rivers without any cleaning (fig. 1). In Germany roughly 20.000 storage ponds have been installed with a volume of about 13 million m to clip at least the first peak of combined sewage overflow in the beginning of a rainfall event. Additional 20.000 to 30.000 Figure 1: The classical urban sewage system ponds are necessary to be built. In these ponds only the first flush of a rainfall event can be stored and later be transported to the treatment plant. The overflow goes on to bypass any treatment process. In Germany more than 93% of the population is connected to one of approximately 10.000 sewage treatment plants which clean up about 10 billion m of waste water each year. Despite the subsequent retrofitting with second and third purification stages, the treatment process is still incomplete: Polar hydrophilic substances like boron compounds from washing powders [Lehn 2002], a number of pharmaceuticals, disinfectants and endocrine disruptors [Kmmerer 2004] or faecal bacteria and viruses [Overath et al. 2001] cannot be detained or destroyed by conventional purification techniques. The aerobic degradation of substances in the biological stage requires a lot of oxygen. The necessary aeration consumes considerable amounts of electric energy (about 1 kWh/m sewage), which does not correspond to requirement 1.2. Within the nitrification/denitrification process, nitrate is converted to gaseous nitrogen which leaves the process and gets lost. Phosphorus is bound to sewage sludge. Because of its pollution (e.g. by heavy metals) less and less sewage sludge can be used in agriculture and has to be burned to an increasing extent. The loss of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium during the purification process contradicts to requirement 2.1 (tab. 1). To reduce this loss research is currently carried out on the recovery of phosphorus (and potassium) from sewage sludge and from incineration ashes respectively. In order to improve the cleaning performance, classical sewage treatment plants are increasingly upgraded by membrane filters. Meanwhile in Europe about 90 municipal membrane equipped treatment plants are 248
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purifying more than 320.000 m/a. Membrane filters require a lot of energy to maintain the trans membrane pressure. In order to reduce the energy demand it would be useful, to separate large volumes of low polluted waste water (e.g. storm water) and to treat it outside the membrane unit [Pinnekamp et al. 2006]. The usage of large quantities of water necessary to run the classical system can not be assessed as sustainable in (semi) arid regions from an ecological point of view (tab. 1, point 1.4). Under the condition of global climate change this aspect could be relevant in the future even within regions which dispose of sufficient fresh water resources at present. Large centralized networks make (mega-)cities more vulnerable in case of natural disasters (e.g. earthquake), war or terrorist attacks (tab. 1; 2.4). Less centralised technologies for sewage treatment In the last decade a variety of less centralized solutions have been developed in Scandinavia and Central Europe [Lange and Otterpohl 1997; GTZ and IWA 2003]. Their common philosophy is to regard sewage less as a liquid waste but in fact as a resource (e.g. for nutrients and energy). To increase efficiency of the treatment/recovery and to avoid the dilution of domestic sewage the separate treatment of storm water is necessary. Depending on local geological conditions it can be seeped onsite or discharged in ponds or rivers after a treatment. To reduce heavy metal content in storm water the roof material, gutters, down pipes and surrounds of roof-lights or stacks should be constructed with materials which do not contain soluble metals. Different underground infiltration systems for the treatment of storm water from metal roofs and from traffic areas are developed at present [Dierkes et al. 2005; Athanasiadis et al. 2006]. To receive nutrients from municipal sewage new technologies embark on two strategies: further separation and treatment of municipal sewage (partial flow treatment) or usage of a robust membrane technology. The data of table 2 demonstrate that 66% to 97% of the main agriculturally relevant nutrients potassium, phosphorous and nitrogen in municipal sewage are concentrated in the "black water" from toilets. The volume of undiluted human excreta amounts to one percent maximum of a household's sewage. 99% is "grey water" from showers, washing machines or from kitchen. By separating black water from grey water nutrient concentrations can be increased by at least one order of magnitude. To avoid or reduce dilution of excreta by flushing water, dry toilets or vacuum toilets common in ships, aeroplanes or modern trains are used. Such less diluted black water can be used for energy recovery via biogas in anaerobic digesters. A separate treatment of grey water in reed bed filters or immersed rotating disc plants is often sufficient for subsequent seepage into the soil or for direct input to surface waters. Separate treatment of grey water is also a means to reduce hydraulic burden of treatment plants. Recycling of grey water can contribute to the saving of drinking water. Typical use of recycled grey water is irrigation or flushing of water toilets.
Table 2: Distribution of nutrients in partial flows of domestic wastewater [Otterpohl 2004]
Nutrient
Massflow (kg/P a)
Grey water (GW)

25-100 m/P a
Partial flows of domestic waste water (volume per person and year) Urine
~ 0,5 m/P a (~ 1 % of GW)
Faeces ~ 10 % ~ 40 % ~ 12 %
~ 0,05 m/P a (~1 of GW)
Nitrogen (N) ~45 Phosphorous (P) ~ 0,75 Potassium (K) ~ 1,8
~3% ~ 10 % ~ 34 %
~ 87 % ~ 50 % ~ 54 %
Data of table 2 shows that urine contains most of the nutrients. Separate collection and treatment of urine can be helpful to produce a cheap fertiliser or to avoid the expensive third stage in a purification plant, for example in growing cities or at sites with fluctuating population like holiday resorts. For separate collection of urine various models of separating toilets (no-mix toilets) have been developed. Pharmaceuticals however are excreted primarily via urine. Therefore further research is needed concerning degradation or elimination of these chemicals in order to raise the currently limited acceptance of urine as a fertilizer. Experience with e.g. collection of separated garbage shows that the quality of separation depends strongly on the social acceptance of the collecting system. Because of this there are some doubts whether a separated treatment of sewage can be realised under all housing conditions. A promising attempt for semi-decentralised purification of domestic sewage without partial flow treatment is the combined treatment of black water and grey water by rotating membrane disc filters. The core of this technique (first demonstrated in the year 2005 in a small wastewater treatment plant in Heidelberg, Germany) consists of rotating disc filters. Ceramic membrane filters are fitted onto a rotating hollow shaft. Whereas solid particles and microorganisms cannot pass through the membrane filters, water is able to flow through the pores of the membranes. The purified water is collected in the interior of the filter discs and then led out of the hollow shaft. The key to the functioning of the system is that the rotation of the filter discs (i.e. centrifugal force) ensures that the cover layer on
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the filter discs does not become too thick and causes clogging of the filter (figure 2). This allows a reliable and financially viable operation. The treated water complies with the EU guidelines for water deemed suitable for swimming and can be disposed of in nearby brooks or seeped without any problem. Currently this technology becomes part of an advanced decentralised urban infrastructure system in the development area "Am Rmerweg" in Knittlingen, Germany (a little town between Karlsruhe and Stuttgart) [fhg-igb 2005]
Figure 2: Rotating ceramic disc filters (left); centrifugal force affecting suspended matter at the surface of a ceramic membrane filter disc (right). Fraunhofer IGB, Stuttgart.
The role of less centralised technologies for sustainable urban development The advantages of less centralised technologies are: smaller quantities of sewage to be treated, reduced pipe network, higher concentrations of substances and thus higher efficiency in nutrient and energy recovery. As the cases of table 3 show in Germany practical experience with these systems for sewage treatment is to be gained mainly in newly developed areas or at remote sites which are not yet connected to the classical sewerage system. Therefore predictions of real costs at the level of a district in town are difficult to be given.
Table 3: Pilot projects of decentralised or semi centralised sewage treatment facilities in Germany
Location Berlin Berlin Lbeck Burscheid Frankfurt Eschborn Berching Heidelberg Knittlingen Freiburg
Technology U U+V V+B U V U U D+M V+B+M V+B
Number of connected persons ~ 20-30 ~ 10-20 currently: ~ 90 aiming at: 350
objective System testing System testing Biogas + organic fertilizer Fertilizer from urine; (pilot scale) composting of faeces Water saving Fertilizer from urine; (technical scale) Fertilizer from urine (technical scale) Testing of membrane technology (pilot scale) Membrane technology, biogas, fertilizer, water recycling Biogas (pilot scale)
M = membrane technology
Object Apartment house Office building Development area Museum in rural area Office building Office building Office building Farms and restaurant Development area Appartment with offices house
~ 300 ~ 600 ~. 200 ~ 100 Aiming at: ~ 300 ~ 40

P = pressure drainage V = vacuum technology
B = biogas production U = urine separation
The challenges of global climate change, of fast growing (mega-)cities in the developing world, and of shrinking cities in the developed world require more flexible and more appropriate urban infrastructures. New sanitation technologies hold the chance for the cities in the South to leapfrog the classical sewerage system of the North because sustainable sanitation in the future is unlikely to consist of only one standardised system for all needs.
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H. Lehn: Urban water management is the North setting a good example for the megacities of the South?
Literature
Athanasiadis, K., Helmreich, B. and A. P. Wilderer (2006): Infiltration of a cooper roof runoff through artificial barriers. Wat. Sci Technol. 54, 6-7, 281-289 ATV 2001: Abwassertechnische Vereinigung (Ed.) (2001), Zustand der Kanalisation in Deutschland - Er-gebnisse der ATV-DVWK-Umfrage 2001, Hennef: ATV. Dierkes, C., Gbel, P., Lohmann, M. and W.G. Coldeway (2005): Development and investigation of a pollution control pit for treatment of stormwater from metal roofs and traffic areas, 10th Int. Conference on Urban Drainage, August 21th - 26th Copenhagen Dohmann, M., Decker J. and B. Menzenbach (1999): Untersuchungen zur quantitativen und qualitativen Belastung von Boden, Grund- und Oberflchenwasser durch undichte Kanle", in M. Dohmann (Ed.): Was-sergefhrdung durch undichte Kanle - Erfassung und Bewertung, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer FHG-IGB 2005: www.fraunhofer.de/fhg/press/pi/2005/04/Presseinformation-8.April_2005a.jsp Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Technologische Zusammenarbeit GmbH (GTZ) and International Water Associati-on (IWA) 2003: Ecosan - closing the loop, Eschborn Kmmerer, K. (Ed.) (2004): Pharmaceuticals in the environment, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer Lange, J and R. Otterpohl (1997): Abwasser - Handbuch zu einer zukunftsfhigen Wasserwirtschaft, DS-Pfohren Lehn, H. (2002): "Ist unsere Siedlungsentwsserung noch zeitgem" Nova Acta Leopoldina NF 85, Nr. 323: 347-374 Otterpohl, R. (2004): "New technological development in ecological sanitation" in GTZ and IWA (Eds.), ecosan - closing the loop, Eschborn Overath, H., Merkel, W. and S. Hiekel (2001): Einleitung von Klranlagenablufen in kleine Fliegewsser: Bewertung der Ablaufqualitt nach der EG-Badegewsser-Richtlinie, final report to the Ministerium fr Um-welt- und Naturschutz, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen from De-cember 2000 www.iww-online.de Pinnekamp, J., Itokawa, I. and C. Thiemig (2006): Erfahrung aus der Anwendung der Membrantechnologie in Europa, in Hahn, H.H., Hoffman, E. and A. Blank (Eds.): Abwasserproblemstoffe - Erfahrungen mit neuen Produkten und Technologien. Schriftenreihe SWW(Bd. 123), Karlsruhe UN 2006: www.un.org/esa/population/publications/WUP2005/2005wup.htm UN 2002: www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/WSSD_POI_PD/English/WSSD_PlanImpl.pdf WCED - World Commission on Environment and Development (1987): Our Common Future, Oxford: Oxford University Press
251
Water management in dry and semi-dry regions

Hubertus Soppert
p2m berlin GmbH, Germany Hubertus.Soppert@bwservices.de
1. Project content and structure Working in conjunction with the Teheran Waterworks Company (TWWC) and under the lead management of p2m berlin, the engineering arm of the Berlinerwasser group, a German consortium is conducting a research project to develop tailored management proposals for Teheran's water supply. Teheran, the capital city of Iran, constitutes a suitable example representing many cities located in arid and semi-arid regions. The constantly increasing discrepancy between water availability and water requirements means that the city of approximately 9 million inhabitants is confronting the considerable difficulty of securing enough water of sufficient quality to meet its future water supply needs. The challenge facing Teheran's future water supply becomes apparent if we take into account that water quantity from the two reservoir dams of Karay and Latian and the amount of groundwater produced over the last 10 years has remained constant at a total level of approximately 1 million m3/a. This is in contrast to the 40% rise in quantity of water not covered by available water resources to about 1.4 million m3 by the year 2020 (cf. Figure 1). In order to counter this discrepancy, a raft of technical, economic and societal management measures will be required to optimise the use of water resources and the operation of the supply network and to improve consumer behaviour. Within the scope of the present project, the aim is to pilot and adapt optimisation measures which have already been implemented successfully in Germany and internationally whilst according due consideration to the prevailing climatic and socio-cultural circumstances as they apply in Teheran. 2. Aim of the research and approach to be adopted The research project focuses on the following areas: Water resources Protection of surface water resources Water extraction Wells to extract ground water Figure 1: Water availability and water requirements in Drinking water preparation Teheran (1963-2020) Transport, distribution and storage of drinking water. In order to derive adapted management strategies for the regulation of the water requirement, the water supply system of Teheran has been analysed in terms of three thematic areas: Non-billed water Water consumption management Tariff management An extensive auditing process has been conducted, leading to the recognition of various problem areas for which a solution is essential if an amelioration of the water supply situation in Teheran is to be brought about: High levels of tourist and settlement activities in the vicinity of the reservoir dams and open supply lines to the waterworks and to the groundwater wells, some of the latter being directly located in urban areas, will lead to a deterioration of raw water quality in the long term. Although strong rainfall is rare, the fact that the water preparation procedures deployed are obsolete inevitably results in a disconnection of the waterworks when such events do occur, leading to an attendant dramatic increase in the turbidity of raw water. Total water loss of the order of 30% offers considerable potential to increase the amount of water available to the end customer without the necessity to tap into additional new raw water resources. End customer water requirements are running at 275 l / inhabitant.d, far in excess of levels in comparable countries (western industrialised countries: approx. 120 l / inhabitant d). Within the scope of the present research project, a wide range of management proposals have been developed, those subsequently mentioned having been taken forward into a practical implementation phase: 252
Hubertus Soppert: Water management in dry and semi-dry regions
Construction of a pilot plant to test more effective modern water preparation procedures under practical conditions Targeted local monitoring of non-billed water via the establishment of District Metered Areas (DMA's) in order to develop appropriate countermeasures Tests of water-saving devices and other measures aimed at reducing consumer use of water, including examining the effects of an amended charging system.
3. Practical implementation of approaches adopted 3.1. Drinking water preparation In order to improve the procedures deployed, the experts from Berlinwasser have developed a test facility on a pilot plant scale to map the preparation processes currently used in the waterworks and to enable testing of amended or expanded procedural stages to take place parallel to real large-scale technical operations. This test plant has been set up by the Teheran Waterworks in Waterworks Number 1. This plant is shown in Figure 2. It operates on the basis of the existing process of surface water preparation deployed in Teheran: mixing in of FeCl3 for flocculation sedimentation filtration measurement of turbidity. Results show that the addition of polymer flocculation agents produces a clear improvement in the stability of the process in the case of increased levels of raw water turbidity. The results from the test operations using 2layer filters (sand/anthracite) also led to a clear improvement in or stabilisation of final values, causing the Teheran Waterworks to instigate a refitting process to change the large technical filters in the waterworks over from single layer to two-layer filters. 3.2. Non-billed water In order to conduct a precise analysis of consumption behaviour on the part of customers and of water loss, so-called District Metered Areas (DMA's) were established in two of Figure 2: Test plant in Waterworks Number 1 Teheran's supply districts. 4 DMA's were set up in the North and 6 DMA's in the South. For each DMA, the process involved the isolation of a supply area of an appropriate size by capping all connecting supply lines to neighbouring networks and installing ongoing quantity measurement including data storage in the sole remaining supply line. This enabled daily load curves to be recorded and calculation of total losses over certain periods of time to take place via a comparison of inflow and the readings of customer water meters. Measurement of the flow rate at night, when water consumption was at minimum levels, enabled the provision of additional information on water losses. Short-term capping of supply lines during the night on a sectoral basis also allowed a more precise localisation of network losses to take place. According priority for targeted localisation of leaks to those sectors evincing the largest losses per metre of supply line can bring about a significant increase in the effectiveness of localisation of leaks. Working under the guidance of the German experts, the Teheran Waterworks conducted extensive measurements and tests in the second half of 2006 and collated the data thus gathered in the form of reports. These reports constitute the basis for further analyses of the network and of the losses, the long-term effect of which will be to put a targeted renovation strategy in place including appropriate attendant measures to reduce water loss. In light of the fact that this method has proved to be an effective and affordable means of recording reliable information, the establishment of pilot DMA's has now been rolled out to include all six Teheran supply districts. 3.3. Water consumption/tariff management Extensive investigations were carried out in the area of water requirement and consumption management. These resulted in the following findings, which will require a change in the management strategies adopted in Teheran in the future: Requirements management needs to be accorded priority over supply management.
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Recycling and re-preparation replacement of drinking water from the public or local supply system currently in use by water which has already been used once (grey water). A change to using less drinking water in areas of use not necessarily requiring drinking water and for irrigation purposes. A change in processes and operational methods switching production processes over to less water consumption intensive or water-free procedures. Water-saving awareness reduction in consumption by making people more conscious of water economy. This includes such aspects as persuading people away from behaviour which wastes water. Planning and introduction of a sensible, cost-based tariff in every region which accords due consideration to patterns of consumption, investments and the like.
4. Results/summary The fact that no sustainable strategies for the preservation of surface water quality and ground water resources and for operation of the dams and ground water wells in line with the requirements of water resource management have hitherto been in place means that future protection of resources represents a particular challenge in Teheran. Resource protection mainly requires organisational measures, whereas consideration also needs to be accorded to technical measures in the case of securing improved operation. Current water preparation and distribution takes place on the basis of an obsolete technical standard. New, state of the art procedures should be implemented in this area. In the field of water quality management, particular importance is attached to quality monitoring. For this reason, proposals have been developed for a suitable online monitoring system both in the catchment basins of the surface water resources and in the reservoir dams themselves. This should be supplemented by the consistent introduction of modern quality management systems in the laboratories of the Teheran Waterworks. In the field of water requirement management, the deficits are clearly the fact that levels of loss and consumption are too high. Whereas minimisation of losses can mainly be achieved via technical measures, technical measures such as the use of water-saving devices will only exert a limited influence on consumption. The main need here is for organisational measures lending a particular focus to the improvement of the tariff system. To extend the research project beyond the mere adopting of a purely theoretical approach, 2 of the measures proposed one each from the fields of quality and requirement management have been implemented and made operational on a pilot scale with the assistance of the Teheran Waterworks Company in order to gain experience for future introduction: Establishment of a test plant for flocculation and filtration Water balancing in District Metered Areas (DMA's). The results from these two pilot measures were so convincing that the Teheran Waterworks Company is now commencing the successive conversion of the large technical filters in the waterworks in line with the test results. The pilot DMA's initially established in two Teheran water supply districts will continue to be expanded to all six water supply districts in order to enable the collection of representative results on the main supply network and on water losses for every district. The Teheran Waterworks Company is both continuing and expanding the practical improvement measures begun during the research project and pursuing the delineated path to transfer of know-how in a consistent manner. During this process, it will continue to enjoy the support of the experts from the Berlinwasser group and of inter 3.
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Rainwater harvesting and evaporation for stormwater management and energy conservation
Marco Schmidt1, Brigitte Reichmann2, Claus Steffan1
Technische Universitt Berlin, Institute of Architecture, Section Building Technology and Design, Germany Berlin Senate for Urban Development, Department VI, Section Building and Ecological Construction Marco.Schmidt@TU-Berlin.de
1 2
1 Introduction Environmental changes in urban areas Global Radiation Balance Sustainable land use Condition include reduced evapotranspiration of pre- Energy balance, daily mean Stopping deforestation Reduction of urbanization cipitation and the transformation of up to Global Radiation 4514 Wh 95% of net incident radiation to heat (comEvaporation (Latent Heat) pare fig. 1 global radiation balance and fig. 1888 Wh Sensible Heat 2 urban radiation). As a result, air temperaReflection 575 Wh 328 Wh Niederschlag tures inside buildings also rise and lead to discomfort or increased energy consumption for climate management. A logical soluIncreased Thermal Radiation 1724 Wh tion to create more comfortable air temperMain Influencing Factors: Vegetaition atures inside and outside of buildings is to Precipitation Net Radiation green their facades and roofs, thereby Net Longwave (Thermal) Radiation 7776 Wh Soil fertility 2462 Wh "consuming" this energy by evapotranspira Daily Global Mean in Wh/m tion. source: www.physicalgeography.net Worldwide, the reduction of energy consumption for cooling and ventilation instal- Fig. 1: Global daily radiation balance as annual mean (after: www.physicalgeography.net) lations is becoming increasingly important. While political agreements announced the Uncomfortable microclimate reduction of CO2 emissions for Germany by Asphalt roof Low durability of the Disadvantages sealing of the roof 30% until the year 2020, CO2 emissions Energy balance, daily mean High surface runoff, low evapotranspiration Global Radiation due to cooling are estimated to increase by Pollution of the 5354 Wh 250%, mainly because of the increased use Sensible Heat surface waters 1827 Wh Reflection of conventional air conditioning systems 482 Wh Evaporation (Fig. 3). (Latent Heat) 123 Wh Niederschlag A new European parliament directive on the energy performance of buildings (2002/91/EC), strongly encourages the Increased Thermal Radiation 2923 Wh implementation of passive cooling techMain Influencing Factors: niques to improve indoor climatic conditions Surface colour (Albedo) Heat capacity of as well as the immediate microclimate. Net Radiation Net Longwave (Thermal) Radiation 7555 Wh the surface 1949 Wh Exposition The Institute of Physics, a project of the Architects Augustin and Frank (Berlin), is a Daily Mean in Wh/m June-August 2000 UFA-Fabrik Berlin-Tempelhof research and office building featuring several measures of sustainable architecture, Fig. 2: Radiation balance of a black asphalt roof as an examincorporating elements combining decen- ple for urban radiation changes tralized water management and reduced energy consumption for cooling and ventilation. Rainwater is stored in cisterns and used to irrigate a faade greening system and ventilation units using evaporative cooling. Extra water is collected in a pond in the building's courtyard which allows the water to either evaporate or drain into the ground. 2 Methodology At the Technical University of Berlin, section of Applied Hydrology and section of Building Technology and Design, evaporation measurements are combined with radiation measurements. Focus is he hydrologic change in urban areas compared to naturalistic landscapes. Lysimeter measurements of the real evapotranspiration of a meadow are completed through measurements on semi permeable surfaces, greened roofs and green wall systems. Evapotranspiration measurements are placed into relation to longwave and shortwave radiation measurements (Schmidt 2005). Evapotranspiration of a cubicmeter of water consumes about 680 kWh. This energy is transported as latent heat into the atmosphere and released as longwave radiation when the water vapour condenses as clouds.
Marco.Schmidt@TU-Berlin.de
Marco.Schmidt@TU-Berlin.de
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Parts of the longwave radiation is lost to space, an imporGe r m a n y tant global energy loss for the 350% Germany (%) Gr e e c e received shortwave radiation 58070 Greece (%) from the sun. A reduction of 300% France (%) Spain (%) Fr a nc e evapotranspiration in urban 48070 It al y (%) areas results in higher sur250% EU Tot al (%and Kt CO2/ a) EU T o t a l face temperatures and higher % a nd K t 3 8 0 7 0 longwave emission. Second 200% S pa i n effect is a higher sensible It aly 28070 heat flux. The relation be15 0 % tween sensible and latent a f t e r : EEC C A C 4 / 2 0 0 3 heat flux is expressed as the 18 0 7 0 10 0 % 2000 2005 2 0 10 2 0 15 2020 bowen ratio. The bowen ratio increases by reduced evapoFig. 3: Increase of CO2 emissions due to cooling in Europe (after EECCAC 2003) ration rates. The project in Berlin-Adlershof includes an ongoing monitoring of the water consumption of different plant species of the faade greening system and of resulting evaporative cooling and the effects on the energy balance of the building. Temperature and radiation measurements assist in identifying the economic and ecological benefits of the investigated climbing plants and ventilation units.
400% K t C O2
Inc re a s e o f C O 2 e m is s io ns due t o c o o ling in E uro pe
( EU T o t a l ) 68070
3 Results 3.1 Rainwater harvesting and stormwater management Rainwater harvesting becomes an important issue. Until 2020 another 1 billion people will live in cities (UN/ DESA 2003). The increase of urban areas forces to give high priority to decentralized measures of rainwater retention and new strategies in water supply and wastewater management. Although in the natural landscape most precipitation is evaporated or transpired, in urban areas, evapotranspiration is greatly decreased and rainwater is instead swiftly directed into the sewer system and to receiving waterbodies. The Institute of Physics Building is not connected to rainwater sewers, as one main goal of the decentralized rainwater harvesting is a retention of rainwater in order to reduce stormwater flows into sewer systems. Rainwater is stored and used for the irrigation of the facade greening system and adiabatic cooling systems. Storm water events with heavy rainfall are managed with an overflow to a small constructed pond in one of the courtyards, from which the water can evaporate or drain into the ground. To protect the ground water quality, this drainage is only allowed through surface areas with vegetation. Some of the roof surfaces are also extensively greened to assist in retaining and treating water. 3.2 Green Facades Impermeable surfaces like roofs and streets influence urban microclimates through radiation changes. As a result of these changes, air temperatures inside buildings also rise and lead to discomfort or increased energy consumption associated with climate management. A logical solution to create more comfortable air temperatures inside and outside of buildings is to green faades and roofs, thereby "consuming" this energy by
Fig. 4 and 5: faade greening system (left), adiabatic exhaust air cooling in air conditioning systems (right)
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Marco Schmidt et al.: Rainwater harvesting and evaporation for stormwater management and energy conservation
Mean ETP of a facade greening system, Adlershof Physik 7/15/05-09/14/05
[mm/d] 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 12:00 13:00 15:00 17:00
south facade, 2nd floor south facade, 3rd floor south facade, 1st floor courtyard, 1 st floor courtyard, 2nd floor courtyard, 3rd floor
[kWh/md] 20,4 17 13,6 10,2 6,8 3,4 0
Fig. 6: Mean evapotranspiration of the faade greening system in mm/day and correspondent cooling rates
18:00
20:00
22:00
11:00
14:00
16:00
19:00
21:00
evapotranspiration. According to measurements taken at the UFA Fabrik in Berlin, extensive green roofs transfer 58% of net incident radiation into evapotranspiration during the summer months. The annual average energy consumption is 81%, the resultant cooling-rates are 302 kWh/(m*a) with a radiation balance of 372 kWh/(m*a) (Schmidt 2005). A more demanding solution is a faade greening system which has a higher direct effect on the energy performance of a building than a greened roof. Green faades were implemented at the Institute with two objectives: 1) to passively climatize the building through shading and solar radiation and 2) to harness evapotranspiration to improve the microclimate inside and around the building. Plants provide shade during summer, while during the winter, when the plants lose their foliage, the sun's radiation is able to pass through the glassfront of the building. In the summer month July until September 2005 the water consumption for the well developed Wisteria sinensis increased up to 420 liter per day for 56 planter boxes. This represents a cooling value of 280 kWh per day for one of the courtyards. The mean evapotranspiration between July and August 2005 for the south face of the building was between 5.4 and 11.3 millimeters per day, depending on which floor the planters were located (Figure 6). This rate of evapotranspiration represents a mean cooling value of 157 kWh per day. In selecting the climbing plants an emphasis was placed on types that can grow in the extreme conditions of planter boxes. Of the various plants tested the Wisteria sinensis has proven to do the best. In addition a special system of irrigation and different substrates have also been applied and studied. A factor in the selection was an adequate capillary rise of the water through the irrigation and substrate systems. Another aspect studied was the providing of a layer of insulation to some of the planter boxes, to compensate for large shifts in temperature and especially to help protect against very low winter temperatures. This comparison revealed that insulation can lead to significant differences in plant growth. 3.3 Evaporative exhaust air cooling Air conditioning in the Institute of Physics is achieved through seven adiabatic climatization units. These ventilation units use rainwater to cool air through the process of evaporation (Fig. 5). This is a two step process. First, the rainwater is 40,0 20,0 Outside Air Temperature [C] evaporated to reduce the [kW] [C] Energy Consumption Unit 4 18,0 temperatures of the air 35,0 Energy Consumption Unit 2 16,0 leaving the building. In a second step, fresh air 30,0 14,0 entering the building is 25,0 12,0 cooled as it passes 10,0 across a heat exchanger 20,0 Reduction in energy consumption > 67 % 8,0 with cooled air on its way 15,0 out. This process has 6,0 been sufficient to main- 10,0 4,0 tain incoming air temper5,0 2,0 atures of 21-22 C with 0,0 0,0 outside temperatures of 20.7.06 20.7.06 20.7.06 20.7.06 20.7.06 21.7.06 21.7.06 21.7.06 21.7.06 21.7.06 up to 30 C, without hav0:02 5:07 10:07 15:12 20:27 1:27 6:27 11:32 16:32 21:37 ing to use other technical Fig. 7: Difference in energy consumption with and without evaporative cooling cooling systems.
23:00
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Figure 7 shows the difference in energy consumption of two adiabatic exhaust air cooling systems that were switched on and off as the outside air temperatures reached up to 38 C. Energy consumption decreased from 19.0 to 6.0 kWh for the two hottest days in 2006. The expected energy savings were completely underestimated. The whole energy savings are expected now at more than 80%. The use of rainwater means to save both tap water and waste water as the rainwater is less conductive. 4 Conclusions Reduced evaporation is the main hydrological difference between urban and rural areas. Missing evapotranspiration increases the thermal radiation caused by higher surface temperatures and increases the sensible heat. New innovative rainwater projects focus on the necessity of evapotranspiration rather than infiltration. This research, organized and financed by the Berlin Senate, is designed to generate recommendations for an optimal and economical management of the building's mechanical systems, emphasizing an innovative and sustainable relationship with the resources water and energy as well as the reduction of operating costs. The evaluation, optimization and documentation of the project results is expected to provide a basis for the longterm implementation and further development of innovative and economic technologies. Practical findings are incorporated into simulations designed to understand the transferability of these techniques to different climatic conditions and to determine applications for future projects, concerning the fields of design, construction, operation and maintenance. The urban and global climate change is mainly resulted due to reductions in evapotranspiration. The increase in urbanization continues at a rate of 1 km daily in Germany. The global daily loss of forests are 350 km (GTZ 2007). This represents 1.3 % of annual loss of the remained 30% of forests worldwide. The change in evapotranspiration and latent heat flux and it's importance on the temperatures seems to be absolutely underestimated in all climate models. 5 References and Links
EECCAC (2003) Energy Efficiency and Certification of Central Air Conditioners. REPORT for the DGTREN of the Commission of the E.U, 2001, Volume 1, 52 pp. GTZ 2007: Reducing Emissions from Deforestation in Developing Countries. Deutsche Gesellschaft fuer Technologische Zusammenarbeit, Eschborn. 32 pp. Schmidt, M. (2005) The interaction between water and energy of greened roofs. Proceedings World Green Roof Congress, Basel, Switzerland, 15.-16.9.2005 UN/ DESA (2003): World Population Prospects: The 2004 Revision, World Urbanization Prospects. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. http://www.gebaeudekuehlung.de http://www.a.tu-berlin.de/GtE/forschung/Adlershof http://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/bauen/oekologisches_bauen
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The Mangement of Domestic Wastewater in Urban Area in Indonesia

Prayatni Soewondo
Programmed Study of Environmental Engineering, Institute Technology Bandung, West Java, Indonesia prayatnisoe@yahoo.com
Abstract Conditions in the year 2000 showed that the basic sanitation facilities (following MDG definition) are around 67.6 % in urban areas and around 37.85 % in rural areas. In national scale, only 50.35 % of areas have basic sanitation facilities. Most private basic sanitations and sometimes even public facilities use pit latrines. The centralized of wastewater system reaches only 2.21 %, and serves about 11 cities (Jakarta, Bandung, Medan, Prapat, Jogyakarta, Surakarta, Cirebon, Tangerang, Banjarmasin, Balikpapan and Denpasar) where most of the domestic wastewater treatment plants have not been optimally operated yet. To increase the accessibility of sanitation, improvements in both off site and on site systems need to be done to create optimal wastewater infrastructures. Other than that, the use of small scale or household scale of wastewater treatments also needs to be developed in the future. As example, the modification of anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR), constructed wetland, and simple biofilter, is one of the solutions to achieve the target of MDG. Another way is to improve a sanitized condition, also important is the communities' participation to use and maintain the sanitation infrastructures. Keywords: domestic, on site, off site, wastewater Introduction The dominant pollutant in Indonesia comes from domestic wastewater. It is estimated to contribute about 70 % of organic loading in rivers on urban areas. As example, the results of monitoring of water quality showed, that some parameters like COD, BOD, nitrogen and phosphate around the Saguling Dam, West Java, always increases every year (from 2002 until 2005) in either dry seasons and rainy seasons (Soewondo, 2006a and 2006b). The main water resource of Saguling Dam comes from Citarum River, which also gives about 260 ton of domestic wastewater every day. The management system of domestic wastewater in urban areas generally consists of an off site system (centralized system) and on site system (decentralized system). A centralized system collects the wastewater and then transports it through the sewer systems to the domestic wastewater treatment plant. A decentralized system means that the wastewater treatment plant is on site and ussually in small scale, for examples : septic tank, pit latrine etc. Current Situation Now days, the population in Indonesia is around 245 million (BPS, 2006), with 42% of the total population lives in urban areas and 58% in rural areas. Most of the people in Indonesia build their basic infrastructure of sanitation by self-supporting means. Figure 1 shows the accessibility of sanitation facilities in Indonesia between urban and rural areas. Most of the basic facilities of sanitation are constructed by private in both areas, which is about 69.12 % in urban areas and 45.31 % in rural areas. This also shows that the people without sanitation facilities are about 10.65 % in urban areas and 37.06 % in rural areas. This condition gives pollution potential to the body of water. The main problems come from the high density of human settlements of the Indonesian population with low income along the rivers around the cities. Sometimes the government built communal facilities of 100 sanitation in these areas, 80% 90 but not all of these faciliSanitation 70% 80 ties were in good func60% 70 Wastewater 60 tion. 50% 50 40% The amount invest40 30% ments that the Indone30 20% 20 sian government gives 10 10% for the development of 0 0% sanitation is fluctuated Urban Rural Pelita III Pelita IV Pelita V Pelita VI Areas (see figure 2). While the Five-Year Development Communal (%) Private (%) Without facilities (%) investments given for wastewater infrastruc- Fig. 1: The accessibility of basic sanitation Fig. 2: The investment of five-year developture are always lower in Indonesia in 2000 ment in Indonesia for sanitation (incl. water than the total amount Source: National Action Plan, 2003 supply) and infrastructure of wastewater
Accessibility to facility of domestic wastewater, %
Investment, %
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invested for sanitation infrastructures. Only in Pelita V (five-year development) the government paid more investments for wastewater and that only happened about two times. So, it is no surprise, if the sanitation conditions in Indonesia are not good. The Indonesia Ministry of Health reported that the case of diarrhea had the fifth cause of death in 1992 and 1995, while in 2001 it was the ninth cause of death (Depkes, 2003). Centralized Domestic Wastewater System in Urban Areas Small parts of Indonesian cities have centralized domestic wastewater systems with a sewerage system, but most system mixes together sewage and rain. The centrralized system covers only 2.21 % in 11 cities (Bandung, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Tangerang, Surakarta, Medan, Parapat, Balikpapan, Banjarmasin, Cirebon dan Denpasar). (Table 1). Most municipal sewages use oxidation ponds with or without additional aeration. Figure 3 and 4 show WWTP in Medan and Jakarta. These technologies need larger areas and also more appropriate technology. On the other hand, the capacity of these WWTP is not yet optimal, while most of the communities have low awareness of sanitation, therefore they will not pay for the access of wastewater treatments.
Table 1: Profile of Domestic Wastewater Treatment in Indonesia (2000)
No
(1)
City
(2)
Population (person)
(3)
Served Area (Ha)

(4)
Served Population Person

(5)
Served Area Ha
(7)
Capacity and Efficiency WWTP m3/day

(9)
Art of treatment
(11)
%
(6)
%
(8)
% Eff
(10)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Balikpapan Banjarmasin Bandung Cirebon Denpasar (*) Jakarta Medan Prapat (*) Surakarta Tangerang Yogyakarta Total
436.029 579.362 2.250.000 269.478 459.384 9.175.600 1.974.300 10.000 539.387 1.320.600 906.237 17.910.377
50.331 7.200 16.729 3.736 23.653 65.570 26.500 192,1 4.404 18.378 20.304 236.805
7.764 50 420.000 60.000 181.600 1.659.000 51.000 10.500 4.000 45.700 60.726 2.489.940
1,8 0,0 18,7 22,3 35,2 20,3 2,6 105,0 0,7 3,5 6,7 13.9
40 20 6.000 120 1.655 6.260 450 71,6 60 82 1.220 15.977
0,1 0,3 35,9 3,2 7,0 9,6 1,7 37,27 1,4 0,4 6 6.75
800 500 243.000 13.500 51.000 462.600 30.000 2.010 2.000 5.500 15.500 826.410
tad 93,3 91,7 Tad Tad 66,7 Tad 85,0 95,8 Tad 87,9
ExAE RBC S.POND S.POND AELGN AELGN UASB AELGN AELGN OXD OXL
tad =none data, (*) design phase; Note : Extended Aeration = EXAE; Stabilization Pond = S.POND; Oxidation Lagoon = OXL; Aerated Lagoon = AELGN; Oxidation Ditch = OXD. Source: JICA 2001.
Fig. 3 and 4 : The WWTP in Medan (left side) and Jakarta (right side)
The centralized wastewater system generally is managed by PDAM (Local Government Owned Water Utility) while in Jakarta by PD.PAL-Jaya (Local Government Owned Wastewater Utility). Although the community has high potential to build sanitation facilities, but there are no regulations on how and who should organize and be responsible for these facilities, making plans harder to put into action. Decentralization of Domestic Wastewater Most of the cities in Indonesia have individual on site treatment systems, especially in the parts of cities not reached by the centralized system. Now day, the government tries to increase communal facilities in both high 260
Prayatni Soewondo: The Mangement of Domestic Wastewater in Urban Area in Indonesia
Table 2 Communal and Private On Site Systems in urban Areas (2000).

No. (1) 1 2 3 4 5 6 Province (2) Sumatera Jawa + Bali Kalimantan NTB+NTT Sulawesi Maluku + Papua TOTAL Served Population (3) 17,884,336 75,049,732 5,259,688 3,796,301 6,103,336 1,319,168 109,412,561 Communal Septic Tank % (4) 31.85 22.84 31.48 5.82 6.93 18.18 23.19 person (5) 5,696,724 17,140,506 1,655,720 221,004 422,909 239,765 25,376,628 % (6) 0.29 3.24 0.15 2.28 Sewerage Person (7) 51,000 2,430,426 7,814 2,489,240 Capacity IPLT m /day (8) 2.95 1,885.35 188.00 1.25 1.50 0.25 2,079
3
Sum IPLT (9) 1,571 357 757 6 10 2 2,703
MCK (10) 1,149 3,797 299 579 283 120 6,227
Sum Cities (11) 129 141 37 12 63 17 399
Source: National Action Plan, 2003
populated areas and also bad sanitized areas. But these projects have not succeeded not only because the community doesn't use the sanitation facilities but they also have no sense of responsibility to maintain it Table 2 shows on site facilities for communal and private use in urban area. Figure 5 and 6 show some of the sanitation facilities in urban areas, especially in high populated areas around Tangerang and Bandung. To handle the sludge production of septic tank, the government built an IPLT (Sludge treatment plant) in every big, intermediate and small cities in Indonesia, but around 60 % of them can not be used (NAP, 2003).
Fig 5 and 6: MCK around Bandung (left) and Tangerang (right)
Future Developments To improve the future technology, it is important to think both of high and low technology novel process. The handling of sludge is a complex and expensive operation so consequently sludge biotechnology is not commonly used in developing countries (Djajadiningrat, 2002). However a range of biological treatment exist, and recycling to land is the best option. The development of ecological sanitation systems might be a good alternative to develop the recycling system. Akbar et.al, 2005 tried to separate the wastewater between black water, yellow water and grey water. The grey water treated through horizontal subsurface flow of constructed wetland achieved BOD removal efficiency of 88 % with charcoal and reed plant addition; 71 % with gravel and reed plant addition; 94 % with charcoal and cattail plant addition; and 83 % with addition of gravel and cattail plant. Soewondo et al., 2007 reported that using three baffles of ABR gives the highest efficiency (about 91 %) of detergent removal (as LAS) from domestic wastewater in 48 hours of hydraulic retention time. A simple modification of biofilter and constructed wetland are already developed by Research Center for Human Settlements, Ministry of Public Work, since a few years ago (Sumidian, 2007). To increase the accessibility of basic sanitation facilities, the government of Indonesia has committed to serve 75.175 % of the population with sanitation, at the end of 2015, as suggested in the UN Convention in Johannesburg 2003. This program, popularly known as the Millennium Development Goal 2015, needs a lot of funds to be executed. The following are the strategic in improving wastewater treatments: (a) Increase access to domestic wastewater services, both on-site and off-site, in urban and rural areas; (b) Increase financial capacities for wastewater infrastructure developments, both on-site and off-site, and also recover treat-
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ment cost to insure services; (c) Increase societies contribution on developing housing effluent of domestic wastewater treatment system; (d) Increase the work of wastewater treatment institution and separate function between regulator and operator; (e) develop regulation and apply treatments according to enacted guidelines. Conclusions Almost half of the Indonesian populations have no accessibility to wastewater facilities, which can potentially pollute the body of water. By increasing both systems (on site and off site), the degradation of raw water quality can be reduced. The development of technology can play a key role in improving these facilities. Participation of the community is also very important to be concerned about. Reference
Djajadiningrat, A., :Wastewater Management: Current and Future Trends, Proceedings of Environmental Technology & Management Seminar 2002, January 9-10, 2002, Bandung, Indonesia, ISBN 070-8456-20-3, p. KEY1-5 Depkes RI, Profile Kesehatan National 2003, Jakarta, Depkes RI, 2003 Soewondo,P; : "The Concentration of BOD, N-Total and P-Total During Dry and Rainy Seasons in Saguling Dam, West Java, Indonesia", 2nd International Conference on Environmental and Urban Management, Science, Nature and Justice, August 3-4, 2006, Semarang, Indonesia National Action Plan Bidang Air Limbah, , Direktorat Jenderal Tata Perkotaan & Tata Perdesaan, Dept. Permukiman & Prasarana Wilayah, 2003 Soewondo,P : "The Influence of Organic Loading in Saguling Dam, West Java, Indonesia", International SeminarWorkshop on Integrated Water Resources Management, September 4-8, 2006, National of Geological Sciences, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines Soewondo, P. and Indiyani, A.,: The Removal of Linear Alklybenzene Sulfonat (LAS) of Domestic Wastewater in Anaerobic Baffled Reactor, Case Study: Grey water, Jurnal Purifikasi, ITS, Surabaya, Indonesia (to be published), 2007 Sumidian, I.Y., "Pengolahan Air Limbah Domestik", Sustainable Household Sanitation Seminar, February 13-14, 2007, Banda Aceh, Indonesia Akbar, C. and Soewondo, P., The Study of Horizontal Subsurface Flow Wetland Capability for Domestic Wastewater Treatment, Case Study: Urban Community Empowerment Center Surabaya, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Planning Seminar, ITB Bandung. March, 2005 Pamekas, R., Rencana Aksi Pengembangan Prasarana dan Sarana Air Limbah (Tahun 2005-2015), Dep.. Permukiman & Prasarana Wilayah, Agustus 2004
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Effects of Urbanization on Drinking Water Resources

B. Topkaya, M.Yildirim
Akdeniz University, Dept. of Environmental Engineering, Antalya, Turkey btopkaya@akdeniz.edu.tr
Abstract Determination of the effects of urbanization on groundwater resources of Antalya City is the main concern of this study. As a result of unplanned urbanization during the last 25 years, the recharge areas of the groundwater sources are surrounded by settlements without proper sewage system, which exert serious pollution threat. Protection-oriented land management plans and restrictions against this type of urbanization are urgently needed. In this study, the European approach to assess the ground water vulnerability, the COP method, as a tool in determining the ground water protection zones is introduced. Key words: Groundwater, Aquifer Vulnerability, COP method, GIS, Antalya. Introduction Groundwater pollution, which is directly related to human health, has been a major concern in the world. Particularly, as a consequence of the population growth, demand on both drinking and potable water are increasing, whereas due to contaminative human activities in the recharge areas, available groundwater potential shows decreasing tendency. Antalya is the largest city and the biggest tourism center located at the Mediterranean coast of Turkey and has been expanding at one of the countries highest rates. As a result of this rapid growth, substantial stress has been exerted on the local environment. Particularly, in connection with the expansion of the residential areas, the threat on ground water quality is very serious. Then ground water is the only source of drinking water in Antalya and the city is directly served from these sources. In frame work of this study, the extension of urbanization in Antalya, during the last 25 years is presented by using GIS and remote sensing data. The vulnerability of groundwater sources is determined using COP method which is developed as the European approach to vulnerability in karstic regions. Study area Antalya City is located at the Mediterranean coast of Turkey. The population increase rate is considerably higher than the Turkish overall increase rate. Between the years 1975 and 2002, the population has increased five fold whereas the residential areas have expanded 25 fold from 5.5 to 138 km2 (Yildirim and Topkaya, 2006). According to the results of the population census and the projections, it can be forecasted that the residential areas will expand to more than 240 km2 until the year 2030 (Figure 1). The study area which extends to approximately 758 km2 consists of two travertine plateaus, separated by a 100 m high cliff. Antalya City is located on the lower plateau. The main residential areas of Antalya City are located on this, groundwater rich, travertine formation where precipitation and surface runoff can easily and rapidly penetrate through the ground. The porous rock forms the water bearing stratum from which the whole city and the surrounding settlements obtain their drinking water via springs and wells that are drilled in the karstic limestone. It is assumed that the groundwater flows through three main Duden Channels (rivers in the subterranean), and reaches to the Figure 1: Antalya City 3D model and city boundaries Mediterranean Sea. Tracer tests have demonstrated that flow velocity in the travertine is about 200 m/day (Yildirim and Topkaya, 2006). The data related to the hydrological settings used in this study are obtained by 173 monitoring wells in the region (Figure 2). There are several pollution sources which are directly related with the expansion of the settlement areas: Only a part of the city has a proper sewage system. The wastewater produced in the remaining residential areas is disposed via percolating septic tanks. Historically, the porous travertine formation, on which the major part of the city is settled, has been a convenient and inexpensive disposal option for wastewater and storm water, by simply percolating into the porous rock. Although numerous projects on completion of the sewer system are ongoing, the rate of urbanization shadows these efforts. Therefore it is most probable that in the next
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Figure 2: Locations of monitoring wells
Figure 3. Locations of pollutant sources: swallow/sink holes, industrial districts, settlements and petrol stations
couple of years, septic tanks would continue to be the major disposal system (Yildirim and Topkaya, 2006). The other pollution sources which can affect the groundwater sources in the study area are swallow/sink holes, industrial districts and petrol stations (Figure 3). Assessment of the vulnerability In 1991, the Groundwater Group of the EC Commission decided to uniform the criteria and procedures to evaluate rank and map of groundwater pollution potential, used by each member state. The "vulnerability and risk mapping for the protection of carbonate (karst) aquifers" (COST Action 620), which was established by the delegates of 16 European Countries, developed an approach to vulnerability and risk mapping that take the particular characteristics and the known high vulnerability to contamination of karst aquifers into account. The major task of the COST Action was to develop a general, non-prescriptive approach to intrinsic vulnerability mapping, which could be adapted into methods appropriate for use in individual karst areas of Europe. For this purpose COP method is developed by Vias et al. (2006), which is recommended in the COST Action 620 for the assessment of karst aquifers. This approach uses four main factors for the assessing of the vulnerability of karst 264
Figure 4: The main factors of the karst aquifer vulnerability according to the European approach
B. Topkaya, M.Yildirim: Effects of Urbanization on Drinking Water Resources
aquifers as shown in Figure 4: Overlying layers (O), Concentration of flow (C), Precipitation regime (P) and Karst network development (K). The conceptual basis of the COP method is to assess the natural protection of groundwater as well as to determine the factors which lead to the "reduction of protection" (Daly et al. 2002). The protection value is presented by the O-factor, function of the overlaying soils and the lithology. The reduction of the protection is determined by the concentration of the flow (C) and precipitation (P). The COP index of the region resulting from the C, O and P factors can be derived by using the diagram of COP method (Figure 5) presented by Vias et al. (2006). Determination of the C, O and P are summarized below:
Figure 5. Diagram of the COP method. Vias et al. (2006)
C Factor: Two scenarios are developed: In the first scenario only the recharge area of the swallow/sink holes is taken into consideration. For the second scenario, karstic features as well as the slope and the vegetation cover of the "rest" area is considered (Vias et al. 2006). The locations of swallow holes, vegetation cover and slope are determined, using GPS, Landsat 2002 satellite image and 1:25000 scale topography maps. It is shown that swallow holes are intensively located to northwestern part of Antalya city and vegetation cover is developed only in highly inclined areas located at the boundary of the upper and the lower plateau. O factor is influenced by two sub-factors: Overlaying soil (Os) and lithology (OL). As the OS sub-factor is determined, texture and thickness of the soil groups are investigated. Majority of soil groups in the study area
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are classified as terrarossa. As a result of high clay content (more than 30%) the protection value is high. Remaining area which is classified as coalluvial, regosol, brown forest soil and alluvial have low Os values. For the OL sub-factor lithology, fracturation and confining conditions of the area are taken into consideration. These values are obtained from the data of the wells, located in the study area. The overall O score is determined by multiplying the Os and OL factors. P factor is evaluated by two sub-factors: Quantity of precipitation PQ and temporal distribution of precipitation PI. The PQ sub-factor describes the effect of rainfall quantity and the annual recharge on groundwater vulnerability. It corresponds to the mean annual rainfall of a historical series of wet years (Vias et al. 2006). Annual average precipitation and number of rainy days of 21 years period are evaluated for the determining of the PQ and PI sub-factors in the study area. The factors of the COP method have been combined to evaluate the vulnerability of groundwater resources of Antalya City as proposed in the following formula: "COP Index = C* O * P. The vulnerability map created using these indexes indicates that, the vulnerability is rated "high" and "very high" in northeastern part of the study area where the swallow holes are intensively located, and in the dense populated south part of the study area (Figure 6).
Figure 6: Vulnerability map according to COP method
Conclusions Groundwater is sensitive against contamination resulting from anthropogenic activities. In case of Antalya City almost all of the activities related to urbanization process during the last 25 years, produced new pollution sources: Settlements without sewage system located in the groundwater protection zones, petrol stations, industrial districts etc. As the remediation is very difficult and expensive, special care to protect the drink water sources, should be taken in advance. Determining the sensitive areas for groundwater contamination can be a tool which can be used to create protection zones. In this study the vulnerability of the groundwater resources is assessed using the COP method which is the European approach to contamination in karstic regions. The vulnerability map shows that the northeastern as well as the southern part of the city area are "high" "very high" vulnerable. The swallow/sink holes which are located at the northern part of the city are serious threat for the groundwater resources. In the other "very high" rated region, the coastal zone, the sewage system is not completed yet. In the case that this vulnerability map is used in land use planning studies, it would be helpful to create and manage groundwater protection zones properly. References
Daly, D., Dassargues, A., Drew, D., Dunne, S., Goldscheider, N., Neales, S., Popescu, C.H. and Zwahlen, F., 2002: Main concepts of the European Approach for (karst) groundwater vulnerability assessment and mapping. Hydrogeological Journal, 10, 2: 340-345. Zwahlen F. (ed), 2004. Vulnerability and risk mapping for the protection of carbonate (karst) aquifers, final report (COST action 620). European Commission, Brussels. Vias, J. M., Andreo, B., Perles, M. J., Carrasco, F., Vadillo, I., Jimenez P. 2006. Proposed method for groundwater vulnerability mapping in carbonate (karstic) aquifers: the COP method: Application in two pilot sites in Southern Spain. Hydrogeology Journal, Pages 1 - 14, DOI 10.1007/s10040-006-0023-6. Yildirim, M. and Topkaya, B. 2006. Pollution Potential of Groundwater Resources in Antalya City, Fresenius Environmental Bulletin, V.15, No: 9a, 981-988 pp.
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Social Houses in Water Reservoir Areas: The Case of Land Use and Occupation Evaluation, Itapecerica da Serra, So Paulo, Brazil
Gilda Collet Bruna, & Cristina Kanya Caselli, Arlindo Philippi Junior & Sheila Walbe Ornstein
Presbyterian University Mackenzie, Brazil & University of So Paulo, Brasil criscaselli@mandic.com.br
Our acknowledgement to MACKPESQUISA Introduction The human poverty issue is extensively being discussed and compared with the global greenhouse effect due to their gravity, mainly related to sanitation and to related diseases. Since the 1990s the United Nations is calling attention to the urban poverty saying that "it is the most important and explosive problem of the next century" (Davis, 2006, p.31) During the last years the urban population grew more than the rural one, causing the swelling of the peripheral areas of the cities, due to internal migration and this is very significant in the third world cities of Latin America. Hence to examine the reorganization of the economies based each time more, in agriculture and in the automated industry, dispensing the working force, it is clear that the relations of work have changed and the tertiary sector of the economy start to offer a big number of jobs in the market. Nevertheless, many times this work is an informal one with negative consequences to the economy and society, bringing the decrease in salary, low qualification and exclusion of the formal real estates market. This situation shows that there is a huge low income population that loses each time more its place in the cities, then looking for cheaper land to occupy in the peripheral areas, forming a new urban poverty frontier. These peripheral settlements lack infrastructure, occupy irregular (illegal) land parcels on the ' areas, increasing thus the social and environment problems. In this context this article aims to study how the public power is treating the housing issue, in order to contribute to the socio- environmental balance. For that purpose the Itapecerica da Serra, in the metropolitan region of So Paulo case study is discussed, as it was done at the Policy and Management discipline of the graduate program of the Architecture and Urban Planning School, of the Presbyterian University Mackenzie, held in 2006. These studies show that since the 1970's it has began worldwidely, the worrisome with the environmental issue. Important social movements started to develop guidelines of global extension trying to decrease the problems caused by the human being, as the Conference of Stockholm in 1972 and the ECO 92 in Rio de Janeiro. In Brasil, there are difficulties in the implementation of these principles, mainly in the poor regions. The low income population banning toward the periphery the case of Itapecerica da Serra. So Paulo, the larger Brazilian city had been the most important industrial park and, with the modifications occurred in the world economy, its tertiary sector overcomes the highly mechanized industry and the city becomes an important financial center of commerce and services. Therefore its work market need to be adapted to this new situation, facing kind of low qualification labor force, whose salaries also are very low. This new scenery together with a labor legislation with many duties resulted in the increase of informality in the labor marked, what has become a social problem besides economic. As says Elizabeth Frana (2000) the sofistication of the new entrepreneurial settlements at the Luis Carlos Berrini avenue and Naes Unidas avenue at the edge of the Pinheiros river, has increased the land value in the growing south vector of the metropolis, pushing toward more distant areas the poor part of the society. This poor part of population has difficulties to acquire its land parcel within the legal city, being obliged to dislodge themselves to more peripheral areas. The problem is that many of these land parcels that today are residential areas have been produced through the squatter of public or private areas, and still are not according to the environmental and urban laws in vigor. In 1970 it was elaborated the Comprehensive Metropolitan Plan that gave guidelines for the urban development, considering the water reservoirs protection. In this context, in 1976 was promulgated the Law N 1,172 to Protect the Water Reservoirs and that involved 53% of the metropolitan region with peculiar water resources. This law has restricted the land use and occupation allowing basically in special conditions, the non-pollutant industrial use that should be coherent to the protection restrictions, as well as the retail commerce and services. Some kind of services like hospitals, and other health units weren't allowed. Besides the limitations concerning the land use, this legislation had instituted a minimum land parcel of 500 sq m and a maximum density of 50 inhabitants per hectare. In 1978 it was approved the Industrial Zoning Laws for the metropolitan area not allowing the presence of pollutant industries. In consequence of these extremely restrictive laws there was an irregular occupation by squatter movements at the water reservoir protection areas that turned these areas economically unreliable for their owners; many times the landlords had split their land in small parcels, smaller than the allowable size by law (VENTURI, 2001).
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How the social excluded had chosen to live According to Davis (2006, p. 127) population chooses to squatter risk areas, giving up physical safety and public health in order to occupy an area they think they would not suffer expulsion; as a matter of fact many times what remains as the main condition is the proximity to the employment. The search of cheap land in the periphery becomes the only alternative for people excluded from the real estate market. It is remarked that the urban poor population has to solve a complicated equation in order of trying to keep its budget under control, as with its scarce resources they should pay for their dwelling, assuring the land ownership, taking care of the shelter quality, This distance from work to the dwelling also brings environmental problems, as the cities do not follow the peripheries' growth as they don't offer a mass transportation with quality and sufficient to attend the whole population. Thus the use of the private car is stimulated, therefore there is an excess of vehicles on the streets causing the increase of pollution, what is extremely harmful to the public health. The irregular allotments' situation In So Paulo one quart of the areas occupied by shanty towns ("favelas") are located in dangerous eroded lands and the rest is on the steep hillsides and at the edges of rivers subjected to erosion. According to Davis (2006, p. 128) there is an imminent risk at short or median time when the population can loose life or its belongings, affecting 16% of their inhabitants. The case of Itapecerica da Serra is perfectly adjusted to this description. In the book "Favela" Planet Davis (2006, p.128) shows as exemples Caracas and Manila, where poverty widens the risks of land sliding and of floods. The vulnerability of the illegal occupations is reflected in various accidents and deaths caused by an "irresponsible occupation". The situation of the countries above mentioned is not so different of that faced in Brazil. Environmental problems are aggravated by the population lack of awareness. It is important that population know the minimum hygienic principles and laws so that they can control pollution of rivers and land, avoiding the worst environmental consequences. Environmental consequences due to the irregular occupation Following the research done at the housing area in Itapecerica da Serra, it was seen that the environment has suffered a strong impact due to the disordered occupation of the region. The irregular allotments extremely dense did not respect any kind of environmental parameter, as there is no sewer service, nor solid waste service, what in reservoirs' areas is extremely alarming. Also in the State of So Paulo, about 20.1% of the urban dwellers and 89.8% of the rural ones don't have access to the sewer services and only 46.4% have collected and treated sewer, according to the 2000 census (Brazilian Institute of Geographic Statistics) data. Some 3.84% of the collected sewer in Brazil has the rivers as final destination, compromising seriously the water supply and the production of food. The Thematic Studies about the Millennium Development Sustainability (PNUD, 2004) show that there are precarious sewers like the black septic sewer and those sewers collected straightly in rivers cause contamination of the water and soil. The solid wastes also are problematic. There is no data about how much litter is produced in the country. However, it is known that 97.7% of the dwellers in the State of So Paulo are served by garbage collection services. About 2% of the garbage final destination in urban areas, and 6% in rural areas happen to be in the limits of the water reservoirs protection area. Nevertheless the State counts on 38 recycling plants and many sanitary infills. In Itapecerica da Serra study area the population lives surrounded by its own production of garbage and they don't count on collection services, but many times they are not aware of the consequences of this accumulation of garbage near their houses. Also, part of this collected garbage is deposited on inadequate areas causing the soil and water contamination (PNUD 2004). This is relevant because the Municipality of Itapecerica da Serra is very important to the water supply of the metropolitan region. Therefore in any hypothesis neither the garbage nor the sewer should be thrown in the rivers, as the Guarapiranga reservoir is responsible for 20% of the metropolitan supply (VENTURI, 2001). These illegal allotments are not only responsible for the water contamination, but also for the life risk of their dwellers, who live without the minimal conditions of basic sanitation and their children live with the sewer floating in the rivers, being reached by diseases sprawled through the water. The vegetation theoretically protected and deforested to build houses, also damages the quality of the waters, as the cycle of supply of the hydrographic basin changes, cause they don't have any more the natural process of filtering provided by the bush (picture 1). Besides it leaves unprotected the hill sides turning the soil fragile and susceptible to slipping and soil erosion, what is aggravated by the support walls built-up wrong268
Gilda Collet Bruna et al.: Social Houses in Water Reservoir Areas
ly by the population (picture 2). The excess of constructions without drainage criteria, and the occupation of the land at the edges of the rivers and streams happen to increase the frequency of floods. The human actions of those living in these settlements are extremely harmful for themselves, as they live in constant risk of losing their houses in collapses and flood. The public power actions At the beginning of 1970 people started to be more aware of the relevance of the environment preservation. There were movements like that of the Conference of Stokholm in 1972 and that of Rio de Janeiro in 1992 that happened to set the agenda for the twenty first century, and the one that produced the Braslia Statement in 2005, all of them ratified a guideline of world-wide action centered on the search of an economic development ecologically sustainable (FRANCA; BAYEUX, 2006). Within this scenery, at the end of the 1980's it was set the Guarapiranga Program that faced the challenge of recuperating this water reservoir quality. The areas for intervention would be at the urban peripheries without basic infrastructure, social facilities and public transportation. The program should put together the natural resources appropriation and the limits of this appropriation. Therefore it was necessary to improve the quality of life of the dwellers at the basin and find mechanisms for the comprehensive management, according to the sustainable environmental patterns (FRANA, 2000, p. 23). This Guarapiranga Program started by the revision of the policies in effect for the region. They felt the need of qualifying the public spaces, so that the old vacant areas reach a connotation of a neighborhood incorporated to the city. The urban parameters had been altered with the consideration of the particularities of the community in order to develop the projects. These had been divided in two orders, the first one should supply the population basic needs, and the second one should be responsible for the actions to transform the settlements into neighborhoods with characteristics that help to promote the sense of collectivity (FRANA, 2000, p. 23). This Guarapiranga program deserves attention because it is an institutional arrangement that counted on a great number of public agencies and it was implemented by the Water Resources Secretariat, the Basic Sanitation Agency (SABESP in Portuguese), the Environment Secretariat, the So Paulo Municipalty Town Hall and the Housing Agency (CDHU in Portuguese), in partnership with the Town Halls of Embu, Itapecerica da Serra and Embu-Guau. The Program resources come from the World Bank and the Federal Saving Bank. As a register in the Braslia Statement of 2005, it is detached that in order to reach better urban life quality the cooperation among urban planning and other specialists is essential, as well as the participation of the other segments of the society. The Environmental Sanitation Program for the Guarapiranga Reservoir is constituted of five sub-programs described below, that reach a total of 50 components that should be comprehensively applied by the executors' agents, whose characteristic had influence on the program as an exemplar one due to the public policies development. The first sub-program is related to the water and sewer system, widening the system of collecting and care of the sewer, improving the operational existing systems. The second one is related to the solid waste collection and disposition, improving the system of collecting, treatment and final disposition of the solid wastes in the municipalities of Embu, Itaperecica da Serra and Embu-Guau. The third one treats the urban recuperation and the shantytowns urbanization, removing and resettling the families that live in the shantytowns, in risk areas, or in areas without the minimum sanitation conditions, in order to adequate the road system and the drainage of the urban degraded areas. The fourth sub-program is related to the environmental protection, aiming the reconstitution of the vegetal covering of the reservoir's edges and that of the public domain area; it also treats the recuperation of the ciliar vegetation and urban trees plantation and the implementation of six parks. The last one focus the basin management, supported by the master plan for the development and environmental protection of its territory; it also focus on the environmental education and on the technical capability for management, improvement of the fiscal control and the implementation of a system of information for the basin management (FRANA, 2000, p. 29). The housing issue is being treated at the Itapecerica da Serra municipality by removing the population from the risk areas, relocating them in areas nearby, trying to recover the cilia vegetation and to re-balance the ecosystem, without losing the social bonds among the families that live there. They have counted on the Program for Brazil Housing of the Bank of Inter American Development (BID) and Federal Saving Bank. Consequently, as part of this program it was implemented the neighborhoods of Branca Flor and Jardim Jacira in Itapecerica da Serra. In these neighborhoods houses' embryo units of 36 sq m had been built and distributed in order to allow widening of the built-up area. The value of each house embryo (cellule) cost was of R$ 17,000.00 in 2005, according to the Itapecerica da Serra Town Hall, financed by BID (Inter American Bank of Development). The Town Hall continues to follow the dwellers within the new community, controlling the use of the urban parcel, the works to widen the built-up area and the social assistants help the population to adapt itself to the
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new community life. In the case of re-urbanization it is not enough to "deliver" the house. In social terms it is important the presence of the State until the settlement becomes sustainable. Final Considerations Indira Gandhi saying that "the worst type of pollution is the misery" synthesizes very well what has been said in this article. Former the great villains of the environment had been the industries, but today it is seen that the individual contribution to pollution can be extremely dangerous, mainly in relation to environmental damages linked to the exhaustion of the natural resources. In the Itapecerica da Serra case, the government omitting itself in relation to the irregular occupations and to the lack of sanitation contributes to the creation of the worst consequences to the environment in the future. The growing contamination of the waters will make expensive and scarce the resource, affecting also the quality and cost of life of people living in the metropolis, what can start a cycle of increasing misery. The population still is not aware of the importance to preserve the environment, or of the negative consequences of this kind of situation. Therefore the environmental education must be a preventive measure so that it would be possible to avoid the collapse of the natural resources essential to the humankind survival. References
CDHU. Programa Guarapiranga. Disponvel em: www.cdhu.sp.gov.br/http/prohab/recuperacao/guarapiranga/teguarapiranga.asp. Acessado em dezembro 2006. CONGRESSO INTERNACIONAL EM PLANEJAMENTO E GESTO AMBIENTAL DESAFIOS AMBIENTAIS DA URBANIZAO. Carta de Braslia 2005. Disponvel em:, www.urbenvironcongress.com/arquivos/Carta_de_Brasilia.pdf. Acessado em dezembro de 2006. DAVIS, Mike. Planeta favela. Traduo Beatriz Medina. So Paulo, Boitempo, 2006. FRANA, Elizabeth. O programa de Saneamento Ambiental e Recuperao urbana da Bacia do Guarapiranga e a Prefeitura de So Paulo. In: FRANA, Elizabeth (Org.) Guarapiranga: recuperao urbana e ambiental no Municpio de So Paulo. M. Carrilho Arquitetos, So Paulo, 2000. FRANA, Elisabeth; BAYEUX, Gloria. Favelas Upgrading. A cidade como habitao. So Paulo , 2002 integrao dos bairros e espao de
Disponvel em :www.vitruvius.com.br/arquitextos/arq027/arq027_00.asp, Acessado em dez. 2006. GONALVES , Maria Beatriz Ribeiro de O.; FERREIRA, Afonso Henriques Borges (Coord.). Coleo de Estudos Temticos sobre os objetivos de Desenvolvimento do Milnio Sustentabilidade ambiental. : objetivo 7: garantir a sustentabilidade ambiental. Belo Horizonte: PUC Minas/IDHS, 2004. Disponvel em: www.pnud.org.br/estudos/odm_livro_5.pdf. Acessado em dezembro de 2006 SO PAULO. Lei n 1.172 de 17 de novembro de 1976. Delimita as reas de proteo relativas aos mananciais, cursos e reservatrios de gua, a que se refere o artigo 2 da Lei n 898, de 18 de dezembro de 1975, estabelece normas de restrio de uso do solo em tais reas e d providncias correlatas. Disponvel em: http://sigam.ambiente.sp.gov.br/Sigam2/legisla%C3%A7%C3%A3o%20ambiental/Lei%20Est%201976_01172.pdf. Acessado em dezembro de 2006. SHI, Anqing, "How Access to Urban Potable Water and Sewerage Connections Affects Child Mortality" (January 2000). World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 2274. Disponvel em: http://ssrn.com/abstract=629124. Acesso em dezembro 2006. SILVA, Jane de Souza. Urbanizao de favela em rea de proteo de mananciais: O caso da Comunidade Sete de Setembro. Dissertao ( Mestrado em Engenharia de Construo Civil) - Escola Politcnica Universidade de So Paulo, So Paulo, 2003. Disponvel em: www.teses.usp.br/teses/disponiveis/3/3146/tde-17092004-140029/. Acessado em dezembro de 2006. VENTURI, Luis Antonio Bittar. Itapecerica da Serra - Ocupao e Uso do Territrio. Tese (Doutorado em Geografia) Universidade de So Paulo. So Paulo 2001. WARAH, Rasna. The Challenge of Slums: Global Report on Human Settlements 2003 UN Human Settlements Programme 2003. Disponvel em: www.globalpolicy.org/socecon/develop/africa/2003/03slums.htm. Acessado em dezembro de 2006. SUSTENTABILIDADE Ambiental : objetivo 7: garantir a sustentabilidade ambiental / [organizao] UnB, PUCMinas /IDHS, PNUD. - Belo Horizonte: PUC Minas/IDHS, 2004. 308p. - (Coleo de estudos temticos sobre os objetivos de desenvolvimento do milnio da rede de laboratrios acadmicos para acompanhamento dos objetivos de desenvolvimento do milnio) Disponvel em: http://www.pnud.org.br/estudos/index.php. Acessado em 06 de novembro de 2006 CARTA de Braslia. Congresso Internacional em Planejamento e Gesto Ambiental Desafios Ambientais da Urbanizao. Braslia, 11 a 15 de setembro de 2005. Disponvel em: www.urbenvironcongress.com/arquivos/Carta_de_Brasilia.pdf. Acessado em 08 de novembro de 2006.
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Water in the Megacity Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil: Water Supply and Discharge
G. Gunkel1 & M. C. Sobral2
1
Dept. Water Quality Control, Technical University of Berlin, Germany, 2 Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil guenter.gunkel@tu-berlin.de
Abstract Recife is a megacity in the northeast of Brazil, situated on the Atlantic coast with its extended beaches, and the state Pernambuco stretches to the west into the semiarid zone of Brazil, the 'serto'. Thus the amount of available water in Recife is restricted and a lack of water supply in both quantity (regularly some days per week without water supply) and quality (high risk of contamination by cyanotoxins) occurs. Sewage discharge is also problematic the coastal water is used for recreation, and coral reefs located along the coast form a natural barrier to the sea. Water supply is from reservoirs, in which eutrophication problems occur. The use of groundwater is restricted due to intrusion of saltwater. Water supply by use of rain water and bank filtration is of low significance as well as the sale of water from tank trucks. But personal water use amounts to about 340 L per day, and water saving technologies as well as adequate water prices are not implemented. Water discharge follows an old concept with an open channel parallel to the beaches for waste water collection, which leads to a protection of local coastal areas, and the tidal change guarantees a good mixing and dilution of sewage water. But nowadays the water discharge is completely insufficient, and increased amounts of sewage and waste water lead to odour and hygiene problems, and the outlet to the River Capibaribe results in a highly contaminated estuary and coastal zone north of Recife. Thus water policy has to be changed to guarantee a secure drinking water supply and to allow sufficient sewage treatment and the goal of a more sustainable water resources management system is discussed. Introduction Megacities are dynamic, complex systems of settlement areas, infrastructure and open spaces, and an integrative concept must be developed and realized to secure sustainable development. One aspect of high significance is the water system, consisting of water availability (abstraction, storage and distribution system), water use (consumption, water reuse), and sewage discharge (sewage collecting and treatment system, discharge of treated water). This system generally has a long-term development with many geological and topographical restrictions. Thus, the analyses of the established system with its potential for change are the basis for urban planning. But nowadays we have to apply new criteria such as water resources protection and sustainable use as well as climate change effects. A new effort is necessary to avoid water related infections, to give all people a sufficient water supply, and to secure a sufficient sewage treatment; up to the present, insufficiently purified sewage is the main reason for water contamination and water born diseases. The functioning of urban water systems is in most cases insufficient, especially in megacities as well as in areas with a lack of water. The metropolitan area of Recife, Northeast of Brazil, gives a good example for analysing the deficits Recife's water supply is stressed by the rapid development of the urban area and by the semi-arid conditions in the watershed of the incoming rivers; furthermore, droughts occur periodically in the Northeast of Brazil (Miksch 2004).
Fig. 1: Location map of Recife
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Local area Recife is an ancient city founded on the banks of the River Capibaribe. It had a very dynamic development due to the sugar boom at the beginning of the 20th century. Nowadays about 3.1 million people live in the city, 42 % of the population of the State of Pernambuco; the metropolitan area has about 2.773 km2, that means 1.115 inhabitant/km2. The modern city with several hundred high-rise buildings stretches about 20 km along the Atlantic coast with its marvellous beaches. Recife water supply Aquifer water resources The main aquifer of the Recife area, Beberibe, is a 200 m sedimentary Palaeozoic sand layer in a depth of about 100 m and stretches to 25 km north of Recife, the total reserve amounts to 9 x 109 m3. The aquifer is already intensively used, mean depth of the wells are 130 m, but 40 % of the wells have been abandoned, mainly due to salt intrusion from the Atlantic Ocean. Better aquifer management is necessary for sustainable use, but the ground water availability is severely limited in the Recife metropolitan area (Alencar et al. 2000). Surface water use The Recife metropolitan area and the Pernambuco state are characterized by small river basins, which stretch in an east-west direction (Botafogo, Gurja, Beberide, Pirapama, Capibaribe, Tapacur, Ipojuca). The main watershed of these rivers belongs to the semiarid area, and this leads to severe impacts on water quality and availability: a high chloride content due to geological conditions, periodical variation in water flow with high flow rates and flooding during a two month rainy period, in this period high suspended load of the river occurs due to erosion and mobilization of deposited sediments, reduced flow rates with partially stagnant water during dry period, heating of the water, high evaporation rates and the development of algae and bacteria in stagnant water; in tropical areas, nitrogen limitation favours the development of cyanobacteria, besides which a hygienic problem exists due to good development conditions for coliform bacteria with temperatures > 30 C. The river's water basins are characterized by cattle keeping in the middle course and by sugar cane cultivation in the coastal zone. Sugar cane cultivation is by means of the fertirrigation technique, namely that waste water and wash water from alcohol production are used for irrigation and fertilization. The fertirrigation fluid has a COD of 24.000 mg/L, a BOD5 of about 10.000 mg/L and an increased K content, fertirrigation liquid is highly contaminated by coliform bacteria as a secondary contamination (Gunkel et al. 2006). The surface water quality is furthermore impacted by lacking or insufficient sewage treatment systems in the rural area and generally surface waters show a high contamination level (Table 1; Miksch 2004, Gunkel et al. 2006).
Table 1: Rio Itaparica water quality, sampling position near Ipojuca drinking water abstraction.
Ipojuca
s
2.1 0.5 23.8 10.8 16.7 1.8
CONAMA clase 1
T (C) pH Turbidity (NTU) -1 BOD5 (mg L ) -1 COD (mg L ) -1 O2 (mg L ) Coliform (MPN/100ml)***
29.8 6.3 66.4 20.8 49.5 2.7 4 1 x 10
6.0. 9.0 < 40 < 3.0 > 6.0 < 200
Bank filtration The bank filtration technique is little know in Brazil (Souza et al. 2004,), but it is a good strategy, applied in many countries, for low cost water treatment (WHO 2006). First investigations carried out in the Recife metropolitan area point to a reduced potential due to small scale and shallow sand depositions in river beds. But furthermore, conditions of bank filtration in the semiarid zone have not yet been sufficient investigated, with regular water level changes of the rivers of about 5 m, a periodical change of infiltration and exfiltration conditions, and high organic load with risk of oxygen depletion, iron mobilisation, and sulphides formation. Up to now, clogging phenomena as well as the retention of cyanotoxins such as cylindrospermopsin have not been sufficiently investigated (Gunkel & Hoffmann 2006, Sens & Dalsasso 2007). Further investigations must be carried out especially under the tropical, semiarid and arid conditions in developing countries, where water contamination is high and water treatment facilities are restricted. 272
G. Gunkel & M. C. Sobral: Water in the Megacity Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
Reservoir storage In the area surrounding Recife, a large number of reservoirs have been built to store the river water during flood periods, in total 11 reservoirs with a total water storage capacity of 560 x 106 m3; the number of reservoirs will increase, because the Recife metropolitan water supply breaks down regularly. The use of reservoirs for water storage under tropical climate conditions must be evaluated critically due to high light intensity, whole year light input, this leads to a 2 - 4 fold increase in primary production compared with water bodies of the temperate zone (Lewis 1987). The primary production of a reservoir can be dominated by submersed vegetation such as Egeria densa, a pioneer plant, typical for newly dammed up reservoirs, by floating vegetation with species like Eichhornia or Pistia, or by suspended algae, among them cyanobacteria; in tropical lakes, a dominance of cyanobacteria is typical. In most reservoirs a high biomass of algae or macrophytes can be observed, this trophic upsurge of reservoirs is a well known process (Gunkel et al. 2003, 2003a) and leads to severe impact on the water quality. Floating vegetation can cause a lack of oxygen in the hypolimnic water by mineralization of settled organic material, formation of sulphides and redox chemical mobilisation of iron. Furthermore cyanobacteria, common in eutrophic waters, lead to an impact due to the formation and release of toxic substances, the cyanotoxins. Reservoir Tapacur, used for water supply of Recife metropolitan area, is well known to have caused the death of 68 people in 1998 due to cyanotoxin poisoning (Jochimsen et al. 1998). In tropical zones, there exists an increased risk of development of cyanobacteria, because normally aquatic systems are limited by nitrogen due to intensive denitrification processes, thus the occurrence of cyanobacteria is forced; in the case of Recife metropolitan area, the high contamination of groundwater and surface run off by the fertirrigation technique must be considered (Gunkel et al. 2003a, 2006). The poor water quality of reservoirs is also caused by the hydrological cycle during the dry period, the water level deceases in the reservoirs nearly to the lake floor, and former stratified reservoirs become shallow waters (Fig. 2, Gunkel et al. 2003a). Water harvesting Water harvesting is discussed nowadays as an alternative 100 method for water supply, and several different techniques 80 such as collecting areas or cisterns have been developed. 60 This may be a good technique in rural areas, and an additional 40 strategy in urban areas too, but 20 it is limited by rain water availability and the contamination of 0 the collecting areas by dust, faeces of birds and leaching of the constructive material; good system maintenance is necessary, thus a high risk for water contamination exists. Even the ca- Fig. 2. Water level fluctuation in the Tapacur reservoir, Recife water supply pacity of water harvesting is lim- (from Gunkel et al. 2003a). ited the construction of 10,000 cisterns, each one with 100 m2 collecting area, would give only about 1 % of the water needed in the Recife metropolitan area. Water harvesting by subsurface dams in intermittent rivers to store infiltrated water in the river bed (Costa et al. 2000) is an interesting low cost technology, and the risk of contamination of the stored water by bacteria, parasites and eutrophication is low. But water abstraction capacity is low one subsurface dam can guarantee water supply for a few families thus, it is only a good alternative in rural areas.
Filling (%)
May 97
May 98
May 99
May 00
Sep 97
Sep 98
Sep 99
Sep 00
May 01
Jan 97
Jan 98
Jan 99
Jan 00
Jan 01
Water reuse Water reuse is a basic strategy with general acceptance, but up to now, water treatment and quality criteria are still not sufficiently developed. Large scale application of water reuse in the Recife metropolitan area is not realistic; there is a lack of environmental education and acceptance of additional expensive equipment for water reuse. Additionally, the urban structure with its small but highly populated areas, natural swamps, and a lack of parks does not give a high potential of water reuse. Actually, sewage treatment in the metropolitan area
Sep 01
273
of Recife is completely insufficient and has to be developed before any water reuse can be contemplated. But nevertheless the concept of water reuse has to be considered in environmental education and planning. Alternative Systems for water supply Water supply by tanks is common in Recife, but is of high cost and only an alternative for some privileged people. The main problem of water supply by tanks is the water quality control in addition, criminal tank drivers pick up surface water and sell it. Some alternative systems for water supply are being discussed in Recife, mainly desalinisation (realized in Fernando de Noronha), but this technique is expensive, which cannot be regained due to the low water prices. A good, but not yet applied, system is drinking water transport by ship from water rich areas a nearby harbour, buy on demand, and water control and treatment facilities in the harbour area would guarantee sufficient and good water quality. Both desalinisation and water transport by ship are only practicable with a cost covering water price policy it must be pointed out, that a safe (without any infection risk) drinking water supply will be more expensive than the direct use of available surface water from rivers, rain water harvesting etc. Recife water supply and water use The water supply of Recife metropolitan area is insufficient due to quantity and quality problems raw water quality of reservoirs and rivers is at least periodically bad and needs intense chlorination. The in-house water quality is worst due to use of private storage tanks, often on the roofs. Public water supply is not available all the time, and during the dry season, a few days with water supply are followed by several days without tap water (Miksch 2004). Water use in households is high and amounts to about 340 L day-1 person-1, caused by high personal consumption and by water losses; the distribution system is in a bad condition, and water losses due to leakage are significant (this data of water use includes illegal connections). Compared with other regions, the personal water consumption is far too high and does not consider the insufficient and limited water resources. The water saving potential must be evaluated as enormous (> 60 %) and the application of water saving policy is of high significance. A successful water saving policy must be established by environmental education and an adequate water price both long term processes, which will take many years to be successful. Sewage collecting system Recife metropolitan area stretches along the Atlantic cost in a south north direction; a few hundred metres from the coast and parallel to the beaches is an open main channel of about 5 m width which is used as a main sewage collector which enters north of the city into the Capibaribe river. A second channel in a west east direction collects the sewage from other parts of the city, entering too into the Capibaribe river. Due to the tidal effect, water exchange in the channel occurs twice a day. This system leads to an effective protection of the beaches, but nowadays it is overcharged and aesthetic and odour problems occur; besides which the contamination risk from water-born diseases is very high. Capibaribe river water flow produces a sewage plume in the Atlantic Ocean, which is moved by the dominant ocean current to the north with severe impact on the beaches north of Recife, e. g. in Olinda. The consumption of sea food caught near the Capibaribe estuary also gives a high risk of infection. Concluding remarks The further use of surface water for drinking water implies an intensive water shed management with sewage treatment, adequate land use practices, buffer stripes along rivers and reservoirs and a water policy with strict water protection and water saving technologies. The water saving potential is enormous and can substitute for new planned reservoirs; efforts in water supply should primarily concern themselves with the maintenance of the distribution system and sewage treatment. References
Alencar, M.A., Rezende, S. M. & Cirilo, J. A. (2000) Plano Estadual de Recursos Hidircos de Pernambuco. 8 Vol., Recife Costa,W. D., Cirilio, J. A., Abreu, H. F. G. & Costa, M. R. (2000) O aparente insucesso das barragens subterrneas no Estado de Pernambuco. In: 1o Congresso Mundial Integrado de guas Subterrneas. -ABAS/ALSHUD/IAH, Fortaleza-CE, Anais em CD. CONAMA (2005) Resoluo N 357. Dirio Oficial da Unio, Seo 1, N 53, 18 de maro de 2005, 58-63. Gunkel, G. (2007) Contamination and eutrophication risk of a reservoir in the semi-aride zone: Reservoir Itaparica, Pernambuco, Brazil. In: Gunkel, G. & Sobral, M. S. (eds.) Reservoir and River Basin Management. Technical University Berlin, (in press)
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Gunkel, G., Lange, U., Walde, D. & Rosa, J. W. C. (2003) Environmental and operation impacts of Curu-Una, a reservoir in the Amazon region of Par/Brazil. Lakes & Reservoirs: Research and Management 8, 202-216. Gunkel, G., & Hoffmann, A. (2006) Clogging processes in a bank filtration system in the littoral zone of Lake Tegel, Germany. In: WHO (2006) Recharge systems for protecting and enhancing groundwater resources. Proc. 5th Int Symp. on Management of Aquifer Recharge, ISMAR5 Berlin, Germany. IHP-VI, Series on Groundwater No 13. 599 604. XV Smpsio Brasileiro de Recursos Hdricos, Curitiba 2003, Brazil Gunkel, G., Kosmol, J., Sobral, M., Rohn, H., Montenegro, S. & Aureliano, J. (2006) Sugar Cane Industry as a Source of Water Pollution - Case Study on the Situation in Ipojuca River, Pernambuco, Brazil. Water, Air & Soil Pollution (in print, available electronic form) Gunkel, G., Rueter, K., Casallas, J., Sobral, M. C. (2003a) Estudos da LimnologIa do Reservatrio de Tapacur em Pernambuco: Problemas da Gesto de Reservatrios no Semi-rido Brasileiro. XV Smpsio Brasileiro de Recursos Hdricos, Curitiba 2003, Brazil. ABRH, CD, 16 pp. Jochimsen, E. M., Carmichael, W. W., An, J. S., Cardo, D. M., Cookson, S. T. Homes, C. E.M., Antunes, M. B. D., Demelo, D. A., Lyra, T. M., Barreto, V. S. T., Azevedo, S. M. F. O., Jarvis, W. R. (1998) Liver failure and death after exposure to microcystins at a hemodialysis center in Brazil. The New England Journal of Medicine 338, 873-878. Lewis, W. M. Jr. (1987) Tropical limnology. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 18, 159-184. Miksch, A. (2004) Implementation of strategies and action plans for integrated water resources management in the eastern coastal region of the State of Pernambuco - Brazil. Integrated Water Resource Management. State of Pernambuco, 53 pp. Sens, M. L. & Dalsasso, R. L. (2007) Bank filtration of reservoir as a efficient technique for water supply treatment. In: Gunkel, G. & Sobral, M. S. (eds.) Reservoir and River Basin Management. Technical University Berlin, (in press) Souza, A.D., Sobral, M. C. & Gunkel G. (2004) Filtrao em margens de rios e lagos como uma alternativa de tratamento de gua. VII Simpsio de recursos Hdricos de Noreste. ABRH, CD, 12 p. WHO (2006) Recharge systems for protecting and enhancing groundwater resources. Proc. 5th Int Symp. on Management of Aquifer Recharge, ISMAR5 Berlin, Germany. IHP-VI, Series on Groundwater No 13. 913 pp.
275
Mathematical models as an effective management tool for urban water systems

G. O. Ribeiro, F. G. de Albuquerque, R. G. Paula & L. F. de Carvalho
Catholic University of Braslia UCB, Brazil guilherme@lamarh.ucb.br
Abstract The urban drainage and a sewage collection and treatment are a major issue in almost every city in developing countries. There is an urgent need for effective management practices that reduce the risks and costs for society. This paper presents the foundations of a recent cooperation agreement between the Environment and Water Resources Mathematical Modeling Laboratory of Catholic University of Brasia LAMARH/UCB and the Environmental Sanitation Company of Braslia CAESB a public company responsible for the urban water system of the city of Braslia in Brazil. The goal of the cooperation is to promote the use of advanced models and decision support tools in daily operations of urban water systems. This initiative is supported by a national policy which fosters innovation in process and products in all sectors of the economy and in strategic areas as energy, environment and water resources. The other driving force is the enforcement of environment regulations which are requiring more complex environmental studies, which most of time, can only be approached by the use of advanced tools. The importance of this initiative to a developing country cannot be overlooked. It represents a new paradigm in management of urban water systems in Brazil where most urban water companies still have poor management indicators. It is presented the strategy adopted to promote the effective use of mathematical models in CAESB operation. Introduction Environmental regulation is becoming stricter and a lot of effort is being placed in enforcing of these regulations in Brazil. This is especially true in the energy sector and also with the urban water systems which are already under a tremendous pressure to improve the quality of their services. A new Federal Law was approved in 2007 (Law 11.445) for the Sanitation sector. An innovation policy was approved in 2005. The Foreign Trade, Industrial and Technological Policy PTICE promotes innovation in process and products in all sectors of the economy and in strategic areas as energy, environment and water resources. The policy opened several possibilities for cooperation between private and public companies. It gave authorization to private companies to access laboratory facilities in federal universities and allowed public sector institutions to contract non-profit research institutions to develop and to implement new technologies. But more important, it placed the innovation paradigm in the political agenda. In 1997, a new Water Law was enacted. Law 9433 placed directives and reorganized the water resources in Brazil. It states that water is a public good and water resources are limited and have economic value. It opened the possibility to charge for the use of water and the need to obtain an authorization for use and disposal of water in water bodies. The development National Water Resources Plan is another key element of the policy. The first plan was finalized in the end of 2006. It prioritizes the use of advanced models and the development of decision support tools to improve the decision making process in water resources management in Brazil. CAESB is one of the leading urban water companies in Brazil and has a good technical staff. Some were alumni of the Graduate Program in Environmental Planning and Management PGA of UCB which hosts LAMARH. This context opened the opportunity to this cooperation initiative between Catholic University of Braslia and CAESB. The strategy behind this initiative reported here started even before most of these driving forces where in place. Strategy Description It is well reported in the literature the difficulties involved in implementing new technologies and processes in companies. Operation research tools have also faced this challenge. In the few cases that it was successful there were certain conditions in place LABADIE (1989). They include: a) support from upper managers to the use of advance tools in the decision making process; b) trained technical staff members in the use, development and improvement of the tools; c) an appropriate database system in support for the tools and d) a shared vision of the advantages of using these technologies to the company. These are necessary conditions to meet the goal of an effective use of the advance modeling tools in daily operations. The strategy adopted followed closely these conditions.
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G. O. Ribeiro: Mathematical models as an effective management tool for urban water systems
The graduate Program PGA started training technical staff members of CAESB and other water institutions in the Federal District of Brazil as they participated as students in regular classes or specialization courses given at UCB. Catholic University of Braslia has alumni who work in water agencies, regulatory agencies and policy institutions in Braslia. LAMARH Lab was created under the cooperation with WL-Delft Hydraulic Institute from Delft The Netherlands. This cooperation made available to LAMARH advanced modeling software for water resources developed in Delft. Three environmental engineers were hired to work in the lab and are been trained to become specialists in the models. The international scientific cooperation was strength with the cooperation agreement signed with ISF Lake Research Institute from Langenargen Germany. ISF is responsible for the management of Lake Constance in Europe. Several research projects were developed in topics of mutual interest promoting the interaction with technical staff member and professors at UCB. LAMARH was the focal point of these research projects. Several meetings and seminars were realized. The most relevant on was a seminar in October 18th 2005 with the participation of high-level representatives of all local and national institutions involved with water resources management entitled "Building a Cooperative and Innovative Environment for the Water Resources Management in the Federal District of Brazil" (ALBUQUERQUE, 2005). In this seminar was stressed the need for closer cooperation and to develop a shared vision to a collaborative work between all institutions involved. Figure 1 presents this view. It was also pointed out that in the reality of short budgets it would be more effective to work in a collaborative manner to share costs and competencies. Results and Discussions Although a lot of effort, time and money spent in building the cooperation did not materialized until this year. The difficulties faced included the change in the local government with the change in the upper level managers that required starting from the beginning again. Different levels of institutional capacity among the water institutions made impossible to create the ambient for collaboration at the same time in all institutions. The strategy then focused in constructing this collaboration with the most receptive water institution. CAESB showed to be the best option not only because of its institutional capacity but also because two alumni assumed upper and middle level management functions at the institution. Although it was not possible to work with all departments yet we focused on the sewage department where these alumni work. The regulatory pressure faced by CAESB was also an important factor. Two projects are currently under development. Both are modeling efforts. One aims at modeling the hydrodynamics of a sewage systems and the other the water quality of a river reach that receives the effluent of a
Figure 1: Collaborative work.
277
sewage treatment plant. The projects will use SOBEK software from WL-Deflt Hydraulic. SOBEK can model the dynamics of water in sewage and rivers systems and model water quality in river systems. It is expected that the results of these two studies help spread in CAESB the vision that modeling can be an effect mean to meet operation requirements with lower costs. One specific objective is to show that data monitoring cost can be reduced after model calibration. Conclusion and Recommendations Several lessons were learned from the experience in building a collaborative environment to meet the conditions for effective use of mathematical model in daily operations. A change in paradigm is a very difficult action to be implemented in any institution and almost impossible to be implemented in an industry sector at the same time. A lot of patience, persistence and a great ability to deal with political and institutional issues are a must for anyone involved in the process. The right instruments have to be in place in order to create the necessary conditions and driving forces for the collaboration to take place. Training and Institutional capacity is a must for successful adoption of new technologies. Sometimes old managers need to be replaced to give the opportunity to innovative ideas. Effective use of mathematical models in daily operations will only be possible if there is upper level management support for the use of these tools and there is an institutional wide perception of the benefits of their use. In developing countries were budget constraints are frequent adoption of advanced tools is only possible by the implementation of cooperation agreements to share costs and competences. Cities officials face the increase challenge to provide better services with stricter regulations under adverse conditions. Fewer resources require taking the right decision at the first time. The complexity of the issues faced requires that advanced tools are used to analyze the impacts of project alternatives or policy actions prior to their implementation. We hope that this window of opportunity opened with CAESB flourishes and spreads to other water institutions so that in a near future the operational decisions of urban water system are based on sound scientific knowledge. Water quality is probably the most critical issue of the urban environment. The authors would like to thank CAESB representatives for their support and cooperation that made this work possible. Bibliography
LABADIE, J. W. Decision Support Systems in Water Resources. NATO Advanced Study Institute, September 18-29, Peniscola, Spain, 1989. ALBUQUERQUE, F. G. Building a Cooperative and Innovative Environment for the Water Resources Management in the Federal District of Brazil. Seminar October 18th, Catholic University of Brasilia - DF, 2005.
278
Integral studies of urban groundwater and water balance

A. Musolff, S. Leschik, F. Reinstorf, S. Oswald, G. Strauch & M. Schirmer
Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research UFZ, Department of Hydrogeology, Permoserstrae 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany andreas.musolff@ufz.de
Abstract Knowledge of the urban water balance and related processes is a basis for planning and management of water in the urban environment. The Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research UFZ has just started the survey "WASSER Leipzig Water- And Sewershed Study of Environmental Risk". The aim of the study is to understand the impact of urban land use on groundwater and water balance within a water- and sewershed. The transport of water and contaminants will be quantified and related processes will be investigated. Most effort is put into the examination of xenobiotics such as pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) and caffeine. Xenobiotics can be indicators for treated and untreated wastewater. Thus, they are used to track pathways of water such as leakage from sewers. Further on, xenobiotics may have negative effects on human health, which is also matter of concern in this survey. In order to get an overview on the amount and distribution of xenobiotics in the urban environment of the city of Leipzig water samples where taken from groundwater, surface water and untreated as well as treated wastewater. The investigations indicate that xenobiotics are ubiquitous in urban waters. In surface waters contents of nonylphenol, bisphenol A and caffeine result from an input of raw sewage. In groundwater galaxolide, tonalide and caffeine show lower contents, except for bisphenol A with higher contents than in surface water. Input source are leaky sewers and infiltrating surface water. Xenobiotic concentrations show a high spatiotemporal heterogeneity. This variability reflects the complexity of urban water pathways as well as probable different transport and degradation processes. In order to deal with this spatiotemporal heterogeneity integrating as well as high resolving investigation methods will be used. Introduction Compared to a natural system the water balance in urban areas is clearly modified. On the one hand surface runoff is intensified and therefore groundwater recharge is reduced. On the other hand new recharge sources are introduced. Leakage from water supply and water disposal acts as artificial groundwater recharge (Lerner 2002). Especially the influence of sewage as from leaky sewers may drastically change water quality (Howard 2002). The European Union Water Framework Directive demands sustainable use and protection of water resources. Therefore, it is essential to identify the factors that are influencing the urban water balance. Furthermore as a basis for urban planning and management methods are needed to quantify and control these factors (Vzquez-Su et al. 2005). A group of pollutant, which are increasingly considered to be ecotoxicologically relevant for the aquatic environment and the human health are xenobiotics. Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCP) as well as endocrine disrupting industrial chemicals belong to this group. In the last years exploration-, monitoring- and remediation strategies for industrial contaminations have made substantial progress (e.g. Heidrich et al. 2004). But comparable strategies do not exist yet for xenobiotics. The main source of xenobiotics is treated and untreated sewage. Therefore these substances are closely connected with urban land use. An important pathway for surface water is treated sewage from sewage treatment plants (Daughton & Ternes 1999), because xenobiotics such as pharmaceuticals and polycyclic musk fragrances are only partially removed during the treatment (Peck & Hornbuckle 2006, Heberer 2002). Groundwater can be polluted by untreated sewage from leaky sewers (Ellis & Revitt 2002). Furthermore untreated sewage from combined sewer overflows can affect surface water (Buerge et al. 2006). A systematic approach to xenobiotic concentrations and distribution in the aquatic environment of a watershed allows the determination of sources, transport and degradation processes. So xenobiotics act as indicators for anthropogenic influences on the urban water balance (Standley et al. 2000). To enforce knowledge of environmental behaviour of xenobiotics in urban areas the Helmoltz Centre for Environmental Research has started the survey "WASSER Leipzig Water- and Sewershed Study of Environmental Risk". Within this project xenobiotics are investigated in detail concerning there occurrence in the aquatic environment. Medium-term aim is to contribute to risk assessment concerning xenobiotics for human health and ecosystems. Here first results of groundwater and surface water sampling are presented.
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Material and methods Study area The study side covers an area of 18 km2 and is located in the western part of the city of Leipzig. It was chosen because of its mixed land use with residential areas, used and disused industrial areas, green spaces and forests. The northern part of the study area is dominated by the floodplain of the rivers Elster, Luppe and Nahle. The geologic structure is characterised by quaternary and holocene sediments covering proterozoic and carboniferous bedrock and tertiary sands. The quaternary and holocene sediments consist of gravel forming a high permeable aquifer with a thickness of approximately 8 m. In the floodplain alluvial clay covers the aquifer. Within the study area a watershed based on groundwater surface data can be defined. Groundwater flows from south to the northern floodplain. The sewer system has a length of 64 km forming a sewershed which is congruent with the watershed. Sewage is pumped to a sewage treatment plant (STP) in the eastern part of the study area. This STP has a capacity of 463,000 population equivalents (Wiegel et al. 2004). Effluents flow into the Luppe. Parameter Based on preliminary studies (Reinstorf et al. 2007) six xenobiotics where chosen: bisphenol A endocrine disrupting industrial chemical technical nonylphenol degradation product of nonylphenol polyethoxylates with estrogenic activity galaxolide (HHCB) and tonalide (AHTN) polycyclic musk fragrances caffeine psychomotor stimulant carbamazepine antiepileptic drug Sampling The sampling of 17 groundwater observation wells and 6 surface water sampling locations was carried out in August, November and December 2006. The observation wells are concentrated in the centre of the study area to get detailed information on the spatial distribution of xenobiotics in groundwater. The surface water measuring points include the STP effluent. To get information on raw sewage 2 samples from the sewer system where taken. Analysis Xenobiotics where measured from 1 litre of untreated sample using solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography/ mass spectrometry. For details refer to Braun et al. (2003). The limit of detection is 0.2 ng/l for galaxolide and tonalide, 1 ng/l for nonylphenol, bisphenol A and caffeine and 2 ng/l for carbamazepine. Results and Discussion Sewage and surface water Sampling of untreated as well as treated sewage gives hints on elimination of xenobiotics in the STP (Tab. 1). The comparison between xenobiotic concentrations in sewage and in surface water allows the determination of input sources. The little number of samples from sewage leads to a limited representativeness. In comparison to the raw sewage concentrations of nonylphenol, bisphenol A and caffeine in treated sewage are up to one magnitude lower indicating elimination in the STP. The database of raw sewage is not sufficient to draw conclusions concerning tonalide, galaxolide and carbamazepine. Concentrations of nonylphenol, bisphenol A and caffeine are up to one order of a magnitude higher in surface water than in the STP effluent. Buerge et al. (2006) show that most of the caffeine in Swiss surface water can be traced back to combined sewer overflow. Here a comparable input of raw sewage can be assumed for nonylphenol, bisphenol A and caffeine. Concen- Tab. 1: Xenobiotic concentrations minima and maxima [ng/l] in surface water (without tration of carbamaze- direct influence of the STP, 6 samples), STP effluent (2 samples) and raw sewage pine, galaxolide and (2 samples), Musolff et al. (2007). tonalide are up to one Surface water STP effluent Raw sewage order of a magnitude Xenobiotic Min Max Min Max Min Max higher in STP effluent nonylphenol 141 251 23 73 257 305 than in surface water. bisphenol A 294 450 12 140 451 3708 Therefore contents in caffeine 24 240 8 80 11192 14013 surface water may origigalaxolide 26.5 41.0 17.0 737.5 184.0 746.4 nate from treated tonalide 3.7 5.5 100.5 155.9 27.9 142.5 sewage entering the carbamazepine 62 280 296 834 0 73 river more upstream. 280
A. Musolff et al.: Integral studies of urban groundwater and water balance
Groundwater The determination of xenobiotics in groundwater gives hints on Tab. 2: Xenobiotic concentrations minima input sources as well as transport and degradation processes and maxima [ng/l] in groundwater, 17 samples (Musolff et al. 2007). (Tab. 2). Xenobiotics are ubiquitous in groundwater. In comparison to Xenobiotic Min Max the surface water concentration of bisphenol A is much higher. nonylphenol 32 679 Concentration of nonylphenol is comparable. All other xenobibisphenol A 379 8075 otics show lower contents in groundwater. The highest concencaffeine 2 55 trations can be observed in the central parts of the study area (fig. galaxolide 2.1 10.2 1). tonalide 0.7 6.5 Positive correlations can be found for galaxolide and bisphecarbamazepine 2 134 nol A, for tonalide and caffeine and for nonylphenol and caffeine. There is no spatial correlation between the xenobiotics. The combination of polycyclic musk fragrances and caffeine is a unique indicator for sewage (Standley et al. 2000). As these substances are present in all samples, leaky sewers can be assumed as input source within town. Two observation wells in the floodplain away from any sewer show high concentration of xenobiotics. Here an input of infiltrated polluted surface water from a little brook is probable. Xenobiotics have heterogeneous concentration patterns within separate observation wells. Correlation between galaxolide and bisphenol A on the one hand and nonylphenol, galaxolide and caffeine on the other hand may be caused by different degradation processes for these substances. A factor analysis confirms this hypothesis. For details refer to Musolff et al. (2007). Spatiotemporal heterogeneity Concentrations of xenobiotics show a high variability in time and space. In surface water temporal heterogeneity due to variable dilution was measured. Surprisingly temporal heterogeneity was also high in groundwater. Within a period of three month e.g. caffeine concentrations shows variation from 5 ng/l to 55 ng/l in an observation well. A high variability was also measured in short distances as for carbamazepine (distance of 35 m, 7 ng/l - 134 ng/l). This heterogeneity in groundwater is due to high variable input because concentrations of xenobiotics in sewage as well as hydraulic boundary condition of leaky sewers fluctuate permanently.
Fig. 1: Land use and sewage indicator CAFF+FG (see Standley et. al 2000; sum of normalised caffeine concentration and normalised galaxolide + tonalide concentrations, normalised to the highest value).
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Conclusions Xenobiotics are present in all waters within the study area, indicating a clear anthropogenic impact. First measurements allow differentiation of input sources and give hints on degradation processes. For the quantification of the urban water balance including an assessment of sewage input to groundwater and surface water more periodic measurements of xenobiotics are needed. Therefore a monitoring program concerning xenobiotic variability in groundwater and raw sewage has started. To overcome the spatiotemporal heterogeneity special investigation methods will be applied. Temporally integrating sampling with passive samplers will be used. Using spatially integrating pumping tests mass fluxes of contaminants through control planes upstream and downstream of leaky sewers will be determined. To assess 3D high resolving spatial distribution of contaminants direct-push techniques and multilevel packer will be used. References
Braun, P., Mder, M., Schrader, S., Popp, P., Kuschk, R., Engewald, W. (2003): Trace analysis of technical nonylphenol, bisphenol A and 17 alpha-ethinylestradiol in wastewater using solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatographymass spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography A 988, 41-51. Buerge, I.J., Poiger, T., Mller, M.D., Buser, H.R. (2006): Combined sewer overflows to surface waters detected by the anthropogenic marker caffeine. Environmental Science and Technology 40, 4096-4102. Daughton, C.G., Ternes, T.A. (1999): Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment: Agents of subtle change? Environmental Health Perspectives 107 (Supplement 6), 907-938. Ellis, J.B., Revitt, D.M. (2002): Sewer losses and interactions with groundwater quality. Water Science and Technology 45, 195-202. Heberer, T. (2002): Occurrence, fate, and assessment of polycyclic musk residues in the aquatic environment of urban areas - A review. Acta hydrochimica et hydrobiologica 30, 227-243. Heidrich, S., Schirmer, M., Weiss, H., Wyciskc, P., Grossmann, J., Kaschl, A. (2004): Regionally contaminated aquiferstoxicological relevance and remediation options (Bitterfeld case study). Toxicology 205,143-155. Howard, K.W.F. (2002): Urban groundwater issues - An introduction. In Howard, K.W.F., Israfilov, R. (Hrsg.): Current problems of hydrogeology in urban areas, urban agglomerates and industrial centres. NATO Science Series IV Earth and Environmental Sciences 8, 1-15. Lerner, D.N. (2002): Identifying and quantifying urban recharge: a review. Hydrogeology Journal 10, 143-152. Musolff, A., Leschik, S., Reinstorf, F., Strauch, G., Mder, M. & Schirmer, M. (2007): Xenobiotika im Grundwasser und Oberflchenwasser der Stadt Leipzig. Grundwasser (submitted). Peck, A.M., Hornbuckle, K.C. (2006): Environmental sources, occurrence, and effects of synthetic musk fragrances. Journal of Environmental Monitoring 8, 874-879. Reinstorf, F., Strauch, G., Schirmer, M., Glser, H.-R., Mder, M., Wennrich, R., Osenbrck, K., Schirmer, K. (2007): Xenobiotics in urban areas - investigation and estimation of chemical fluxes. In: Howard, K.W.F. (Hrsg.): Urban groundwater - meeting the challenge. International Association of Hydrologists Selected Papers; London, 145-159. Standley, L.J., Kaplan, L.A., Smith, D. (2000): Molecular tracers of organic matter sources to surface water resources. Environmental Science and Technology 34, 3124-3130. Vzquez-Su, E., Snchez-Vila, X., Carrera, J. (2005): Introductory review of specific factors influencing urban groundwater, an emerging branch of hydrogeology, with reference to Barcelona, Spain. Hydrogeology Journal 13, 522-533. Wiegel, S., Aulinger, A., Brockmeyer, R., Harms, H., Lffler, J., Reincke, H., Schmidt, R., Stachel, B., von Tmpling, W., Wanke, A. (2004): Pharmaceuticals in the river Elbe and its tributaries. Chemosphere 57, 107-126.
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Hydrodynamic-Numerical Simulation of the Flow around a Waste Water Tank in the River Spree
A. Jourieh, M. Heinl, R. Hinkelmann, M. Barjenbruch, TU Berlin, Germany
R. Steeg, LURI Watersystems gmbh ayman.jourieh@wahyd.tu-berlin.de
Introduction In Berlin, precipitation and waste water from private households, public institution, industry, and trade, as well as run-offs from public road areas generate large quantities of rain and waste water. A part of this water is drained in a combined drains system. In this system, domestic, trade and industrial waste waters as well as rain water are collected by one drain, from where they are taken to the sewage treatment plant. In case of heavy rainfall, the water flows untreated into the rivers via rain water overflow canals. In the year 2005 about 3.0 million m of such combined sewer overflow water reached the water bodies untreated. This is one of the main sources of contamination. In order to solve this problem, the initiators and developers of the planned SPREE2011 project have come up with a remarkably simple idea: at the spots where the sewers overflow, large flexible collection tanks (see Fig. 1) are to be installed to collect waste water. As the rain dissipates and the pipes become free, this water is fed back into canalization and then pumped to a sewage treatment plant. These tanks should additionally serve as useable islands and rentable areas in one of the citys most beautiful spots: right in the middle of the Spree. In a day and age in which environmental projects tend to demand a great deal of effort and long term sacrifice, the first phase of this plan would create visible recreational areas which would become a symbol of the environmental change taking place. In this way, this vision of riverside city will be filled rapidly with life. As aquatic life recovers and flora and fauna return, a new coming together will also develop on the surface. Daily life on Figure 1: Tank in river Spree the river will help to provide a new vision of the city for its inhabitants. A clean river, a living river, a river which is a tourist attraction, a river is being returned to inhabitants of the city. The project area is located in Berlin, Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg between Elsenbrcke and Schillingbrcke (see Fig. 2). In this study, the impact of different tanks which cover an area 60 m long and 12.5 m on the river flow and water levels is investigated. Computational domains Two domains with different degree of complexity are set up in order to analyse the impacts of the tanks on the flow conditions (see Fig. 2). Domain 1 has a length of 260 m, it consists of a simplified rectangular cross-section with a mean width of 90 m and an initial water depth of 3.22 m, and one tank is included. Domain 2 has a length of 1330 m, it takes into account the real cross-sectional data, and three tanks are considered. This domain is located between Oberbaumbrcke and Eisenbrcke where the width is somewhat larger compared to the first domain. The initial water depth is in the range of 3 m depending on the bathymetry. The bottom slope for both domains is very small with a value of 0.013 %. In the simulations, the 'worst case' scenario is investigated, i.e. the tank is fully filled and represents the largest flow obstacle. It is modelled as a non-wettable domain, similar to an island. Modelling System For the simulations, the modelling system TELEMAC-2D has been used. This is a hydrodynamical-numerically model for the vertically averaged shallow water equations. At each point of the horizontal mesh, the water depth and the two horizontal velocity components are computed. TELEMAC-2D is based on the FiniteElement Method. For the stabilization of advective terms, upwind or operator-splitting methods can be chosen. The computational mesh consists of triangular elements (see Fig. 3).
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Figure 2: Computational domains
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A. Jourieh et al.: Hydrodynamic-Numerical Simulation of the Flow around a Waste Water Tank in the River Spree
Figure 3: The mesh (MATISSE)
The work is performed in three steps (preprocessing, processing, and postprocessing). In the preprocessing stage, the module MATISSE is used to introduce the boundaries and the bathymetry of the model. The triangular grid is generated and refined in the vicinity of the tank(s) (see Fig. 3). The geometry file and the boundary condition file are generated for the simulation modules. Here, the system is closed on the top and on the bottom boundaries. On the open left boundary, the water level is imposed and one the open right boundary, a constant discharge is prescribed. The processing in TELEMAC 2D is controlled by a steering file which contains data such as file names for input and output, initial and boundary conditions as well as physical and numerical parameters. The friction coefficient of Manning-Strickler was set to kst = 40 m1/3/s. A constant turbulent viscosity was chosen with a value of = 0.01 m/s. For the advection, upwind schemes are applied. BiCGSTAB was chosen as the solver the sparse non-symmetric matrices. The time step size was set to 0.2 s. Finally, the results are analysed in the postprocesing with the module RUBENS. They are visualized, for example, as water level distributions (see Fig. 4) or fields of the flow vectors (see Fig. 5). Results Three scenarios have been compared: without tanks, tanks directly at the river bank (see Fig. 4, 5) and tanks as an island (see Fig. 3). As initial condition, the flow velocities were set to zero, for the initial water levels see sec. 'Computational domains'. The maximum discharge record of a 10 years series was imposed with a constant value of 114 m/s. Transient simulations were carried out with steady state boundary conditons. The steady state conditions in the systems were generally reached after about 4 minutes for domain 1 and about 3 hours for domain 2.
Figure 4: Free surface (RUBENS)
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Figure 5: Velocity fields (RUBENS)
The impact of the tanks on the water level changes were small with about 3 cm for the scenarios 'tanks directly at the river bank' and 'tanks as an island' compared to the scenario 'without tanks'. A slight increase of the water levels occurs in front of a tank, and some minor oscillations are observed (see Fig. 4). When the tanks are imposed into the flow field, the flow velocities are close to zero directly in front of a tank and after a tank for both scenarios 'tanks directly at the river bank' and 'tanks as an island'. Parallel to a tank, the flow velocities are slightly increased up to several cm/s compared to the scenario 'without tank' (see Fig. 5). The values are not critical. Conclusions Due to the very slow flow velocities in river Spree, the impact of the tanks on the flow conditions is of minor importance. As the technology should also be exported to other urban rivers with higher velocities, such situations will be investigated in the future.
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Habitat Function of Urban River: Keelung River in Taipei City, Taiwan

Yu-Fang Lin
Institute of Environment Planning, Leibniz University of Hanover, Germany lin@umwelt.uni-hannover.de
Abstract With the development of urbanization, the urban river management is under pressure of human activities; meanwhile, the good river management could show the positive feedback to the quality of urban environment. This study would focus on the habitat functions, and try to set up the methodologies for classification of biotope and the assessment of habitat functions by the existent concepts in Germany and EU; and has a case study in downstream Keelung River (ca. 31 km) in Taipei City, which is the capital of Taiwan. At first, analyzing the problems by PSR (pressure- state- response) framework, which will clear the impact of environment and herewith the targets are established, which are 1) Biodiversity promotion, 2) renew and maintain the habitat functions, 3) Establish the keys and database of biotopes, 4) Special habitat protection (ex. wetland). The second step is organizing the indicators of assessment in four sections: Biotope, Species, Water and Ground. For verifying this judgment system, the next step would take downstream Keelung River as a case study. The basic map of biotope would be taken from aerial photograph by GIS (Geographic Information System), and be revised by the field investigation. The physical, chemical and biological information, such as species of bird, runoff, pollutionetc., would combine with the aerial photograph as database. Finally, analyzing the habitat functions of Keelung River depends on the above database, and makes the suggestion of improvement priority for urban river management. The purposes of this study are a start of a comprehensive methodology on basis for urban river management in Taiwan, and also arrange the keys of biotopes along the urban river by Keelung River. The criteria and keys of biotopes will represent a first concept and proposal to be long-tern research and adapt to other similar cases. Judging from the above, the contributions of this study are: 1) classified keys of biotopes, 2) assessment framework of urban river in Taiwan, 3) suggestion of improvement priority. Key words: Habitat functions, Biotope, Classification, PSR, GIS, River management. Introduction In the past years, the traditional urban development has tended to conform to the human demand. Therefore, the urban rivers have often been developed into transportation, conduit or sink. With the development of urbanization, the urban river management is under pressure of human activities; five major effects of urbanization on urban river are 1) channelization, 2) increased runoff due to impervious surface, 3) pollution, 4) poor biodiversity, and 5) fragment / isolation of habitat. Taipei, the capital of Taiwan, has developed rapidly with wrong or overload land-use previously. People took the natural environment as the illimitable source and storage. The government delivered some wrong policies on the river; for instance, the downstream Keelung River in Taipei City was important channel for shipping. As the roads have taken instead of water transport, it was isolated due to the flood by banks. However, the good river management could not only show the positive feedback to the quality of urban environment, but also improve or enhance the urban ecosystem. Thus the scientists and planner of government pay more attention to bettering the river ecosystem. Even though there are many relative projects or research regarding Keelung River, there is still no complete database for long-tern and sustained study. For recovering the lack, this study is aimed to set up the classification of biotope along downstream Keelung River by decision tree, and also have a mapping according to the principles of NATURA 2000 in Europe; and then set up a database on this ground. For testing and verifying in reality, the second part is assessing the habitat functions of biotope by the existent concepts in Germany and EU. In view of the above, the targets are 1) Biodiversity promotion, 2) renew and maintain the habitat functions, 3) Establish the keys and database of biotopes, 4) Special habitat protection (ex. wetland) Methodology Biotope is original in German (Biotop) and based on the Greek BIOS and TOPOS, the combined meaning is the living area of species. In precisely, biotope is a continuous living area, where the each single species community has definable characters from the neighborhood. (Ex: high moss, beach grove, cave, pond, seacoast) (NEHRING & ALBRECHT, 2000; DAHL, 1908) Biotope is generally applied to urban and rural planning in Europe; it's especially taken as the background of spatial planning in Germany. However, there are no keys of biotopes in Taiwan as yet. The first step of this research is setting up the classification of biotopes along
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downstream Keelung River according the principle in Germany. There are seven main categorical following decision-tree: 1) Forest, 2) Shrubbery, 3) Inland waterway, 4) Wetland, 5) Biotope of rock, stone, and exposed ground, 6) Green land / gardening, and 7) Buildings, transportation, and industrial areas. The basic map of biotope would be taken from aerial photograph by Geographic Information System (GIS), and the unidentifiable of variant sections would be revised by the field investigation. The physical, chemical and biological information, such as species of bird, runoff, pollutionetc., would combine with the aerial photograph as database. The database is documented the current state along Keelung River through synthesis of published studies, and original spatial analysis using geographic information systems (GIS). And then make a mapping according the principles of NATURA 200 for assessing the habitat functions. The second step is organizing the criteria of assessment by landscape ecology in four sections: Biotope, Species, Water and Ground. The definition of each indicator is as table 1. Table1: criteria of habitat functions
Category Criterion Biotope degree of naturalness, Definition It is useful for judging the conservation value and describing the current state of ecosystem. There are divided into five degrees: n atural, semi natural, cultural-assisted, highly intervened, and artificial. (adapted from MACHADO, 2004) Discussing the features of patches and the rate of vegetation cover. There are divided into five degrees: 80 -100%, 60 -80%, 40 -60%, 2 040%, 0-20%. (adapted from ISC Reference manual, 1999; MACHADO, 2004) Counting the number of discontinuous biotopes in unit 1000m along the Keelung river. There are divided into five degrees: 95 -100%, 80 -94%, 65-79%, 40-64%, 0-39% (adapted from CHANG, 2004) Assessing the quantity of specific species. This research is focus on birds. The IUCN Red List is the worlds most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation state of threatened species sin ce 1963. It is set upon precise criteria to evaluate the extinction risk of thousands of species and subspecies since. The unique species will depend on the present biotope; any change might destroy the habitat and reduce the species. Biodiversity if a important criterion for judging the structure, condition and function of biotope. And the land disturbance, impervious surfaces, removal of native vegetation, introduction of non -native exotic species, fragmentation and isolation of remaining natural areas would reduce the biodiversity. (adapted from BRYANT & RANDOLPH, 2002; BRYANT, 2006) River Pollution Index (RPI) is a popular system for evaluating the water quality in Taiwan. The items are included Dissolved Oxyge n (DO), Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), Suspended Solids (SS), and Ammonia Nitrogen (NH3 -N). There are four degrees: Heavy (>6), middle (3.1 -6), light (2 -3), and non (<2).( by Environmental Protection Administration, R. O. C., 1997) For analyzing the physical characters of spatial change. Then estimate the self-regulation of water. The great ratio of impermeable ground is unfavorable for soil fertility and groundwater. Counting the number of discontinuous biotopes in unit 1000m along the Keelung river. There are divided into five degrees: 95 -100%, 80 -94%, 65-79%, 40-64%, 0-39% (adapted from CHANG, 2004)
Vegetation cover
fragmentation/isolation
Species
richness red-list
uniqueness diversity
Water
pollution
runoff Ground ratio of impermeable ground ratio of natural biotope
This study is aim to set up the database, and also establish the methodology of classification and assessment; which would apply to the further research and relative project. Study area Keelung River originates in Jingtong Mountain (elevation 350 m), flows zigzag through the north Taiwan. The main stream is around 89.4 km, and the drainage area is 490.77 km2. The stream-order of main stream is 288
Yu-Fang Lin: Habitat Function of Urban River: Keelung River in Taipei City, Taiwan
between 2 - 4 orders, after converging the Shuangxi is 5th order. Keelung River should be the most important tributary of Danshui River due to water transport, because the downstream (ca. 31 km) flows through the high developed mega-city Taipei which is also the capital of Taiwan. Therefore, the ecosystem along downstream Keelung River reflects the quality of urban environment. Taiwan is located in subtropical zone. It blows north-east monsoon in winter and south-west monsoon in summer. The average temperature is 23.3C, average humidity is 76%. The climate is typical warm, moist weather. According to the data of Taipei station (Central Weather Bureau in Taiwan, 1971-2006), the average annual rainfall is 2267.5mm; the rainy season from May to October, the highest rainfall is in September (506.6 mm). The main sources of pollution along downstream Keelung River are the waste water from family, industry, and pasturage; the family waste water is around 90% due to the lack of sewage conduit system. But this situation is getting better with the improvement of sewage conduit system. The downstream Keelung River was a tidal meander, the head of Keelung River is located in is the region where has highest average annual rainfall; therefore, the flood sweep the downstream after heavy raining. For preventing the flood, the government set Figure 1 study area twice straight engineering in 1981 and 1991. These works not only varied the trend of river, but also changed the ecosystem along the river. The grounds are sedimentary rock and flood plain along the downstream Keelung River, which are composed of clay, sand and gravel. The infertile soil, such as yellow soil, is spread along the river. In recent years, the engineering works increase the ratio of impermeable ground, which must limit the fertile of soil and also affect the hydrological cycle. There are fewer natural types of vegetation at the riverside due to the water conservancy works, the cement bank revetment and banks have replaced the natural habitat. Except some shrubs at the riverside, the greensward spread on the riverside parks. The present biotopes are disadvantageous of habitat functions. The species could not refuge, roost, grow and hunt. Nevertheless, the Guandu wetland, where is located at the confluence of Keelung River into Danshui River, is the treasury of Keelung River. Guandu wetland (ca. 55 ha) is one of the Important Bird Areas (IBA), around 250 different species of birds have ever stayed here. It is an important habitat for migratory birds. From September to April is the peak season for winter migrants (Ex. Anthus cervinus, Emberiza spodocephala, Turdus naumanniect.). For protecting the habitat of Aquatic birds, the Taipei City Government sited this area as natural conservation area in 1986. The main functions of river corridor are habitat, conduit, filter, source, and sink, the habitat function is especially important; which can subdivide into refuge function and Nursery function (Table 2). The habitat function
Table 2 Definition of Habitat function
Habitat Functions: providing habitat (suitable living space) for wild plant and animal species Refuge function Nursery function Suitable living space for wild plants and animals Suitable reproduction- habitat Maintenance of biological and genetic diversity (and, thus, the basis for most other functions) Maintenance of commercially harvested species Biological regeneration Biodiversity
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of corridors is displayed by the presence of edge and generalist species, many of which are disturbance tolerant, (BULTER, 2001; FORMAN, 1995) Due to the flood control works and pollution, most types of biotopes along the downstream Keelung River lost the nursery function. The artificial environment is also unfit to be refuge of the wildlife. However, the Guandu wetland plays an important role in this urban river. It is the only positive contribution to the urban ecosystem. Brief Conclusion The purposes of this study are a start of a comprehensive methodology on basis for urban river management in Taiwan, and also arrange the keys of biotopes along the urban river by Keelung River. The criteria and keys of biotopes will represent a first concept and proposal to be long-tern research and adapt to other similar cases. However, there are still some limited during this research: 1) lack of original ecological data, such as quantity of birds. There were no contiguous studies in this section, thus it's difficult to analyze. 2) Could not be able to get the official aerial photograph due to national defense, therefore the study period is extended. Even though, the methodology and database would apply to the further research and relative projects in the future. And the suggestion can be the reference to the planner or decision maker of government. Judging from the above, the contributions of this study are: 1) classified keys of biotopes, 2) assessment framework of urban river in Taiwan, 3) suggestion of improvement priority. Reference
BASCHAK, L. A., R. D. BROWN, (1995), An ecological framework for the planning, design and management of urban river greenways, Landscape and Urban Planning 33, p.p. 211-225 BASTIAN, O. (1997): Gedanken zur Bewertung von Landschaftsfunktionen- unter besonderer Bercksichtigung der Habitatfunktion, In: NNA-Berichte 10 (3) 1997: 106-125. BRYANT, M. M., (2006), Urban landscape conservation and the role of ecological greenways at local and metropolitan scales, Landscape and Urban Planning 76: (1), p.p. 23-44. BULTER, D. R. (2001), Geomorphic process- disturbance corridors: a variation on a principle of landscape ecology, Progress in physical Geography 25, 2, pp. 237-248. CHANG, W. J. (2004), A Study on of the Urban River renovation policy through all Things on Earth Environmental Symbiosis Concept - A case study of the Keelung River in Taipei City, Master thesis, Institute of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of Chinese Culture. GLASER, F. F., M. DVEL, G. WEYERr, T. FREY, (1994), Beschreibung der Kartiereinheiten und Luftbildinterpretationsschlssel Freistaat Sachsen, Gesellschaft fr Luftbildinterpretation mbH, Bro Dresden. GROOT, R. d. (2006): Function-analysis and valuation as a tool to assess land use conflicts in planning for sustainable, multi-functional landscapes, Landscape und urban planning 75: (2), p.p. 175-186. GUTH, J., T. KUCERA, (2005), Natura 2000 Habitat mapping in the Czech Republic: Methods and general results, Vol. 24, supplement. HAAREN, C. v. (Hrsg.) (2004): Landschaftsplanung, UTB. 527 P. DRACHENFELS, O. von (2004), Kartierschlsser fr Biotoptypen in Niedersachsen, Naturschutz und Landschaftspflege in Niedersachsen. MACHADO, A. (2004), An index of naturalness, Journal for Nature Conservation 12, p.p. 95-110. Mason, B., R. Knight, (2002), Sensitive Habitat Inventory and Mapping, Community Mapping Network, Vancouver, British Columbia, M. Johannes, Editor. McCONNACHIE, D. (2002), Mapping Biotopes of Regulated River Corridors using GIS, Satellite Remote Sensing and Decision Tree Analysis, Master Thesis, Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm. Landschaftspflege in Niedersachsen. NEHRING, S., U. ALBRECHT, (2000), Biotope, habitat, micro habitat - a contribution for discussion on term definition, Lauterbonia 38, p.p.75-84.
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Visions, Perceptions and Use of the River Nile towards a Social Rehabilitation
A. Abdou
Faculty of Fine Arts, Department of Architecture, Helwan University, Cairo, Egypt Molly_abdou@hotmail.com
Introduction Why should urban planning remain an abstract science, content to limit itself to developing a city and its districts schematically, leaving other disciplines to fill in the schemata: architecture adding in buildings and engineering squeezing conduits and roads into any remaining open space? Many people believe in the death of the public space, in which most of social life takes place. How many towns turn their backs on the river? Didn't it help form their cultures, their social structures and their economies? Do city dwellers really need to mourn the loss of country life? Wouldn't we prefer it if that country life was firmly established within urban life and if urban vegetation were designed in a way that did not compulsively imitate the rural? When a city plans a new representative district and publicizes its political or economic power, it will be unable to attract residents if it does not include a recreation area with all the facilities they need. However, when we look at the map of Cairo we do not see such open spaces or recreation areas. Instead, high density buildings fill the space along the Nile River. (fig.1) According to urban planning principles, environmental protection and sustainable development of sensitive areas require the study and evaluation of existing land uses, definition of protected areas and regeneration on both sides of the riverbed, and proposals for future land use scenarios. This research introduces a methodological approach for such a process and suggests the need for further development of criteria for evaluating proposals for future scenarios. Towards this objective, the research on the Nile river Fig. 1: Cairo river bank side in Cairo and Luxor has followed two stages: 1. A survey of the existing situation, including the characterization of land uses through site-specific examination. The main focus of this stage has been to accurately evaluate the sites and provide the basis for developing potential alternative land use scenarios. 2. Development of alternative proposals for the conservation, arrangement or change of some land uses taking into account the goals of environmental protection and sustainable development and the limits of feasibility. Through integrated assessment and planning, these scenarios ensure the viability of the ecological and human dimensions of these areas. Methodology The methodology of the study depends on primary and secondary sources. Primary data sources include two field studies: one in Cairo and one in Luxor. The Cairo site encompasses the area between Shoubra and Qasr el-Nil and incorporates a wide riparian bank, which is adjacent to the most populated area of central Cairo, is very popular with tourists, and contains a heavy traffic connection (fig1). The second site, on the east river bank at Luxor (fig2), is where most of the city's attractions are concentrated. Secondary data drew from a literature review of the Nile River as an urban space, in ecological, economic, social and urban aspects. In this research, I identify the main characteristics of each area, concentrating on its outstanding natural and urban features. Through this kind of study, I demonstrate the main concepts and merit of an inclusive approach to development that incorporates environmental protection and conservation. Problems and solutions The urban environment is a dynamic unit which can bring about social, cultural and economic changes. In the case of the Nile River, intense development, including connecting the
Fig. 2: Luxor river bank
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Fig. 3: A section for the new land use across the main street on the nil
islands and riverbanks via bridges, has caused conflict between multiple uses. Priority has been given first to traffic organization, infrastructure, and marine use, and second to tourism and private use. Except for a few national holidays in which Caireans traditionally spend the day on the river, the connection between citizen and river has been disappearing. Problems on the riverbanks (fig.4) Common problems exist on the riverbanks in both Cairo and Luxor because both have experienced a boom in tourism and have a long residential history. These problems include: 1. The public view of the river is obstructed. Toursit hotel boats, sometimes parked in up to four rows, restaurants, and several union clubs block direct view and interaction with the river. 2. Tourist boat motors produce exhaust and create in pollution in what should be one of the cleanest places in Egypt. 3. There is no pedestrian or recreation access for citizens along the river. This distances citizens from the only open space that many have access to. 4. The stone riprap that protects the river banks from flood ersion covers any green space or vegetation that would otherwise grow there. 5. There are many underused areas at the most attractive places like the marina, garages, cranes and military areas 6. The heavy traffic along the riverbanks pollutes the air and reduces the potential for recreation.
Fig. 4: Some fail uses on the river Nil
Problems only in Luxor 1. The area along the riverbank has been built up and is crowded, but was not planned. The development blocks the view and connection with the pharaonic temples Luxor and Karnak (fig.2) 2. Two planned places in the north and south of Luxor are located directly on the Nile and prevent any possibility of connection to the river. Problems only in Cairo 1. The spaces under the bridges are not used economically and are not secure enough. 2. There are many prime, expensive places across the main street along the Nile, especially in Shoubra, that are used for industrial activities and warehouses. 3. There are no recreation areas in the city and the density of housing covers all the vegetation in the city instead of a small area in Zamalek island (fig 5). 292
A. Abdou: Visions, Perceptions and Use of the River Nile towards a Social Rehabilitation
Fig. 5: A small recreation area in Zamalek Cairo
General Solutions 1. The government must develop a land use plan and prioritize public space along the Nile River. 2. Regulation should be enacted requiring the use of solar energy for power along the Nile in order to keep the area unpolluted. 3. Boats should be parked outside of the city center. 4. The land use plan must require that high density development projects include areas for public recreation in front of them. This recreation area can be used by all of Cairo's population because most housing areas lack open spaces 5. The river side must be planted with more trees, palms and other vegetation to filter the polluted air in Cairo. 6. The land use plan must develop new uses for the non-economic areas along the river with the objective of offering more employment to the youth. 7. The heavy transportation traffic along the Nil can be reduced by using the Nile boots using solar energy and by creating several boot stations along and across the river that are connected with the underground stations. This will reduce the pollution in Cairo and improve transportation connections to all the districts of Cairo. Solution for Luxor problems 1. The land use plan must protect the historic areas in front of Luxor and Karnak temples and preserve the historic space that connected these temples with the Nile. 2. This land use plan must maintain public access to all the spaces along the Nile. Solution for Cairo problems 1. We can use the spaces under the bridges for art and cultural exhibitions, providing both economic and social benefits. 2. The underused spaces in front of the Nile, such as the industrial district and warehouses, can be better used. A parking area could be constructed under the new building with a tunnel linking it to the recreation area on the Nil (fig.3) 3. The land use plan along the Nile must be planned in branches, which distance the touristic area from the public recreation area, which must include more vegetation and some shops to offer jobs to the high density population at this side. The research conclusions The success of the development projects along the Nile River banks depend on integrating and achieving a balance between urban, environmental, social, and tourism development considerations. The Ministry of Environment must use the law to protect the riverbank areas and must work with national and international NGOs for their development and protection. It is possible to develop scenarios for future use of these areas along the Nile River that accommodate multiple uses, such as recreation, while also providing environmental protection. Therefore, the rehabilitation of the river banks and urban spaces along the Nile present an important opportunity for the social use of river spaces. As the river Nile is a major determinant of the city's urban form, there is a need to study its effect on Cairo and Luxor's urban forms. We can conceive of the Nile as the lung of the central city, however, the current private and tourist uses absorb most riparian land use andsever the relationship between the citizens and their only option for recreation areas. Recommendation 1. Use solar energy for any power needs along Nile River.
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2. Use the riverbank as the major area for social and recreational activities. 3. Governorates must designate a percentage of the area to be used for tourist activities 4. The Ministry of Transportation must offer eco-friendly transportation on the river to decrease the traffic density in Egypt by using solar energy and connecting the subway with the Nile transportation methods. 5. Use the areas under the bridges for cultural and economic projects. Profits from these can be used to finance the protection of public recreational areas. 6. Plan a pedestrian path along the Nil that is conneced to green areas. References
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Internet site :Nage_EL_Amiea_Qena_profile 2006 Karamanou, Z, Rodolakis N., sustainable planning and design, riverside zones in the coastal region of the island of crete. IAPS 19 international conference, 2006 Suidan M.,: The Nil as an urban area for forming Cairo city, Cairo university, master theses, 1997 Hassan M.,special double uses of natural urban restricts, Cairo university, master theses, 1996 Neil Ravenscroft: recreation planning and development, Macmillan, London, 1992 Ann Wylson, Aquatecture Architecture and water: the architectural press, London 1986 Lloyd Robert M. Hollister: cities of the mind: Plenum press 1984 Amos Rapoport: The meaning of the built environment: sage publication,1982. Amos Rapoport: Human aspects of urban form, pergamon press, 1977
10. Gorden Cullen: Town-scape, the architectural press, 1961
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Arsenic mitigation options in water treatment A brief review

S. Chatterjee1, A Bandopadhyay2, B. Sen Gupta1
1
School of Civil Engineering, Queen's University Belfast , United Kingdom, 2National Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur, India B.Sengupta@qub.ac.uk
Introduction The qualities of groundwater are areas of immense concern in our environment and in every society. The presence of high levels of arsenic in the groundwater, the main source of drinking water in many countries around the world, has drawn the attention of the scientific community. Groundwater, free from pathogenic micro organisms and available in adequate quantity via tube wells sunk in shallow aquifers in the flood plains, provides low-cost drinking water to scattered population. Unfortunately, because of high arsenic content in the groundwater, millions are exposed to high levels of inorganic arsenic by drinking this water worldwide. It has become a major public health issue in many countries around the globe and a great burden on water supply authorities. In developing countries like Bangladesh and India, the high prevalence of contamination, the isolation and poverty of the population, and the high cost and complexity of arsenic mitigation systems have imposed a programmatic and policy challenge on an unprecedented scale. In the context of prevalence of high concentrations of arsenic in tube well water, a wide range of technologies has been tried for the removal of arsenic from drinking water. The most common methods utilise the conventional processes of oxidation, co-precipitation and adsorption onto coagulated flocs, adsorption onto sorptive media, ion exchange and membrane techniques for arsenic removal. The conventional technologies have been scaled down to meet the requirements of households and communities and suit the local condition. Some technologies utilized indigenous materials for arsenic removal. The paper presents a short review of the technologies used for arsenic removal in Bangladesh and India in urban and peri-urban locations. Mitigation options The various options for arsenic free water source are surface water, rainwater harvesting, arsenic free ground water sources in the form of deep tube wells, shallow tube wells and centralized piped water supply. While surface water is usually arsenic free, the bacterial contamination prevents its use without disinfection. Rainwater harvesting again fetch arsenic free water. But the rainfall in the region is seasonal. In addition, there is ample chance of water getting contaminated by bacteria. Deep tube well provides arsenic free water. But the cost to dig a deep well is quite high. Lastly centralized piped water supply is quite capital intensive. Hence the technological option to decontaminate already contaminated and about to abandoned aquifer is a challenging option to provide safe drinking water. While considering the appropriateness of the water supply technology for arsenic mitigation particularly in rural area , following factors are considered to be important for selection: 1. Avoidance or substantial and consistent reduction of the arsenic in the final product, 2. Low capital cost as well as running cost, 3. Water quality and quantity, 4. Robustness of the process, 5. Operational ease, hazard and safety, 6. Environmental soundness, 7. Socio economic considerations, 8. Convenience and social acceptability, 8. Feasibility. Technological options for arsenic removal from groundwater The basic principles of arsenic removal from water are based on conventional techniques of oxidation, co precipitation, adsorption on coagulated flocs as well as adsorption onto sorptive media, ion exchange, and membrane filtration. Oxidation of As(III) to As(V) is needed for effective removal of arsenic from groundwater by most treatment methods. In general, the most common arsenic removal technologies can be grouped into the following five categories: 1) Oxidation and sedimentation, 2) Coagulation and filtration, 3) Adsorptive filtration, 4) Membrane filtration, 5) Ion Exchange Oxidation and sedimentation The effective removal of arsenic from water requires complete oxidation of As (III) to As(V). Host of oxidising agents like oxygen, ozone, free chlorine, hypochlorite, permanganate, hydrogen peroxide, and Fulton's reagent easily and substantially oxidize arsenite. The oxidation processes convert predominantly non-charged arsenite to charged arsenate, which can then be easily removed from water. Atmospheric oxygen is the most readily available oxidizing agent and many treatment processes prefer oxidation by air. Although, air oxidation of arsenic is a very slow process and can take weeks for oxidation to occur (Pierce and Moore 1982), the process can be catalyzed by strong acidic or alkali solutions as well as copper, powdered activated carbon,
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high temperature and bacteria (Edwards 1994). Chemicals such as chlorine and permanganate can rapidly oxidize arsenite to arsenate under a wide range of conditions. Hypo chloride is also quite effective, but the potency (available chlorine) of the hypo chloride decreases when it is poorly stored. Potassium permanganate is more stable than bleaching powder and has a long shelf life. Ozone and hydrogen peroxide are very effective oxidants. Filtration of water through a bed containing solid manganese oxides can also rapidly oxidize arsenic without releasing excessive manganese into the filtered. The subterranean groundwater treatment by the in situ method using atmospheric oxygen as the oxidising agent is an innovative arsenic removal technology (Rott et. al.,1998 ). In this method, the aerated tube well water is stored in feed water tanks and released back into the aquifers through the tube well by opening a valve in a pipe connecting the water tank to the tube well pipe under the pump head (figure1). Because there is little or no oxidant in the deep soil pores and the permeability of the soil layers are usually low, there is a strong driving force for the oxidant to diffuse into these locations and oxidize the contaminants. The dissolved oxygen in aerated water oxidizes arsenite to less-mobile arsenate, the ferrous iron to ferric iron and Manganese (II) to Manganese(III), followed by adsorption of arsenate on Fe(III) and manganese(III) and subsequent precipitation resulting in a reduction of the arsenic content in tube well water. Oxidation is further enhanced biologically by bacteria living in the subsurface and is termed bioremediation process. In-situ oxidation process can work in tandem with bioremediation by chemically oxidizing recalcitrant compounds and creating products that are readily biodegradable. The in situ method is a very cost effective and eco-friendly process for arsenic removal. The greatest advantage of this process is there is no need for sludge handling. The arsenic which is trapped into the sand along with the iron flocs constitute a infinitesimal volume of the total volume being handled and hence pose very little environmental threat in its precipitated form. The whole mass remains down below unlike other processes where there is extra cost of sludge handling and messy disposal problem. The process is chemical free, simple and easy to handle. There is no restriction to the volume it can handle as long as proper time is allowed for the oxygen rich impregnated water to create the adequate oxidising zone in the deep aquifer. It is also quite flexible with respect to the raw water quality as the efficient coefficient could be varied depending on the quality of the raw water. It involves low capital cost and minimum operating cost. Coagulation-Sedimentation-Filtration Processes Precipitation, co-precipitation and adsorption by coagulation with metal salts and lime followed by filtration is a well-documented method of arsenic removal from water. This method can effectively remove arsenic and many other suspended and dissolved solids from water, including iron, manganese, phosphate, fluoride, and micro organisms, reducing turbidity, colour, and odour and resulting in a significant improvement in water quality. Therefore, removal of arsenic from water using this method is also associated with other ancillary health and aesthetic benefits. Principally there are three mechanisms by which the separation of arsenic by coagulation, sedimentation and filtration took place. Precipitation: It uses chemicals to convert the contaminants into a complex, which get easily separated from the aqueous media based on its solubility in that media. Co precipitation: The contaminants may be dissolved or in a colloidal or suspended form. Dissolved contaminants do not precipitate individually but are adsorbed onto another species and the whole complex is precipitated. Adsorption: The electrostatic binding of soluble arsenic to external surfaces of the insoluble metal hydroxide (Edwards 1994). Water treatment with coagulants such as alum [Al2(SO4)318H2O], ferric chloride (FeCl3), and ferric sulphate [Fe2(SO4)37H2O] effectively remove arsenic from water. Oxidation of As(III) to As(V) is required as a pre treatment for efficient removal. It has been suggested that preformed hydroxides of iron and aluminium remove arsenic through adsorption, while in situ formation leads to co-precipitation (Edwards 1994). In alum coagulation, the removal is most effective in the pH range 7.2-7.5, and in iron coagulation, efficient removal is achieved in a wider pH range, usually between 6.0 and 8.5 (Ahmed and Rahaman 2000). The advantage of the Coagulation-Sedimentation-Filtration Process is that it is relatively low cost operation as the chemicals being added are cheaply available. Capital expenditure for the new project is also low. The biggest disadvantage of the process is the sludge handling. Toxic sludge generated out of the process is sometimes difficult to handle. The operation also required adequate training and discipline of the operating personnel for proper implementation and become a constraint for the community system . Sorptive Filtration Several sorptive media have been reported to remove arsenic from water. These are activated alumina, activated carbon, iron- and manganese-coated sand, kaolinite clay, hydrated ferric oxide, activated bauxite, tita296
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nium oxide, cerium oxide, silicium oxide, and many natural and synthetic media. The efficiency of sorptive media depends on the use of an oxidizing agent as an aid to sorption of arsenic. Saturation of media by different contaminants and components of water takes place at different stages of the operation, depending on the specific sorption affinity of the medium to the given component. The most commonly used media for arsenic removal in small treatment plants include: 1) Activated alumina, 2) Granulated ferric oxide and hydroxide , 3) Metallic iron 4) Iron-coated sand or brick dust, 5) Cerium oxide The greatest disadvantage of the process is that once the media is saturated, the adsorptive sites of the medium are exhausted and the medium is no longer able to remove the impurities. The media requires regeneration by chemical treatment or media shift. Hence, continuous operation is affected. Though the process provided daily relief of sludge handling, the process requires close monitoring for filter pressure build up and other parameters on continuous basis. Arsenic removal by activated alumina is dependant primarily on the pH and arsenic content of water. Arsenic removal is optimum in the narrow pH range from 5.5 to 6.0 when the surface is positively charged. The efficiency gradually drops as the point of zero charge is approached and at pH 8.2, where the surface is negatively charged, the removal capacities are only 2-5% of the capacity at optimal pH (Clifford 1999). The number of bed volumes that can be treated at optimum pH before breakthrough is dependent on the influent arsenic concentration. Regeneration of saturated alumina is carried out by exposing the medium to 4% caustic soda (NaOH), either in batch or by flow through the column resulting in high-arsenic-contaminated caustic wastewater. The residual caustic soda is then washed out and the medium is neutralized with a 2% solution of sulphuric acid rinse There are few well developed alumina based Sorptive media which have been commercialised and in operation. They are 1) Alcan enhanced activated alumina, 2) Apyron arsenic treatment unit, 3) Granular ferric hydroxide based arsenic removal unit, 4) Shapla arsenic removal filter, 5) Safi filter 6) READ-F arsenic filter. Ion Exchange The process of arsenic removal by ion exchange is similar to that of alumina except for the media . The medium used for the process is synthetic resin capable of doing the desired ion exchange. The synthetic resin is based on a cross-linked polymer skeleton which is better known as matrix. The charged functional group are attached to the matrix through covalent bonding and falls into four categories : strongly acidic, weakly acidic, strongly basic and weakly basic ( Clifford, 1990). The resins are predominantly used for removal of specific undesirable anion and cation from water. The arsenic removal capacity is dependent on sulphate and nitrate contents of raw water, as sulphate and nitrate are exchanged before arsenic. The ion exchange process is less dependent on the pH of water. Arsenite, being uncharged, is not removed by ion exchange. Hence, pre oxidation of As(III) to As(V) is required for removal of arsenite using the ion exchange process. The excess oxidant often needs to be removed before the ion exchange in order to avoid damage of the sensitive resins. Development of ion-specific resin for exclusive removal of arsenic can make the process very attractive. The advantage of the ion exchange process is well defined medium and ability to process high capacity. However the process operation is costly particularly with respect to in situ process. It also requires high tech operation and maintenance which adds further to the cost. Furthermore, regeneration process creates sludge which is not easy to handle. Membrane Techniques Synthetic membranes are quite effective in removing contaminants from water including bacteria, viruses, salts, and various metal ions. They are of two main types: low-pressure membranes, used in micro filtration and ultra filtration; and high-pressure membranes, used in nano-filtration and reverse osmosis. The latter have pore sizes appropriate to the removal of arsenic. In recent years, new-generation membranes for nano-filtration and reverse osmosis have been developed that operate at lower pressure and are less expensive. Arsenic removal by membrane filtration is adversely affected by the presence of colloidal matters. Iron and manganese can also lead to scaling and membrane fouling. Once fouled by impurities in water, the membrane cannot be backwashed. Water containing high levels of suspended solids requires pre treatment for arsenic removal using membrane techniques. Most membranes, however, cannot withstand oxidizing agents. The advantages of the process are high level of purification, simultaneous removal of arsenic and iron, ability to treat high conc. of arsenic in the inlet and less arsenic rich concentrate compared to other technology due to higher adsorption capacity. The biggest disadvantage is the high initial cost and running cost for the process. It requires skilled personnel to run the process. Toxic waste water is also generated which is not easy
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to dispose. Additionally readjustment of water quality is sometimes essential to prevent the fouling of the membrane. This adds to further complication and cost. Conclusions Considering all the above technologies, the in situ technology proved to be the best and suitable technology for the test site under study. As discussed earlier, it is eco friendly since there is no need for sludge handling as there is no sludge formation. This gives it an edge over all other processes particularly coagulation and filtration method. Unlike Membrane separation process, it involves quite a low capital cost and running cost and is particularly ideal for implementation in rural network. Since the whole process takes place underground, there is no problem with the remediation of volume of water it can handle as long as the tube well can support the capacity. Reference
Ahmed, F., Rahman, M. (2003), "Low-Cost Water Supply Technologies", in Ahmed, M. F. and Rahman (eds),Water Supply & Sanitation. Rural and Low Income Urban Communities. M., Dhaka, ITN-Bangladesh p.407-441. Clifford, D. (1999), "Ion Exchange and Inorganic Adsorption." , in : F. Pontius, (ed.), Water Quality and Treatment: A Handbook of Community Water Supplies. American Water Works Association.New York: McGraw Hill. Edwards, M. 1994 Chemistry of arsenic removal during coagulation and Fe-Mn oxidation. J. American Water Works Association. 86 (9), 64-78. Pierce, M.L., Moore, C.B. (1982), "Adsorption of arsenite on amorphous iron hydroxide from dilute aqueous solution", Environ Sci Technol, 14,214-216. Rott, U. and Friedle, M.,(1998), Drinking Water Supply based on Groundwater protection and Treatment in the Aquifier,Third International Water Technology Conference, Alexandria.
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An integrated approach for watershed-based landuse planning

M. Reza Ghanbarpour
Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Mazandaran, Sari, Iran m_ghanbarpour@yahoo.com
Abstract Most watersheds are utilized for a wide array of water and natural resources, environmental and recreational services in varying degrees as dictated by the level of watershed development. Increasing attention is being paid to the management of land and water resources at the watershed scale. In this paper, an integrated approach is proposed for land use planning in an urban watershed at different scales, comprising watershed, sub-watershed and land-unit levels. Kan watershed in north of Tehran was selected as a case study area in this research, which is employed to explain the proposed approach. There is very close link between natural and rural area in upstream and urban parts of the watershed. In the proposed approach, group decision analysis was applied to assess and analyse different stakeholders' preferences for various management strategies and alternatives at watershed and sub-watershed scales. Professional experts, government agencies and community leaders constitute the different parties in Kan watershed. In the third level of the proposed approach, land-unit scale, more detail information including socio-economics, environmental and technical criteria need to be considered. Therefore an event-based hydrological model, HEC-HMS, was used to model the watershed response to different land management options and to determine environmental decision criteria. Social and economical decision criteria were determined using Delphi method and economic survey and analysis. Different stakeholders' preferences and economical and environmental criteria were integrated using a multi criteria decision analysis method. The results of the overall preference analysis at the whole watershed scale show that water resources development is the most important strategy in the area. At the sub-watershed and land-unit level most preferred alternatives to achieve any strategy were proposed in details. It is concluded that social, economical and environmental criteria can, and should, be included in landuse planning process. Inclusion of such criteria leads to a participatory integrated landuse planning and urban watershed development at different scale. Introduction The need to involve the concerned stakeholders in the planning of resources management is universally recognized as a key element in obtaining a balanced and sustainable landuse management. Watershed scale issues involve all stakeholders comprising the community, government and non-governmental agencies, and interest groups and NGOs. As Heathcote (1998) emphasised stakeholders have conflicting interests and their objectives concerning land management may substantially differ. In addition to Social and managerial aspects of different land use, making land management decisions require comprehensive sets of economical, technical and environmental criteria in order to properly account for all alternatives. Hydrological criterion is one of the most important factors that could be used in landuse planning (Al-Weshah and El-Khoury, 1999; Dutta, et al., 2000). Peterson and Schmoldt, (1999) have shown that decision making analysis could be used for resource management for both long-term (strategic) and implementation (tactical) planning levels. Ghanbarpour et al. (2005) proposed the SWMP (strategic watershed management planning) framework for finding long-term sustainable land management strategies. In the SWMP framework, social and managerial criteria were used to find the sustainable management strategies. In this paper, an integrated approach is proposed for land use planning in an urban watershed at different scales with inclusion of economical and environmental criteria, comprising watershed, sub-watershed and land-unit levels. The most important objective of this research is integration of quantitative and qualitative decision criteria for landuse decision making at different scale using a multiple objectives planning framework. Method and Materials In this paper, an integrated approach is proposed for land use planning in an urban watershed at different scales, comprising watershed, sub-watershed and land-unit levels. A case study is employed to explain the proposed approach, highlight the challenges of participatory decision analysis for resources planning and illustrate the interaction between different stakeholders on watershed issues related to rural and urban development. Kan watershed in north of Tehran was selected as a case study area in this research (Figure 1). There is very close link between natural and rural area in upstream and urban parts of the watershed. In this paper three spatial scales including watershed, sub-watershed and land unit scales were considered to apply the proposed methodology.
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Watershed & sub-watershed scale: In the proposed approach, the SWMP framework (Ghanbarpour et al., 2005) was applied to assess and analyse different stakeholders' preferences for various landuse management strategies and alternatives at watershed and sub-watershed scales. Professional experts, government agencies and community leaders constitute the different parties in Kan Watershed. The SWMP framework emphasizes the interaction of policy-makers at high levels of an organizational hierarchy, professional experts, and community and local leaders. It involves long-term, future-oriented and complex decision-making requiring top management actions (Ghanbarpour et al., 2005). The first phase of the framework emphasizes developing an understanding of watershed issues, problems, constraints and capabilities. This entails an initial investigation to define clearly the nature of the watershed under consideration, and the needs and opportunities facing the different stakeholders. The framework concentrates on the consultation process for planning by stakeholders to find a list of management strategies and alternatives. In the Kan watershed, Sologhan, Keshar, Sangan, Rendan, Kiga and Emamzadeh constitute major residential areas. There are some community representatives who have been elected Figure 1. Location of Kan Watershed by an advisory committee in each area (JWWRC, 2000). Based upon our request, the local advisory committee introduced seven members who participated in the process. The major part of governmental decisions for developmental plans in the study area have been made by four governmental sectors, including the watershed management division and soil and water management division in the Ministry of Agriculture, Environmental Protection Organization, and Tehran Municipality. Four representatives from these governmental agencies were invited to participate. Eight experts including academic researchers and professors in the field of environmental, agricultural, water resources and integrated watershed management familiar with the Kan watershed were asked to participate, and ultimately six people took part in this process. The criteria employed to choose members of the expert group were their having a high degree of knowledge about land resources and watershed management as well as familiarity with the Kan watershed. The Delphi method, which offers a quick and cost effective method of assessing group preferences, was used to carry out the study. This method is a modification of the brainstorming and survey techniques conducted through several rounds of questioning (Hwang, 1987; Heathcote, 1998). All participants were asked to complete a questionnaire checking for the presence or absence of a list of long-term landuse management strategies, alternatives and decision criteria. After the initial analysis of each individual's or group's replies using integration of opinion, each individual was encouraged to reconsider and, if appropriate, change his previous reply in light of the first results. After three rounds, the final list of options was determined. As a result, landuse management strategies and associated alternatives were identified at watershed and subwatershed scales. Prioritizing of land management strategies and alternatives were carried out using AHP group decision-making method (Saaty, 1990) and SCF method (Fishburn, 1974) Land unit scale: In the third level of the proposed approach; land-unit scale, more detail information including socio-economics and environmental criteria need to be considered. A list of different landuse classes was extracted using preference analysis of watershed stakeholders. Social and economical decision criteria were determined using Delphi method and economic survey and analysis. Delphi method was used to consult the different parties including community leaders and governmental organizations to assign social decision criteria. Economic criteria were determined using an economic survey on different Land management practices using field interviews and previous studies (JWWRC, 2000). Community and governmental organizations preferences and maintenance and implementation cost were extracted as social and economic decision criteria. An event-based hydrological model, HEC-HMS (US Army, 2000), was used to model the watershed response to different landuse and to determine environmental decision criteria. The model was calibrated and validated by Ghanbarpour (2005) using analysis of available rainfall-runoff observed data. Estimated peak flow with 25 and 100 years return period were considered as environmental decision criteria for each proposed Landuse plan. In this research TOPSIS method (Hwang, 1987) was used which, selects the best alternative based on the shortest distance from the ideal solution and the farthest distance from the negative-ideal solution. 300
M. Reza Ghanbarpour: An integrated approach for watershed-based landuse planning
Different stakeholders' preferences, economical and environmental criteria were integrated using TOPSIS, as a multi criteria decision analysis method. Results and Discussion This study demonstrates that water resources development is the most preferable land management strategy among all of the stakeholders at the watershed scale, followed by agriculture and range management, and environmental and biodiversity protection strategies. The least preferred strategies are base line and recreation enhancement. In this scale, strategic and long-term strategies were considered. At the sub-watershed scale the most preferable land use practices and alternatives were prioritized using group decision analysis based on SWMP framework as presented by Ghanbarpour et al, (2005). As can be seen in Table 2 there are some different landuse preferences regarding to different sub-watersheds in study area. There is an exception that water supply is the most preferred landuse strategy for all sub-watersheds. At the watershed scale recreation enhancement could not be recognized as one of the best options. But this area offers diverse recreational opportunities and contains a number of attractive tourism sites in upland areas. As a result sub-watershed scale analysis suggested that recreation and tourism could be considered in some area. Therefore, based on sub-watershed analysis it is concluded that for example, Kiga and Sangan sub-watersheds are suitable for recreation enhancement and tourism with considering water supply and horticulture as the competitive landuse alternatives. Whereas, in Kiga sub-watershed, structural and non-structural flood control alternatives also should be considered as a priority. At the third level, land unit scale, the best management practices for each landuse class were prioritised using TOPSIS method based on economical, social and environmental criteria. As can be seen in Table 2, for example in the case of rangeland units, SPPS is the most rated alternative. For the case of agricultural landuse units, HCTWB is the most important range improvement alternatives respectively. In both cases, the baseline is the least preferred alternatives. The HCTWB, HCT, HTWB and HT are preferred horticultural practices respectively. As Ghanbarpour et al. (2005) have shown, horticulture development is one of the most important Land use in the region. All alterTable 1. Ranking of landuse systems at the sub-watershed level
Sub-watershed
Kiga Rendan Sangan Keshar Solooghan
Landuse system management strategies

Water supply, tourism, structural & non-structural flood control, horticulture, soil conservation Water supply, range management, horticulture, non-structural flood control, soil conservation Water supply, horticulture, recreation and tourism development, soil conservation Water supply, horticulture, soil conservation, structural & non-structural flood control Water supply, horticulture, structural & non-structural flood control, range management
Table 2. The list of landuse management and strategies at the land unit level
Strategy
Landuse system
Seeding & Planting
Code Priority
SP 0.39 0.58 0.91 0.19 0.41 0.49 0.69 ESPPF B HT HTWB HCT HCTW B CT 0.09 0.54 0.62 0.77 0.86
Strategy
Landuse system
Cropping & Terracing & Water basin Cropping & Cement terracing Cropping & Cement terracing & Water basin Timber Harvesting & Terracing Timber Harvesting & Terracing & Water basin Timber Harvesting & Cement terracing
Code
CTWB CCT CCTWB THT THTWB THCT THCTWB AT ATWB ACT
Priority
0.37 0.49 0.57 0.15 0.28 0.44 0.52
Pitting & Furrowing PF Seeding & Planting $ Pitting $ SPPF Furrowing Enclosure Rangeland Enclosure & Seeding & Improvement Planting Enclosure & Pitting & Furrowing Enclosure & Seeding & Planting & Pitting & Furrowing Baseline Horticulture & Terracing Horticulture & Terracing & Water basin Agricultural Horticulture & Cement Land terracing Management Horticulture & Cement terracing & Water basin Cropping & Terracing E ESP EPF
Agricultural Land Management
Timber Harvesting & Cement terracing &Water basin Agroforestry & Terracing Agroforestry & Terracing & Water basin Agroforestry & Cement terracing
0.23 0.39 0.50 0.60 0.05
Agroforestry & Cement terracing & ACTWB Water basin Baseline B
0.24
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natives for horticulture are more preferred to any other practices for agricultural management in the study area. For cropping practices, CCTWB is the most important practice. THCTWB is the most ratted practices among the timber harvesting alternatives. Finally, ACTWB is the most preferred practices for agroforestry landuse system. In this research, equal weight was assigned to each criterion in the decision making process using TOPSIS method. This research has shown that integration of structural and non-structural land management system such as SPPF, for rangelands is the best option. Scenario analysis has shown that enclosure is not a preferred landuse management in the study area, which was pointed out by Ghanbarpour et al. (2005) in previous studies. Horticulture development is the most important strategic and tactical landuse alternatives in the study area. In addition, a scenario analysis was conducted to show importance of each criteria and integration of them in decision process. First scenario was based on this fact that the most important criteria in landuse planning are peak flow at the outlet of the basin as the most important environmental decision criteria. In second and third scenario, higher weight was assigned to the economical and social criteria, respectively. In forth and fifth scenario equal weight was assigned to environmental, economical and social main criteria. But different weight was assigned to community and governmental organization preferences respectively. Conclusion In this paper, a methodology for strategic landuse planning at the different spatial scales using social, managerial, economical and environmental criteria was proposed. This research has shown how integration of different governmental and non-governmental stakeholders' preferences, economical and environmental criteria can be conducted using a multi criteria decision analysis method. At the watershed and sub-watershed scale, strategic planning was conducted using group decision analysis based on different criteria. Kan watershed in north of Tehran city is a mixture of land systems including mountains, riparian, agricultural and rangelands, recreational and tourism sites and offers many environmental and water resources services to the community. This research has shown that strategic landuse planning at the sub-watershed level could be more efficient and reliable than watershed level. Decision making analysis at the land unit scale (tactical) needs more detail information and analysis than watershed scale (strategic). Therefore, an event-based hydrological model and Delphi method were used to extract the environmental and economical decision variables at the land unit scale. Finally it could be concluded that social, economical and environmental decision criteria can, and should, be included in decision-making process for landuse planning at the different spatial scales. Inclusion of such criteria leads to a broadening of decision-making process beyond the consideration purely economic factors or managerial criteria alone. The set of managerial and social criteria in which the preferences of governmental and non-governmental organizations were considered, outlined in this paper represent support for participatory and multidimensional process of landuse planning and urban watershed development.
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The Water Issue within the Context of the Middle Region of Colombia
Patricia Rincn Avellaneda
Institution: National University of Colombia estudiodearq@etb.net.co
The Central Region -BackgroundThe agreement signed on July 2004 by Governors of the Departments of Boyac, Cundinamarca, Meta, and Tolima, and also by Mayors of their respective capital cities such as: Tunja, Bogot, Villavicencio, and Ibagu, represents an effort from local public authorities that intends to impact into the planning and negotiation of sustainable management of their territories. The progress along these 2 1/2 years has been consolidated into three main strategic axes: Environment, Competitiveness and Tourism. The environment axis involves subjects such as, the management of solid waste, environmental education, hydric resources, and protected areas, considerable amount of them belongs to pramos, which are the main producers of water. Water as Constitutive Item in the Environment Discussion The main goal of work developed during the last year intends to joint different aspects under the same project, which outcome should be to choose the hydric resource as the structural element. Given the singularity that, Bogot, the capital city is located in the middle of the Central Region, it has been the main aspect to attract the core of concentration of population (approximately 7,000,000 of inhabitants which represents 16% of the total population of Colombia and the 55% in the Central Region). Water sources for the capital city come from basins that belong to other Central Regions such as the Departments of Meta and Boyac, these explain why the agreement over their use and management is of great importance to their regional agenda. The hydric resource is not only the key in connection with its provision, but also of its use in big cities due to the high grade of contamination they produce and their impact over the Bogot river, one of the tributaries of Magdalena's river, which is the main fluvial artery of the country. The crossing of Bogot's river by municipalities of the Department of El Tolima, which is one of the members of the project of regional integration, and generally these municipalities directly affected have had frequent reasons for appeals; however, no agreement has been reached on their decontamination. Features of Pramo Ecosystem of the Central Region Departments -or regional political areas- of the Central Region have a significant percentage of the whole area of pramo ecosystem of the country. Boyac department has approximately 500.000 hectares, equivalent to the 21% of its area. Cundinamarca department has 12.1% of its territory equivalent to 292.500 hectares and conforms the bio geographic passageway, which describes pramo and their highest altlitues, where rivers are born. In the Meta department, the 2 paramo areas, are shared with Cundinamarca department and they belong to the 2 big national natural parks which are Sumapaz, from which 137.000 hectares belong to Meta department and from the Chingaza which has 11.706 hectares. The 2 paramo areas of Tolima department only represents the 7% of its territory, however, it doesn't share with any other departments that conform the Central Region; even though, the basin of the Sumapaz' river that is born in this paramo is shared with the Cundinamarca department. From the 4 departments of the Central Region, the 2 richest departments in pramo ecosystems are Boyaca and Cundinamarca, where there are areas belonging to the Andean system and caped mountains, which provide and regulate the water. In the Boyac department, only the Rabanal paramo is shared with Cundinamarca and conforms part of the Paramo Andino Project, which is supported by GEF funds, other pramos don't share jurisdiction with other departments. Cundinamarca department because of its location in the Central part of the region shares all its pramos with the 3 other departments. In brief, all departments of the Central Region have paramo ecosystems within their territories and 3 of theses departments share the area of some paramo ecosystems, as it is shown in the scheme No. 1. The Rabanal paramo ecosystem is shared by Boyaca and Cundinamarca departments The Chingaza paramo ecosystem is shared by Meta and Cundinamarca departments The Sumapaz paramo ecosystem -the biggest in the world- is shared also with the Meta Department, it is of great importance to the basin of the Sumapaz river which includes some municipalities of the north east side of the Tolima department. The big amount of urban areas of the Central Region, in which converge the 70% of the population are located in the high valleys of the Cundiboyacense highland areas, with altitudes between 2.200 and 2.600 meters
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Scheme No. 1. Shows pramos of the 4 departments of the Central Region. Highlighting the 3 pramos shared between 2 departments. Source: Own elaboration.
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Patricia Rincn Avellaneda: The Water Issue within the Context of the Middle Region of Colombia
over the sea level, and in many cases close to the paramo ecosystem. This is why the pressing of the increasing human activity, affects directly these areas. Because of the location of Colombia within the tropical zone, territories located in lower areas are hot, humid, and non-healthy weather, high valleys of the Central Region has been preferred since pre Hispanic age, when organized indigenous populations were settled down in those areas; these territories maintained their power of attraction over Spaniard conquerors, and even though they were located far from the coasts and ports zones, conquerors decided to found the capital of the New Kingdon of Granada there; and it is considered a singular fact among the standards settled by themselves to found cities along the Colony age. The power of the place justifies the development of this distant area from ports and coasts, and therefore, with a difficult access, -in ages when the maritime and fluvial means of transportation were predominant and were surpassed with the advent of the aerial transportation- the limit of sustainability is coming, unless the environmental unbalances produced by the invasive effect of human activities such as, manufacturer, livestock, and agrarian activities over the ecosystems producers of water, are controlled.
GUASCA JUNN LA CALERA
CHOACHI
FOMEQUE
CALVARIO
Scheme No. 2. Shows one of the damps of the capital. Source: EAAB-Bogot
Main damages affecting the pramo ecosystem are caused by the development of activities not properly controlled such as, manufacturer, agrarian, and livestock activities. Regarding the agrarian and livestock activities, the threat over this ecosystem is caused by the possibility to develop potato cultivation that, every time is extended up to higher altitudes, widening the agrarian border and also with the livestock, at the expense of the paramo ecosystem. The invasive pressing of the agrarian and livestock development, has its roots in the non-efficient land distribution and by the uncontrolled pressing applied over small farmers, to favor urban and sub-urban activities such as (recreation, services, and settlements), which are growing and forcing them to move cultivation and cattle to higher areas, where paramo ecosystems are located. In relation with the industrial activity, more affected areas are those surrounded by the most important industrial axis located in two of the four departments of the Central Region. In the Boyac department the industrial axis includes the cities of Paipa, Duitama, Nobsa, and Sogamoso, which activities are devoted to mining such as siderurgy, and cement production, beer industry, furniture manufacture, metallurgy and mechanics, also the production of food, and leather manufacture business. In Cundinamarca the three identified industrial and development axis, are going out Bogot towards south through municipalities of Soacha, Fusagasug and Girardot; there is a second axis going out Bogot towards west, which municipalities involved are Mosquera, Funza, Madrid, Facatativa, Villeta and Guaduas, and a third axis towards north through municipalities of Tocancip, Zipaquir, Chia and Cajic. There, food, mechanical parts, furniture, and clothing are produced or manufactured.
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Given the enormous attraction these high valleys represent to settled down urban activities of first hierarchy within the context of the country cities' system and the capacity of Bogota -as capital of the country and the main urban concentration- to build dams supplying potable water and electricity for its population, produces an unbalanced effect against those municipalities, which even though have the hydric resource, don't have the capacity to manage its use, and have serious problems to provide water with the proper quality for its inhabitants. This fact, affects the 50% of the municipalities of the Cundinamarca department. From the above, it is clear that the water issue within urban contexts continuous to be one of the critic issues in this region. In the meantime, Bogota must reach the acquisition of water every time from remote rivers (see scheme N 2). To intend the solution to this problematic situation, it is necessary to move forward in the accomplishing of actions over following aspects: - Implementation of sustainable producing projects -clean production- addressed to farmers living in those areas, to control the agrarian and cattle expansion. - Keep proper follow-up of paramo ecosystems through forestry and recovery projects, so they could continue their functions. - To establish a compensation mechanism and/or provision of potable water -under economic assistancefrom the powerful water enterprise of the capital city for the benefit of municipalities, which have serious deficiencies in providing water of good quality for their inhabitants. The Central Regin and the Pramos Issue. Because of the existence of the paramo ecosystem shared with two or more departments, this project has become the strategic axis of the environment work. To consolidate it, following projects are going to be developed: 1) Support to the Pilot Project of Rabanal Pramo, which has been selected as the pilot project, based on the previous agreement work over the Development Plan in which converge the territorial jurisdiction of the three environment entities such as (Corpochivor, Corpoboyac and Car) and two departments (Boyac and Cundinamarca), besides these, there are funds committed from the GEF -international environmental fundfor its accomplishment. 2) Chingaza and Sumapaz pramo Project, which are based on progress and developments of Rabanal, would start setting up their agreement strategies to develop a joint Development Plan and negotiation of funds for their accomplishment. Success in the management and execution of these projects, will allow the members of the Central Region to show how the joint work over these important ecosystems, reach better achievements, and at the same time, it would redound in the possibilities to continue working and widening the scheme of regional discussions under the perspective, that a planning and sustainable management of their territories, must reach a balanced between the development needs of the population and the potentials and restrictions of ecosystems, over which they are settled down.
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Modeling of Microcystis aeruginosa dynamics using STELLA software

P. M. Matos, F. G. de Albuquerque, M. Guimares & L. F. de Carvalho
Catholic University of Braslia UCB, Brazil lucio@lamarh.ucb.br
Abstract Economic development, accelerated urbanization process without proper sewage treatment and expansion of irrigation are the main causes of the eutrophication of water bodies in Brazil. Amongst the undesirable effects of eutrophication, alga blooming is especially harmful for water supply reservoirs, since they release toxic substances that affect water quality and ecological equilibrium. Parano Lake located Brasilia is a multiple purpose urban reservoir. It went through an eutrophication process between 1970-1990. During these years, the trophic level of the Lake caused the death of tons of fish and massive bloom of cyanobacterium, including the presence of Microcystis aeruginosa. The paper presents the development of a mathematical model to simulate the M. aeruginosa dynamics. The model development is a key part of a recent strategy of local water authorities to improve the management of water bodies using advanced modeling tools as decision support tools. STELLA software from The Systems Thinking Company was used to develop the model. The main physical and chemical processes represented in the model were: temperature, solar radiation, hydraulic detention time, pH, phosphorus and nitrogen. The model was validated showing that it is able to reproduce the expected behavior of M. aeruginosa population in the cases of an increase in nutrients load and decrease in pH. Introduction Economic development, population increase and accelerated urbanization process without proper sewage treatment are the main causes of the eutrophication of water bodies in Brazil. Untreated industrial and domestic sewage are identified as the main sources of pollution and deterioration of our waters (TUNDIZI 2003). The concentration of nutrients phosphorus and nitrogen in lakes causes eutrophication with negative impacts on lake ecosystem, public health and the economy. Amongst the undesirable effects of eutrophication, algae bloom (blue algae) is especially harmful for water supply reservoirs, since they release toxic substances that affect water quality and ecological equilibrium making the water unsuitable for human supply and direct contact (OLIVEIRA 2006). Toxic substances may cause renal, hepatitis and neurological problems to consumers and may have accumulative effects on the water ecosystem trophic chain. Lake Parano is located on central part of the city of Braslia. It was and is still being used as a wastewater receptor for the city. Parano Lake has a bad record of algae bloom. The occurrence of the specie Microcystis aeruginosa is considered the worst-case scenario. The critical year happened in 1978 when tons of fish died. The main measures taken to overcome the problem were the constructions of two tertiary level sewage treatment plants associated with the flushing of the lake realized through the operation the reservoir gates. Nowadays the lake shows an oligotrophic state the in most areas with the exception of the areas near the treatment plants. With the lessons learned and the costs involved in the process the local water authorities are committed to maintain the overall quality and improve the management process with the use of advanced mathematical models as support decision tools. The use of models has two objectives. To advance in the scientific knowledge of the processes involved and to evaluate in advance the impacts or reaction of the lake system to difference management strategies or actions. The overall goal is to increase the scientific base of the decision making process in lake management. This strategy is being implemented in cooperation with local research institutions as Catholic University of Brasilia. The present work is part of this initiative. Model Development The basis for the model development was the work of OLIVEIRA (2006). This works presents the main processes and variables that affect the M. aeruginosa population dynamics. The work also presents how these variables affect the dynamics. The work shows if a positive variation in one variable result in a positive or negative impact on algae grow. Based on the work the following variables were selected to be part of the model: temperature, solar radiation, hydraulic detention time, pH, and the nutrients orthophosphate (PO43-) e nitrate (NO3-). STELLA software (Structured Thinking Experimental Learning Laboratory with Animation) from Systems Thinking was used to develop the model. STELLA is a tool for developing dynamic models. The models are constructed using four main elements that are stocks, flow, converters and action connectors. The schematic representation of the model is drawn in a graphical interface using these elements. STELLA creates the finite
307
EntPETE EntradaPRF
~
QCorregoRF
~
TDHBraco
PReservRF EntPRF SaidaPRF
QETE
PropP:C
VolBracoRF NReservRF
BiomReservRF
Crescimento
Decaimento TxDec kpH2
CoefCresc fTemp fpH TempAgua

~
pHAgua
~
PropN:C
K2
K1
kpH1 Luz Radiacao

~
pHAgua EntNETE NReservRF EntNRF SaidaN RF
EntradaNRF
TDHBraco
QETE VolBracoRF
~
QCorregoRF TxCrescAlga CP DensPopMicroc
Nat BiomReservRF
Mort
TxMortPerCapta
Figure 1: Final model schematization.
Figure 2: Lake Parano and its Riacho Fundo segment. ster Image 19/04/2005 LCA/UCB.
difference equations automatically based on the schematization and performs the numerical integration using EULER or Runge-Kutta. Figure 1 presents the final schematization of the model. This schematization was obtained after four attempts. The model encompasses four stocks which represent the concentration of phosphorus, nitrogen, carbon and M. aeruginosa population density. The model was validated based on data from the Riacho Fundo segment of the Lake, which is shown in Figure 2. This part of the Lake has a long history of algae booms and nowadays is under pressure because of sediment and pollutants loads (FONSECA, 2001). Three hypothetical simulations runs were performed to validate the model. The first was performed using the current conditions of the Lake: discharge taken from the months of June to October (dry season), pH light alkaline, phosphorus and nitrogen concentrations taken equal to the limit established by Federal Regulation CONAMA 357/05. The second simulates the by-pass of the treatment plant by increasing the concentration of nutrients that reach the lake (more than10 gNutrients/m3). The last run simulates the decrease in pH to represent an acid environment and its effect on the population. The time interval used on all runs was one hour and the simulation period three months (720 hours). A complete description of the model development, its equations and variables and details about the simulation runs are presented on the work of MATOS (2006). Results and Discussions The model reproduced well the expected behavior of the algae biomass and population density on all simulation runs. Based on these results the model was considered validated. The results of the second run (by-pass condition) are shown in Figures 3 and 4. They show maximum values for algae biomass and population density of 0.30 gC/m3 e 780,334.5 Cel/ m3 respectively. Conclusion and Recommendations The model development process helped us improve the understanding of the processes involved and their correlation. The simulations shows the model can be an effective tool for policies and management actions evaluation prior to their adoption decreasing the uncertainties involved in the decision making process. Model development is a multidisciplinary approach and the participation of a specialist in the algae specie was fundamental for the success of the project. STELLA software showed to be a valuable tool. It is easy to use and implements the system analysis approach in a natural way. 308
P. M. Matos et al.: Modeling of Microcystis aeruginosa dynamics using STELLA software
We recommend to the local water authorities that this initiative is maintained and we can calibrate this model and continue the effort of using advanced mathematical models in support for the management of water bodies.
Figure 3: Algae Biomass (gC/m3). Bypass condition.
Figure 4: Microcystis aeruginosa population density (Cel/m3). Bypass condition.
Bibliography
FONSECA, F. O. (Org). Olhares Sobre o Lago Parano. 1. ed. Braslia, DF: Secretaria de Meio Ambiente e Recursos Hdricos, 2001. 435p. TUNDISI, J. G. Recursos Hdricos. O Futuro dos Recursos, Campinas, So Paulo, v. 01, out. 2003. 15p. www.multiciencia.unicamp.br/intro_01.htm. Acesso em junho de 2006. MATOS, P. M. Modelagem da dinmica de Microcystis aeruginosa no brao do Riacho Fundo do Lago Parano - DF. Monografia. Catholic University of Braslia, Braslia-DF, 2006. 73p. OLIVEIRA, . T. Ecofisiologia do Gnero Microcystis (Cyanobacteria/Cyaniphyta). Monografia. Catholic University of Braslia, Braslia-DF, 2006. 58p. PEREIRA, C.E.B. A Capacidade de suporte do Lago Parano avaliada pela dinmica do fsforo, frente ocupao de sua bacia de drenagem. Dissertao de Mestrado. Catholic University of Braslia, Braslia, 2004. 150p.
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Workinggroup 4: Handling environmental impacts
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Handling environmental impacts

Thomas B Fischer, Department of Civic Design, University of Liverpool, UK; SEA Center, Nankai University, China fischer@liverpool.ac.uk
This keynote introduces the theme 'handling environmental impacts' (WG 4). The whats, whys, hows and whos of environmental impact handling are explored for the target groups of the conference, ie planners, plan executives and stakeholders. [Webster dictionary: To handle: to deal - usually skilfully - with something efficiently] What type of environmental impacts are we talking about? We are talking about environmental impacts that are coming out of human action, on both, the living and the non-living environments, ie flora, fauna, soils, air, surface and ground waters, human health, micro and macro climate. Impacts take place, for example, through: land take (and associated severance, ie by a road) emissions (fluids, gases, noise, vibrations) extraction of raw materials Whilst impacts of human action can potentially be both, positive and negative, in practice, it is normally those that are negative that need effective handling. In this context, effects can be caused by human action: 1 that will happen (future impacts) requiring ex-ante action 2 that are happening (present impacts) requiring monitoring (current impacts) 3 that did happen requiring ex-post action (present or future impacts based on past action) Future impacts (ie 1) include those that will arise, based on public, and increasingly private (particularly former public utilities)VISIONING policy, strategic plan and programme making. Furthermore, they include project planning, including, for example construction activities (eg buildings and infrastructures), activities that will give rise to pollution (eg factories, roads) or raw material extraction (eg open cast mining). Present impacts (ie 2) include, eg, emissions from production facilities or transport. These are connected with concrete project IMPLEMENTATION and are frequently regulated by, for example, quality standards and legal thresholds (pollution control). Impacts of type (3), finally, are the outcome/RESULT of action that happened in the past and that left an environmentally damaging/threatening heritage. (3) feeds directly back into (1). Figure 1 shows the three levels of environmental impacts. These require different 'handling strategies', which is further explained below. Furthermore, Table 1 shows how the papers and posters from Working Group 4 fall underneath the three levels.
Policy, strategic plan and programme making; project planning (ex-ante action)
The environmental heritage of action (ex-post action)
Implementation/ Action (Monitoring)
Main sequence of events Feedback

Figure 1: Three levels of environmental impacts
Why do we need to handle environmental impacts? Due to the theme of the conference, this question is addressed here only briefly. Reasons include, for example: Negative consequences of climate change (soil erosion, flooding, draughts, biodiversity loss and others) Declared environmental goals and objectives (for example, reduction of CO2, no biodiversity loss in the EU by 2010).
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Table 1: Papers and posters from WG 4
1 Ex-ante action
Abrams: Reducing impacts of Olympic games, creating positive impacts Krings and Spinola: Future use of brownfield sites/ risk assessment Gama et al: Integrated planning and management, importance of participation DOttaviano, Atique and Fricke: Reconciling economic growth and environmental protection, the role of participation Regener: The influence of public participation and SEA Puente, Hernando and Alvare: Strategies for eco-industrial parkscircular economy Seisa: Anticipation strategies for impacts shallow refraction technique Shah: Vision making for waterfront transformation Bruna and Sarapka: Aspects to be considered for minimising environmental impacts when planning shopping centres Andrade et al: Zoning on an archipelago for avoiding environmental impacts Teixeira, Stangenhaus: environmental preservation in planning the built envir.
2 Monitoring
Bortoleto and Hanaki: Positive environmental impacts coming out of waste prevention policies Hanusch: Monitoring environment impacts/SEA Herberg: sustainable urban design; contribution of SEA Menezes, Silva and Miranda: Construction industry and environmental management Padilha et al: Impact of textile industry on cities
3 Ex-post action
Vasques: Handling brownfield sites Cerqueira, da Silva and Marques: Poverty and environmental problems: Brayner and Barbosa: Poverty and water pollution Hernandez : Economic decline, environmental problems and settlement shrinkage Mansouri and Kherouf: Stormwater and retention facilities (consequences of settlements) Oyediran : Waste management options (some aspects of 1 also included) Sperling: Renaturalization the development of a mining lake Silva, Peres, Silva: Renaturalization Tijuco Preto stream project
The inability of GDP to represent well being, as it treats crime, divorce & natural disasters as economic gain and depletion of natural capital as income. Furthermore, it increases with polluting activities and with clean-ups Box 1 gives an example for the negative consequences of environmental impacts, taking the example of green accounting in China.
Box 1: China issues first 'green GDP' report (September 07, 2006)
China released its first ever green GDP report on Thursday, which subtracts the cost of natural resources and environmental degradation from total GDP. The report, jointly released by the State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA) and the National Bureau of Statistics, indicates that environmental pollution cost China 511.8 billion yuan (US$64 billion) in economic losses in 2004, amounting to 3.05% of total economic output that year, said state media. "This marks only the beginning of our efforts in a Green GDP calculation," said SEPA deputy director Pan Yue, adding that "our formula is still not complete and we have to keep working hard to improve it."
Source: http://www.chinadialogue.net/blog/show/single/en/355-China-issues-first-green-GDP-report
How do we handle environmental impacts? In order to be effectively taken into account, environmental impacts need to be dealt with at the three levels of impacts introduced above, ie: a. ex-ante - in policy, strategic plan and programme making as well as project planning b. in action - monitoring of activities c. ex-post - dealing with environmentally problematic heritage of action It is important here that in a system, where a. and b. are done well, c. should be more or less irrelevant (however, climate change partly falls under c.)! - So how do we go about a. and b.? In this context, the papers presented within this working group provide for some indications. Important aspects of a. and b. are summarised below. a. ex-ante evaluation The aim is to anticipate negative effects as early as possible in order to avoid them from happening and to enhance positive effects; so what do we need to know? (1) Based on what people/shareholders/stakeholders 312
Thomas B Fischer: Handling environmental impacts
Tiered SEA & Tasks to be addressed Issues to be say they want for the future (ie based EIA system addressed on their values) and based on an analysis of the current situation (using, Develop strategic vision/mission (based on SWOT analysis) Course for example, a SWOT - Strengths, of direcWeaknesses, Opportunities and tion Policy-SEA (Why Threats - analysis), we need to develop and Set clear goals and objectives for achieving vision/mission a VISION for the future. This vision what) should include the setting of clear, consistent and - if possible - compatible Plan-SEA goals and objectives for future action, Identify/plan specific approaches/action to reach each goal Course based on an assessment of different of action (where, future development alternatives. (2) how and Based on goals and objectives develDesign implementation programme Program-SEA when) oped in a vision, different strategic action paths may be identified and assessed. (3) Based on a preferred Implement projects Project EIA path identified in a strategic plan, an Action IMPLEM-ENTATION programme may (where exactly) be designed, leading the way for (4) Follow-up Monitoring concrete projects. From an environmental planner's perspective, the overall ex-ante evalu- Figure 2: Strategic planning framework provided by environmental ation ladder is reflected in a strategic assessment. planning framework, which can be pro- Source: Marshall and Fischer (2006) vided by the instrument of environmental assessment (consisting of strategic environmental assessment - SEA - at policy, strategic plan and programme levels and environmental impact assessment - EIA - at the project level of decision making). This is shown in Figure 2. Also shown here are the issues to be addressed (indicated by basic questions). The framework is explained further in Fischer (2007; see also the poster of the EC PENTA - Promotion of European Education on Environmental Assessment for third Country Audience - project). In this context, tools and methods that may be used at the various stages of the ex-ante evaluation ladder include those that are of a descriptive nature (eg indicators, checklists, impact matrices and impact triangles/spider webs), those that are of an analytical nature (eg impact trees/cause-effect diagrams or networks, multi-criteria analysis/cost-benefit analysis, overlay maps, SWOT analysis, forecasting and backcasting), as well as tools and methods that enable involvement (eg visioning exercises, workshops and expert surveys).
b. in-action - monitoring of activities The aim is to monitor implementation in order to ensure action conforms to the terms and conditions set out in policies, strategic plans, programmes and project plans. Ultimately, through regular monitoring, learning on cause-effect relationships is to be advanced, ie a better understanding of performance is to be achieved. Ideally, if there are indications that action is failing declared aims and objectives, corrective action should be possible (adaptive management in case of uncertainty). Finally, the results of monitoring need to be distributed to policy, strategic plan, programme and project plan makers so that they can learn for future action (dissemination and transparency). Box 2 shows the four types of monitoring (follow-up; see also Hanusch's paper).
Box 2: Four types of monitoring
1. Conformance: regular observations to demonstrate verification of compliance with objectives, regulatory requirements and standards 2. Performance: Regular observations and measurements of parameters or indicators 3. Uncertainty: Opening up the possibility for adaptive action if aims and objectives are not reached 4. Dissemination: distributing any lessons widely and ensuring transparency of action
Source: following Partidario and Fischer, 2004
Who needs to handle environmental impacts? As a fundamental rule, the polluter pays principle should be applied. Secondly, partic-ularly for ex-ante action, politicians, policy, strategic plan, programme and project plan makers, assessors, stakeholders and the general public need to be involved.
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References
Fischer T B 2007. Theory and Practice of SEA, Earthscan, London (see also www.penta-eu.net) Marshall R and Fischer T B 2006. Regional electricity transmission planning and tiered SEA in the UK - the case of ScottishPower, Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 49(2): 279-299. Partidrio M R and Fischer T B 2004. SEA, in: Arts J and Morrison-Saunders A (eds.). Follow-up in Environmental Assessment, Earthscan, London: 224-247.
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Environmental Implications of Urban Waterfront Transformation: A Study of the Sankhmool-Teku Stretch in Kathmandu
Biresh Shah
Institution: Department of Architecture, Tribhuwan University, Kathmandu, Nepal biresh.shah@gmail.com
The Kathmandu Valley Small settlements emerged on high ground in the Kathmandu Valley almost two millennia ago. These were settled and ruled by the Kirats, the indigenous people of the Valley region. Subsequently, Licchavis, who are believed to have migrated from the Gangetic plains, settled the Valley and ruled for several centuries. These rulers are believed to have introduced the knowledge of the Vedic texts and the experience of laying out larger towns on level ground. The architecture and urban form in the Kathmandu valley, that developed from the 13th century AD to the 18th century AD, under the Malla Kings, marks the high point in the civilization of the Valley. Urban form was regulated by a matrix of rituals and corresponding spaces. Of particular significance is the fixing of town boundaries, demarcating the built-up area of the town from the surrounding region of agricultural landscape. The Historic urban structure of the Kathmandu Valley as it exists today, consisting of the three principal capital cities of Kathmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur, secondary cities and satellite settlements, is a product of the Malla Period. The principal achievement was the development of an urban form where the urban space and architecture fused together in a seamless continuum. The limits of the size of the urban settlements were dictated by guiding principles governing the preservation of natural and economic resources, for sustainable land-use and ecological balance. The principles were put into practice by establishing religio-spatial structures in the Valley of Sacred sites in specific geographical locations (Fig.1). The River System in The Kathmandu Valley Civilization The river system of the Kathmandu Valley has been one of the most significant factors for the civilization that has flourished here for two millennia. As the ancient urban structure of the Valley transforms with modern urbanization pressures, the Riverfront too is undergoing intense transformation, especially since 1950. The transformation has been physical, spatial and environmental, and has led to a redefinition in the meaning of urban riverfront in Kathmandu. The traditional economic base of the Valley, agriculture, has depended on the extensive river system, which covered the entire Valley through the River Bagmati and its tributaries before, exiting through the Chovar gorge southward as a major river. The rivers of the Kathmandu Valley were never used for navigation purposes. The Cities were sited on high ground away from the river, thus good for drainage. Importance of the river system in the economic and environmental health of the valley was culturally manifested in the construction of cultural-religious enclaves at different points of the river system, especially the confluences. Sankhmool and Teku are the two of the most important such confluences. The two major cities of the Valley, Kathmandu and Patan, are located on the north and south side of this East-West stretch of the River Bagmati, between Sankhmool and Teku . From the urban environmental perspective, this stretch is most significant, as Kathmandu and Patan have virtually merged into Fig. 1: Plan of Kathmandu Valley Urban Structure
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a single metropolis. Geographically, the Sankhmool-Teku stretch of the Bagmati River falls in the middle of this Metropolis. (Fig.2) Recent Access Systems and transformation of the Riverfront The first vehicular road that connected the Valley with the rest of Nepal and the Indian border was built between the historic urban core of Kathmandu and the Bagmati Riverfront, parallel to the river. The alignment of the road avoided the riverfront which had an extensive religious and cultural enclave on the northern bank. This severed the spatial linkage between the old city and its riverfront. The riverfront became the site for marginal activities, both institutional, and informal. The Municipal waste dumping, asphalt plant for the highways department, the hospital for communicable disease, the national warehousing sprang up near the riverfront. Over the years, poor rural migrants moved in and settled in the cloisters of the temple complexes, thus starting the first squatter settlements, which subsequently led to the development of shabbily constructed squatter colonies at two sites of the riverfront. These squatter colonies have been threatened by floods during heavy monsoon rains. Besides, small informal busiFig.2: Sankhmool-Teku Stretch of the River Bagmati nesses in city waste recycling also sprang up in this area. This road crossed the river at mid-point of the Sankhmool-Teku stretch to head south-east towards Patan. Here, too, the road alignment was kept away from the riverfornt. As the urban development moved from the road frontage into the farmland between the road and the river, several smaller roads perpendicular to the river sprang up. These smaller roads linked into the main road parallel to the river. The riverfront became isolated further from the city and became the city's backyard. This had grave environmental implications. Raw sewage was discharged directly into the river form the new neighborhoods, solid waste of all kinds was dumped into the river, and illegal sand extraction started. This has totally transformed the water quality, the flow of the river and consequently the environment of the City. In the last decade, new vehicular roads parallel to the river along its edge have been constructed, wherever possible. This has opened up the river for new organized development and has begun to connect the riverfront once again spatially with the City. Some prominent institutions like, the Federation of Nepalese Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FNCCI) and the Kathmandu Metropolitan City offices have moved here. In recent years, private as well as municipal land development projects have been initiated. The river front is now transforming into expensive real estate. The Riverfront as an Environmental Crisis Photographs from the 70's show the Bagmati River as a pristine clear water body, bounded partially by stepped embankments and temple complexes, with agricultural farmlands and the old city in the background. This Arcadian image of the riverfront has now been replaced by the image of an environmental nightmare. During the dry summer months, the citizens are accosted by a strong pungent smell emanating from the river. The water slowly flowing through the river is almost black due to presence of huge quantity of solid waste present in the water. Parts of the riverfront are piled with city waste. The river, once spread throughout its width, has become a narrow deep channel, resembling a gutter. As explained earlier, due to the nature of urban development in recent decades, sewers from new neighborhoods have directly discharged into the river, whose water flow is not sufficient to either dissolve it or carry it downstream out of the Valley. In the Sankhmool-Teku Stretch, The River Bagmati is joined by Rudramati, Ikchumati and Bishnumati, which are also subject to direct sewage discharge from newly developed sections of Kathmandu City. As these three tributaries have their confluence with River Bagmati within the Sankhmool316
Biresh Shah: Environmental Implications of Urban Waterfront Transformation
Teku Stretch, the water quality here is especially poor. Although regulations have been put in place to create interceptors and prevent direct discharge into the river, sewage flow has not been controlled successfully. A few treatment plants have also been constructed along the river course, the effect has been meager at best. Illegal extraction of sand from the riverbed has adversely affected the flow of the water, exposed the water to the black cotton soil below the original sand and gravel riverbed, and created narrow deep channels in place of the shallow wide waterway. The water flow in this deep channels stagnates during dry summer months, thus the neighboring sections of the city are subject to the stench of hydrogen sulphide produced by the dissolving of solid waste in the stagnant water. The river becomes a cesspool. During The Monsoon months the much higher volume of water has to flow from the same channel, therefore the increased velocity of water causes erosion endangering the foundation of the bridges and the embankments, both historical and new ones, as well as the heritage enclaves. An outfall has been constructed at the main Thapathali Bridge to prevent this, and aerate the stagnated water during dry months. The riverfront as a marginalized space in the City has also been used for dumping all kinds of waste, from garbage, to carcasses of animals, to industrial waste etc. These wastes eventually find their way into the already polluted water or pile up at the banks. The Urban ecology of the Riverfront For almost two millennia the environmental health of the river system of the Valley was vital, so that civilization could flourish. This realization was manifested in the construction of elaborate religio-cultural enclaves. The ones at Sankhmool and at Teku are among the most elaborate ones. The riverfront, as a sacred space, has also been used to cremate the dead, and for ritual cleansing and festivals on specific days of the year. These religious rituals are still carried out by the citizens of Kathmandu and Patan. On the other hand, in recent times the riverfront has also become a marginalized space due to the nature of contemporary urban development, leading to extreme levels of water pollution. The riverfront has become a health hazard in the new Metropolis. The sacred space has been transformed into an environmental disaster by the indifference of its citizens and institutions. Underlying this transformation of perception is the fact that citizens today feel less vulnerable from an unhealthy river, due to Global connectivity and dependence. However, as the spatial character of the riverfront, in relation to the new Metropolis, has transformed in the last decade. With debates/studies/plans on the riverfront multiplying, a new realization is taking root that the riverfront, especially the Sankhmool-Teku Stretch is extremely important for the well-being of the City and could develop into a great secular urban space. Traditionally the land-use adjoining the riverfront consisted of stone stepped embankments for cremations, ritual bathing, Temple complexes, and agricultural land. The new land-use pattern characterizes a mix of a variety of (sometimes conflicting) uses and intentions, from squatter colonies to prime real estate, from Institutional activities to informal businesses, from religio-cultural enclaves of significant heritage value to secular recreational spaces for a city starved of public space, from dumping ground for city waste to parkland. The riverfront is a place for ritual cleansing and a giant city sewer, simultaneously. While pollution of the riverfront and the river water has increased dramatically, tree plantation on floodplains has also increased significantly. The Riverfront as a Great Public Space The continuous sand extraction, for building construction, has increased the velocity of flow during monsoons, thus deepening the riverbed at the center. The shallow riverbed has become a narrow deep channel in the middle of the river course. This has resulted in the creation of stretches of flat land on the two sides. These stretches of land have now been planted in many places, thus a significant amount of vegetation has emerged at the Riverfront. During the dry months of the winter and summer, these riverfront spaces are now used by a variety of people from the city for recreational purposes as well. As the public spaces in the new emerging metropolis depletes rapidly with new uncontrolled construction, combined with dubious actions of regulators and speculators, many people in the city are pushed to the riverfront to find a stretch of open space. In the 19th century, as the city core of Kathmandu was expanded to the east, a very large open space, on the eastern edge of the historic core, was laid out, and called Tundikhel. This great space divided the dense historic core from the neo-classical palace compounds of the new ruling elite, and was also used as a military parade ground to display the power of the feudal administrative structure. Since 1950, when Kathmandu was opened for migration and new development, this space has consolidated into a great urban space connecting the historic core with the new neighborhoods of Kathmandu. It has now been developed into a series of linked urban spaces stretching almost up to the riverfront. The Sankhmool-Teku Riverfront has the same potential into developing as a great urban space in the geographical center of the new limitless metropolis that is developing in the Kathmandu Valley, today.
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The Plans The Riverfront has featured in many project reports and environmental planning studies over the last three decades. Some of these are as follows: *Master Plan for the WS & Sewerage of Greater Kathmandu & Bhaktapur, Binnie & Partners, 1973. *Greater Kathmandu Drainage Master Plan Studies, Snowy Mountain, 1990. *Kathmandu Valley Urban Development Project, Halcrow Fox, 1991. *Bagmati Basin Water Management Strategy, Stanley International, 1984. *Detailed Feasibility Study of Sewerage System from Sankhamul to Teku Dovan, WELINK Consultants, *1997. *Teku-Thapathali Researh Group Report, John Sanday Consultants, 1994. *Environmental Study of Bagmati Watershed, 1995 *UN Park Project Report, Design Consortium, 1997 The list of Plans, studies, and project reports is significant, indeed. Other forms of activism, like Save the Bagmati Campaign, have also made some impact. Plans like the JICA Transportation Plan of the Kathmandu Valley have also focused on riverfront roads. Most of these plans have been prepared by highly qualified professionals, international agencies, and central government departments, and set out high standards and expectations. Despite being documents of high quality, their success in implementation has been very limited. This is due to the fact, that the implementation agencies at the local level, mainly the municipal bodies have very limited resources, both human and capital. The support from the Central Government is meager, since investments in urban development has never been a priority. However, some of these plans and projects have been partially realized, whether it is the making of one treatment plant from a proposal for six, or the partial construction of an interceptor from a proposal for interceptors at each confluence, or the construction of a riverfront road on the south bank of a compromised right of way, or the restoration of a single temple complex in the whole enclave. The fact that the river and its riverfront is important for the future of the city is slowly gaining ground. Therefore, the extremely limited success of these numerous plans should have value in the longterm transformation of the riverfront. The Riverfront in the Future A sense of hopelessness pervades the perception of the citizen, when a discussion is initiated on the Riverfront. Such perceptions have their justification too, as projects achieve a very limited fruition while the environmental condition of the riverfront has deteriorated rapidly. Arguably, the pace of uncontrolled development in the metropolis has been far greater than what the resources, both human and capital, of the municipalities can manage. Compounding the problems further are the apathy of common citizen and the dubious dealings of regulators and speculators. Yet, a string of projects ranging from restoration of temple complexes, organized land developments, design of new river outfalls, development of new embankments, construction of riverfront roads, sewage treatment plant, redirection of sewer flows, plantation of trees, new bridges, the improvement of perpendicular access roads have been implemented. This fact reflects that investment in the riverfront areas is increasing, albeit to an insufficient level. New strategies, to accelerate investment in projects/plans already envisaged, need to be initiated quickly. To eradicate the apathy of the common man, a new comprehensible and realistic vision of the riverfront needs to be presented. In this vision all that has been achieved should be presented together, not as isolated efforts, to instill confidence in the vision. The new vision can project the Sankhmool-Teku Thapathali riverfront as a vital pluralistic continuous urban space system in the New Metropolis. Together with the Tundikhel urban space system, which runs perpendicular to it, this great urban space can provide the emerging metropolis with a strong renewed image and a much enhanced quality of life.
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Healing a Rift: The Lea River Valley & London 2012

Robin Abrams
Texas A&M University robinabrams@tamu.edu
Abstract The Lower Lea River Valley in East London has historically been the dumping ground for the city's transportation facilities, utilities, and industries. The four London boroughs that make up the Lower Lea Valley are high on the list of the most deprived residential areas in Britain. As the last remaining under-developed land area in the city, the zone on either side of the Lower Lea River has now become the focus for the Mayor of London's London Development Plan, and, as part of that plan, the venue for the 2012 International Olympic Games. Strategies aimed towards healing the environmental degradation and the social deprivation of the region formed the basis of London's successful Olympic plan, which has been termed the largest brownfield restoration project in Europe. This paper examines the historic and current conditions in the Lower Lea Valley, why the Olympics would choose this location; proposed plans for its transformation; and progress thus far on meeting the project's extensive goals. Prologue The explosions on the London underground and bus on July 7, 2005, caused extensive damage, injury, and loss of lives, and set in motion political discord that ruptured the social fabric of Britain. These events also obliterated the fact that, just the day before, London, or more specifically the Lea River Valley, was chosen as the site of the 2012 Olympic games, following an intensively competitive selection process. Also lost in the chaos was the fact that London's Olympic bid is a bold and comprehensive urban ecological revitalization of one of the most polluted river valleys in Europe, described as both the city's "last remaining hinterland"1 and a "largely forlorn and derelict place."2 Evolution of a Brownfield Zone The River Lea3, as it makes its way through London, acts as a seam that both unites and divides four East London boroughs: Hackney, Newham, Tower Hamlets, and Waltham Forest. It flows into the Thames directly across from the Greenwich Peninsula and the Millennium Dome. The river valley's history over the past two hundred years closely reflects the rise and fall of Britain's heavy industry. During Britain's early industrial movement, an 1844 Metropolitan Building Act limited certain industries from locating in London because of toxic wastes; many consequently moved to the raw land along the banks of the River Lea, where some have continued to operate to the present day. Also in the 19th century, the main works yard of the Great Eastern Railroad was developed just east of the river, on a 78 acre site that at one point employed 6,000 people. Significant communities of worker housing were built, many in the shadows of what were known as the "dark satanic mills".4 The Depression that followed World War I hit the Lea Valley hard; factories were closed; there was massive unemployment, hunger marches and street riots, some of which were linked to emerging racial tensions. Large immigrant populations from the far reaches of the British Empire began to settle in this part of London, where housing was cheap and available, where they were permitted to dwell, and where there was falsely rumored to be low-skilled work. During World War II, because of its history as the heart of industrial London, the Lower Lea Valley and the London Docklands situated immediately to the west were heavily bombed, and most residents were evacuated. By the mid-20th century, the boroughs that flanked the Lea, now considered to be the heart of East London, were a patchwork of dwindling industrial sites; abandoned brownfield sites, including the once-productive rail yards, un-reclaimed bombsites; dense neighborhoods of low income housing and largely unemployed residents; and, recognized by few at the time, a dying riverine environment. The lower Lea River had been canalized, leading to the destruction of the tidal habitat and wetland zones at its mouth. The construction of locks and a network of sub-canals insured that tidal flux no longer reached upriver zones, killing off plant and animal species, and severely inhibiting the river's ability to restore itself. Culture of the Lea Valley Today, the culture of the Lea River Valley is quite distinct from Greater London - a direct result of its history. Its boroughs are the most ethnically diverse in the metropolitan area, in particular having the large concentration of Bangladeshi in Britain. According to the 2001 census, over 110 languages are spoken in its streets; the white population is less than 50% and the practicing Christian and Muslim populations are nearly equal.
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Due largely to the redevelopment of the London Docklands to the west, and also to rising living costs across Greater London, the area has increased in population significantly over the past fifteen years, as the poor are squeezed out of gentrifying areas to the west and south, and as immigration has increased. The Lea Valley has one-fourth the number of residents living in owner-occupied, paid-for housing as both London and the rest of England, and half as many residents living in mortgage-funded owner-occupied housing. Three times as many residents live in subsidized housing as the rest of the nation, twice as many as the rest of London. 84% of the population live in flats or maisonettes, compared to 19% for the rest of the country. 57% of residents do not own a vehicle, compared to 26% for the rest of Britain. The area has a relatively young population, with 41% under 25 years of age (London's average is 32%). Perhaps not surprisingly, the area has an unemployment average almost double that of the rest of London, with some housing estates above 30%. The area has a higher death rate, a higher birth rate, and significantly higher percentage of families on benefits than the London and national averages. On the "Scale of Deprivation", the Lea Valley boroughs ranked 4th, 5th, 11th, and 47th out of 354 local authorities.5 The Economic Landscape of the River Lea Britain's urban brownfields were perhaps one its greatest economic resources in the latter part of the 20th century, and it has been highly effective in figuring out both the technical and economic means of reusing them. However, the Lea Valley poses its own particular challenges as a minefield of brownfields. Every major modern city relies upon designated dumping grounds, where less desirable but essential industries and services are concentrated, and, consequently, where lower income workers can afford to settle. As London boomed in the post war era, redevelopers' search for cheap and available sites inevitably turned to the industrial lands to the east of the city center. The St. Katharine's Wharf and Canary Wharf redevelopment schemes, begun in the 1970s, caused an even higher concentration of negative land uses along the banks of the Lea. At the same time, the scale of development at Canary Wharf was so massive and so expensive, it essentially absorbed much of the available redevelopment energy in London for a thirty-year period, easing redevelopment pressure on land alongside the Lea. As with any culture, there is an insatiable desire for riverfront properties in London, and large, expensive housing developments have been marching down the Thames, in pace with the redevelopment of Canary Wharf. But the River Lea's reputation as an industrial wasteland was such that it seemed to be beyond the reach of even the most intrepid developers. The only exceptions to this were a small number of government-funded initiatives, and an enclave of urban pioneers (Container City) at the point where the Lea meets the Thames. The London Plan Margaret Thatcher abolished London's metropolitan government in 1986 in a sweeping political gesture, resulting in a slack period in the city's modern history. This movement also contributed to an easing of pressure on Leaside properties. Local government was re-established in 1999 through the Greater London Authority Act, and the first mayor elected happened to be the last mayor from the previous regime. While he could have spent the intervening years steeped in bitterness, Ken Livingston seems to have spent the time imagining wild and great things for London as it approached the millennium, and when he came into office he hit the ground running (or bicycling, as it turned out). The Greater London Authority Act also required the Mayor of London to develop a strategic plan, including a Spatial Development Strategy for London. In 2001, the city began to compile its first comprehensive plan in 30 years. This effort, The London Plan, was adopted in February 2004, and was to have a huge impact on the future of the Lower Lea Valley. The fact that the Lower Lea is the largest remaining redevelopment opportunity within the bounds of London did not escape the notice of the Mayor, nor the London Development Agency, which is charged with implanting the London Plan. The London Plan designates the Lower Lea Valley as one of 28 opportunity areas,6 and an area for regeneration.7 Addressing the sub-area of East London, the plan states, "East London is the Mayor's priority area for development, regeneration and infrastructure improvement. It has many of the capital's largest development sites and a large number of areas suffering multiple deprivation".8 There are four proposals for East London in the London Plan that will change human and natural ecology of the Lower Lea Valley: massive transportation improvements on land, rail and river; development of a new central business district in the existing town of Stratford; ecological restoration of the river, and the staging of the 2012 Olympic games. Each is intended to play a key role in the revitalization of the economy and environment of East London; each is inextricably tied to the others; and in each case, it appears to an observer, the city has attempted to display sincere consideration of the residents in place. At least on paper, the local government has made a commitment to respect the rights of the residents of the area to remain in their communities. However, a visit to the river corridor already shows many new loft-like apartments under construction, meaning the social and economic dimensions of the local communities is bound to change. 320
Robin Abrams: Healing a Rift: The Lea River Valley & London 2012
Planned Change in the Valley A new East London freeway, significant extensions of the London Underground, and several new bridges over the Thames are intended to improve access in and out of the Lower Lea Valley. A new route for the highspeed train connecting Britain to Europe via the Chunnel is being constructed in a huge swath beneath the area. At the same time, the Lea Valley rail yards, which became the largest rail freight depot in the UK before becoming redundant due to a shift in haulage traffic to the highways, had grown from 78 acres to 750 acres. This enormous brownfield site acted as a barrier cutting the Lea Valley off from communities further to the east. A planning decision was made to locate a new international rail station in the township of Stratford, Tower Hamlets Borough, and to develop a new central business district, of a scale to rival Canary Wharf, on the reconstituted land above the station. This effort comprised the largest planning application ever made in the bounds of London, and is intended to create a new heart to east London. There are extensive websites dedicated to the future of the Stratford "new- town-in-town"; its description is beyond the scope of this paper, but it is significant to mention in the ways it will re-center the energy of East London, and also in that a major portion of its promotional marketing is based around the fact that it is in the Lea Valley Regeneration Zone, and will be the location of the Olympic Swim Centre. In contrast to the social and economic character of Canary Wharf development, which is overwhelmingly "white collar", the Stratford redevelopment is intended to serve the existing population of the surrounding area through new job creation and construction of large areas of affordable housing. The Lea Valley Regional Park Authority was established in 1967, but it did not turn its attention to the Lower Valley until the late 1990s. Its 21st century mission is "to regenerate the Lea Valley from a neglected back yard into a "green wedge" extending right into the inner parts of east London."9 The more specific goals of the plan, particularly for the lower valley, focus on reclaiming wetland areas, improving water quality, serving adjacent communities' cultural-specific recreation needs, and providing grounds for intensive sports development. In effect, this has turned out to mean becoming the venue for the 2012 Olympic games. London 2012 It is difficult to pinpoint the moment, location, or person responsible for imagining the Lea Valley as a potential site for the 2012 Olympic Games. Newspaper coverage begins around 2002, and the concept appears in the London Plan, written between 2001 and 2004. Production of the master plan for the Olympic bid was coordinated by the London office of EDAW, an American landscape architecture firm.10 Originally, the master plan was presented as an equally-balanced planning effort between potential Olympic venue and/or ecological/social restoration of the Valley. If the Olympic bid failed, there would be an equally valid backup plan for revitalization of the river. Additionally, the consultants were developing a "legacy" plan for postOlympic redevelopment, which is a requirement of the Olympic bid. A key element of the Olympic plan's sustainability outlook was the minimization of redevelopment needs post-Olympics, through careful planning of the sports venues, the housing, the parks, and the public transit access points. The plan focuses key sports venues in the Lea Valley, each facility having clearly laid out post-Olympic adaptation plans. The Olympic Village will become a community of mixed-income housing, a part of the new Stratford town center. A major public park along the river will link all venues in the Valley. During the Olympics the central park will function as a movement corridor (anticipating 500,000 visitors per day); will provide a lowcost means of viewing Olympic events on large screens hovering over the park; and afterward will become an essential link in the chain of ecological restoration projects that aim to reclaim the river corridor. Parts of this chain have already been constructed between the Olympic park and the River Thames (Mile End Park, for example)11. Another significant aspect of London's plans for the Lea Valley is the extensive emphasis upon green and sustainable planning, carefully woven into pre-existing redevelopment plans for the area. The London bid has a central concept, "Towards a One Planet Olympics", which focuses on creating an enduring legacy for sport, the community, and the environment. One of the four main "legacy benefits" of the master plan is "To drive the regeneration of the east of London, delivering a high-quality environment for business and opportunities for local people.12 The five key themes of the London bid were: low carbon games; sustainable transport; zero waste; conservation of biodiversity; and sustainable legacy. To some extent, these will be achievable, given Britain's commitment commitment to meeting these objectives on a much larger scale than the Olympics.13 Other environmental elements of the Olympic master plan include reiteration of Britain's ratification of the Kyoto Protocol and a promised government investment of US$700 million, allocated for "environmental actions", to include such elements as recycling of demolition residue; restoration of river corridor habitat; extensive tree planting throughout the Olympic park; restoration of toxic sites, etc.14 The "legacy" requirement imposed by the International Olympic Committee will be addressed through the regeneration of 250 acres of contaminated, derelict, and under-utilized land, and construction of an Olympic Village providing close to 4,000 new homes
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built upon brownfield sites. A key aspect of the London bid's sustainability effort, and demonstration of its attempt to reduce impact on local communities is the proposed linkage to London's transport system. It is proposed that a free day pass to the entire London transit system be attached to every event ticket; employees will be given free transit passes for the duration of the games. The aim of the Olympic games is to ensure that in addition to avoiding negative impacts on the environment, they actually improve the environment and leave behind a "positive green legacy".15 On its official website, the International Olympic Committee states that the environmental element, which is one of seventeen themes host teams are required to address in their proposals, is one of the most important aspects. Candidate cities' claims were validated by an environmental expert. The London 2012 team proposal is unusually explicit in its detail, giving an overall impression of commitment to sustainability (at least on the consultants' behalf). Conclusion Walking the Lower Lea Valley today provides an impression of a place that is about to change. Small new projects are appearing at long intervals along its length - most of which is now connected by varying degrees of hike and bike trail development. Pioneer-developers are constructing new residential loft projects amid the abandoned and active warehouses. As can be expected from a project of this magnitude, cracks are beginning to appear that may derail the best of intentions. The cost of the Olympics has skyrocketed from the projected 2.4 billion to 3.3 billion16 as of Fall 2006, and six months later has reached 9.35 billion17. Cost over runs on other government-sponsored projects, such as the Millennium Village, have resulted in a backing down from environmental and sustainability claims. Increasing concerns over terrorist threats could make the costs soar even higher, and further threaten the beneficent aims of the planning committee. Resident activists in the affected populations have posted websites critiquing each project and predicting massive social upheaval. A significant report has just been released, entitled "Fair Play for Housing Rights: Mega-Events, Olympic Games and Housing Rights", which claims that 1000 people have already been displaced due to London 2012 reconstruction, and 15,000 jobs have been lost due to closures and business relocation.18 Presumably there will be a large gain in jobs, but no guarantees that these will go to local residents. There is also concern about the ability of the government to complete the project in time, which seems to be a perennial issue with Olympic venues. Nevertheless, critical pieces are in place for a dramatic transformation that will shape the River Lea's next incarnation. If, and it is a huge if, just half the promises and proposals for the Lea Valley come true, its restoration will be a powerful illustration of the potential to bring about environmental transformation and manage cultural impact, when such concerns reflect the value system of government, and the government is truly serving the will of the people. The people of London, and Britain, have made a huge leap of faith -- hopefully only the first Olympian feat to take place alongside that river.
________________________________________________ Notes 1 Edwin Heathcote, "Development on an Olympic scale", Financial Times. July 24, 2005. 2 http://www.leevalleypark.org.uk/ 3 The river is variously referred to as "Lee" or "Lea", perhaps indicative of its ambiguous position in the geography of the city. 4 http://www.railwaypeople.com/rail-projects/stratford-city-development-17.html 5 http://neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/ 6 "Opportunity Areas have been identified on the basis that they are capable of accommodating substantial new jobs or homes and their potential should be maximised. Typically, each can accommodate at least 5,000 jobs or 2,500 homes or a mix of the two, together with appropriate provision of other uses such as local shops, leisure facilities and schools. These areas generally include major brownfield sites with capacity for new development and places with potential for significant increases in density. Their development should be geared to the use of public transport and they are either located at areas of good access or would require public transport improvements to support development." London Plan, Broad Development Strategy, Section 2.7. 7 "the 20 per cent most deprived areas in London at ward level as defined by the London Index of Deprivation." London Plan, Broad Development Strategy, Section 2.11. 8 The London Plan, Section 5.50. 9 http://www.leevalleypark.org.uk 10 Other team members included HOK Sport, Foreign Office Architects, and Allies and Morrison, with the London firm Fluid handling the public participation elements of the planning effort. 11 http://www.london2012.com/en/bid/regeneration/ 12 Games of the XXX Olympiad in 2012 Report by the IOC Candidature Acceptance Working Group to the IOC Executive Board. Lausanne, March 12, 2004. 13 http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/commissions/environment/index_uk.asp
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Planning and management in protected areas from environmental impact studies: the brazilian experience in the Atlantic Forest Biome-Ilha Grande (Angra Reis, RJ ,Brazil)
S.V.G. Gama, F.F. Dutra, T.F. Xavier, N.M. Amorim
Geography Department at University of Rio de Janeiro State (UERJ), Brazil soniagea@yahoo.com.br
Abstract This article intends to identify and analyze environmental impacts in the Atlantic coastal rainforest biome as vectors to the construction of environmental planning and management in areas which are subject to the urbanization process under immediate influence of the metropolitan cities of Rio de Janeiro and So Paulo. The research focus is Ilha Grande, in Angra dos Reis county, at Rio de Janeiro state Southern coast (Brazil). With two districts, it is the largest island in the state and the third largest in the country. It has been chosen due to the social environmental changes that it has experienced mainly for the last decades as it has changed from federal prison with protected environmental areas (Atlantic Forest Biome with different categories of conservation units) into a Research Center (Environmental Study and Sustainable Development Center, CEADSUERJ), which is concerned with scientific research, but now framed in the context of growing tourism activity and urban enlargement. The methodology is based on the analysis of two spatial units (hydrographic basins and bays) with special attention to the changes caused by man's action, to the environmental impacts and to the pressure vectors upon which, as a whole, planning and management of the villages, and thus of the protected areas, will be established. Data here presented refer to studies in Vila Abrao (2003-2005) and Vila Dois Rios (2005-2006). Vila Abrao, known as the "capital" of the island, faces actual urban enlargement as inhabitants, visitors, public managers, researchers and environmentalists enter port and pass in a daily flow. On the other hand, Vila Dois Rios, where the ruins of the prison buildings lie, holds a decreasing population number and is a compulsory stop to visitors, tourists and researchers. Both of them present serious social environmental conflicts which reflect on the public policy where environmental impacts are used to make the different agents clear and to make the process of complete management possible. Keywords: Ilha Grande, Environmental Impacts, Conservation Units and Planning and Management. Introduction Ilha Grande is an island situated at the intersection of the parallels 2305' and 2314' degrees South latitude with the meridians 4405' and 4423' West longitude, in Angra dos Reis county, on the Southern coast of Rio de Janeiro (Brazil). It makes part of the micro region Ilha Grande Bay. It is a 193 km island, the third largest island in the country, one of the largest remainders of the Atlantic Forest (MPE, 2004) in the state. Besides its population of 4 696 inhabitants, who live mostly in two districts, Araatiba and Abrao, it receives around 359.000 tourists a year (Op. Cit, 2004); and most recently it has been getting overpopulated in high seasons, 40.000 people last summer, which is over sustainable limits. The research focuses mainly on Vila de Abrao (Ilha Grande Bay), with around 2.072 inhabitants and Dois Rios (Atlantic Ocean) with 25 families (around 100 inhabitants). Abrao is said to be the "capital" of the Island as everyday its inhabitants, visitors, public managers, researchers and environmentalists enter port and pass by in a daily flow. Researchers and scientists as well as visitors and tourists who want to go along ocean beaches go to Dois Rios. One village is 13 km far from the other and 1.000 m higher than the other, sea level considered. This article is part of the research project about Ilha Grande (RJ) which is coordinated by NEPPT Center of Teaching and Research in Territorial Planning at the Geography Department (UERJ). Study about the environmental impacts in protected areas as part of the construction of territorial and environmental planning and management process, mainly after the Island has been changed from a prison site into protected environmental areas since the second half of the 20th century. Lately the tourism activity has emerged as a new option for the economy of the Island and that region. It is important to mention that the end of the prison and the perspective of tourism activity in natural areas have motivated the arrival of new dwellers and entrepreneurs. The methodological procedures are based on investigation and analysis with view to planning; hydrographic basins and bays are used as spatial units of analysis; special attention is given to the changes caused by man's action, to the environmental impacts and to the pressure vectors upon which planning and management of protected areas will be established (UCs). Here, importance is given to data that refer to use and occupation of the soil, to the population profile, to the pressure vectors from man's action and to the managers of the UCs and villages.
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Urban service structure contrast between the villages Data about the service structure comes from official numbers (PMAR, 2003) and information given buy the local population through questionnaires and interviews in the two villages (Op. Cit, 2005; Op. Cit, 2006). In Vila de Abrao the sample list had two classes, dwellers and inn owners, which included actors that were considered important in the management process. The interview mentioned aspects related to water, sewage and garbage. It was held in two moments: in the beginning of high season December (2004) and at the end of high season March (2005). In Vila de Dois Rios, the sample list consisted of dwellers (around 25 families) and public officers (around 42 who worked for CEADS). The interview, held along the year 2006, mentioned aspects related not only to protected areas but also to garbage, water and sewage which were then related to the transport system (precarious), power (not efficient) and education (closed school) as Vila de Dois Rios is 13 km far from Vila de Abrao. The area was divided according to the bays: Abrao and Dois Rios, and to the hydrographic basins inside the context of the Conservation Units, according to the chosen methodological proposal. In Abrao there are micro basins with perpendicular drainage axis that let us have meaningful sample when following the high, medium and low courses which are totally occupied already. The axis are here considered as vectors of action and man's action pressure once they have different spatial uses besides setting apart the local population. In Dois Rios there are two micro-basins whose axis are perpendicular only at the coastal low lands where people live and the CEADS is found. There is no occupation in the medium and high river courses. Environmental Impacts and Conflicts Between Actors The natural elements of the impacted system (beach, river, forest, sea, area of mangrove, slope and rocky coast) have been identified as to their use in Vila de Abrao and Vila de Dois Rios. According to Mendona (1999), identifying the occupation (natural elements) and the use (from human activities) as well as the conflicts between them is one of the essential steps of the studies for environmental planning, since it can help find out the agents that are responsible for the environmental conditions of the area. Fishing, housing, tourism and environmental preservation are developed in very distinct ways in the villages. Fishing is not a strong activity in Abrao; it impacts the sea directly as fishing resources decrease due to taking fish in nets. In Dois Rios fishing supplies 25 families; the elder teach the young, but they face the lack of incentive besides the invasion of boats that come from other parts of the country and from abroad. Housing (in buildings or campsites, which usually are in the yard of the dweller) in Abrao has caused impacts in the forest, on the slope, in the river, in the areas of mangrove and in the sea. There is relation, though indirect, between housing and tourism. First, because tourism has contributed to population rise in a certain way: the number of houses has increased; then, because, after the increase of tourism and the price boosting of the soil that have led to real state speculation, some dwellers (native ones with low purchasing power) have moved to terrains of high declivity. This has caused impacts straight to the forest and to the slopes. In the rivers and in the sea, garbage and sewage cause the impacts. In Dois Rios, impacts caused to the natural environment by housing (residential buildings and CEADS) do not reach the same rates as in Abrao, mainly because of the imposition of its use to preservation and scientific research. The ruins of the prison and old buildings are responsible for the environmental impacts that affect the forest, the water springs, the land and the area of mangrove. On the other hand, tourism activities and/or uses (buildings and circulation) bring about several impacts in all the elements of the system in the two villages. The inns and the commercial buildings are directly connected to the tourism activity. This means lower altimetrical quota that impacts the area of mangrove, the beach, the sea and the low river course. Strolling and walking along the trails, bathing (at either falls or beaches) and boating have been taken into consideration as circulation and uses. There is no correct planning to use the trails which causes impacts and contribute to the compression of soils, to more superficial drainage and to the development of slope erosion process; and, on the trails, deforestation, rise of the forest border effect, rise of the garbage amount, water flow decrease and biodiversity loss, among others. The most visited ones have been properly studied; some of them (or some parts) need closing down for repair work to recover natural environment and for management planning. Visiting the beaches by boat, Vila de Abrao included, leaves oil in the sea. Consequently, together with the increase of tourism flow, it helps produce more garbage. Based on the drainage basin system, the resurch shows the main problems that happen in the villages. They are related to their direct and indirect consequences, impacts on the micro drainage and also to relevant legislation. It is important to mention that laws are not respected in several levels, not even by the qualified institutions themselves, to begin with (IBAMA federal level; FEEMA and IEF state level, as well as the City Council local level). In orther, ators can function in the management of a group directly or indirectly. Several kinds of actors are found in a city. Basically two of them are: the institutional public power and the organized civil society. As to Public Power, we can mention the City Council, the State Government and the Federal Government whose competences are established 324
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in the Organic Law of the City, the State Constitution of Rio de Janeiro and the Federal Constitution respectively. In Angra dos Reis county two kinds of actors can be found, with particularities and similarities, with different functions and representations in the two districts of Ilha Grande. Environmental planning and management in Vila de Abrao and Vila de Dois Rios intend to achieve compatibility between tourism/housing and preservation and to answer to the different actors' needs in order to avoid problems, mainly those such as water supply in the near future and biodiversity decrease. Therefore it is a real challenge to propose proper policy to the reality of the Island and the villages, supporting the process of environmental planning and management. In the following chart (Table 1) a series of actors are related to possible reasons for the conflicts with a link to the main claims
Table 1: Social Actors, Causes of the Conflicts and Demand in the Villages (Adapted: Leal Filha, 2005; Gama et al, 2006 - Chapter 2/p.3)
Social Actors City Management Causes of the Conflicts Lack of financial support to develop projects in the island; Lack of support of the environmental institutions (IEF, FEEMA, IBAMA, SERLA); Lack of partnership between these institutions and City Council. Lack of more participation of the City Management and the environmental public institutions;Neglect by the City Council in relation to the Island; Lack of scientific-academic study to provide the public power with enough data;Non -native inhabitants do not identify with the village; Lack of respect to the inhabitant association on part of the public power;Tourists contribute to the economic development, but cause negative impacts on the environment, they are responsible for the use of drugs in the island;Visitors/daily visitors are responsible for some environmental problems and they spend little money in the village; they are even less worried about the village than the tourists are. Lack of scientific studies that can contribute to better life quality, environmental preservation and proper development of economic activities;Lack of action of the public environmental institutions and the City Management. Lack of support of the City management and the environmental institutions either in partnership formation or direct action to solve/minimize identified problems. Small action of the environmental institutions. City management doesnt answer their claims. Claims State and federal government support to face the population needs in Ilha Grande; Ask for the Public Ministry support. Services: better sanitation, water supply, energy distribution and educational system; Preservation of the environment.
Inhabitants (native)
Inhabitants (non-native)
Better services, specially sanitation, educational and health systems; Better offer of cultural activities, leisure and entertainment (mainly movies and theater). Environmental preservation (rivers, beach, vegetation, areas of mangrove); Better life quality to the population. Environmental preservation, life quality and services.
ONGs Inhabitant Association
Final Considerations The situation of environmental degradation in Ilha Grande and particularly in Vila de Abrao and Vila de Dois Rios is not that different from many other places on the Brazilian coast. This research studies the environmental impacts in the context of protected areas and aims to make up proposals that can contribute to environmental planning and management. Along with this methodological routine, it is fundamental to study and analyze the physical environmental conditions (characteristics, attributes of the soil and the natural aspects) and the socio-economic environment (population profile and economic activity). They can be used together in the planning and management proposals. It is important to mention that this part of the research is complete for Vila de Abrao; it is under work for Vila de Dois Rios, data are available in another publication. It is worth to say that the deterioration of the quality and the quantity of the water from different hydrographic basins and the risking of biodiversity in Brazil have been leading to the discussion about the management of the hydric resources and of the different conservation categories. Let's consider that forward steps have been taken in the management of hydric resources and conservation units after the creation of policies both in the country and in the state (Rio de Janeiro in this case). The environmental National Policy (Law 6.938 - August 31, 1981) is a well known step as it establishes legal measures in the country that have turned into federal, state and city resolutions, decree and laws. Laws 9.433/1997 (federal) and 3.239/1999 (state) guide the management of hydric resources. Law 9 985/2000 guides the management of conservation units; the preservation of these resources gain national relevance. The government and the state have approved of the legal diplomas. It is important to mention that other actors have relevant participation in the management of the hydric resources and the conservation units such as:
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ONGs, forums, media, people who develop technologies applied to water and environment protection, among others. However, laws, even the more specific ones, are not enough. There are lots of problems with management of the soil and the natural resources that interfere with the management of the hydric resources and the conservation units; all that risks water supply for multiple uses (this principle is established by the Water Law) and biodiversity. Thus the management process of both hydric resources and conservation units should work as a "tool" that contribute to the compatibility between use and occupation of soil with conservation of water in hydrographic basins and biomes such as the Atlantic Forest and associated ecosystems which are present in Ilha Grande. Let's also emphasize that the process of integrated planning and management can be possible only with the participation of the society and the state in different stages of planning and elaboration of public policy to the sector. It is necessary to be responsible in concern to the management of the environmental and hydric resources in a very specific way. It is fundamental that the cities participate in the management of hydric resources. It happens through measures of prevention and mitigation such as administration of solid remains, reforestation, slope protection, emergency plans and mitigation of critical events. To do so, it is necessary to strengthen connections between users, community and public power in the process of preservation and recuperation of the hydric and natural resources; this implies strong articulation and frequent dialogue between them. Another important point is the population active participation in the process that has to do with the community welfare. It is known that some interference and some changes face resistance from some society sectors, even when these changes are essential to life as in the case of hydric resources. Therefore, keeping the population informed means support against resistance. Also they will be a strong ally when supervising and obeying the laws which means not only more protection to water springs and forests but also more water of better quality. Bibliography
GAMA, Snia V. G. da; LEAL Filha, Sueli Maurcio; ROCHA, Ilana Campos. Os impactos ambientais e o processo de gesto integrada:experincias na vila de Abrao-Ilha Grande, Angra dos Reis, (RJ)Sociedade & Natureza, Uberlndia, 18 (35): 131-149, dez. 2006. LEAL FILHA, Sueli Mauricio. Recursos Hdricos e os Desafios da Gesto Ambiental: microdrenagens da Vila de Abrao -Ilha Grande (RJ)..2005.205 f. Dissertao (Mestrado em Geografia) - Instituto de Geocincias, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 2005. MENDONA, Francisco. Diagnstico e anlise ambiental de microbacia hidrogrfica. Proposio metodolgica na perspectiva do zoneamento, planejamento e gesto ambiental. RA ' EGA: O espao geogrfico em anlise. Curitiba, PR: Departamento de Geografia/ UFPR, v.3, n3, p.67-89, 1999 . MPE- FUNBIO. Programa Melhores Prticas para o Ecoturismo- Plo Ilha Grande (RJ) Ilha Grande (RJ): Anlise de sua Visitao e Propostas para seu Ordenamento,Rio de Janeiro, 2002, 50 p. PMAR. (Prefeitura Municipal de Angra dos Reis). Projeto de Elaborao da Agenda 21 - Ilha Grande. Angra dos Reis. 2003. 39p. ____________.Secretaria Municipal de Planejamento. Plano de Ocupao Urbana da Vila do Abrao. Quadro de Referncia da situao atual. Angra dos Reis, 1995. 62 p. PRADO, Rosane. Tenso no Paraso: Aspectos da Intensificao do turismo na Ilha Grande 13p. Agosto de 2003. Disponvel na Internet: http//www.ivt.rj.net, acessado em janeiro de 2004. ROCHA, Ilana Campos da. Ilha Grande:Uma anlise dos impactos ambientais provocados pela turistificao sem um planejamento adequado. In: Novos caminhos para Velhos problemas: A geografia no programa de Educao Tutorial. Miguel ngelo Ribeiro e Glucio Jos Marafon (organizadores). Rio de Janeiro: Gramma, 2005:171-183. __________. Impactos Ambientais e o Processo de Turistificao na Ilha Grande (Angra dos Reis, RJ). 2006. Trabalho de Concluso de Curso (Graduao em Geografia) - Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro.
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The influence of public participation on the outcome of the Strategic Environmental Assessment the example of German urban land-use plans
Maren Regener
Leibniz Institute of Ecological and Regional Development (IOER), Dresden, Germany m.regener@ioer.de
Public participation is one of the most important elements of the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA). The aim of this article is to show the potential influence of public participation on the outcome of the SEA. The article names the different functions that are attributed to public participation, describes how public participation can influence the outcome of the SEA and what potential consequences of public participation for the outcome of the SEA are. Moreover, potential reasons and conditions that might influence the outcome of the public participation will be identified. I. Objectives, Subjects and Procedure of the Strategic Environmental Assessment The SEA is prescribed by the European SEA Directive 2001/42/EC1, which came into force in July 2001. By July 2004 the EU Member States and thus also Germany had to implement this Directive by transposing it into national law. The objective of the SEA Directive is to provide for a high level of environmental protection and to contribute to the integration of environmental considerations into the preparation and adoption of plans and programmes with a view to promoting sustainable development (Art. 1 SEA Directive). The SEA Directive was established in order to consider environmental consequences already at the planning stage because it often turns out to be too late to take them into account at the project level (Klne, Albrecht 2005: 26). Amongst others also German urban land-use plans (Bauleitplne) have to be assessed. The SEA is integrated into the process of preparation and/or alteration of urban land-use plans. The main steps of the assessment are: (a) the determination of the scope and level of detail of the information that is to be included in the environmental report (b) the preparation of an environmental report in which the environmental effects of implementing the plan or programme are identified, described and evaluated (c) consultations with the authorities and the public (d) monitoring of the likely significant environmental effects of implementing the plan or programme The results of the environmental report and the outcome of the consultations should be taken into account during the preparation and before the adoption of the urban land-use plan (Art. 8 SEA Directive). Thus, the environmental report and the outcome of the consultations can be regarded as the result of the SEA2. II. Public Participation and Strategic Environmental Assessment Public participation3 as a procedural step and the consideration of the results of the consultation in the decision-making process are inseparable parts of the environmental assessment which are prescribed by the Directive. If either element is missing, there is no environmental assessment in conformity with the Directive. This underlines the great importance attributed to public participation in the SEA (EC 2003: 35). This is due to the fact that the SEA Directive serves to implement the Aarhus convention4. According to the SEA Directive it is necessary that the public is to be consulted during the assessment of plans and programmes, and that appropriate time frames are set, allowing sufficient time for consultations, including the expression of opinion, in order to contribute to more transparent decision-making and with the aim of ensuring that the information supplied for the assessment is comprehensive and reliable. In addition to these functions (enhancing the completeness and reliability of the information by controlling it and/or providing additional relevant information, contributing to more transparent decision-making) the following functions are also attributed to public participation (see also Bischoff et al. et al. 2005: 20ff., Danielzyk et al. 2003: 18ff., Morgan 1998: 148f., Heiland 2005: 422): - contributing to the appropriate assessment of all concerned interests - balancing the different interests, - contributing to the public acceptance of the decisions, - legitimating political decisions, - avoiding / solving / mitigating conflicts, - improving the quality of the decision and so forth So far there are hardly any conclusions, whether these functions are being fulfilled or whether public participation affects the outcome of the SEA.
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Before these questions can be answered it is necessary to know how public participation can affect the outcome of the SEA and what potential consequences this may have on the outcome of the SEA. III. How can public participation influence the outcome of the Strategic Environmental Assessment When the influence of public participation on the outcome of the SEA is being analysed not all of the above mentioned functions are important. The main function of public participation through which influence can be exerted is the "information function"5. This function is fulfilled when (new) information enters the planning / assessment process. This can be information on the state of the environment or the evaluation of the environment as well as the denial of the planned action. This information can influence the outcome of the SEA and therefore also the quality of the SEA (for details see below). a. Forms of public participation There are various different methods of public participation. Not all of them support the input of new information. Based on the amount of public influence on decision-making basically three forms of public participation can be distinguished (see also Morgan 1998: 150f., Andr, Pierre 2006: 1, Bischoff et al. 2005: 10f., Danielzyk et al. 2003: 20ff.): (1) informing the public about the proposed activity without seeking their response (information transfer, no possibilities to express suggestions or to influence the decision-making activity no / low level of public control) (2) consulting6 the public (the public is provided with information and their response is actively sought, possibilities to express suggestions and to influence the decision-making activity higher level of public control) (3) cooperation between participants and the authority in charge (the public becomes an equal partner in reaching decision or becomes the sole decision-maker high public control) These types of public participation can be further differentiated into passive, active and interactive forms of participation: informing the public is a passive form of public participation ("one-way communication"), consultation is an active form of public participation ("two-way communication") and cooperation is an inter-active form of public participation (collectively planning and decision-making). An influence on the outcome of the SEA can only be exerted if the public is actively or interactively involved, because only then is the input of (new) information or the expression of personal opinions, preferences and values etc. possible (and only then the "information function" can be fulfilled). The provision of the relevant information is however, the pre-condition for the active participation of the public. b. Stages of the planning process at which the public can influence the SEA The SEA Directive prescribes the active involvement of the public: the plan and the environmental report are to be made available to the public and the public is to be given an early and effective opportunity within appropriate time frames to express their opinion on the draft plan and the accompanying environmental report before the adoption of the plan. The detailed arrangements for the information and consultation are to be determined by the Member States (Art. 6 SEA Directive). By amending the German Federal Building Code in order to implement the SEA Directive the regulations for public participation within the assessment process of an urban land-use plan were specified. The building law prescribes that the public is to be informed at the earliest possible stage about the general aims and purposes of planning, about significantly different solutions under consideration for the redesign or development of an area, and of the probable impact of the scheme. The public is to be given suitable opportunity for comment and discussion. At a later point in the planning process drafts of land-use plans with the accompanying explanatory report and essential environmental statements that are already available are to be laid out publicly for a period of one month. Suggestions expressed within the allowed period are to be examined ( 3 BauGB7). This means there are at least two stages in the planning and / or assessment pro-cedure in which the public is actively involved. Beyond this statutory (formal) participation the informal par-ticipation of the public is also possible. c. "The public" The SEA Directive differentiates between the public that has access to the publicly displayed documents and the public that is allowed to express their opinion on the draft plan and the environmental report: There are no restrictions on the access to the publicly displayed documents but the right to express opinions is limited to the public that is affected or likely to be affected by, or having an interest in the decision-making subject to this Directive, including relevant-non-governmental organisations, such as those promoting environmental protection and other organisations concerned. It is up to the Member States to identify the public that has the right 328
Maren Regener: The influence of public participation on the outcome of the Strategic Environmental Assessment
to express their opinion (Art. 6 SEA Directive). The German Federal Building Code does not differentiate between different types of "the public". Everyone is allowed to participate in the planning / assessment process. In practice, different groups of public stakeholders can be distinguished. The two main groups of public stakeholders are non-governmental organisations and private individuals. Even more groups can be differentiated depending on the individual case. IV. Potential consequences of public participation for the outcome of the Strategic Environmental Assessment There are mainly two potential consequences of public participation for the outcome of the SEA, namely: (a) Modification of the scope of the SEA / environmental report (b) Modification of the environmental report (and of the quality of the environmental report / the SEA) If the public is involved at an early stage of the planning / assessment process influencing the scope of the assessment is possible. This influence can be exerted by bringing in new information, data, (planning) alternatives or assessment methods. This new information can entail the reconsideration of the scope of the assessment. Therefore, a lack of public participation may have lead to a different assessment and outcome of the SEA. This is also true for the environmental report: New information on the state of the environment in the area that is affected by the plan can for example lead to a different evaluation of the state of the environment. Both the new information and the modification of the evaluation of the state of the environment can lead to a modification of the environmental report. V. Potential reasons and conditions that might influence the outcome of public participation In the literature different factors that may influence the outcome of public participation are named (see ODPM 2005, Wood et al. 1996, Heiland 2005, Beywl, Klemisch 1993, Khling 1993, Kurz 1991, Zimmermann 1993 and others): - method of public participation (including the organisation thereof) - announcement of the public display of the planning and assessment documents - accessibility (locations, office hours etc.) of the planning and assessment documents - availability (costs, possibility for copying etc.) of the planning and assessment documents - extent of public participation - timing of public participation within the planning / assessment process - time frame for public participation - content, comprehension and design of the planning and assessment documents - expertise, knowledge and experience of the participants8 - environmental relevance of the plan, potential environmental impact of the plan - number of affected individuals - planning level and so forth Depending on their characteristics, these factors can lead to either a high or low number of participants or number of expressed suggestions, respectively. They can either support or restrain the public participation. VI. Practical experiences with public participation within the Strategical Environmental Assessment of urban land-use plans The influence of public participation on the outcome of the SEA is currently empirically evaluated as part of a doctoral thesis which is presented here. This empirical study is not completed yet. Therefore, the following statements are preliminary. First results of the analysis of three urban land-use plans with integrated SEA of the city of Leipzig and of interviews with city employees are: - there is no informal public participation; the public can only participate and thereby influence the decision-making process by expressing suggestions within the legally prescribed possibilities - mainly four groups of public stakeholders can be differentiated: (1) environmental non-governmental organisations, (2) private individuals, (3) permanently citizens' associations ("Brgervereine") and temporary citizens' initiatives ("Brgerinitiativen") - the average number of public statements per plan is four - about 80 percent of these statements deal with environmental issues - most environmental statements come from environmental non-governmental organisations - the statements from private individuals mostly refer to issues that are related to "human health" and "recreation": noise, air pollution, other emissions (resulting from the increase of the volume of traffic), landscape as well as fauna, flora and biodiversity as components of landscape - the statements from environmental non-governmental organisations refer to every environmental issue
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listed in the SEA-directive (there is no special focus) almost none of the statements were new almost none of the statements were considered in the assessment, planning and / or the decision making process the content of the plan and the location of the planning area (environmental relevance, potential environmental impact of the plan) highly influence the extent of public participation (meaning the use of the available participation possibilities by the public) and the content of the statements from the public the environmental non-governmental organisations participate regularly the most important factor that influences the participation of private individuals, citizens' associations and citizens' initiatives is the concern of their individual interests (depending on the content of the plan and the location of the planning area) neither the number nor the content of the statements from the public have changed since the SEA was integrated into the process of preparation of urban land-use plans (the number and the quality of the environmental statements have not increased)
References:
Andr, P. (2006): Public participation. Best practice principles. IAIA Special Publication Series No. 4. August 2006 (http://www.iaia.org/Non_Members/Pubs_Ref_Material/SP4%20web.pdf, last access 19.10.2006) Beywl, W.; Klemisch, H. (1993): Partizipative Umweltvertrglichkeitsprfung - Pldoyer fr den Runden Tisch. In: Zimmermann, M. (Hrsg.): ffentlichkeitsbeteiligung bei UVP-Verfahren. Bonn. pp. 23-42 Bischoff, A.; Selle, K.; Sinning, H. (2005): Informieren, Beteiligen, Kooperieren. Kommunikation in Planungsprozessen, Eine bersicht zu Formen, Verfahren und Methoden. Dortmund Danielzyk, R.; Knieling, J.; Hanebeck, K.; Reitzig, F. (2003): ffentlichkeitsbeteiligung bei Programmen und Plnen der Raumordnung. Forschungsvorhaben im Auftrag des BMVBW vertreten durch das BBR. Bonn EC - Commission of the European Union (2003): Guidance on the Implementation of Directive 2001/42/EC on the assessment of the effects of certain plans and programmes on the environment. (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/eia/sea-support.htm, last access 16.03.2007) Heiland, S. (2005): Requirements and Methods of Public Participation in SEA. In: Schmidt et al. (Eds.): Implementing Strategic Environmental Assessment. Berlin. Heidelberg. New York. pp. 421-432 Klne, C. & Albrecht, E. (2005): Purpose and Background of the European SEA Directive. In: Schmidt et al. (Eds.): Implementing Strategic Environmental Assessment. Berlin. Heidelberg. New York. pp. 15-29 Khling, W. (1993): ffentlichkeit u. ffentlichkeitsbeteiligung bei der Umweltvertrglichkeitsprfung - Prob-leme u. Chancen. In: Zimmermann, M. (Hrsg.): ffentlichkeitsbeteiligung bei UVP-Verfahren. Bonn. pp. 3-22 Kurz, A. (1991): Juristische Aspekte der ffentlichkeitsbeteiligung bei der Planung und Genehmigung umweltrelevanter Grovorhaben. Speyer Meunier, C. (2006): ffentlichkeitsbeteiligung in der Bauleitplanung. Dortmund Morgan, R. K. (1998): Environmental Impact Assessment. A methodological perspective. Dordrecht. Boston. London. ODPM - Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (2005): A Practical Guide to the Strategic Environmental Assessment Directive. London Wood, C.; Barker, A.; Jones, C.; Hughes, J. (1996): Evaluation of the performance of the eia process. Final report. Volume 1: main report. Manchester Zimmermann, M. (1993): Vorwort. In: Zimmermann, M. (Hrsg.): ffentlichkeitsbeteiligung bei UVP-Verfahren. Bonn. pp. V-VII
______________________________________________________ 1 Directive 2001/42/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the assessment of the effects of certain plans and programmes on the environment 2 For methodical reasons only the environmental report will be regarded as the result of the SEA in this context, since public participation is the subject of this analysis. 3 The terms "public participation" and "consultation" are used here as synonyms. 4 The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (adopted on 25 June 1998 in the Danish city of Aarhus). It entered into force on 30 October 2001. The Convention provides for (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/aarhus/#what, last access 17.03.2007): (1) the right of everyone to receive environmental information that is held by public authorities, (2) the right to participate in environmental decision-making, (3) the right to review procedures to challenge public decisions that have been made without respecting the two aforementioned rights or environmental law in general 5 Another important function is the "control function", meaning in this context the control of the completeness and correctness etc. of the supplied information (as a precondition for the input of new information). This function is not being analysed because it is always fulfilled, for the access to the documents of the SEA is mandatory (see paragraph IIIb.). 6 In this particular context the term "consultation" is used to describe one of the different forms of public participation; the term used within the SEA Directive doesn't differentiate between the above described forms. Within the SEA Directive the term "consultation" is used in a more abstract way and covers different forms of public participation as well as the participation of authorities. 7 German Federal Building Code (Baugesetzbuch - BauGB), last amended 5.9.2006
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including the knowledge and understanding of the planning and assessment procedures
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Protection of ground water resources when selecting landfill sites using shallow refraction technique
Hamdy H. Seisa
Department of Geology, El Mnasoura University, Egypt hseisa@gawab.com
Abstract Recently extensive research is being carried out to develop techniques for safe management of landfill sites. Selection of the proper site for solid waste disposal is still problematic. This problem arises from the fact that these sites which keep solid waste and possible pollutants in one place are sometimes in connection with ground water resources. Shallow refraction seismic technique could help in solving this problem. Detailed knowledge of characteristic of subsurface rocks, subsurface structures including faulting, fracturing and any lateral variations along the subsurface boundaries can be detected by shallow refraction seismic technique. The proper sites that will be selected for waste dumping must be characterized by the following: completely isolated from the surrounding environment by an impervious layer, free from any fissures, faults and voids to prevent leaching to the ground water system. In case of existence of sediment intrusions or sand bodies, it must not be in connection with the underlain ground water system. This study presents the application of the shallow refraction seismic technique for determination of a landfill site near the City of Schwierin, NE Germany. Field examples show that the area of study is characterized by lateral variations in seismic velocities. These variations are interpreted as sand bodies within massive marl layer. The ground water table which is found at about 16 meters depth seems to be isolated by the thick marl layer from the sand bodies. Introduction Solid materials include municipal (house hold) waste, health care (hazardous and non- hazardous) waste are usually defined as solid waste. Disposal of these solid waste by burial represent serious problems for most countries. Since any land containing solid waste is a potential of threat to ambient region, one of the requirements of landfill operations is to ensure that the sites adequately sealed from adjoining subsurface materials and properly capped top prevent the refuse from being washed away from the site. When these conditions are not met, surface and underground water may be heavily polluted as a result of contamination by liquid and solid components of the waste. Landfill site characterization The landfill sites, in which the solid waste and possible pollutants should be kept, must be characterized by the following: 1. Completely isolated from the surrounding environment by impervious bedrocks such as massif igneous, metamorphic rocks and/or hard sediments like marl to minimize leached elements from getting into water system. 2. Free from fissures, faults voids and loose sand. 3. Sufficiently remote from important water resources and water table should be at deep depth and there is no path ways between the underground water and the dumps 4. Away from weakness zones such as earthquake, landslide and volcanic zones All these concepts have characteristic physical properties that make them suitable targets for shallow refraction seismic investigations. The area of study The area of study to be a solid waste dump (landfill) site is located near the city of Schwerin, NE Germany. The regional geological stratification of the deposits comprises impervious marls underlain by fluvio-glacial sands which considered as the main ground water reservoir. The aims of this investigation in this area using refraction seismic profiles can be summarized in the following: 1- To detect the lateral variations along the marl layer, if existed, 2- To determine the depth to the ground water aquifer, and 3- To ensure that there are no paths through the mar1 layer to the aquifer i.e., the sand deposits are continuous beneath the thick impervious marl layer or these sands are found in separate sand lenses or sand bodies.
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Shallow refraction seismic technique The seismic refraction method utilizes seismic energy that returns to the surface after traveling through the ground along refracted ray paths. The method is normally used to locate interfaces separating layers of different seismic velocity varies smoothly as of depth or laterally. Refraction surveying are usually carried out along profile lines which are normally arranged to be sufficiently long to ensure that the refracted waves from target layers are recorded as first arrivals (also known as head waves). Shallow refraction seismic investigations are used for a great variety of geotechnical problems in connection with, for instance, soil and subsoil layers, the possible existence of weathered/fissured rock layers and more solid rock, Sjoegren (2000). Therefore, depending on the particular project, seismic survey has to yield, as far as possible, the following information: 1. The velocity of the overburden layer including the upper, less consolidated rock layers. 2. The thickness of various overburdens velocity layers and the total depth to the main refractor. 3. A detailed determination of the velocity distribution in the main refractor. 4. An estimate of the uncertainty of the velocity and depth determinations. 5. An analysis of the depth structure and the significance of the seismic velocities in vertical and lateral directions in combination with other geological information and, if available, results from other investigation methods. 6. Conclusions and recommendations of importance for the project based on the results of the investigation. In case of plain horizontal or inclined layers, there are a several methods that can be used to interpret shallow refraction seismic data. Depending on the travel path of the rays (or waves), the interpretation methods of in-line reversed profiles have been classified into two main groups. The first group, the common refractor point methods, visualizes critical rays emerging from a common point on the refractor. This group includes the wave front method (Thornburgh, 1930) and Hales' method (Hales, 1958). The second group, the common surface point methods, makes use of ray paths converging in common surface point and includes ABC method (Heilnad, 1963); the plus part of the plus-minus method (Hagedoorn, 1959). All these methods used the total reversed travel time and are considered to be correct as long as the refracted rays emerge from the same refracting interfaces or from the same refractor element. In case of lateral variations along the upper refracting interfaces, the interpretation of shallow refraction data is usually not straightforward. The precise determination of lateral variations in the seismic velocities in refractors in the near surface is an ill-posed problem: small variations in the computed time parameters can result in quite large variations in the inferred seismic velocities. (Palmer 2006). Lateral inhomogeneities either in velocity and/or in depth within sedimentary sequence in the studied area is expected to occur. For example, a sand body within the thick marl sequence causes a change in velocity compared to the surrounding sediments. In traditional shallow refraction seismic profiling technique, a part of the incident rays will be reflected along the boundary of the sand body and will recorded as first or later arrivals according to the depth values and the velocity of the surrounding. Other parts of the incident rays will be transmitted through the sand body itself and will be reflected again and recorded as before. Unfortunately, the separation of different velocity bodies (anomalies) along ray path is troublesome. Figure (1) shows the ray path and the corresponding travel time curve hypothetically. In this figure, a hypothetical seismic refraction profile over a sedimentary sequence with a sand body. The normal travel time curve is shown as dashed lines. X marked below the travel time curve according its position denotes the time recorded from the sand body. Notice that the ray paths pass through the sand body itself and not along the lower boundary Therefore, there are differences in the recorded times compared to the normal travel time. The presence of sand bodies within a sedimentary sequence will affect the recorded travel data. The first arrivals recorded in this case usually represent reflected rays either from the upper surface of the sand body or from rays travelling through the body itself and reflected again and recorded as first arrivals. There is no criteria to differentiate between first and later arrivals on the travel time curve i.e., to identify the head waves recorded as first arrivals and the ray reflected from the sand bodies and recorded earlier than the head waves (Seisa 2007).
Figure 1: A hypothetical forward seismic refraction profile over a sedimentary sequence with a sand body.
Data acquisitions and interpretation In this study, a shallow refraction seismic example is used to show the applicability of this technique to evaluate sites sug-
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Hamdy H Seisa: Protection of ground water resources when selecting landfill sites :
gested to be landfills. The data are acquired on one reversed profile with total distance of 49 m. As a seismic primary waves source, a 10 kg hammer is used as usual in such near subsurface investigation. The frequency of the vertical geophones (receivers) is 10 Hz. The distance between the shot point and the first geophone is 0.5 m and the distance between every two successive geophones is 1 m. There are distant and in-between shot points. The distance between every two successive shot points are 12 m. The data are presented in a form known as travel time curve. The area of study composed mainly of Quaternary deposits Burkhardt et al (1991). These deposits include different sand bodies with irregular dimensions. The questions are haw to locate these sand bodies? Are these bodies in connection with the underground water reservoir or not? The travel time (Figure 2) shows that: 1- Travel time elements (between about 14 - 18 m) are scatter points and no have parallelism from both directions of shooting. This can be interpreted as sand bodies within the marl layer due to the passage of the seismic waves through the sand body itself and not along boundaries of the refractor. 2- The travel time elements recorded from distant shot points and found directly above the same distance (14-18 m) are affected by the variations within the upper refractor. 3- The change in apparent velocity from high to low as shown from the main reverse shot point is considered as a second parameter for identification of the lateral variations along the refractors. 4- There is no connection between the sand body and the water reservoir because the apparent velocity calculated from deep refractor in some parts of this travel time curve is lower than that recorded from the upper refracting interfaces. Moreover, the true refractor velocity calculated using ray tracing technique and the Common Refractor Element -CRE- method is constant and equal to about 1550 m/s, (Seisa, 1991).
Figure 2: The travel time curve of the first arrivals recorded near the City of Schwerin
Conclusions Geophysicists play a crucial role in the aspects of environmental contamination where the land-water ecosystem is involved. Their knowledge of earth materials, the subsurface structures, and the characteristics of surface and ground waters is essential for environmental managers. This paper demonstrated the use of shallow refraction seismic technique in evaluating of subsurface conditions of an area suggested to be landfill site. It is clear that the lateral variations either in velocity (composition) and/or depth along an impervious layer can be detected using the shallow refraction seismic technique. So, a subsurface picture of landfill site could be drawn which could give guidance to environmental managers to decide if this site is environmentally safe or not. Acknowledgment The author is grateful to Dr. K. Schuster, Bundesanstalt fuer geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe (BGR), for providing field data and his kind help.
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References
Burkhardt H., Erbas, K., Radic, T., und Schuster, K. 1991: Bericht ueber den Einsatz von seismischen und geoelektrischen Verfahren zur charakterisierung des untergrundes im Bereich des geplanten Deponiestandortes Augzin. Hagedoorn, J.G. 1959: The plus-minus method of interpretation seismic refraction sections: Geophysical Prospecting, Vol. 7, 158 - 182. Hales, F.W., 1958: An accurate graphical method for interpretation seismic refraction lines: Geophysical Prospecting. Vol. 6, 285 - 294. Heiland, C.A. 1963: Geophysical Exploration: New York, Prentice-Hall, Inc. Palmer D. 2006. Refraction travel time and amplitude corrections for very near-surface inhomogeneities. Geophysical Prospecting, Vol. 54, 589-604 Seisa, H. H., 2007: The effect of lateral inhomogeneities on the interpretation of shallow refraction seismic data (Lateral effects problem), SAGEEP 2007, in Press. Seisa, H. H., 1991: A contribution to the interpretation of shallow refraction seismic data: Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis, TV Berlin. Sjoegren, B. 2000, A brief study of application of the generalized reciprocal method and of some limitations of the method: Geophysical Prospecting, 48(4): 815 - 834. Thornburgh, H. R., 1930: Wave front diagrams in seismic interpretation: AAPG Bull., 14,
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Monitoring environmental impacts of regional plans approaches from Germany and England
M. Hanusch
Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research UFZ, Leipzig / Germany marie.hanusch@ufz.de
Abstract The SEA Directive (European Directive 2001/42/EC on Strategic Environmental Assessment) sets the framework for the environmental assessment of certain plans and programmes including regional plans. The Directive's objective is to improve the integration of environmental considerations into the preparation and decision-making process of plans and programmes with a view to promoting sustainable development. To achieve its objective the Directive provides for a set of procedural requirements during the preparation process of the plan or programme, and for the preparation of an environmental report. However, the role of SEA is not done when the plan or programme is adopted. The SEA Directive also introduced a requirement to ensure its objective beyond the planning phase to the implementation phase: namely SEA monitoring. The paper identifies the legal requirements and objectives of the new monitoring task and explores how practitioners in the field of regional planning in Germany and England cope with the challenges. Thereby it follows the guiding questions: Why? What? Who? How? When? Taking account of the fact that experience with the practical implementation of SEA monitoring is just about to start, it mainly focuses on the measures envisaged for monitoring in the sustainability/ environmental reports of regional plans. The paper appreciates the first practical approaches of SEA monitoring. However, the research findings indicate that there is a danger that some of the specific requirements and objectives of SEA monitoring are not fully met, mainly due to insufficient database, inappropriate institutional conditions and lacking financial and personal resources. Concluding, the paper gives recommendations on how to keep on the right track. Introduction The European Commission highlights the relevance of SEA monitoring and also many SEA researchers and practitioners acknowledge its general importance (European Commission, 2003, Glasson et al., 2005, Jacoby, 2005, Therivel, 2004). The legal obligation for SEA monitoring is laid down in Article 10 of the SEA Directive requiring the Member States "to monitor the significant environmental effects of the implementation of plans and programmes, in order, inter alia, to identify at an early stage unforeseen adverse effects, and to be able to undertake appropriate remedial action." The implementation guidance of the European Commission explicates that "monitoring can be seen as an activity following the development of parameters of concern in magnitude, time and space" and that it "may be a means for verifying the information in the environmental report" (European Commission, 2003). However, the Directive as well as the implementation guidance leave central technical, methodological and procedural issues open. There is a growing body of legally and theoretically oriented research (Barth & Fulder, 2002, Partidario & Fischer, 2004, Balla, 2005, Bunge, 2005, Bovet & Hanusch, 2006, Hanusch et al., 2005). However, there is still very little research on practical experience where SEA monitoring can build on. The paper ambitiously aims to fill in this gap. It seeks to explore the open issues of monitoring on grounds of investigations of first SEA monitoring approaches for German regional plans and for English Regional Spatial Strategies. Taking account of the fact that experience with the practical implementation of SEA monitoring is just about to start, it mainly focuses on the measures envisaged for monitoring in the environmental/ sustainability reports. Introductory the paper explains the role of SEA monitoring to enhance planning processes. Triggered from an analysis of the legal requirements the paper outlines key questions of SEA monitoring, which also build the research profile for the empirical investigations. In the main part the paper briefly explains the regional planning context of both countries and discusses how the key questions of SEA monitoring are addressed. Based on the research findings the paper gives concluding recommendations on how to ensure a sound way of SEA monitoring. The role of SEA monitoring to enhance planning processes SEA monitoring is crucial, since it enables the results of the environmental assessment to be compared with the environmental effects which in fact occur. Hence SEA monitoring represents the missing link to 'close the loop' of impact prediction and condition setting (Sadler & Mc Cabe, 2002). The introduction of SEA monitoring thus enhances the rationale and the dynamic understanding of planning processes. Planning is an ongoing learning process which is meant to be adaptable to changes and to be advanced over time. Without monitor-
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ing the learning curve of planning processes is interrupted. The following figure 1 visualises the role of SEA monitoring within the planning cycle of regional planning.
Figure 1: SEA monitoring within the planning cycle of regional planning (source: own design)
Key questions of SEA monitoring In order to facilitate the role of SEA monitoring described above a number of key questions has to be tackled. Triggered from an interpretation of the legal requirements, literature analysis and interim research findings the following key questions of SEA monitoring have been identified: WHY SEA monitoring? WHAT to monitor? HOW to monitor? WHO is responsible? WHEN to monitor? These questions also build the framework for the research profile used for analysing the measures envisaged for SEA monitoring for German regional plans and English Regional Spatial Strategies based on document analysis, guided face to face and telephone interviews and the results of an expert workshop. The planning context of German regional plans and English Regional Spatial Strategies (RSS) In Germany, regional planning deals with the aspects of spatial planning below the level of state (Laender) planning and above the level of local planning. German regional plans set objectives and principles for the future development of a region for a five to fifteen year period. They usually comprise two parts, a text part and a part with relevant maps (1:100.000 - 1:50.000), specifying the location and size of land uses. Currently, Germany is subdivided into 97 regions. They are set up quite heterogeneously, covering both urban and rural regions, with a size varying from 325 km (Bremen) to 7.179 km (Lausitz-Spreewald) and a population varying from 236.300 (Altmark) to 3.392.400 (Berlin). With the legal transposition of the Directive the obligation to carry out an SEA for the preparation or revision of regional plans has been introduced. In England, spatial planning has undergone an extensive reform process over the last decade. Since 2004 Regional Spatial Strategies (RSS) have to be prepared for the eight English regions; for London the so-called 'London Plan' has to be prepared. RSS provide a spatial framework for the region for a fifteen to twenty year period to inform the preparation of local plans and regional and sub-regional strategies that have a bearing on land use activities. However, RSS do not usually include maps. Although the focus of RSS is on regional 336
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issues and regional priorities, it should also address sub-regional issues where appropriate. The English law requires Sustainability Appraisal (SA) for RSS. SA aim at promoting sustainable development through consideration of environmental as well as social and economic factors in the plan making process. In line with the English law and official guidance SA for RSS incorporate the requirements of the SEA Directive. This rough comparison shows differences in the role assigned to regional planning and the way SEA is integrated into the planning process. The focus of this paper is, however, not on the discussion of these differences, but they are relevant to understand and judge the SEA monitoring approaches of both countries. German and English ways of coping with the key questions of SEA monitoring Following the key questions of SEA monitoring, the legal requirements and the ways how Germany and England address them are presented. The analysis is mainly based on the measures envisaged for monitoring in the environmental/ sustainability reports of German regional plans and English RSS, taking account of the fact that experience with the practical implementation of SEA monitoring is just about to start. WHY SEA monitoring? From a general point of view the role of SEA monitoring has been explained above. According to the SEA Directive the two main reasons for SEA monitoring are "to identify at an early stage unforeseen adverse effects", and "to be able to undertake appropriate remedial action". In order to explore the grounds on which SEA practitioners build their monitoring frameworks a differentiation between four types of monitoring based on the works of (Partidario & Fischer, 2004) has been used: Baseline monitoring: long-term data collection to record changes; Conformance monitoring: checking compliance against targets/ standards; Performance monitoring: verification of causal relationships between plan intentions and sustainability/ environmental parameters/ indicators; (Significant) effects monitoring: monitoring & evaluation of the actual and unforeseen effects of the plan. For both countries the research findings showed that although a differentiation of monitoring types is possible in theory, the practice does not allow for a clear differentiation of monitoring types. Most practical approaches are set up with a mix of all types, sometimes using different names or different classifications. However, most practitioners stress that their main focus lies on (significant) effects monitoring. In Germany, there is a tendency to point out the relevance to build on and to identify cause-effect relationships with the monitoring task; in England, this role of monitoring was only mentioned in exceptional cases which, however, put a strong emphasis on it. Interestingly, in both countries, only few practitioners highlighted the ability to undertake appropriate remedial action as reason for SEA monitoring. WHAT to monitor? Legally, it is required to "monitor the significant effects of the implementation of plans and programmes in order, inter alia, to identify unforeseen effects". However, the SEA Directive does specify the subject of monitoring any further. The research findings for both countries showed that there is no general answer to the question what to monitor; it has to be answered case-specific. Practitioners in both countries highlighted the importance to identify and focus on specific problems of the particular region. In both countries, the question what to monitor mainly draws on the results of the SEA/ SA, i.e. the significant effects identified in the environmental assessment/ sustainability appraisal. This is where the differences in the role assigned to regional planning and the way SEA is integrated into the planning process become relevant. For German regional planners tend to stick to the detailed, area-related contents of regional plans, dealing with environmental effects only. In England, in contrast, the focus lies on the broader policies of the RSS, covering environmental but as well social and economic effects. In order to narrow down the number of issues to be considered within SEA monitoring, in Germany there is a tendency to focus on cumulative effects and to stick to issues where a cause-effect relationship of the plan and the effect can be established. In England, there seems to be a tendency to focus on adverse effects only, however generally allowing for a greater range of issues to be considered within monitoring, including also contextual issues. Issues that are covered within the envisaged measures for monitoring in both countries include the "development of the share of settlement areas" or the "development of retention areas for flooding". Interestingly, the latter issue is thereby assigned to effects on water in Germany and to effects on climate change in England. Issues mainly found in Germany are the "development of the size of unfragmented open spaces" or the "development of noise emissions in certain areas". Issues only found in England are the "provision of affordable housing" or "deprivation levels". Practitioners in both countries do not have a clear idea on how to address unforeseen effects, while some English practitioners consider covering them with the inclusion of contextual issues within SEA monitoring.
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HOW to monitor? There are no specifications in the SEA Directive on the methods and techniques to be used. However, the Directive recommends that "existing monitoring arrangements may be used if appropriate, with a view to avoiding duplication of monitoring". Broadly speaking, the way taken in both countries is to continue the SEA/ SA approach, by choosing indicators appropriate to measure changes in the identified significant effects. Thereby both countries focus on the use of existing monitoring mechanisms, by using a broad range of statistical and environmental baseline data collected and documented mainly by other authorities. In Germany, SEA practitioners predominately revert to spatial observation (Raumbeobachtung) and environmental baseline monitoring. This data, however, currently does not cover all the information needed for SEA monitoring; moreover it is not available area-wide, not collected in appropriate frequencies and not always compatible with the systems in use (Bovet & Hanusch, 2006). Thus German SEA practitioners are firstly facing the challenge of identifying appropriate existing monitoring mechanisms, secondly they need to double-check the eligibility of the data and thirdly its compatibility. In England, SA practitioners do at least not have to struggle with the first challenge as the preparation of Annual Monitoring Reports (AMR) for RSS is officially required. Thus the approach taken by all regions is to include the SEA/ SA monitoring tasks into the AMR. The remaining challenge is to adapt and extend the AMR in a way that it is suitable to meet the SEA/ SA monitoring requirements. Both countries are confronted with the challenges of an effective coordination of all stakeholders involved providing for a smooth exchange of data. Moreover solutions for data gaps and/ or the selection of appropriate indicators have to be found, mainly in the fields of biodiversity, human health and climate change. Both countries also show severe shortcomings in the existence of appropriate benchmarks to evaluate the results of monitoring. Finally it became obvious that up to now practitioners in both countries deal very poorly with the issue of remedial actions. WHO is responsible? The SEA Directive does not specify the responsibilities for SEA monitoring. However, according to the national legislation and the available guidance documents in both countries, usually, the competent authority for preparing the SEA/ SA is also responsible for SEA/ SA monitoring. In Germany, this is usually the regional planning body (its organisational structure varies due to the heterogeneous structure of German regions); in England, it is the Regional Assembly. In addition, in both countries, other authorities are required to provide relevant information and data for SEA/ SA monitoring. This involves a need for standardised arrangements for collaboration and exchange of data as well as a need for extended personal and technical resources and improved personal skills. WHEN to monitor? The SEA Directive does advice to monitor "at an early stage". However, it is left to the practitioners to decide when early would be and how often monitoring is appropriate. In the German practice this results in only very few details in terms of the time point and time frequency for the measures envisaged for monitoring. If possible, monitoring is aligned with the frequency of existing monitoring mechanisms used (e.g. Habitats monitoring, monitoring due to the Water Framework Directive). Mostly, there is at least clearly stated that one round of monitoring has to take place integrated in the plan revision. In England, the integration into the Annual Monitoring Report defines an annual SA/ SEA monitoring cycle. To identify some effects, this annual cycle, however, is assumed of being too frequent by some practitioners, as the implementation of a range of aspects of an RSS does not take effect within a year and thus some effects will only become apparent over a longer period. Apart from the setting of a fixed time point and frequency, both countries highlight the need for an adaptive and flexible SEA monitoring approach in order to be able to react to political changes and new technical developments. Conclusions what is the outcome of SEA monitoring and how can it be improved? Practitioners in both countries confirm that they see benefits in SEA monitoring. They expect from SEA monitoring that it will make transparent the actual significant effects and will close the planning cycle loop. Welcoming these expectations, there is a risk that the practice of SEA monitoring will not fully meet them. The research findings indicate a danger that some of the specific requirements and objectives of SEA monitoring are not taken seriously, that the database, the institutional conditions as well as the financial and personal resources are insufficient or inappropriate and that personal skills are lacking. To keep the right focus on SEA monitoring it is crucial: to link the SEA monitoring approach with SEA/SA approach and start early to identify the relevant contents of SEA monitoring, while considering the character and level of detail of the plan;
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M. Hanusch: Monitoring environmental impacts of regional plans
to check the availability and eligibly of existing monitoring measures as well as the availability and compatibility of baseline data in order to identify methodological shortcomings as well as data gaps and to check the availability of appropriate SEA monitoring benchmarks in order, inter alia, to have a justification for recommending appropriate remedial action. Thereby there must remain flexibility in the choice of specific monitoring approaches, especially at the level of regional plans due to their complex and heterogeneous character. SEA monitoring should be understood as continuous learning process feeding back into the original plan, into subsequent plans and into the next version of plans. However, SEA monitoring as follow-up task of SEA is just about to start and needs time to grow. Literature
Balla, S. (2005): Mgliche Anstze der berwachung im Rahmen der Strategischen Umweltprfung, UVP-Report, 131136. Barth, R. & Fulder, A. (2002): Implementing Article 10 of the SEA Directive, Darmstadt, ko-Insitut. Bovet, J. & Hanusch, M. (2006): Monitoring in der Raumordnungsplanung: Die berwachung der erheblichen Auswirkungen der Durchfhrung von Regionalplnen auf die Umwelt, Deutsches Verwaltungsblatt, 1345-1355. Bunge, T. (2005): Monitoring bei der Strategischen Umweltprfung, UVP-Report, 124-130. European Commission (2003): Implementation of Directive 2001/42 on the assessment of the effects of certain plans and programmes on the environment, Brussels. Glasson, J., Therivel, R. & Chadwick, A. (Eds.) (2005): Introduction to Environmental Impact Assessment, London, Routledge. Hanusch, M., Kppel, J, & Weiland, U. (2005): Monitoringanforderungen aus EU-Richtlinien und ihre Umsetzung durch die Landschaftsplanung, UVP-Report, 158-165. Jacoby, C. (2005): SUP in der Raumordnung: Positionen und Praxishinweise von ARL und MKRO, UVP-Report, 1, 2631. Partidario, M. R. & Fischer, T. B. (2005): Follow-up in Current SEA Understanding, in: Morrison-Saunders, A. & Arts, J. (Eds.) Assessing Impact: Handbook of EIA and SEA Follow-Up, London, Earthscan, 224-247. Sadler, B. & Mc Cabe, M. (2002): EIA Training Resource Manual, UNEP. Therivel, R. (2004): Strategic Environmental Assessment in Action, London, Earthscan.
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Brownfields and urban environmental management

Ana Luiza Silva Spnola Krings1, Gilda Collet Bruna2, Arlindo Philippi Jr.1, Paula Raquel Jorge da Rocha Vendramini1
1 University of So Paulo, Brazil. 2 Presbyterian University Mackenzie, Brazil anaspi@cetesbnet.sp.gov.br
Abstract The existence of contaminated areas is an environmental issue that is being increasingly detected by environmental authorities in Brazil and most specifically in the state of So Paulo. Since the beginning of the nineties it is the environmental agency that carries out the systematic management of these areas in the state of So Paulo. Despite the state having developed a specific methodology to manage such areas aiming at their recovery for future use there is urgent need to involve the municipalities, that: i) according to the established by the federal Constitution, are responsible for the ordering of the ground use and the accomplishment of the urban planning (which is seriously affected by the environment and fight pollution in any one of its forms, as well as iii) have competence to legislate about local interest matters and complement the state legislation when suitable. This paper has the intention of showing the difficulties that the state of So Paulo has been facing to manage contaminated sites that need intervention to redevelop its condition for new uses as well as to demonstrate the need of municipalities assuming their responsibilities vis--vis the redevelopment of brownfields in a joint action with the state. Introduction In So Paulo, Brazil, the state government is in charge of the environmental management of brownfields and pollution, through the CETESB State Environmental Sanitation Technology. Nevertheless the management difficulties are many, be it due to the extension of the problems in different places in the state, be it due to the large population concentration within the Metropolitan Region of So Paulo, where there are the large number of brownfields. These urban areas quality depends upon the control done by the state through the agency for control of the environmental pollution (CETESB). Therefore, the municipalities should also share this control, once they have the constitution attribution to deal with the land use and occupation. Within the urban scenery, by its turn, the old fordist industrial transformation processes are seen then as a new more flexible processes. That way, this urban scenery changed becoming post-industrial, and the large metropolises start being typical by the domain of commerce and services activities of the tertiary sector. Consequently, those old industries that have no more conditions to continue operating and expanding within these metropolises, had shifted to other areas in the hinterland of the state or even outside it, although many times keeping the command at the old location. These old land parcels and buildings were left without any concern with the environmental quality of the area, which many times come to be contaminated on one side, and on the other, these buildings not always can be re-adequate to new uses. This environmental quality issue became of worldly concern, not only on terms of the clinical health assistance, but become a matter of quality of the environment, as proposed by the World Health Organization in many of the international conferences (WHO, 1996). It is possible then to detach two basic troubles related to the local land uses and occupations: that focusing the Brownfield's identification; and that concerning the need of the re-utilization of these areas. In terms of public management, these considerations emphasize the need that the states and the municipalities work together favoring the built environment quality. This is this article contribution. Brownfields and the public power action Originally these contaminated areas are known as brownfields due to the fact that for long time land was considered as a limitless receptacle of detached materials like domestic and industrial residues, fundamentally in the supposition that this land had no limits on its toxic substances' regenerative capabilities, however today it is proved that this supposition is not correct and that the land depurative capability is exhausted (http://webspll.al.sp.gov.br/internet/download?pofileIfs=5550589&/pl368-05.doc, accessed: Feb-2007). And it is possible to add that the soils have a percolation capability in the diffusion of liquid material and of pathogenic agents that practically don't obey to physical boundaries. According to Cunha (1997) among the contaminated sources, the inactive industries are one of those that more critically affect the environment and the population. Also according to Snchez (2001) it is possible to understand this issue relating it to the industrial plants cycle of life, that had their doors shut for various motives: or because they had lost economic competitiveness; or because their location turns to be less advantaged, what, in other words can signify that there is the need of modernization and that they can leave their parcel of land for other uses, 340
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as it becomes economically a better market to close the industry's business. Cases like these are part of the urban dynamic, and deserve special attention. Nowadays they are one of the main urban conflicts to be solved. However, despite the public power actions, there are many situations where those who live in the neighborhood come to be not so sure of the effects of contamination upon their health and upon the depreciation of their properties value, which become despised because they are in dangerous areas. In many cases the state agency CETESB intervenes by requiring the area remediation in order to be rehabilitated to a new use and the re-establishment of the property social function. Besides, the licensing of the potentially pollutant activities is demanded as a duty in order to avoid the existence of new contaminations. Many times the Public Ministry interferes in these cases of contaminated areas re-occupation, which holders didn't give attention to the legislation commandment to remedy the area. According to CETESB data (2006c), the industrial and commercial activities, wastes, petrol stations and unknown accidents are the main contaminators in the state of So Paulo. Another aspect is that the existence of a contaminated area becomes the generator of many problems, like the superficial and subterranean water resources, devaluating the properties, besides the dangers to human health. The competence to "protect the environment and fight pollution in anyone of its forms" is a common competence of the Union, the States, de Federal District and the Municipalities, in terms of the 1988 Federal Constitution, article 23, VI. The competence to legislate upon the "urban right" and upon the "environment protection and pollution control" is concurrent of the Union, the States and the Federal District, in terms, respectively, of the Federal Constitution, article 24, I and VI. In relation to the municipalities, they are competent entities to "legislate upon subjects of local interest"(article 30, I), including environmental matters if of local domain, and, especially, to "promote, in what concerns, adequate territorial organization, through land use planning and control, land parceling and urban land occupation"(article 30, VIII). Discussion upon the domain of the Public Policies In this context, the urban development policy must be executed by the municipal public power, so that it can organize the town social functions and assure the inhabitants well being (Federal Constitution, article 182). And, to implement these policies, each municipality must be based on its master plan, mandatory to those municipalities with population superior then 20,000 inhabitants, located in metropolitans regions, areas of special tourist interest and/or area of influence of undertaking with environmental impact of regional scope and approved by law (MINISTRIO DAS CIDADES, 2007). That way, the Master Plan is the essential instrument of the development policy, as it establishes the urban property social function, taking also other measures so that the land parcels aren't under utilized, or proposing areas to be developed through special urban operations. Therefore these goals must be very clear in the Master Plan and must also be subjected to approval by specific legislation defining the urban perimeter in order to be applicable. Like Milar (2004), one can see that the environmental element comes to be each time more introduced into the municipality's reality, becoming also slowly, target of the local communities' awareness. Many municipalities are capacitating themselves to carry out the environmental management, the preventive one, as well as the corrective one, what, according to the Federal Constitution is a duty of the municipality and not a mere faculty. The aspects of such municipal duty and procedures to administrate the contaminated areas are seen in advance and are being debated in the scope of the discussions about the Project of Law n 358/2005 at the Legislative Power of the state. Like Lazanha (2005, p. 171), one verifies that in order to this duty of local action be obeyed, it would be convenient to count with the establishment of methodology and instruments to the evaluation, remediation and monitoring of risks of these contaminated areas in relation to the public health, in what respect their re-occupation and revitalization in the urban context. Many actors would need to involve themselves inclusive in the creation of a unified data bank with the states and municipalities' information. Also, if this data bank could be accessed by anyone interested it will be given greater reach to the preoccupations related to the environment and the health, extending the population possibilities of knowledge. In the municipality of So Paulo one observes an evolution of planning with the preoccupation with the control of contaminated areas, with the normative approval with the Decree n 42,319 of August 21, 2002, what establishes guidelines and procedures to administrate these areas; the Law n 13,430 of September 13, 2002, which approves the Strategic Master Plan that establishes that the contaminated areas or suspected of contamination only could be utilized after the specific risks evaluation (article 190, 4 paragraph). The article 249 determines that in the environmental zoning elaboration the framework of contaminated areas will have to be examined. The Law 13,564 of October 24, 2003 establishes rules to the approval of the land parcelling, building or facilities implementation in contaminated land parcels or suspected of contamination. Facing this legislation one can understand, like Valentim (2005) that recently the areas with contaminated land are considered as limiting factor to the urban development and that, in Snchez words (2004, pp. 83-4) they show how recently is the preoccupation with such areas, when he says "the administration of the contaminated areas can and should be sub-
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ject of the action of the municipality, seen the municipality responsibility in the regulation of the land use. The lonely initiatives until the moment are recent ones and they are exclusively of the municipality of So Paulo". These considerations show that it is needed a tight connection of the municipality with the contaminated areas' administration, existing, as says Marker(2003), cases in which the municipality is the revitalization project coordinator, and for this reason these areas must be identified in the Master Plan, what would allow not only to legally restrict the contaminated land use, as well as control the land use alteration eventually existing, attributing this also to the municipalities. The public power of So Paulo (2003, p.13), through its Secretariat of the Green and Environment recognizes the problematic of industrial areas reutilization with other uses, what has been happened without the preoccupation with the sanitary factors and says that "the consideration of the degraded areas is of fundamental importance in the urban and social planning ()". For that reason there is the need of regulation and use control and, according to Snchez (2001, p. 1999), "federal and states provisions should oblige the municipalities to consider the land quality in the approval of new developments always that the former use had been susceptible to contaminate the land ()". Conclusions Once more the role of the municipalities in the administration of these areas is detached, essentially because it is the public entity that controls the urban land use and occupation through the emission of specific statements, enabling also the creation of mechanisms to legally restrain the use of an contaminated estate. Also a remediation or rehabilitation of the contaminated areas should be done considering the future use for that land, which discipline is essentially a municipal attribution expressed by the Master Plan. By its turn, the lack of knowledge of the contamination by the municipalities can offer, at least two unusual situations: the municipality can oblige the parceling, occupation or utilization of an abandoned area, nonbuilt or under utilized ones, which already are contaminated, or, it can acquire, through public appropriation, or other planning instrument, and area eventually contaminated, buying that way the burden of an environmental liability that until that moment was private and a civil responsibility as a duty to solve the situation. Upon these considerations one needs to know both, the existing situation in terms of quality of the urban land use and occupation, and the existing municipalities public policies of the state of So Paulo, so that it would be possible to propose administrative and legislative alterations, contributing thus to the effective management of the contaminated areas and to the maintenance of the environmental quality and population health, and, above all, which can help the municipal entity to take decision needed. References
BRASIL. Constituio da Repblica Federativa do Brasil de 1988. Disponvel em: <http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/Constituicao/Constituiao_Compilado. htm>. Acesso em: 16 out. 2006. CETESB - Companhia de Tecnologia de Saneamento Ambiental. Relao de reas contaminadas cadastradas no Estado de So Paulo. Disponvel em: <http://www.cetesb.sp.gov.br/Solo/areas_contaminadas/relacao_areas.asp>. Acesso em: 10 set. 2006c. CUNHA, R.C.A. Avaliao de risco em reas contaminadas por fontes industriais desativadas - estudo de caso. So Paulo, 1997. Tese (Doutorado em Geocincias). Instituto de Geocincias, Universidade de So Paulo, So Paulo. LAZANHA, L.K.S. Subsdios jurdico-sociais para formulao de polticas pblicas: revitalizao de reas degradadas por contaminao no Estado de So Paulo. 2005. 184 p. Dissertao (Mestrado em Sade Pblica). Faculdade de Sade Pblica, Universidade de So Paulo, So Paulo. MARKER, A. A revitalizao de reas urbanas degradadas - polticas, instrumentos e incentivos no cenrio internacional. Projeto Gesto Ambiental Urbana - ProGAU. Prefeitura Municipal de So Paulo. Secretaria Municipal do Verde e do Meio Ambiente. 2003. MILAR, E. Direito do ambiente: doutrina, jurisprudncia, glossrio. 3 ed. rev. atual. e ampl. So Paulo: Editora Revista dos Tribunais, 2004. MINISTRIO DAS CIDADES. SNPU-Programa Fortalecimento da Gesto Municipal Urbana. Disponvel em: <http://www.cidades.gov.br/index.php?option=content&task=section&id=143>. Acesso em: march/2007. SNCHEZ, L.E. Desengenharia: o passivo ambiental na desativao de empreendimentos industriais. So Paulo: Edusp, 2001. SNCHEZ, L.E. Revitalizao de reas contaminadas. In: MOERI, E; COELHO, R; MARKER, A. (editores). Remediao e Revitalizao de reas Contaminadas: aspectos tcnicos, legais e financeiros. So Paulo: Signus, 2004. p. 79-90. SO PAULO. Prefeitura Municipal de So Paulo. A revitalizao de reas urbanas degradadas por contaminao: experincias nacionais. Secretaria Municipal do Verde e do Meio Ambiente. 2003. VALENTIM, L.S.O. Requalificao urbana em reas de risco sade devido contaminao do solo por substncias perigosas: um estudo de caso na cidade de So Paulo. 2005. 158 p. Dissertao (Mestrado em Arquitetura e Urbanismo). Faculdade de Arquitetura e Urbanismo, Universidade de So Paulo, So Paulo. WHO. Sade. Diviso de Promoo da Sade. Promoo da sade: Carta de Otawa, Declarao de Adelaide, Sundsvall e Santa F de Bogot. Traduo de L. E. Fonseca. Braslia (DF): Ministrio da Sade, 1996.
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Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA). A Contribution to Sustainable Urban Design The Berlin Approach
Alfred Herberg
Technische Universitt Brlin, Germany herberg@ile.tu-berlin.de
Summary The structure for a framework of evaluation designed to simplify the required complex information processing for the environmental impact assessment process, and make it manageable for the user, is presented. Access to the data bases used is to remain possible for the user. In the longer-term perspective, the role of an informal "environmental assessment" of a "strategic" nature, preliminary to the formal land-use decision-making process, is outlined. Such a process would not be restricted to the formal assessment process, and could moreover provide the possibility for improved public participation. Introduction It is expected that potential environmental problems, strategies for action, and subsequent compensation measures will be able to be addressed at an early stage via the strategic environmental assessment (SEA) process. Specifications for later authorisation decisions are to be able to be realised with the participation of the public and with no major disadvantages for project applicants. National implementation in Germany has been carried out via the Federal Building Code and the Environmental Impact Assessment Law. In addition to environmentally relevant planning procedures (development plans, transport route planning), such environmental protection planning procedures as those involving air-pollution control, noise prevention, and landscape planning oriented towards safeguarding the ecosystem, such as the Berlin landscape programme, are to be subject to a strategic environmental assessment process. It should be noted that in Germany, a landscape plan for which an SEA has been carried out can itself be used as an SEA evaluation standard for other planning. The Berlin State Ministry for Urban Development has assigned the Berlin University of Technology (TU) to develop a methodological framework for the environmental evaluation of the preparatory development and landscape planning process.[1] Consideration of Relevant Environmental Policies and Objectives. As is known, an SEA does not develop any new environmental goals, but rather compiles existing environmental goals as required for each decision-making process, so as to permit an evaluation of the relevance of environmental impacts (14g, Sect. 2, No. 2 of the German EIA Law). These goals provide the point of departure for the evaluation of likely relevant environmental impacts. In this process, it is not necessary to take all environmental goals present in the scientific or planning discourse into account.[2] The SEA Directive specifies as valid goals of environmental protection "[those] environmental protection objectives, established at international, Community or Member State level, which are relevant to the plan or programme, and the way those objectives and any environmental considerations have been taken into account during its preparation".[3] Environmental protection goals include both targets to be strictly observed and those which must merely be taken into account. They constitute the basis for the choice of indicators for the evaluation of the likely relevant impacts on the environment. Due to their abstract wording, legal or political-programmatic environmental goals must frequently be concretised and operationalised through the use of environmental standards. For these reasons, a staged procedure has been needed for the selection of suitable evaluation standards. First, any law and/or its implementation regulations containing legally binding limit values is consulted. With reference to the priority of other legal provisions (4 EIA Law), the national administrative regulation for implementation of the Law states that if any laws or their implementation regulations specify "legally binding limit values ... or other limit values, or non-mandatory criteria which are stricter in comparison to orientation aids stated in Annex I, EIA Law Administrative Regulation", these shall apply. The Assessment Framework for Information-Processing and Decision-Making in Berlin (heterogeneous databases and quality of environmental information) The environmental report ascertains and assesses the environmental factors population, human, animal and plants health, biological diversity, soil, water, air, climate, landscape, culture, and other assets, as well as their interrelationships. The environmental goals to be taken into account for the evaluation are to be selected such that they can also be evaluated for the expected environmental impacts of the plan or programme.
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In this regard, the goal of the Berlin State Ministry for Urban Development, which is the responsible authority, was to create an open and uniform framework for evaluation, which: would take the relevant environmental goals into account, guarantee that the evaluation data for the whole city be accessible via available data bases, and process the information in such a way that it would be usable for the daily work of planners, without their requiring consultation with the respective experts in each case. As a result, a five-stage master scale was developed, which on the one hand meets the demand for sufficient substantive distinction, and on the other still permits distinction problems to be handled in the evaluation, particularly with a heterogeneous database. It allows different situations to be brought into a comparable formal frame, based on a common structure. The evaluation, carried out on the basis of legal and technical criteria, is projected onto a fixed five-stage basic scale. The criteria are provided with data referenced to particular protection-worthy assets. The required data and expert evaluations are obtained from the Berlin Environmental Atlas (on-line in English), and the landscape programme; sometimes other data bases are needed. The suggested distinction between technical relevance and danger prevention would appear sensible, from both a legal and a substantive-methodological point of view. The national EIA Law states the contents to be evaluated, including: the hazards for the environment, including to human health (e.g. accidents), the significance and sensitivity of likely areas of impact, due to special natural or cultural-heritage features and the intensity of land use of the area, always with reference to non-compliance with environmental quality standards or limits (Annex 4, No. 2, EIA Law). "Hazards for the environment, including to human health" is a "danger prevention" factor, and aims at the reduction of existing impacts, while, the "significance and sensitivity of likely areas of impact" is a "technical relevance" factor, i.e., it aims at achieving technically favourable conditions. Particularly as regards the asset human life, protection from harmful environmental impacts, i.e., averting danger, has priority. The basic structure of the scale is as followings.
Assessment Categories
1. Technical or
Relevance for the decision-
Restriction area
No decision-making leeway
Precaution area I
2. Prevention of
Precaution area II Precaution area III Precaution area IV
Fig. 1: Basic structure and planning relevance of the master scale.
A planner can recognise the relevance of the particular technical interests without having to understand them in detail, and can immediately see their spatial relevance from the map (Fig. 3). Moreover, thanks to the structured processing of the data, he will be able to understand the underlying criteria behind this assessment and data base (Fig. 2), if that is required e.g. for formulating justifications (Essay by IDEN, BANGERT & DEJOKS). At present, sixteen different topics are evaluated. The basis for the selection, in addition to the relevance of existing environmental goals, was digital availability for the entire area of the city, which ensured that that the criteria selected would actually be workable. The update of data or the adjustment of criteria is relatively easy in this system. It is done by the experts responsible for the data. The linkage via the database ensures that changes are incorporated into the evaluation framework, so that updates, too, can be rapidly performed, without the planner having to check the voluminous data himself, to ascertain that they are current. New issues or environmental goals can also be added with no major effort. 344
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Categories for Assessment Restriction Area

(binding restrictions, limits, thresholds)
Criteria and indicators Protected areas:

Water Conservation Zones I and II as per 19 Water Resource Law or 22 Federal Water Code
Precaution area I
borderline area
Areas of very high citywide environmental significance:

Special prohibitions or restrictions in Water Conservation Zones IIIa and IIIb, as per 19 Water Resource Law or 22 Federal Water Code. Areas with a near-natural water balance and/or very high significance for the citys water balance (total drainage < 40%/ seepage < 45% of average annual precipitation) Priority groundwater protection areas under Landscape Programme
Precaution area II
Areas of citywide environmental significance:

Areas with near-natural water balance and/or very high significance for the citys water balance (total drainage 40-50%/ seepage < 45% of average annual precipitation)
Precaution area III
Areas of primarily local environmental significance:

Areas with non-natural water balance and/or moderate significance for the citys water balance (total drainage 50-70%, and all areas with seepage >45% of average annual precipitation)
Precaution area IV
Areas of minor environmental significance:

Areas with very non-natural water balance and/or no significance for the citys water balance (total drainage > 70% and seepage < 45% of average annual precipitation)
Fig. 2: Example of applying the evaluation framework with the master scale to the water balance
Restriction Area
Precaution Area I
Precaution Area II
Precaution Area III
Precaution Area IV
No information
Fig. 3: Implementation of evaluation information for the south-eastern area of Berlin.
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This methodological framework is currently being developed and implemented conceptually for the State Ministry for Urban Development as an interdisciplinary and inter-organisational EDP-based evaluation method. The goal is to enable the preparation of individually specifiable queries and evaluations for a number of workstations in different areas of specialty, in order to permit the most effective and efficient possible use of this information. An initial prototype of this application was presented to the Berlin State Ministry on 15 May 2007. Using SEA Tools to Discuss the Environmental Impact of Urban Development Scenarios The approach presented is applicable to a wide variety of planning and decision-making processes beyond the immediate purpose of the SEA, and can contribute to an optimised consideration of the ecological aspects at planning. As a component module of a strategic instrument of municipal sustainability considerations, it has the potential to ensure that the interests of environmental protection can be incorporated early and appropriately on the basis of the respectively applicable regulations. The easy access and usability provided is designed to contribute towards enabling environmental impacts to be discussed on the basis of models, concepts, development models, scenarios and alternatives, long before the formal plan is drafted and to an extent exceeding what is legally stipulated. The economic and social developments in municipal policy can thus be assessed in terms of their environmental impact at an early stage. Once the level of formal planning is reached, by contrast, many basic decision-making processes will often already be so far advanced that there is only a relatively narrow scope for modification available. Such a built-in management tool can supports the spatially relevant implementation of political sustainability targets, as formulated in the Renewed EU Sustainable Development Strategy,[4] the Sixth EU Environmental Action Programme,[5] the Thematic Strategy on the Urban Environment,[6] and Germany's National Sustainability Strategy.[7] SEA: A Key Factor for Sustainable Urban Design and Good Governance. This informal "preliminary environmental assessment" can achieve a "strategic" dimension which can be effective prior to the land-use and spatial development decision-making processes, and is not limited to the formal assessment procedure. In accordance with the principles of good governance, this is to be achieved by ensuring that relevant evaluations are easily possible at any planning workstation, in order to enable a quick evaluation of environmental relevance. The preparation of the data is designed to ensure that users can, from their web workstations if necessary, appraise the details of the criteria underlying the evaluation. After successful implementation in the administration, the plan is to make the output maps generated via the evaluation framework available for on-line public information, building on existing systems of public participation. Moreover, proposals are to be developed for making use of this instrument as an indicator-based reporting and monitoring system, and expanding it. Such a use of environmental indicators basically permits relevant contributions to the monitoring process to be implemented in the context of the sustainable appraisal assessment procedure. References
[1] HERBERG, A.; KLLER, J.; KPPEL, J. 2006: Entwicklung eines Methodenrahmen fr eine Umweltbewertung gem UVP-Gesetz (Strategische Umweltprfung) fr die vorbereitende Bauleit- und Landschaftsplanung. Not published. [2] BUNZEL, A. 2005: Umweltprfung in der Bauleitplanung: DifU - Arbeitshilfe, Berlin: 115. [3] Directive 2001/42/EC of the European Parliament and of the European Council, Assessment of the Effects of Certain Plans and Programmes on the Environment, Annex 1, Item (e), 27 June 2001. [4] Council of the European Union: Renewed EU Sustainable Development Strategy. 2006. [5] European Parliament and the European Council, Sixth Environmental Action Programme, Decision No. 1600/2002/EC, 22 July 2002. [6] Commission of the European Communities: Communication from the Commission to the European Council and the European Parliament on a Thematic Strategy on the Urban Environment, 11 January 2006. [7] German Federal Government: Perspektiven fr Deutschland: Unsere Strategie fr eine nachhaltige Entwicklung, [Perspectives for Germany: Our Strategy for Sustainable Development]. 343 pp; 2004.
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Environmental Impacts of Waste Prevention Policies applied to Solid Waste Management in Brazilian Cities
A. P. Bortoleto & K. Hanaki
University of Tokyo, Japan bortoleto@env.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp
Abstract This study presents the effects of waste prevention (WP) policies on solid waste management (SWM). Belo Horizonte and Porto Alegre were chosen as the areas of study since their SWM systems are a good example for developing countries, based on the partnership between local government and former scavengers' association which implements selective collection in both cities. A life cycle approach was used to estimate environmental loadings based on solid waste generation. The emission of major pollutants into the atmosphere and water was estimated for different scenarios and arranged in three environmental impact categories. This study demonstrated that environmental impacts decreased considerably in the future scenario as a result of the application of WP policies combined with recycling and composting. On the other hand, it also pointed out that WP depends on social acceptability and, consequently, citizens need more education to increase their participation. Therefore, more research is needed to increase cooperation among all stakeholders, improve citizen participation, and thus, achieve a successful waste prevention program. Introduction Solid waste is an inevitable product of society. In the early times, human solid waste disposal did not pose a significant problem because the population was small and the amount of land available was large. Nevertheless, problems with solid waste disposal can be traced from the 14th century, littering of food in medieval towns led to breeding of rats and outbreak of the plague epidemic, killing half of Europeans and causing many subsequent epidemics and high death tolls. Historically, health and safety have been the major concerns in solid waste management (SWM). Nevertheless, modern society demands more than this. Besides being safe, SWM must also be sustainable. In other words, it must be environmentally friendly, economically sound and socially acceptable, considering the whole life cycle of solid waste generation from the cradle to the grave. Thus, in dealing with solid waste, there are two fundaments requirements: reduce solid waste generation and have an effective system to manage the solid waste still produced. A combination of waste prevention (WP) and integrated solid waste management (ISWM) aims to achieve these both requirements as a clean step to reduce environmental impacts. WP is usually placed at the top of the solid waste management hierarchy as a precursor rather than part of it. It will affect solid waste's nature and volume; however solid waste for disposal will still remain. An ISWM system associates solid waste streams, collection, treatment and disposal methods, with the objective of achieving environmental benefits, economic optimization and societal acceptability (White et.al.,2002), with the flexibility to channel solid waste via different treatments if some condition changes. This study aims to understand how WP policies inside ISWM systems, based on the evaluation of environmental impacts. The systems adopted in Belo Horizonte and Porto Alegre, presenting how they work in local context, is introduced as a potential model for adoption elsewhere. Study Field Belo Horizonte City, located in the southeast of Brazil, has an area of 355 km2 and a population of approximately 2.5 million, of which all live in urban areas of the city. As of 2004, it has a per capita GRP of US$ 4,173 per year. Belo Horizonte is the country's third largest city, with the best quality of life in Latin America according to United Nations and also ranked 45th among the top 100 cities of the world. Recently, Belo Horizonte won the United Nations Public Service Award. Construction, high technology, and other industries make it one of the most economically dynamic urban areas in Brazil. In May 1990, scavengers' work led to the creation of the Street Scavenger's Association (ASMARE Associao dos Catadores de Papel e Material Reaproveitvel); through ASMARE the scavengers demanded the right to work in the city, a guarantee to collect recyclable materials and to have a proper place to sort them. In 1993, the Superintendence of Urban Cleansing began a selective handling and treatment system for recyclable wastes in the city, in accordance with the "Agenda 21", to minimize environmental impacts and maximize social and economic benefits Porto Alegre City, located in the southern of Brazil, has an area of 470.25 km2 and a population of approximately 1.5 million, of which all live in urban areas of the city. As of 2004, it has a per capita GRP of US$ 4,697
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per year. Since 1996, it has consistently had the highest standards of living of all Brazilians metropolitan areas. Result of the adoption of techniques for participatory democracy, a high level of citizen involvement in allocating the municipal budget, the reorientation of public priorities by citizens, the integration of public environmental management policies and the regeneration of public spaces. In 1990, accompanied by an intensive awareness raising campaign, the Municipal Department of Urban Cleansing (DMLU), a department of the public administration created in 1979, implemented the Integrated Solid Waste Management ISWM in Porto Alegre. Besides to include sustainable development, the objective was also to fight poverty with income generation as in Belo Horizonte. Therefore, in both cases, the first action was to create an organization for those who were living by collecting recyclable wastes (the Former Scavengers Association), followed by partnership to introduce selective collection in the cities. In Belo Horizonte, it was established that the local government would be responsible for ordinary waste collection while former scavengers would collect, separate, store, and trade recyclable wastes. In case of Porto Alegre, the local government would collect and deliver recyclable wastes to the sorting units where former scavengers would separate, store, and sell them to recycling factories. Methodology & Results The main purpose of this study was to analyse with quantitative instruments, environmental aspects of the Belo Horizonte and Porto Alegre's ISWM systems and, consequently, to evaluate how WP will contribute to improve it in a future scenario. In order to achieve this objective, a boundary system was established considering only the household solid waste of the city; including its collection, treatment and final disposal. Quantitative analysis was done through life cycle assessment (LCA), a comprehensively tool to determine environmental loadings. According to HANAKI (2002), besides product life cycle assessment as applied in a company, there are many other possibilities of using LCA as analytical and assistant tool to decrease the environmental loading of the urban activities as a whole. In both cities, for comparison, were applied three different scenarios of the system at the previous (scenario 1), current (scenario 2) and future (scenario 3) situations. The boundaries of this study were the collection and treatment processes for Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) and the final disposal of solid wastes produced in those processes. The functional unit of the base analysis is one ton of household fraction of MSW with a certain solid waste composition. The inventory of the operation of the core system was based on specific data from the year 2005 in each case study, as showed in Table 1.
Table 1: Belo Horizonte & Porto Alegre's Integrated Solid Waste Management Systems Data.
Belo Horizonte (SLU, 2005) Total solid waste collected per year Local population attended Proportion of employees and inhabitants Household solid waste production SWM cost per inhabitant SWM cost per employee SWM cost per year SWM economic self-sufficiency Total recyclable wastes collected 535,029 ton 91% 2.2 0.7 Kg/ inhabit. day US$ 18 US$ 8,363 US$ 14,731,099 50,4% 7,297 ton Porto Alegre (DMLU, 2005) 317,182 ton 100% 2.5 0.6 Kg/ inhabit. day US$ 27 US$ 10,887 US$ 3,575,320 51,3% 21,600 ton
The environmental parameters chosen as of interest to this study were the net energy consumption, the air emissions of CO2, CO, CH4, N2O, SO2, H2S, HCl, HF, NH3, and particulates (dust), and the water emissions of total-N, total-P, and COD. Those emissions were clustered into three environmental impact categories: Global 348
A. P. Bortoleto & K. Hanaki: Environmental Impacts of Waste Prevention Policies
Warming Potential (GWP), Acidification Potential (AP), and Nutrient Enrichment Potential (NEP). The method of impact potentials (IP) was chosen as the characterization method for this study. Scenario 1 consisted in an ordinary solid waste collection without source separation of recyclable wastes, occurring three times a week. After collection, the solid waste is directly brought to landfill site, where is disposed and covered with a clay of inert material. Leachate is collected with 99.8% of efficiency and treated in loco at Leachate Treatment Plant. Landfill gas is also collected with 50% of efficiency and flared to avoid CH4 emissions. Scenario 2 is a reflection of the current situation in Belo Horizonte and Porto Alegre regarding SWM. It consisted in an ordinary solid waste and selective collection with source separation of recyclable wastes, occurring three times a week and twice a week, respectively. After selective collection, recyclable wastes are delivered at sorting units and separated in 4 different categories; and, then brought to recycling factories where they are cleaned and submitted to specific processes of recycling. Ordinary solid waste collection deliveries solid waste directly to landfill site, where is disposed and covered with a clay of inert material. Leachate is collected with 99.8% of efficiency and treated in loco at LTP. Landfill gas is also collected with 50% of efficiency and flared to avoid CH4 emissions. Scenario 3 is an alternative situation for Belo Horizonte and Porto Alegre's ISWM systems regarding solid waste management, with the adoption of waste prevention policies. It consisted in an ordinary solid waste and organic collection occurring three times a week and a selective collection with source separation of recyclable wastes, twice a week. After selective collection, recyclable wastes are delivered at sorting units and separated in 4 different categories; and, then brought to recycling factories where they are cleaned and submitted to specific processes of recycling. Organic collection collects source separated kitchen waste and yard trimmings and deliveries at the composting site, where are mixed up following technical procedures and transformed in compost to substitute chemical fertilizers. Ordinary solid waste collection deliveries solid waste directly to landfill site, where is disposed and covered with a clay of inert material. Leachate is collected with 99.8% of efficiency and treated in loco at Leachate Treatment Plant. Landfill gas is also collected with 50% of efficiency and flared to avoid CH4 emissions. Table 2 presents the IP per ton of solid waste for all scenarios assessed from Belo Horizonte and Porto Alegre case studies. Belo Horizonte and Porto Alegre decreased successively GWP and NEP, however, in case of AP; both cities enlarged theirs impacts especially because of recycling and composting activities.
Table 2: Impact Potential for Belo Horizonte and Porto Alegre (per ton of solid waste).
Belo Horizonte Potential Unit Scenario 1 GWP AP NEP kg CO2 g SO2 g NO33.83E+08 1.07E+08 3.71E+09 Scenario 2 3.81E+08 9.31E+07 4.09E+08 Scenario 3 1.91E+07 3.84E+08 6.13E+07 Scenario 1 2.13E+08 6.23E+07 2.06E+09
Porto Alegre Scenario 2 2.02E+08 1.12E+08 1.91E+09 Scenario 3 7.46E+06 2.15E+08 1.40E+07
Regarding GWP, the comparison between scenario 1 and 2 shows a decreasing, consequence of a low recycling scale. At the first scenario, emissions were high at the landfill site due to absence of any previous treatment, increasing GWP and NEP. Landfilling requires far higher electricity consumption, and produces more methane and nutrient emissions than any other solid waste treatment process. Furthermore, CO, NO2 and particulate matter are generated by flaring landfill gas. In contrary, AP increased at scenario 2 and 3 because of recycling emissions and NH3 emissions from composting of organic wastes. Recycling processes demand a high consumption of energy and resulted in elevated emissions of CO2, NO2, SO2 and HCl, increasing heavily AP. Nevertheless, production with recycled materials still consumes less energy than with virgin materials and, consequently, in many cases it has also lower emissions. Discussion Solid waste is associated with potential threats to sustainability because of its quantity, its intrinsic hazard, and/or the risks and impacts linked to its generation, management, and final disposal. Same technology for SWM process results in diverse environmental impacts depending of the city. Even though similar SWM modeling was applied, the impact potentials in different case studies varied considerably. Besides solid waste com-
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position and source separation, electricity fuel sources were an important factor that affected significantly the outcomes of this study. In regards to GWP, electricity fuel sources played a lower role in both cities, since hydro power energy does not have high environmental impacts at its production. Recycling process presented the highest saved emissions as well as CO2 emissions, contributing to this impact potential. Composting and energy recovery process and WP policies decreased, in both cities, the CH4 emission at the third scenario. Usually one SWM process or technology does not have overall lowest environmental impacts. Trade-offs among management options were found in all case studies, indicating that society will have to make choices regarding which type of environmental impact is less desirable in a certain place. The results demonstrated that WP and source separation can affect considerably GWP and NEP. Nevertheless, to cause more significant difference, it is necessary combine WP with other SWM options, for example, composting. Although the assessment of a single waste treatment technology has its importance, the insertion of this technology in a broad context, together with surrounding systems is a decisive factor for determination of its sustainability. From an urban perspective, instead of assessing a single technology, it is more appropriate to assess several technologies paying attention at least to four aspects: life cycle perspective, material-differentiated approach, substantive integration of social and economic aspects, and, institutional mechanisms of co-operation to induce greater reduction. It is important to highlight that WP, re-use and recycling rates vary substantially between individual households and for a variety of reasons. Small changes in lifestyle can result in significant alterations in environmental aspects. It has a significant impact on a willingness to reduce waste since this is something that is, on the whole, only achievable by the individual, whereas the recycling of solid waste is usually perceived as being an industrial process undertaken by the local government and private institutions. Therefore, WP efforts should attempt to address some failures and barriers associated with solid waste and materials policy, which vary in severity from country to country: inadequate information, lack of system analysis, of comprehensive cost-benefit approaches and, of environmental sensitivity. Nevertheless, there is the issue of how to change the attitudes and behaviors of households towards environmental action. Environmental education is less well defined and poorly understood by researches regarding social approaches. Consequently, in order to better understand attitudes and behaviors, more exploratory and experimental work is required. Researchers need to investigate the underlying factors of each behavioral category and to be based on targeted messages at identified sections of the population. At present, many open questions persist about the scope and adequacy of existing WP efforts to deal with what is an increasingly complex issue. The solid waste challenge is not limited to developing or developed countries. The current lack of extensive WP policy experience suggests that all countries may benefit from pursuing intensified information exchange activities, undertaking in-depth case studies on the design, implementation, and evaluation of WP programs. As indicated in this study, WP, ISWM, source separation decreased considerably environmental impacts. Nevertheless they need to be further addressed and evaluated in LCA and behavioral studies. References
Hanaki, K. (2002), "Environmental Loading of Resource and Heat Recovery", in: Future Cities: Dynamics and Sustainability, pp. 105-130, Kluwer Academic Publishers, the Netherlands. DMLU - Municipal Department of Urban Cleansing of Porto Alegre (2005), data available at http://www.portoalegre.rs.gov.br/dmlu/ IBGE - Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (2000): PNSB - National Survey of Basic Sanitation. From IBGE, Publications (2000): http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/condicaodevida/pnsb/ IBGE - Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (2000): National Census. From IBGE, Publications (2000): http://www.ibge.gov.br/censo/ SLU - Superintendence of Urban Cleansing of Belo Horizonte (2005), data available at http://portal1.pbh.gov.br/pbh/ White, P.R., Frankie, M., Hindle P. (2002). Integrated Solid Waste Management. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford.
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Impact of the textile industry on cities and its role in the Brazilian context
M. L. M. L Padilha, M. S. Pioli, S. Coutinho, A. Philippi Jr, T.F. Malheiros
Faculty of Public Health at the University of So Paulo, Brazil. malupadilha@usp.br
Abstract The goal of this study is to identify the potential impacts that industries have on the urban environment, and the current role of a municipality, as well as its environmental agency, and the establishment of regulations for reduction of noise and vibration's. It also seeks to present the directives for national and municipal urban policies, to establish how the sector can best adapt its regulations in the pursuit of viable alternatives for its development. This is a descriptive study, carried out through literature survey and analysis of legislation aimed at preventing environmental impacts resulting from expansion of cities. Introduction Textile industries in Brazil have been growing since 1880, playing a fundamental role in the country's economic development. Today it is the seventh largest industry in the world, with total revenues of US$ 33 billion, and employing 1,500,000 workers (PRADO & PRADO, 2005). The first factories were built close to rivers, to use water for energy and in production processes, far from urban centers. With the increase in urban populations, and the resulting expansion of cities, the factories were integrated into urban regions with high population densities, creating pressure to control noises and vibrations that cause discomfort. The municipality of Americana, in the So Paulo State, in the southeast region of Brazil, is an example of this. Along with noise and vibration, socio-environmental factors such as waste disposal, release of untreated contaminants (dyes, fixers) into water bodies, excessive water consumption of around 400 L of water to produce 1 kg of finished fabric with the technology currently used (SILVA, 2006, p. 2-3;PADILHA et al. 2004), emissions of gases without appropriate filters (in the wood fired boilers), etc. Based on complaints from the population, the environmental agency of the So Paulo State, together with the Textile Environmental Committee, proposed draft Vibration Standard to provide parameters for monitoring. At the federal level, it is required to use the Brazilian standard for assessment of noise in inhabited areas to ensure the comfort of the community In regards to the siting of industrial facilities, with the promulgation of the City Statute and the constitutional requirement that municipalities prepare a Master Plan as an instrument of urban planning that includes, among other things, the creation of industrial zones, it is expected to prevent and reduce the vibrations caused by industries over the long term. The Municipality of Americana Americana is the headquarters of the Textile Cluster with 67.7% of its industries involved in the Textile Production Chain (AMERICANA, 2006). Between the 1960s and 1980s and is a significant population grow because of the installation of new industries brought about, in particular because of the construction of the Anhanguera highway linking the So 200.000 Paulo capital to interior. The Municipal Index of 150.000 Human Development is 0.840, greater than that of the Campinas Metropolitan Region, which is 0.835, 100.000 although the vulnerability index is 7.1% for the high 50.000 and very high income population, but it has specific policies to address this issue (PNUD,2000, 0 Americana, 2007). 1950 1960 1970 1980 1991 1996 2000 In the environmental area, the Americana municCensus year ipality is supported by the local office of the So Paulo Environmental Sanitation Technology Figure 1: Population growth in the municipality of Company (CETESB), the environmental agency of Americana the So Paulo State, which receives complaints from Source: Prepared by authors based on data from the the public about disturbances such as noise and Informativo socioeconmico da Prefeitura Municipal vibrations. Americana, 2006 p.5.
Population
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Table 1. Response to complaints from the public -Number of complaints Source: Prepared by authors based CETESB Americana Environmental Office, apud. Informativo socioeconmico da Prefeitura Municipal de Americana, 2006 p.64.
Type of disturbance Odor Black smoke Noise pollution and vibration Other cases Industrial effluents Water Particulates Dust Solid Waste Burning of sugarcane straw Open air burning Accidents with transport of dangerous goods Fish mortality TOTAL 2005 % of total 277 26.18 261 24.67 228 21.55 120 11.34 56 5.29 43 4.06 32 3.02 21 1.98 9 0.85 4 0.38 4 0.38 3 0.28 1,058 100
In the textile industries, weaving stands out because the looms have an "undesirable sound" and are generally located in mixed-use areas with commerce, industry, and residences, where they disturb their neighbors (CETESB, 1986, p.1).
Urban regulation City Statute promulgated by the Federal Government (2001), provide regulations pursuant to Articles182 and 183 of the 1988 Federal Constitution on the issue of Urban Policy. This law establishes general standards for "public order and the social interest, which regulate the use of urban property for the public good, security and well-being of citizens, as well as environmental equilibrium". It seeks to develop city planning, and the spatial and territorial distribution of population and economic activities "in order to avoid and correct the distortions of urban growth and its negative effects on the environment regulation and control of land use, [in order to avoid:] the inappropriate use of urban properties; the proximity of incompatible or inconvenient uses; subdivision of land, construction and the excesses or inappropriate uses of urban infrastructure; traffic generating centers, without the existence of corresponding infrastructure; pollution and environmental degradation; protection, preservation and restoration of the natural and built environment, and of the cultural, historical, artistic, landscape and archaeological heritage (Brazil, 2001). The Master Plan as the instrument regulating the subdivision of use and occupation of land and environmental zoning, must be disseminated in public hearings and discussions to assist the public. Based on new guidelines contained in the City Statute, this research analyzed the Master Plan and the laws addressing the issue of noise and vibrations in the Americana Municipality. It was observed that, since 1948, the municipality has carried out planning such that new industries have not been allowed in the city Central Zone, so that the industries don't disturb the neighborhood with no ways, traffic, transport and unloading (AMERICANA, 2006). The Master Plan for the Integrated Development of the Municipality of Americana (PDDI de Americana), created in 1999, considers its planning to be systematic, dynamic, and keeping up with the evolution of economic activities, with a goal of conserving the quality of life of the population. The "regulation and development of the physical territory, control of land use and occupation establishes criteria that enable a mixture of non-disturbing uses and the control of density, aiming at compatibility with infrastructure capacity", in accordance with the scale and nature of the project, thus avoiding impacts on the neighborhood, the socio-cultural and environmental characteristics, infrastructure and drainage systems, health policy, highway and transport system, education, social assistance, culture, sports, leisure, tourism and environment. Industries are classified as I1- industries virtually without environmental risk; I2- industries with minor environmental risk; I3 industries with moderate environmental risk, which can be located in the municipality, as long as the activity and the risk generation potential is described. According to the municipal administration of Americana (2006), the PDDI was proposed to "re-organize the territory in order to reduce the conflicts over land use and maximize the social benefits of land occupation and the carrying out of private activities". In 2006, the Americana administration proposed to the City Council the drafting of a new PDDI, establishing guidelines for the industry, seeking to "encourage and promote the installation of labor intensive companies that don't cause disturbances and that are integrated in the chain of production of other companies in the region...; promote and encourage activities that create jobs and income, with attention to appropriate occupation of urban land and environmental equilibrium; creating programs that facilitate, especially for small and medium medium-sized companies, the installation and technological support for technological modernization and management; contributing to the installation of multi-use projects -- industry, services and housing -- for the creation of new jobs" (AMERICANA, 2006, p.7). In parallel with the Master Plan, laws were passed donating lots of land to companies willing to relocate their installations to sites where they would not cause disturbances, or to change their activities to reduce their potential pollution. Along with the laws for land use and occupation, municipal laws have been approved since 1974 containing sanctions for industries that generate noise and vibrations. These laws are used as public policy instru352
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ments for establishing responsibility in the environmental health area of the municipal administration, which must consider and inspect noise levels in issuing or renewing operating permits for industrial activities (AMERICANA, 1989). The law passed in 1998 prohibits disturbances such as noise and vibrations that can affect the welfare of the population, and sets out penalties such as written notification; firings; partial or total shutdown of the establishment; cancellation of permit; notification of the Attorney for the Public Interest; cancellation or reduction of tax and fiscal benefits offered by the Municipality and the respective time frames for corrective measures and cases of repeat offenses (AMERICANA, 1998). In 1986, CETESB carried out a detailed mapping of the issue of noise and vibrations from a large number of facilities and made suggestions for resolving each case. Later, with the intermediation of the Textile Environmental Committee, which involves the participation of CETESB, associations representing the textile industries of So Paulo State, and universities, draft Vibration Standards were proposed that set out acceptable levels for vibrations according to the type of land use around the facilities. Conclusions The promulgation of the City Statute and the constitutional requirement that municipalities prepare a Master Plan, were aimed at creating a more organized approach to conflict over land use and occupation, especially with the creation of industrial zones, as an attempt to resolve these issue of vibrations caused by industries. However, in most cities the City Council have still not passed the required laws. Although Americana has approved a series of Master Plans, the problem of disturbances from noise and vibration still persists. From the point of view of the companies, the actions necessary to control industrial noise are being implemented through enclosing of machinery or buildings "appropriate to the type of land use and occupation around the company", along with installation of machinery with lower noise levels with technologies available on the market, or transferring these plants to appropriate areas when "it is technically and financially unviable to install thermal and acoustic controls at the existing site" (CETESB, 1986, p.22-27). Even with the state environmental agency offering suggestions for solutions to the problems of noise and vibrations, over the last 20 years and after six years of discussion of the draft to state and vibration standards, the industries continue to cause disturbances to the population of Americana, which demonstrates the ineffectiveness of the application of laws and for transfering the industries will have a high cost. And the solution is still far off, since the issuing of project operating licenses is the responsibility of the state agency, which prevents the Municipality from having autonomy to issue licenses and inspect environmental issues. We conclude that industries take a reactive approach to sanctions, and the solution is complex, because the industry is the municipality's principal economic activity, and any decision that results in social costs to workers in the short term is not well accepted A more in-depth analysis will require knowledge of the creation of the municipal environmental committee, which could be characterized by a lack of training of the human resources in the municipality in the environmental area, which prevents autonomous local environmental management activities. Bibliography
AMERICANA Municipal Administration. Law 3233, dated October 23, 1998. Estabelece diretrizes, critrios e normas para emisso de rudos urbanos e proteo do bem estar e do sossego pblico e d outras providncias. Available at: <http://www.americana.sp.gov.br/legislacao/Leis/3233.htm>. Accessed on March 18, 2007. AMERICANA (Municipal Administration). Draft Law no. 61, dated September 21, 2006. Dispe sobre o Plano Diretor de Desenvolvimento Integrado do Municpio de Americana / PDDI. Available at: <http://www.americana.sp.gov.br/esmv4/americana_13.asp?codcat=4&codit=90&codpage=1&codimp=0&codsub=266>. Accessed on October 10, 2006. AMERICANA (Municipal Administration). Texto bsico sobre o Plano Diretor de Desenvolvimento Integrado do Municpio de Americana. Available at: <diretorhttp://www.americana.sp.gov.br/esmv4/americana.asp?codsub=0&codcat=0&codit=0P3>. Accessed on December 5, 2006. AMERICANA (Municipal Administration). Informativo scio-econmico do municpio de Americana. Secretaria de Planejamento e Controladoria - SEPLAN. Unidade de Estatstica e Anlise Scio-Econmica. Americana: Portal da PM de Americana. n 22, 2006. Available at: < http://www.americana.sp.gov.br/esmv4/site_download/Informativo_2006.pdf>. Accessed on October 11, 2006. AMERICANA (Municipal Administration). Expanso territorial urbana, zoneamento, uso e ocupao do solo. Workshop on construction of a Master Plan with civil society.20/06/2006. Place: CIEP do So Vito, Americana. Available at: <http://www.americana.sp.gov.br/esmv4/americana_13.asp?codcat=4&codit=90&codpage=1&codimp=0&cod-
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sub=266>. Accessed on November 10, 2006. BRAZIL. Federal Government. Law no. 10,257, dated July 10, 2001. Regulamenta os artigos. 182 e 183 da Constituio Federal, estabelece diretrizes gerais da poltica urbana e d outras providncias. Available at: <http//www.planalto.gov.br-L10257>. Accessed on February 15, 2007. CETESB. Companhia de Tecnologia Saneamento Ambiental do Estado de So Paulo. Programa 1.6. Desenvolvimento e transferncia de tecnologia de avaliao e controle de rudos, vibraes e outras formas de energia no ambiente. Project 1.06.02. Avaliao das condies sonoras urbanas e estudos alternativos para controle de rudos da indstria txtil do municpio de Americana. So Paulo: CETESB, Jan. 1986. PADILHA, M. L. M. L.; FERRARI, G. V.; AMENDOLA, M.C. F. M.; GALHEGO, M. C. Estudo em uma indstria de pequeno porte do setor txtil sob o aspecto ambiental, de sade ocupacional e segurana do trabalho. 2004. Monografia de concluso de Curso (Especializao em Gesto Ambiental) - Faculdade de Sade Pblica - USP, So Paulo. PNUD. United Nations Development Programme <http://www.pnud.org.br/atlas/ranking/IDHM%2091%2000%20Ranking%20decrescente%20(pelos%20dados%20de%202000).htm> Accessed on March 22, 2007. PRADO, R.V.B.; PRADO, M.V. Relatrio setorial da cadeia txtil brasileira. So Paulo: IEMI; 2004. SILVA, M. A. C. da. Avaliao experimental e modelagem do processo contnuo de adsoro do preto remazol b em coluna de leito fixo de carvo ativado. 2006. Thesis (Masters in Chemical Engineering) - Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife.
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Environmental Impacts by Low-Income Settlements in Rio de Janeiro

L. F. F. Cerqueira, L. Pimentel da Silva & M. Marques
Environmental Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, UERJ University of State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. lfernandocerqueira@terra.com.br
Abstract Due to the lack of an effective housing policy for low-income families (the working class), during the last decades, an intensive unplanned expansion of many cities in Brazil has resulted in many informal settlements with no sanitation infrastructure that need and should be re-ordained. This kind of land occupation causes several environmental impacts, mainly on the water resources. At the same time, a large segment (portion) of the population living without proper sanitation conditions poses a health hazard to the local community. This paper analyses the legislation concerning land use and occupation in the city of Rio de Janeiro, as well as the fundamentals for the use of urban redesign, as a strategy to mitigate the above mentioned impacts. The study focuses on the water basin of Jacarepagu lowland, an area of city growth (Figure 1). A settlement that represents and typifies the peripheral urban occupation in the basin has been selected as case study. The methodological approach was based on the assessment of the living conditions of the target population, including detailed description of the sanitation conditions of the dwellings and the level of the existing urban infrastructure. A Causal Chain Analysis (CCA) was constructed to enable the analysis of the links between the environmental impacts and the failures in the mechanisms of social organization affecting different institutions. The results indicate how the environmental impacts were triggered. The main existing gaps in the municipal and state policies and programmes for the redesign of slums were identified. Based on the results of the fieldwork, the CCA and the gaps in the governmental programmes, some proposals are presented for the reordainment (adequacy) of low-income settlements in the city of Rio de Janeiro, mainly on the outskirts. It is believed that, bearing in mind the specifics of the case studied, the conclusions drawn can be applied to other cities facing the same process of unplanned low-income settlements. Introduction In many cities all over the world and in Latin America in particular, there has been a growing expansion of slums enclosing/engulfing the cities. Low-income families lacking the means to pay the high prices charged for legal property, resort to living in slums, as an alternative to their housing problems. Housing policy in Brazil for low-income families has not been effective so far. Systematic efforts made by the Federal Government in this area involved the setting up of the National Housing System and the National Housing Bank in 1964. However, these institutions were not only concerned with the housing problems of working class families, but also with those of middle class families. This system was phased out in 1986 and since then Caixa Econmica Federal 1 (BIENENSTEIN, 2001) has been playing the role of financing the housing acquisition programme, but again not specifically focused on low-income population. The fast growing occupation of urban areas, as low-income informal settlements (slums), coupled with the lack of effective public policies, makes it difficult the implementation of urban infrastructure services, such as access to drinking water, sewerage system, garbage collection and urban drainage. The absence of such services causes serious impacts on the water resources, on social welfare and consequently on living standards (Pimentel da Silva et al., 2005). Such impacts affect the society as a whole, including the population of the "formal" urban areas, (Cerqueira, 2006). The main aim of the studies in this area is to contribute to the understanding and assessment of the impact of the fast growing occupation of urban areas, as low-income informal settlements (slums), on the environment and the living conditions of the population. Also, to put forward proposals to mitigate those impacts and to improve the living standards in the cities. This study focuses on the low-income informal settlements situated in the water basin of Jacarepagu lowland, a rapidly growing area in the city of Rio de Janeiro, a metropolis of about 6 million inhabitants (IBGE, 2000). These studies involved a peri-urban community called Cascatinha, with characteristics of both rural and urban areas and typical of the slums situated in the districts of Vargem Grande and Vargem Pequena. The implications of this way of living in the community were studied so as to provide the government authorities with the necessary information to improve these areas. Life quality and sanitation conditions were checked, as well as the level of existing infrastructure. A survey was carried out aiming to identify local residents, their personal history, their perception of their own living conditions and their yearnings. Moreover, "Favela Bairro" and "Bairrinho", local government programmes, that focus on improving urban and peri-urban settlements were analysed revealing a series of gaps. Due to the complexity and interrelation of problems, a Causal Chain Analysis (e.g. Marques, 2004) was also developed. Finally, based on the above mentioned, a set of propos-
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als is presented aiming ultimately to contribute to the urban re-design of these settlements, as well as to their adequacy to the "formal/legal" city. Methodology The methodology applied to this study meant investigating the issues that involve land occupation in urban areas, focusing on the process as far as low-income informal settlements are concerned and their impact on the environment. For this case study, the Community of Cascatinha was selected because it typifies the process of land occupation in an important area of urban expansion in the city of Rio de Janeiro, Jacarepagu lowland. Besides that, as this is a less populated area, there is greater possibility of intervention and re-ordainment. To this purpose, in the bibliographic review we included several programmes implemented by the Municipality of Rio de Janeiro, over the past years, aiming to mitigate the impacts and improve the living conditions of the slum dwellers. This bibliographic review has enabled to assess the initiatives taken by the Municipality for the re-urbanization of the slums and to pinpoint the gaps in those initiatives. After defining the area under study and reviewing the bibliography, we carried out field work to investigate the dwellers' living conditions, including a survey on the sanitation and structural conditions of the dwellings, the existence of urban infrastructure services and their operating conditions, besides the history of the land occupation. Fortyfive interviews were made with the local residents in June 2006. At that time there were 800 inhabitants living in 200 dwellings in the Community of Cascatinha. In the interviews several topics were discussed, ranging from personal hygiene habits, health, schooling, and migration flows to socio-economic conditions, leisure time activities, work and urban infrastructure. Due to the complex relation between the existence of environmental impacts and the anthropic actions causing them, a Causal Chain Analysis 2, was done to demonstrate, in graphic terms, the different social and environmental impacts observed in Cascatinha Village. The Causal Chain Analysis, coupled with data resulting from the analysis of specific pieces of related legislation, government plans and field work contributed to the formulation of proposals for urban re-design aiming to better adequate these communities to the "formal city" and improve the quality of life in the major urban centres. Results Figure 1 presents the localization of the studied area. The visual observation and the opinion survey carried out with the community dwellers of Cascatinha revealed, among other aspects, the sanitation conditions of the dwellings in the Village, how they dispose sewage, how they got water for their use, as well as all the negative aspects and factors that contributed in a negative way to the living conditions in the Community, as seen from the dwellers' point of view. Their yearnings towards improving their living conditions were also identified. Important data relating sanitation, personal hygiene habits and environmental health was collected. As for this data, it is worth mentioning that while the dwellers dispose untreated sewage either in gutters, or in rudimentary pits, or in the drainage ditch that crosses the community, about 40% of the population resort to wells for their water supply. Table 1 shows the sanitation conditions observed in the dwellings in the Cascatinha Community. The use of pits and sinkholes, however, has limitations and is of little efficiency in the treatment of sewage, reducing only 30% of the organic waste material. The rest permeates into the soil, contaminating it and more often than not, contaminating the underground water. It is worth mentioning that there are no (community) concerns about the location of sewage disposal devices (pits) and those to provide access to water (wells). Therefore, there is serious danger of contaminated water being used for human consumption. In the case of the dwellings that dispose of their waste directly in the ditch that crosses the Cascatinha, it could be observed the deterioration of the watercourse, leading to eutrophication. Among the main negative aspects of the vil-
Figure 1: Localization of the Cascatinha Community
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Table 1: Sanitation Conditions in the Cascatinha Community
With toilet facilities at home. (%) 95,56
With sink in the kitchen. (%) 84,44
With a washtub at home (%) 75,56
With a living room/ bedroom (%) 80,00
lage, the recurring floods resulting from the overflow of the ditch, which carries away the waste, and the presence of a large number of rodents were mentioned (Table 2). When there is a flood, partly due to unplanned land occupation, there is a synergy between water pollution, the presence of vectors and inadequate disposal of sewage. Under these conditions, there is imminent danger of spreading diseases, such as leptospirosis, connected with poor sanitation conditions. This situation is aggravated when considering the distance of 10 km to the nearest emergency unit, situated in Barra da Tijuca, a middle class district, where most of the Cascatinha residents work/ perform their daily activities. Also, as for the incidence of diseases related to lack of sewerage services, a very high frequency of dengue fever was observed among the residents of Cascatinha. In fact, the incidence of this disease in the urban areas of Rio de Janeiro has been demanding the attention of the authorities and the civil society. The residents of places like the Cascatinha Community, who have intermittent public supply of water, tend to store it inadequately in buckets and cans, thus creating the breeding ground (clean still water) for the mosquito that transmits the disease.
Table 2: Cascatinha Community Main Problems
Heat (%) 4,88
Floods(%) 31,71
Rodents (%) 39,02
Mosquitoes (%) 14,63
Others 9,76
Another intimate connection can be made between housing conditions deprived of urban infrastructure and the impact on water resources and environmental health is the pollution of the Morto river. All the waste coming from the ditch that crosses Cascatinha flows into this river. The same applies to untreated sewage and solid waste coming from other low-income settlements or even from middle class condominiums. At present, the Morto river is in a serious process of eutrophication. Its polluted water flows into Praia da Macumba, a beach area in the Atlantic Ocean largely used for leisure time activities, at the weekends. Based on these results, the Causal Chain Analysis was applied aiming to detect the existing interrelations between environmental impacts and the anthropogenic actions related to the housing conditions in the settlement as well as the residents' health problems. This methodology besides favouring the graphic representation, in the form of a flowchart, of the problems and the environmental impacts, it also showed their relationship with socio-economic issues and the policies implicit in the problem of housing low-income families, such as the limited initiative taken by the government to provide housing conditions for the working class and to intervene in the process of urban deterioration/spoliation that has been affecting major Brazilian cities. The analysis of the main programmes implemented by the Municipality of Rio de Janeiro for the slums, such as "Favela-Bairro" (Turning Slums into Districts) and "Bairrinho" (Small Districts) as well as the initiatives taken by the State Government, mentioned in the reports prepared by the Municipality, detected some gaps. One of the major criticisms towards the "Favela-Bairro" Programme is that the communities in the slums in Rio de Janeiro are growing at high rates despite the reurbanization works carried out. Another reason for criticism, also raised by Bienenstein (2001), is the fact that all the efforts made are directed towards the public spaces in the settlements, with the implementation of urban infrastructure and public equipment, neglecting the residents' housing conditions and their relationship with the new infrastructure. In fact, the new infrastructure contributes to increasing the commercial value of the dwellings, favouring the "high rising" of buildings and stimulating, though in an informal way, property negotiations. The resident, who sells his dwelling, ends up occupying other empty areas in the city, thus making of this cycle a source of income. Integrating the analysis of these gaps into the results of the field work and those of the Causal Chain Analysis, it was possible to present a range of proposals aiming at the re-ordainment and urban re-design of the low-income settlements situated in the Jacarepagu lowland. These proposals suggest the importance of adopting alternative methodologies required for the implementation of the urban infrastructure network, stressing the fact that the slum areas in the city have peculiar characteristics and design, making the use of conventional methodologies extremely difficult and expensive, demanding major engineering works and involving in many cases the pulling down of dwellings. Besides that, this study recommends that the state policies for
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the re-ordainment of the slums in Rio de Janeiro should focus on the sanitation conditions of the dwellings, so as to avoid perpetuating poor health and hygiene conditions. Additionally, the public policies and management strategies adopted should integrate the three government levels (local, state and federal) and the civil society representatives to ensure harmonisation of policy approaches. The implementation of programmes to reurbanize the slums was in itself an important advance, mainly in the city of Rio de Janeiro, where in the 1960's, the official policy consisted in pulling down these dwellings, what not only reinforced social exclusion, but also failed to contribute to an effective re-ordainment of the urban areas. However, it is necessary to further the discussions in this issue that (is so crucial and) affects the city in its formal and informal areas. Conclusion The fast growing process of slum expansion in the main cities in Brazil, mainly in Rio de Janeiro, is one of the factors contributing to the deterioration of urban rivers, lakes and lagoons. Besides the impact on the water resources, there is a close link between the existence of a large contigent of citizens living without proper sanitation conditions and the proliferation of diseases, in particular infectious and parasitic diseases. In view of the above mentioned, it can be concluded that it is of paramount importance the re-ordainment of these areas in the city, incorporating quality of life to both formal and informal areas in the city. The slum re-urbanization programmes implemented by the Municipality of Rio de Janeiro have failed to pay due attention to the sanitation conditions of the dwellings and to promote integrated socio-economic measures, thus perpetuating the residents' poor hygiene and health conditions. In the case of Cascatinha Community, it is worth mentioning not only the risk of contaminating the soil and underground water, but also the occurrence of floods and the existence of a large number of vectors of infectious and parasitic diseases. The residents, indicating that they were fully aware of the unsuitable sanitation conditions they are submitted to, also observed these dangers. Furthermore, it was possible to relate the intermittent water supply, to inadequate water storing conditions and to the proliferation of the vector of dengue in the area. The data collected indicates that the state re-urbanization programmes for the slums and the reordainment of these areas should consider the sanitation conditions of the dwellings, thus mitigating the effects on the environment, on the water resources and on the slum dwellers' health. References
BIENENSTEIN, Regina. Urban Redesign and Social Participation in Property Legalization Processes (Doctorate Dissertation) Tese de Doutorado. So Paulo, FAUSP, 2001 (in Portuguese). CERQUEIRA, L. F. F.. The Impacts of Low-Income Settlements on Water Resources and Public Health: The Case of Jacarepagu Basin (Master Dissertation), UERJ, 2006 (in Portuguese). Census 2000 Results, collected by IBGE (Brazilian Institute for Geography and Statistics) (in Portuguese). MARQUES, M.; Costa, M.F.; Mayorga, M.I.O. and Pinheiro, P.R.C. 2004. The water environment: Anthropogenic pressures and ecosystem changes in the Atlantic drainage basins in Brazil. Ambio, vol. 1, 33:672-681. PIMENTEL DA SILVA, L; KAUFFMANN, M. O. & ROSA, E.U. 2005. Urban Growth and Life Quality: Application of Indicators in Integrated Water and Urban Planning. In: Seventh IAHS Scientific Assembly-Sustainable Water Management Solutions for Large Cities - Red Book. Foz do Iguau, PR, Brazil.
________________________________________________ 1 Brazilian Governamental Bank. 2 The Causal Chain Analysis consists of a methodology to analyse environmental impacts. This methodology aims to determine the interrelation between environmental impacts and environmental problems, immediate and specific causes, besides taking into account the elements that pertain to natural resources management. As a result of applying this methodology, a graph is produced indicating the relationship between a certain enviromental impact or problem and the other impacts, the economic activities or among others, the activities resulting from public intervention. This way, the complexity of the environmental impacts can be more precisely and clearly demonstrated.
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Re-naturalization and eco-techniques in low valley urban areas: Analysis of the Tijuco Preto stream project, So Carlos city, State of So Paulo, Brazil
R. S. Silva1, R. B. Peres2, E. A. Silva2
1 2
Universidade Federal de So Carlos UFSCar, So Carlos, SP, Brasil rss@power.ufscar.br Teia Casa de Criao, So Carlos, SP, Brasil renata@teia.org.br, eduardo@teia.org.br
Introduction This work presents a critical analysis of the use of urban eco-techniques in low valley areas of Tijuco Preto Stream located in So Carlos city, State of So Paulo, Brazil. The word tijuco, which comes from the "tupi" language tiyug means swamp or mud, and reflects the empirical knowledge about the reduced capacity of this type of soil to support the uses and the occupation style typical of a high density environment with a high rate of soil impermeability. This alert has not been respected, and the Tijuco Preto stream area has suffered a fast occupation process: from 5% in 1940, the occupation levels reached 95% in 2002. As a result of these high levels of occupation and of human activities, the area suffered a growing environmental degradation process, with areas prone to flooding, occupation of Permanent Preservation Areas (PPA), areas full of dump, dangerous crossing areas, riverhead tamponment and canalization, removal of green areas and of native vegetation, untreated sewage being delivered directly into the stream, lack of public leisure and living areas. The urban occupation, besides creating a high rate of soil impermeability, has repeatedly hidden or covered creeks and rivers in a way that is inconsiderate of streams and creeks. Also, the modification of the hydrological Picture 1: Location of the city of Picture 2: Basins in the city of So Carlos. In black, the Tijuco Preto behaviour of the valley has taken place So Carlos, urbanized area shown area. with the implementation of reclaimed in black land near the Permanent Preservation Areas for the construction of factories and other buildings. This caused a great quantity of waste and debris to be thrown into the channel, and the consequential silting up of the streambed, reduction of draining capacity, together with the increasing of soil impermeability.
Pictures 3 e 4: Urban occupation evolution in the Tijuco Preto area. 1st picture (left) was taken in the 1960s, while the 2nd (right) is from 1998. Source: So Carlos City Hall.
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Without structural and non-structural drainage measures, the region has suffered negative impacts of high proportions with the yearly tropical rain season; an example is what happened in November 2002, shown in the pictures below:
Pictures 5, 6 e 7: Aerial view of the valley (left), destruction of crossing area due to the rain (center) e silting up of river banks (right). Source: FIPAI/PMSC, 2003
In 1995, the City Hall and others have been sued, by means of a Ao Civil Pblica Ambiental (Environment Public Civil Action) under the accusation of having done damage to the environment in the Permanent Preservation Area of the Tijuco Stream due to actions or omission. This damage includes suppression of vegetation and illegal canalization done without the proper authorization, which made it even more difficult for the vegetation of the area to recover. A new city government assumed power in 2001. In agreement with the environmental policy they presented during the campaign, the City Hall created, together with the Ministrio Pblico (Federal Prosecution Service), an environmental restoration plan for this area, which was extended to two other valley areas in the city: the Gregrio stream and the Monjolinho stream valleys. In 2005 the City Hall initiated a riverbank recuperation project, with the replanting of vegetation in the Permanent Preservation Areas (PPA), removal of dump and regularizing of uses and occupations in the areas. Thus, in the Plano Diretor Municipal (Urban Planning), which was being concluded by that time, almost all low valley areas in the Tijuco Preto became Special Environmental Interest Areas, "being areas defined by portions of the territory destined to protect and restore the riverheads, streams and other bodies of water; to preserve the areas with vegetation of interest and noteworthy natural landscape; reforestation areas and conservation of low valley parks." (PMSC, 2005). Another action taken was the "PrTijuco" Project Environmental Recuperation of the Riparian Areas of the Tijuco Preto (FIPAI/PMSC, 2003), which happened in an area near the head of the stream, the Alto Tijuco Preto, a drainage area of 2.3 km2 which extends for 2,200 m. The "Pr Tijuco" project included different social actors: the government, the University, Non-Governmental Organizations, together with the riverine population, aiming at de development of a recuperation plan for this area. The project adopted as its main goal to present structural and non-structural environmental recuperation measures for the stream and for the areas surrounding it (especially the Permanent Preservation Areas and the streamheads), degraded by the disorganized urban occupation, as a step towards a Plano Diretor Setorial (Local Planning) for the integrated management of the Tijuco Valley. Based on this goal, the project established the following objectives: 1) to realize a pilot environmental recuperation experiment for the cleaning of the pollution in the PPAs and flooding control; 2) to stimulate the formation of ecological bio-connection areas among the PPAs for the re-naturalization of the fauna and the flora; 3) to stimulate the technological training of the people involved in the projects by means of the creation of a Technological Innovations Center for the Environmental Recuperation (in Portuguese, CITRA); 4) to propose recuperation measures aiming at the implementation of an environmental recuperation theme park to supply the need for environmental education and to attend to the potential for tourism and leisure in the region; 5) to
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stimulate the formation of a public association in the valley in order to support the COMDEMA ( Municipal Council for the Environment) and the Municipal Directive Plan. The intervention conjugated 3 different systems: the stream itself, the riparian areas and the drainage area. Three guiding principles were used: resilience (the capacity the ecosystem has of absorbing natural or human changes); continuity (the implementation of bio-connection areas along the intervention axis) and biodiversity (increase in the number of species in the local fauna and flora) (FIPAI/PMSC, 2003). Three general steps have been established by the Environmental Recuperation of the Riparian Areas of the Tijuco Preto Plan, considering time and space limitations: 1)Area Diagnosis; 2) Environmental Directive Plan; and 3) Environmental Scenarios towards the Environmental Recuperation Propositions. Presentation of the Intervention Plan We present here an analysis of the implementation of the first phase of the project. In this moment, the actions included the opening of the riverhead and the use of an open canalization typology, the recuperation of the landscape and of the inter-relationship between the aquatic environment and the streambed, taking it back to a condition closer to natural. The low degree of stability of the soil, due to the earthwork which were implemented over organic material directed to the adoption of elements to re-structure the recovering streambed until its stabilization. The technique adopted was the open canalization typology, with a wood and rock channel over a draining mattress, contained laterally by an enveloped soil and eucalyptus timber, which has a bio-blanket as margin and slopes covering with hydroseeding along all the extension. A channel made with eucalyptus timber on the sides and enveloped rock on the ground has been designed and constructed. The intention here was to create a light, permeable and biodegradable intervention, approaching the natural dynamics. The superficial drainage was complemented by a sub-surface draining mattress along all channel composed of stone (size 1 brita) and an organic geotextil material which made the drainage possible even during the rainy season. Also, this allows the communication with the groundwater, which is very close to the surface in some areas. To improve the geotechnical conditions, the soil near to the margins has been recompacted into layers, and structured using geotextil blanket (enveloped soil) with a horizontal anchorage of 1.5 m, allowing the wooden channel to suffer time changes (decomposition of the wood and vegetation consolidation) without exposing the structure to lateral efforts. In the points where there are level differences, wooden platforms have been constructed creating dissipation steps along the channel. Finally, the slopes surrounding the new channel were covered with an anti-erosion biodegradable blanket of natural fiber (coconut or sisal fiber) which was then planted using the hidroseeding technique (a high-pressure spray of a liquid containing seeds, chemical fertilizers and natural glue). This allowed the intervention not to suffer erosion processes during the construction period or during the first months while it consolidated. Nowadays, three years after the beginning of the intervention, there are no signs of this system anymore.
Pictures 8, 9, 10, 11 e 12. Construction of the new channel in the intevention area. Source: Acervo Paulo Vaz Filho.
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Final Considerations The biggest difficulties we had to fight against relate to the culture and the management processes. Perhaps the most important line of action lies in the axis information dissemination, society participation and, consequently, the reestablishment of how much the natural patrimony is worth, according to new transformation perspectives, more than technological or urbanistical limitations. The idea of planning the use for the yet virgin territory is, in itself, one that shows the potential reference to this change in directions and measures. When we take into consideration the points of conflict among different regions in a city, and the fact that the hydrological resources operate in an interconnected dynamics, we have to keep in mind that any intervention in any area may be an opportunity to overcome those difficulties, as well as an opportunity to the development of new attitudes towards the territory. Any intervention ought to consider the contributions of different knowledge areas, real possibilities of cultural transformation, the possibility of including as many social actors (institutions, organizations, people) as possible, and it must promote the re-identification of man and the natural environment based on interventions which can give back to the water body its aptitudes, and to the mankind, its well being. References
FIPAI/PMSC (2003). "PrTijuco" - Projeto de Recuperao Ambiental das Vrzeas do Alto Tijuco Preto visando o Plano Diretor na sua Bacia Hidrogrfica. Contr. Adm. N 019/2003. Relatrios Tcnicos. PMSC (2002). Prefeitura Municipal de So Carlos. Conferncia da Cidade: processo de elaborao do Plano Diretor do Municpio de So Carlos. PMSC, So Carlos, SP, 2002. 1 CD-ROM. PMSC (2005) LEI N 13.691 de 25 de NOVEMBRO de 2005. Institui o Plano Diretor do Municpio de So Carlos e d outras providncias. Prefeitura Municipal de So Carlos, So Paulo.
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Mining lake in an urban area: how to harmonize anthropic pressure and landscape requirements
Eduardo von Sperling1 & Csar Augusto Paulino Grandchamp2
1
Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil; 2MBR-Mineraes Brasileiras Reunidas, Belo Horizonte, Brazil eduardo@desa.ufmg.br
Introduction Mining lakes form a new type of aquatic environment, which has been so far very little explored in the technical literature. They are generally narrow and deep, presenting hence a meromitic behaviour (i.e.only partial circulations). This feature restricts hydrobiological growth and biodiversity in these habitats. Most of the technical papers related to the ecology of pit lakes deal with the formation of acidic environments (Klapper & Schultze 1995; Miller et. al. 1996, Levy et. al. 1997; Geller et. al. 1998; Stevens & Lawrence 1998; Packroff 2000; Lessmann et. al. 2000; Kalin et. al. 2001; Boland & Padovan, 2002; Hindak & Hindkov, 2003; Lessmann et.al., 2003; Frmmichen et.al., 2004; Triantafyllidis & Skarpelis, 2006; Boldau, 2006). Moreover these lakes are able to fulfill a relevant landscape requirement, offering an harmonic component to the local environment and allowing adequate conditions for recreation activities. Case study: Lake Aguas Claras This paper presents the case study of the current formation of Lake Aguas Claras, located in the city of Belo Horizonte, Brazil. The filling of the lake began in the year 2001 and a very detailed monitoring programme (physical, chemical and biological characteristics) is since then in course. This lake will have a final area of 0.7 km2 and the impressive depth of 234 m, which will make it the deepest lake in the country. The water used for filling up the lake comes from rain, ground water and the supplementary pumpage of river water from the vicinity of the lake. Rainy season lasts from October to March, while the dry period extends from April to September. The morphology of the lake points out a very high value of relative depth (25 %), according to Hkanson (1981), indicating the existence of a meromitic behaviour and the probable anaerobic condition that will be obtained at the bottom of the water body. Meromoxis in mining lakes has been discussed in Stevens and Lawrence (1998). However, due to the high maximum depth, phosphorus remobilization should not reach the euphotic zone, preventing hence the onset of an eutrophication process. Material and Methods An extensive monthly monitoring programme has been carried out since the beginning of the lake formation (August/2001).The most relevant physical, chemical and biological indicators for the evaluation of the water quality have been continuously analyzed. All employed analytical methods are based on the recommendations of the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (APHA, 1998). Due to the small surface of the lake, there is just one sampling point, which is located in the central part of the water body, corresponding to its maximum depth. Samples have been taken at the surface (Secchi depth) and at the bottom of the lake. Results and discussion A summary of some of the most relevant water quality parameters is presented below: Water temperature: a clear seasonal distribution of temperature values can be observed (Figure 1).The stratified condition dominates most of the year, while circulation takes place only during winter months (June to August).This monomitic behaviour is a typical feature in the majority of tropical lakes. Dissolved oxygen: there is a marked influence of the temperature in the rate of atmospheric oxygen transfer to the water, with higher values being obtained in colder months (June to August); moreover the algae photosynthetic activity leads to the prevalence of higher concentrations in the upper layers, with occasional records of supersaturation . Secchi depth: values between 0.5 m and 6.5 m ; there is an upward trend in the clarity of water as long as the lake is being filled (Figure 2); pH: ranges from 6.9 to 9.6; higher values are registered at the surface of the lake (primary production, CO2 absorption) in comparison with the bottom (decomposition of organic matter, CO2 release); Nutrients: Total phosphate concentrations (Figure 3) show a slight trend of higher values (max. 0.18 mg/L) at the bottom layers during stratification periods, according to other experiences in tropical lakes (Tundidi & Saijo, 1997); these concentrations cannot be considered as elevated, since there is a noteworthy background presence of phosphate in the soils of the geological region of the State of Minas Gerais; almost all values of
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28 26 24 22 20 18 may/0 may/0 may/0 dec/01 may/0 jan/03 aug/01 sep/02 sep/03 sep/04 oct/05 feb/06 jun/06 jun/06 jun/06 jun/06 jan/04 jan/05
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Figure 1: Water temperature

Water temperature (C)
28 26 24 22 20 18 may/0 may/0 may/0 may/0 dec/01 aug/01 sep/02 sep/03 sep/04 oct/05 jan/03 jan/04 jan/05 feb/06
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Figure 2: Secchi depth

Water temperature (C) 28 26 24 22 20 18 may/0 may/0 may/0 may/0 dec/01 aug/01 sep/02 sep/03 sep/04 oct/05 jan/03 jan/04 jan/05 feb/06
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Figure 3: Phosphate
0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0 may/02 may/03 mai/04 may/05 aug/01 jan/03 jan/04 sep/04 jan/05 dec/01 sep/02 sep/03 oct/05 feb/06
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Bottom
Figure 4: Ammonium
soluble phosphorus are below 0.01 mg/L, with a maximum concentration of 0.02 mg/L; in a future scenario this soluble fraction will probably predominate at the bottom of the lake as a consequence of internal fertilization processes. Ammonium nitrogen shows values between < 0.05 mg/L and 0.4 mg/L (Figure 4), while for nitrate nitrogen the concentrations range from < 0.01 mg/L to 1.3 mg/L (Figure 5), with a clear dominance of the oxidyzed fraction (nitrate) over the reduced one (ammonium), what is consistent with the good oxygenation conditions in the lake. BOD: values range from < 0.1 mg/L to 4.3 mg/L, with about 80 % of the results under 1 mg/L; Fe and Mn: Iron concentrations oscillate from < 0.05 mg/L (surface) to 1.73 mg/L (bottom); such values are typical for drainage basins with high iron contents from geochemical origin, as is the case of Lake Aguas Claras; manganese values range between < 0.05 mg/L (60 % of the results) and 0.17 mg/L (at the bottom); Chloride: permanently very low values, from < 0.25 mg/L (about 50 % of the results) to 1.7 mg/L; Heavy metals and other pollutants (phenols, oil and grease, cyanide): virtually absent, only aluminium has been occasionally detected (0.12 to 0.22 mg/L) Bacteriology: very good bacteriological quality; about 90 % of the results of faecal coliforms, Escherichia coli and faecal streptococci are lower than 2 MPN/100mL. Phytoplankton: A marked shift in the dominance of phytoplanktonic groups can be observed (Fig. 6). There is a general prevalence of Chlorophyta (35 % of the population), followed by Chrysophyta (32 %) and Pyrrophyta (23 %). Cyanophyta algae (Cyanobacteria), in spite of being present only in small populations (5 %) is always a serious concern in Brazilian lentic waters, since the first registers of human deaths due to ingestion of cyanotoxins happened in 1996 in the city of Caruaru, Brazil (Azevedo et. al. 1996). These frequent alternations in the algae dominance is typical of aquatic systems that are undergoing a process of formation, such as mining lakes. Due to an enhanced nutrient concentration in the dry season there is a trend in obtaining higher algal densities in the winter time (May to August). The occurrence of phytoplankton peaks in the period following the end of the rainy season (March to May)
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N-NH4 (mg/L)
Water temperature (C)
Eduardo von Sperling & Csar Augusto Paulino Grandchamp: Mining lake in an urban area
is a typical feature in some Brazilian lentic 1,4 systems (Esteves 1998, Pinto-Coelho et. al. 1,2 2003), possibly as a consequence of the 1 onset of favourable limnological conditions 0,8 0,6 (decrease in turbidity, weaker winds) after 0,4 the end of the wet period. 0,2 0 The results show a very good water quality, practically free from contaminants. One of the most relevant issues in the environmental study of Lake Aguas Claras is the destination of the water body and its Surface Bottom surrounding area. Due to the prognosis of the maintenance of a good water quality, Figure 5: Nitrate the possible uses of the lake will be directed to recreation (swimming, diving, sailing, fishing), amenity value and water supply. This latter use will have a remarkable topographic advantage, since the lake location (a pit formed in the mountains) will enable a water distribution by gravity. On the other hand there is a strong anthropic pressure directed towards the urban occupation of one of the most valuable areas in the city of Belo Horizonte. How to harmonize this conflict has become a challenge for the local environmental agency. It should be Figure 6: Phytoplanktonic groups stressed that the site is surrounded by mountains, what gives a nice sensation of privacy and intense contact with nature. On the other hand noble soil parcels are situated in neighbouring areas, so the investors are keen on establishing a proper urbanisation in the vicinity of Lake Aguas Claras, which would lead to the creation of probably the finest living place inside the city of Belo Horizonte. However, according to the local environmental agency, the decommissioning of the area should be followed by sound protective measures in order to ensure a broader use of this valuable water resource by the population. Currently some ideas are being worked out to define the best way of land occupation such as the use of surrounding areas as a sort of ecobusiness complex, i.e., hotels, convention centers and commercial buildings, which should gently harmonize with the local green areas.
N-NO3 (mg/L) may/04 may/05 may/02 may/03 aug/01 jan/03 jan/04 sep/04 jan/05 dec/01 sep/02 sep/03 oct/05
Conclusions Lake guas Claras presents a very good water quality (well oxygenated, low values of colour and turbidity, limited degree of mineralization, pH slightly alkaline, low nutrient concentrations, excellent bacteriological conditions), together with a quite interesting shift in the dominance of phytoplanktonic groups, indicating the high instability of lakes that are undergoing a process of formation. The fact of being located in the tropical region of our planet causes an acceleration of all metabolic processes in the warm waters of the lake. This enhanced dynamics is one of the most relevant features of tropical environments. Consequently changes in the water quality don't follow regularly an annual pattern and daily variations can be often more significant One relevant point in the management of this valuable water resource is how to create adequate conditions for the protection of the aquatic environment together with a sound occupation of the surrounding areas. References
APHA (1998) Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 20. Ed., Washington DC, American Public Health Association Azevedo, S.M.F.O., Evans, W.R., Carmichael, W.W. & Namikoshi, M. (1996) First report of mycrocystins from a Brazilian isolate of the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa. Journal of Applied Phycology 6, 261-265 Boland, K.T. & Padovan, A.V. (2002) Seasonal stratification and mixing in a recently flooded mining void in tropical Australia. Lakes and Reservoirs: Research and Management 7, 125-131 Boldau, C. (2006) A review of acidity generation and consumption in acidic coal mine lakes and theirvwatersheds. Science of the Total Environment 369, 307-332
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Frmmichen, R., Wendt-Potthoff, K., Friese, K. & Fischer, R. (2004) Microcosm studies for neutralization of hypolimnic acid mine pit lake (pH 2.6). Environm. Sci. Technol. 38, 1877-1887 Esteves, F. Fundamentos de Limnologia (in Portuguese) (1998). Ed. Intercincia, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Geller, W., Klapper, H. & Salomons, W. (1998) Acidic mining lakes. Springer, New York Hkanson, L. (1981) A Manual of Lake Morphometry. Springer Verlag, Berlin Hindak, F. & Hindkov, A. (2003) Diversity of cyanobacteria and algae of urban gravel pit lakes in Bratislava, Slovakia: a survey. Hydrobiologia 506, 155-162 Kalin, M., Cao, Y. Smith, M. & Olaveson, M.M. (2001) Development of the phytoplankton community in a pit-lake in relation to water quality changes. Water Research 35, 3215-3225 Klapper, H. & Schultze, M. (1995) Geogenically acidified mining lakes - living conditions as possibility of restoration. Internationale Revue der Gesamten Hydrobiologie 80, 639-653 Lessmann, D., Fyson, A. & Nixdorf, B. (2000) Phytoplankton of extremely acidic mining lakes of Lusatia (Germany) with pH < 3. Hydrobiologia 433, 123-128 Lessmann, D., Fysun, A. & Nixdorf, B. (2003) Experimental eutrophication of a shallow acidic mining lake and effects on the phytoplankton. Hydrobiologia 509, 753-758 Levy, D.B., Custis, K.H., Casey, W.H. & Rock, P.A. (1997) The aqueous geochemistry of the abandoned Spenceville copper pit, Nevada County. California. Journal of Environmental Quality 26, 233-243 Miller, G.C., Lyons, W. & Davis, A. (1996) Understanding the water quality of pit lakes. Environmental Science and Technology News 30, 118-123 Packroff, G. (2000) Protozooplankton in acidic mining lakes with special respect to ciliates. Hydrobiologia 433, 157-166 Pinto-Coelho, R., Bezerra-Neto, J.F., Giani, A., Macedo, C.F., Figueiredo, C.C. & Carvalho, E.A. (2003) The collapse of Daphnia laevis (Birge, 1878) population in Pampulha Reservoir, Brazil. Acta Limnologica Brasiliensia 15, 53-70 Stevens, C.L. & Lawrence, G.A. (1998) Stability and meromixis in a water-filled mine pit. Limnology and Oceanography 43, 946-954 Triantafyllidis, S. & Skarpelis, N. (2006) Mineral formation in an acid pit lake from a high-sulfidation ore deposit. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 88, 68-71 Tundisi, J.G. & Saijo, Y. (1997) Limnological studies on the Rio Doce Valley Lakes, Brazil. Brazilian Academy of Sciences, Brazil
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Industrial Brownfields in So Paulo-Brazil: From the Abandonment to Redevelopment

Amanda Ramalho Vasques & Magda Adelaide Lombardo
Physical Geography, University of So Paulo USP, FAPESP amandav@usp.br
Abstract Brownfields are characterized as unproductive space, sub used, and many times contaminated, depending to their previous use. When they are in ruins, its degradation state marks the spaces negatively, generating depreciation. Thus, these places are a chance for the reordering of the territory. This work discusses the conversion of old abandoned factories that were redeveloped after interventions, with the transformation of these spaces starting from the physical renewal of these areas. This work is focused in experiences that the city of So Paulo presents: old industrial neighborhoods with extensive areas of depraved infrastructures that need interventions, where the brownfields presence became an opportunity to endow the neighborhoods with better infrastructures. The process of industrial de-concentration in So Paulo commanded the largest experienced industrial exodus in the country. The industries, in continuous growth, were enlarged, spreading branches into others cities of So Paulo's state. The big and averages productive units, usually pollutant, gave place to smaller industries, cleaner. In other cases the transfer was followed by closing of the initial site, leading the conversion for others uses, the speculation or the abandonment. Sooner or later, the pre-existent constructions became obsoletes. The revitalization of the physical space tends to create sustainability for the environment, in the measure that they are cleaned than the previous abandoned lands. It also creates a new urban space organization, since the new uses of this space will attract investments as the new uses will offer leisure, education, culture, trade, etc. The examples of redeveloped brownfields demonstrate the viability of reuse projects, bringing benefits as: new jobs creation, income generation, the infrastructures reuse, the revaluation of the space and its spills, among others. The experiences of brownfields redevelopments in So Paulo show that: between leave abandoned and reuse the space, the best choice is to give an appropriate destiny to a disabled property. Introduction Urban structures are not static, and in the process of historical evolution they change according to new periods and new needs, acquiring new form and function. With the space evolution of a new period, for example, the structure form becomes obsolete, inadequate to the new functions, abandoned objects in dissonance with the environment where they are inserted. The old rigid shapes/form will, then, substituted by other less rigid, flexible, adjustable or possible to disassemble, ready for moving, according to the requirements of more favorable locations. When the old shapes no longer accomplish their function for which they were designed, they remain as a legacy of the past for a future time. When abandoned, they are neglected, becoming brownfields. Brownfields are sites that have been affected by former uses of the site or surrounding land, they are derelict or underused, are mainly located in fully or partly developed urban areas, but require intervention to bring them back to beneficial use. The term brownfield was initially used to distinguish from the so called greenfields, which refers to the agricultural lands, greenways, ecological corridors in metropolitan areas, previously undeveloped, as well as forest areas and parks. The brownfields definition is found in the North American public law 107-118 (H.R.2869) entitled 'Small Business Liability Relief and Brownfields Revitalization Act', signed on January 11, 2002. It defines brownfields as real property, the expansion, redevelopment, or reuse of which may be complicated by the presence or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant, but that has an active potential for reuse. Others synonymous terms to brownfield, are: friches (urbaines et industrielles) in France. Derelict land, brownland, blackfields, derelict land, fallow land, and previously developed land in United Kingdom. In Spanish: baldos industriales y urbanos and the expression vaciado industrial y reciclamiento de superficies. In German the corresponding term brownfields is brachflche (PREU and FERBER, 2005). In Italian a next term to brownfield is area dismessa (SGORBATI et al, 2004) that if it applies in the direction of 'to leave to use', or either, it would be an area that possessed a previous use no longer has one because its function was lost and is currently abandoned, being either an urban, industrial, agricultural area, to militate, or infrastructures of transport. The brownfields sites are not necessarily old industries, they can also be commercial undertakings disabled, abandoned mines, trash or residues deposits, every type of transport infrastructure such as railroads, ports and airports, gas stations and others plants that had their uses interrupted. Some brownfields can appear partially used, or either, a part of the facility (land or building) still keeps a productive use, others,
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however, appear in the urban landscape so degraded and damaged by the industrial use that is incapable to have a beneficial use without a treatment or intervention. The old European industrialized areas were the first ones to run across with the need of renewal these spaces. Industrialization countries, like United Kingdom, France, Germany and Belgium, presents brownfields as a consequence of the economical structure changes and the decline of the traditional industries. In the United States of America the brownfields formation is mainly associated, to the displacement of the industrial production of the rust belt, economic region in the northeast and mid-west of the USA. In the 70's the term was used initially to designate areas highly industrialized that were affected by the changes of reallocation of the industries for the sun belt, or cities in the south and southwest characterized by high rates of immigration, low wages, retirement communities, and high tech industries. These changes resulted in the population decline (unemployment and migrations), economical (factories abandoned) and many brownfields sites in the rust belt cities. In Brazil, other causes prevailed for the brownfields appearance: a) globalization and industrial restructuring: with the economical opening of the markets, the competition among countries was stimulated. This way, many industrial areas did not succeed in restructuring its productive base and nor accompanied the technological changes, entering in decline. In the textile pole of Americana (SP), for example, the competition with the Asian industries, in the decade of 1990, forced many industrial units to stop their activities; b) end of an economic cycle Brazil lived, in different times, the climax and the decline of economic cycles: the sugarcane (Northeast), cotton (Maranho), mining (Minas Gerais), coffee (Rio de Janeiro and So Paulo). The end of these cycles resulted in abandoned areas and obsolete structures (railroads, ports, etc.); c) de-urbanization of the industrial activities: with the cities growth (urban sprawl), a lot of industries start to locate far away from the urban centers, because of noise, pollution, intense traffic. The industrial districts were then formed in the cities outskirts and the industries left the central areas, where isolated brownfields remain, fragmenting the central urban tissue; d) deindustrialization phenomenon characterized by the transfer of the productive units from the capital towards the countryside, leaving behind brownfields originated from closed industries. The brownfields problem is widespread among industrialized countries and cities around the world, driven by the steady migration and closure of industries out of central cities which left vacant and under-used industrial and commercial lands. This work primarily focus on the process of deindustrialization, generating brownfields in the city of So Paulo. Formation of Brownfields in the City of So Paulo The industrial activity in So Paulo developed in the beginning of the XX century. The railroads Central do Brasil and Santos-Jundia (old call So Paulo Railway) attracted and structured the location of the industries. The movement of the industry from So Paulo in its first phase, the industrial concentration, can be divided, according to Negri (1996), in three moments. The first refers to the subordinated industrialization to coffee, which is the period that precedes the coffee crisis in 1929, and that is linked to the coffee accumulation. The second moment includes the years 1929-33 up to 1955, when there is evidence of the industrial concentration in So Paulo, once the difficulties that came with the II World War restricted the import capacity, rising the efforts of the production and turning the national market captive to national industry. The third moment embraces the years from 1956 to 1967, when there was accelerated industrial concentration in So Paulo that already counted with high growth rates in practically all of the industry groups. These periods were marked by foreign investment, expansion of public and private national investments, and technological advances. The fall of the economical activities from 1962 to 1967, however, marked the decrease of the growth rhythm in the industry in So Paulo. This period is linked to the 'Military Coup' and the concerning institutional reforms to the financings and the foreign capital. This phase was followed by the 'Brazilian miracle' that extended up to 1974. In the 70's, the countryside of So Paulo already began to stand out as the second industrial area of the country, keeping in first the metropolitan area of So Paulo. Since then, however an inversion of positions gradually happened: the interior of So Paulo began to industrialize and So Paulo metropolitan area to present relative loss of industrial activity. One of the most significant changes was the displacement of the industrialization axis that ended up forcing the construction of highways and imposing a new logic to industrial location. Other incentives to industries transfers from the central area of So Paulo are the high prices of the lands in front of the need of expansion of the plants, restrictions of environmental order, search of estrangement of the great union activity poles, and the innovations of the productive process itself that led to the industrial restructuring. The degradation of the environment, the transportation problems, health, education, sanitation, the delinquency, the growth of slums and the unemployment as characteristics of this urban chaos (Lencioni, 1991). This is the legacy of the growing urbanization and of the industrial development verified in So Paulo. The industries migration resulted of the quest for tax advantages that the interior cities of state offered, since the high costs of staying in So Paulo were not stimulating. The process of deindustrialization in So 368
Amanda Ramalho Vasques & Magda Adelaide Lombardo: Industrial Brownfields in So Paulo-Brazil
Paulo commanded the largest experienced industrial exodus in the country. The industries in continuous growth were enlarged, spreading branches into the interior of So Paulo and other States. The emptying of the industrial function in the most central districts and the migration tendency for the periphery happened with the road transformations: the railroads were substituted by the highways, the large and average size productive units, usually polluting, gave place to smaller industries, cleaner, in other cases there was the transfer followed by closing, the redevelopment for new uses, the speculation or the abandonment. The Process of Redevelopment and Possibilities of Reuse Commercial and industrial properties become brownfields because they lose, for countless reasons, the old function. Abandoned form remains until several adaptations and reforms are made to turn it capable to receive a new function. Even though the brownfields emergence has become common, its multiplication becomes a concern for the citizens and governments, and the need to intervene becomes imminent. However, to define a future use for the old facilities requests intervention instruments, economical viability and a legal context. Brownfields redevelopment is an environmental issue as well since it requires the involvement of the financial, regulatory and community interests that make the whole process complicated, but necessarily, to bring neglected brownfields back to life and develop strong public-private partnerships to drive redevelopment, as well engage communities on brownfield renewal. For Bruyelle (1992), the increase of these surfaces and of the brownfields number is linked to a faster overproduction than the demand, in other words, market unbalances exist, being necessary strategies of use of these spaces. The reuse possibilities happen according to the nature of the places: buildings or lands can be cleaned, demolished or abandoned, in agreement with the demands of its future uses. The several ways in reuse sketch a wide range of capable solutions to renew these degraded areas and the distressed properties. The services and trade section, among them shopping centers, supermarkets, hotels, etc, has been prevailing, after the cleaning and adaptation of buildings. After the intervention process on these places, including its cleaning, decontamination (when it is the case), and preparation of the land or building to be capable to receive a new use, it opens up the number of reuses varieties capable of revitalizing the location. Some possibilities of brownfields reuse can be pointed out, such as: agriculture, trade and services, institutional, green spaces and leisure, housing, cultural and others. The reuse for agriculture is theoretically acceptable, but, in practice, it is difficult, once all of the activities are seated on a soil that, in agreement with the time and the use, is degraded, being inapt for the agriculture. The brownfields originating from of the old plantations are potential spaces for the agricultural reuse, as a returning to the monoculture or diversifying the production to assist demands of varied fruits; other possibility is the re-adaptation to rural tourism. In the case of industries or located agribusinesses in rural areas that did not grow, the old factories were, through time, incorporated in the rural landscapes. The trade and services section comes more recently, reaching the first positions in the predominant activities ranking, place that belonged to the industry sector decades ago. The Industrial Avenue in the city of Santo Andr is an example of the change of soil's use, that, as the own name suggests, was the avenue where a lot of industries were concentrated. The deindustrialization also affected the city, the industries left and nowadays in that avenue there are buildings of high pattern such as shopping centers, hotels, hypermarkets and other commercial enterprises. A frequent use in So Paulo is to redevelop brownfields onto schools and higher education institutions. The high construction costs for this function resulted in the industrial buildings becoming a viable choice, due to potentiality reuse of the structures and the location in accessible and good circulation roads (VASQUES, 2005). To transform old degraded spaces and environmentally recover an area has, as one of its main goals the restoration alternative through the green areas. The environmental recovery of the cities can be made through projects of creation of new green areas. The brownfields redevelopment for housing in So Paulo its common too, where several real estate enterprises already appear in lands that sustained old factories and old glass and weavings factories were demolished for sheltering residential buildings. However, the residential use is demanding for the quality of the lands and infrastructures. The demolition following by the reconstruction is necessary in these cases, once the physical degradation of old brownfields requests more interventions. The cultural reuse, is present in many cities of So Paulo. Old train stations that lost their function were transformed in Cultural Centers, in So Paulo (SP), Santos (SP), Campinas (SP), and other cities. Conclusions The city of So Paulo presents in the old industrial neighborhoods extensive areas of neglected infrastructures that need interventions. This revitalization of the physical space tends to create sustainability for the environment, since the until then abandoned lands become cleaned. It also creates a new urban space organization, since the new uses of this space will attract investments; it will generate jobs as the new uses will offer leisure,
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education, culture, trade, etc. The goal of brownfields redevelopment is to remove and manage the environmental risk creating socio-economic revitalization of urban areas. More capable spaces will exist to the urban revitalization (among them the brownfields redevelopment) and other spaces will be characterized by a space inertia, a lack of compass between the public will of redevelopment and the little interest of the responsible for the abandonment, while the only visible movement is the increase of brownfields. Between leaving abandoned or to redevelop a space, the best choice is to give an appropriate use to a vacant property. Otherwise, countless abandoned areas will be vulnerable to the speculation. The examples in So Paulo of redeveloped brownfields demonstrate the viability of reuse projects, bringing benefits as: new jobs creation, income generation, the infrastructures reuse, the revaluation of the space and its waste, among others. The importance and relevance of such theme is based on the fact that this study made possible the understanding of the evolution of the urban functions and to show that old industrial properties can be redeveloped, therefore increase the value of the inhabited space. References
BRUYELLE, P. La rutilization des friches. In: Revue Belge de Geographie, Bruxelas, BE : Societe Royale Belge de Geographie, 116me anne (1-4), p.179-185, 1992. CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. H.R.2869 - Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 - Small Business Liability Relief and Brownfields Revitalization Act'. Washington, January, 2001. LENCIONI, S. Reestruturao Urbano-Industrial - Centralizao do Capital e Desconcentrao da Metrpole de So Paulo. Tese (Doutorado), FFLCH, USP, So Paulo, 1991. NEGRI, B. Concentrao e Desconcentrao Industrial em So Paulo. Campinas: Editora da Unicamp, 1996. PREU T.; FERBER, U. Flchenkreislaufwirtschaft: Neue strategische, planerische und instrumentelle Anstze zur Mobilisierung von Brachflchen. In: Anja Besecke, Robert Hnsch und Michael Pinetzki (Hrsg.), Das Flchensparbuch. Diskussion zu Flchenverbrauch und lokalem Bodenbewusstsein, Berlin, 2005 (TU Berlin, ISRDiskussionsbeitrge, H. 56). SGORBATI, G. et al. Aree industriali dismesse - tra rischio ambientale e occasione di riqualificazione del territorio I Rapporto annuale sulla qualit dell'ambiente urbano. Roma: APAT - Agenzia per la protezione dell'ambiente e per i servizi tecnici/Ministero dell'Ambiente e della Tutela del Territorio, p.501-517, 2004. VASQUES, A. R. Refuncionalizao de Brownfields: Estudo de caso na Zona Leste de So Paulo. Dissertao (Mestrado), IGCE, UNESP, Rio Claro, 2005.
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Conflicts of the urbenvironmental management in Fernando de Noronhas Archipelago, Brazil

L.M.S.Andrade, V.G.Gomes, M.B.Dias, J.Moraes
Centro Universitrio UNIEURO, Braslia, Brazil lizaandrade@uol.com.br
Abstract The archipelago of Fernando de Noronha belongs to the Brazilian Federal Union and it is administratively split between the government of the state of Pernambuco, the local administration to the State District of Fernando de Noronha (ADEFN), the Air Force command and the Brazilian Environmental and Natural renewable resources Institute (IBAMA). The urban area is located inside the environmental protected area of Fernando de Noronha (created in 1986)and the zone of Marine National Park PARNAMAR (created in 1988) managed by IBAMA. The activity of dividing into plots is exclusively a competence of ADEFN. This situation generates conflicts between both green and brown environmental agendas of how to establish the carrying capacity and to propose an urban plan and the division into zones of the preliminary legal plan for the use and occupation of the land. Since the Handling environmental plan and the zone division were not concluded until 2005, it was not possible to avoid irregular occupations along the riversides and lakes (basic principals of the sustainable environment). The objective of this work is to analyze the potential conflicts between zone division of the handling plan of IBAMA, and the preliminary legal plan for the use and occupation of the land, made by the local administration to the State District of Fernando de Noronha (ADEFN), as well as to verily the urban impacts over the different territorial scales since the natural space, considering the its hydrological unit, the urban occupation of the island and the unoccupied existing areas up to the occupied urban areas considering the impacts of the existing typologies. The great challenge remains into promoting a better integration between the urban laws with the environmental laws over the creation of an urbenvironmental diagnosis that focus the sustainable Handling environmental plan for the watersheds to the occupation and future management. Introduction The multiplicity of actors before urbenvironmental questions concerns a group of conflicts of interests and a group of compatibility and possible pacts that goes through not only several organized sectors of the society, but equally several governmental agencies. These conflicts get interlaced and stuck under governmental spheres, administrative bureaus and new institutional departments through its formulation and management of the public policies for the sector. According to Andrade (2005) the urban regularization of disordered areas in environmental sensible areas generates conflictive repercussions on local levels for the aspects of environmental agendas inside agenda 21: Green and Brown agendas. The green agenda deals with subjects as the preservation of the forests and biodiversity, climate changes, while the brown agenda, as the environmental sanitation professional refer the subject, like air, water and soil pollution, garbage recycling and territorial planning. The conflicts between the attributes of the two agendas begin on the differences of the environmental priorities for the actor who inspects and intervenes in the environment. Those conflicts come to evidence on the trials to approve local master plans developed by public sectors and departments represented by actors who got involved in the local levels of urban planning (ADEFN for Fernando de Noronha), as those who inspected the environment on the state and federal levels (IBAMA). The objective of this work is to analyze possible conflicts on the zone division proposed by the environmental agendas: environmental zoning by the handling environmental plan developed by IBAMA and the territorial zone division from the pre project of the basis for use and occupation of the land proposed by ADEFN. Beyond that verify all the impacts of the urban occupation on different scales since the natural space, the urban space, and its process of occupation until the built spaces with its existing typologies, and in parallel to that, pointing existing urban emptiness. Conflicts of the urbenvironmental management in Fernando de Noronhas Island The island of Fernando de Noronha belongs to federal union with its administrative structures fragmented between the government of the state of Pernambuco and the state District of Fernando de Noronha (33,7%), air force command (13,51%) and IBAMA (52,79%). The urban area is located inside a protected environmental area and inside of the softening zone of national sea park (PARNAMAR) both areas managed by the IBAMA. Any urbanization project to be implanted in the protected environmental area must present previous authorization by IBAMA, and a statement by the national sea turtles center TAMAR, in case of concession of environmental license for the beaches, places of nesting for the sea turtles. The parceling activity of the land
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is exclusive a responsibility of ADEFN, which decides in case of empty plots those who will get the benefit. With no real state speculation it was for granted to have the situation under control. Although there is no control over irregular occupations. The environmental license is a responsibility of IBAMA for those acts that might cause an environmental impact in the island. Small remodelations in building that already exist in the island are not submitted to the environmental license if they no do not include new bathrooms nor increase for the water and sanitation capacity structure in FN, and the increase on the occupation of the land. The license for construction must observe rules under the state and district legislation, as well as, parameters and restrictions from the real state records from the federal files. It was agreed in the handling environmental plan that the ADEFN would be compromised in sending, every two months, spread sheets with all the licenses for small remodelings, although that does not occur. There is a strong symptom of "slum" transformation due to the informal expansions of the buildings made by non proper materials; low level of conservation in some sectors and families living on the back parts of the plots in very low quality places so they can use their homes as hostels. Even though there were meetings with the local community during the development of the environmental handling plan, it is not recognized by the community the importance and necessity to impose limits of caring capacity for the environmental protected area. It was possible to confirm the need to develop activities that promote awareness of the temporary inhabitants and the external investors, as well as to involve the community on the decisions of the group of advisors of the APA, towards its legitimating. Zone division proposed by the environmental agendas for the island In the scope of the urban environment management it must be attempted against for three types of zonings: urban, environment or ecological-economic and water zone (diagnoses of the water regimen of the watersheds). The urban zoning has a purpose to stipulate rules for urban territorial space, including the industrial zoning, prioritizing the sanitary security of its populations. Today this system can be used to discipline other human performances in the urban development. Once the urban zoning is mapped out, this will integrate the Managing Plan that reproduces the potentialities and the restrictions to the use of occupation of the ground and is not associated necessarily with the environment suggestions of the territory and nor considers the watersheds as unit of planning. It occurs that these plans or zoning are developed later to the urban interventions, not functioning, therefore, as a reference instrument for the urban drawing. In the case of the Draft bill of Use and Occupation of the Ground of the Archipelago of Fernando De Noronha, the Managing Plan was not concluded yet and the irregular occupations already exist what makes even more difficult for actions to discipline the use of the land. The second zone division, the environmental zoning, today treated as ecological-economic zoning, has for objective to guide the public politics in the some spheres of the Public Power with specific laws for the execution of the lines of direction constitutional in what it refers to to the partner-economic-environment development. It divides the territory in zones in accordance with the necessity of protection, conservation and recovery of the natural resources and the sustainable development. The strategical politics of creation of new protected areas in the urban environment, as the Units of Conservation, is nothing but the recognition of the presence of not sustainable urban standards. The zoning of a Unit of Conservation determines the sectors or specific zones with handling objectives and norms to provide the harmonic balance of its objectives. Through diagnosis, potentialities and fragilities are extracted as physicist-biotics as well as social-economics, serving of base for the definition of the Plan of Handling. Although the APA of Fernando De Noronha was created 1986, its Plan of Handling alone was concluded in 2005, making it difficult the management of the environment ecologically balanced. According to document Plan of Management of the Archipelago of Fernando De Noronha Ecotourism and Sustainable Development (Carrying capacity), the island received a tourist increment from 90 beds in 1989 for 450 beds in 2000 and the population increased of 1.686 inhabitants, in 1991, for 2.100, in 2000. This becomes the management of the still more complex APA, therefore not even the basic principles of sustainable environment, as the respect to the limits taxes for the Brazilian Forest Code for the urban occupation in the edges of rivers and lakes the Permanent Areas of Preservation (APPs), have been respected for the irregular occupations. The Urban Zone for the APA proposal for the Plan of Handling withholds, rigorously, the contour of the today built areas, although the increasing habitation deficit of the Island, estimated in about one hundred plots, mainly if considered the promiscuous characteristics of the housings does not consider the vegetative growth of the population, therefore does not foresee a zone of urban expansion. Already the Draft bill of Use and Occupation of the Ground considers a Zone of Urban Expansion that understands contiguous area of the Urban Zone "environmentally correct" once it receives excesses of eminently urban activities due to the veg372
L.M.S.Andrade et al.: Conflicts of the urbenvironmental management in Fernando de Noronhas Archipelago, Brazil
etative growth of the population. Paradoxically, it considers the conciliation of the District Managing Plan and the study of load capacity of the APA. Another crucial point of integration between the considered zonings is the Zone of Protection of the Wild Life (proposal for the Plan of Handling for the APPs). In these areas the environment conditions must prevail, with minimum intervention human being. The APPs (surroundings areas of springs, tops of mounts, edges and springs of courses of water, edges of falesia, leans with declivity above of 30%) of the APA with exception of surroundings of the water tanks, the dams incorporated in the Zone of Recovery. In turn, the Zones of Protection of the Wild Life, visibly important for the Plan of Handling, get mixed up and confuse in the Zone of Conservation proposed in the territorial zoning of the Draft bill of Use and Occupation of the Ground. This only stands out that the water courses must left outside to the area divided land into parcels with the respective bands of 30 meters of each side. At the same time, it considers that until the date of publication of the Law they are kept the existing constructions and uses in the Zone of Conservation, being admitted reform in the property, since that they do not imply in change of use, additions in the occupation tax and magnifying that 10% of the constructed area surpass. In other words, once invaded the APPs, for the Draft bill of Use and Occupation of the Ground, it is not possible to recover them. The compatibilization of the zonings of the APA will succeed as long as it accomplishes an interface with the third type of zoning that deals with a space still little used in the urban planning: of a water unit. The diagnosis of the Plan of Handling clearly states the importance of the water structure. However, it does not have a Plan of watersheds. In 2003, the state of Pernambuco regulated the Program of Management Integrated of the Water Resources as an instrument of strategical action of the Program of Government for the Secretariat of Planning of the State. According to Plan of Handling, would be of extreme importance that the District of Noronha and, thus the APA entered in this program through its managing agencies the ADEFN and the IBAMA. Currently the State Agency of Environment and water resources (CPRH) of Pernambuco participate of the management of the APA, since the APA also is a state responsibility. Important dams for the water supply have their APPs highly artificialized, once there is sparse vegetal covering and sanded edges compromising the water resources of the island and provoking economic damages such as: increase in the costs of water treatment, searches of new and distant sources for supplying. The urban space existing process of occupation of the island and existing typologies The description of the Island discloses a process of irregular settling, larded for abandonment phases. To colonize an island does not represent an easy task, therefore the description of Fernando De Noronha is not unique. In the same way, nowadays innumerable islands are penitentiaries or even institutions of health directed for the sick people not considered welcome in the society. It would be impossible to erase this period of the history of Fernando De Noronha, exactly because many its inhabitants descend of those prisoners who the Island one day received. The architectural and urban patrimony of the Island clearly is associated with these disconnected periods, and the reconstitution of the history of Noronha depends on the correct interpretation of such goods. In a historical passage, the architectural significance of the Island started with the Forts that present a solid bond with the natural landscape of the island. This is the reason why they appear as elements of prominence in this context. Among the ten constructed Forts in Noronha, the one called "Nossa Senhora dos Remdios" is the most conserved one. The Port is also considered an element of first importance, not considering its last modifications, but yes its position of receiver and load deliverer and passengers throughout the history of the Island. The jail ruins constitute important description-cultural patrimony, even though they are not considered an important architectural element of relevance. The quarter called "vila dos trinta" represents an important architectural-urban to its typology in "U", that it results in an efficient form of occupation integrated to the adjacent urban space. The residences built by the North Americans, as well as the jail ruins, belong to the category of historical-cultural patrimony, an important historical period of the Island (years 40). The current urban occupation of the Island follows the model of the "diffuse occupation". The study proposes a reflection that compares the effective model with the model of the "compact occupation". An exercise was developed on the "existing emptiness's" in the urban mesh of Noronha, with the objective to evaluate its real potential of occupation. The main principle would be not to foresee new areas of urban expansion, while occupied areas were not properly urbanized. The study does not foresee vertical constructions as two or more floor buildings, but yes the exploitation of proper urban emptiness's. One concludes then that the model of effective occupation has come to 3 residential typologies: isolated in the land, conjugated and united. In the typology of the isolated residence in the center of the plot, the emptiness's occurs in bigger ratio. The first units of this typology had been the premolded houses constructed for
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the North Americans. The average relation between empty space and space built for observed plots was of 2 to 1, indicating tax of adequate permeability. For an ampler evaluation, this typology implies in urbanization that occupies greater territorial extension. Wooden Houses, native constructed houses, metallic plates houses, beer cans houses, conventional masonry, plaster plates, blocks of rock, profiles of pvc, madeirite, acrylic, fiber glass, among others structural typologies demonstrates part of a unique architectural reality in a low environmental efficiency. The model of the isolated residence in the plot is adopted on a large scale in some North American and Latin American cities. The proper territorial vastness of Americas led to the multiplication of this model that culminates in the "diffuse occupation". On the other hand, countries with small territorial area are supported necessarily in the model of the "compact city". Noronha definitively fits the second group, due to its small territorial extension and enormous environment fragility. A "diffuse occupation" in Noronha means the compromise of its ecosystem. The typology of the united houses is based on the sequenced occupation of houses or two floor houses that corresponds to the model of urbanization of the European traditional cities and colonial Brazilian cities as well, where the houses are set along the traffic way. The use of this typology results in a compact occupation, of bigger density and minor territorial extension. In this model, urban architecture and elements get interlaced, as if to say "the set of houses values the street" and "the street values the set of houses". The old quarter, today adapted to the residential use, is an example of this typology. It is possible to verify the increasing demand of habitation in the island, on the other hand it is evident the absence of an efficient plan of housing that not only involves the technology of new environmentally efficient constructions, but also the demolition of mistaken occupations in its urban and environmental aspects as in the case of the APPs. Final considerations The zonings and its respective plans are important for their respective studies, however they would have to be combined in the same final product. This would happen through an ecological approach by the professionals of architecture and urbanism and an urban approach by the professionals of the environment. In this way the problems related to two agendas would be solved. This does not occur today due to the lack of principles of a sustainable environment for the application of projects of infrastructure associated to the urban planning. In the same way the adoption of the watershed as unit of planning would have to guide the local Managing Plans, therefore in a managing plan the emphasis still is given to the type of use of the space and its traffic system and not to the carrying capacity of the water regimen of each region. The compatibilization of the actions of urban development could be given by means of a Managing Plan of Urban Draining PDDU. The Ministry of the Cities intends to use the PDDU, through the establishment of environment criteria that go since geotechnical data-collecting of the watersheds, gauging of the performance of the system of draining for the proposal of projects that have as base the ecological management of the cycle of the water. The environment and urban revitalization of the villages of the archipelago of Fernando De Noronha depends on the establishment of the carrying capacity and the geographic limits of the watersheds and the principles of the sustainable construction for the typologies. On the other hand, the rule and the landscape potential of the APPs for public green areas would have to be incorporated as basic element for the sustainable urban drawing. The ecological treatment of the existing urban emptiness's could, in good part, to be anchored in Resolution CONAMA n. 369, of 28 of March of 2006, that it makes use on special cases, of public utility, social interest or low environment impact for intervention or suppression of vegetation in APPs, and therefore to contribute for the mediation of the conflicts of the urban environment management. Bibliography
ANDRADE, Liza Maria Souza de. Agenda verde X Agenda marrom: inexistncia de princpios ecolgicos para o desenho de assentamentos urbanos. Dissertao de Mestrado PPG-FAU/UnB. Braslia, 2005. CRUZ, Jorio Arquitetura & Consultoria LTDA. Arquiplago de Fernando de Noronha. Compatibilizao do Anteprojeto de Lei de Uso e Ocupao do Solo, com o Plano de Manejo do Arquiplago. Relatrio Final. Governo do Estado de Pernambuco. Secretaria de cincia, Tecnologia e Meio Environmente. Distrito Estadual de Fernando de Noronha, agosto de 2005. MINISTRIO DO MEIO DO MEIO ENVIRONMENTE/ARCADIS TETRAPLAN S.A.. Plano de Manejo da APA Fernando de Noronha - Rocas - So Pedro e So Paulo. Braslia, 2005. MRS ESTUDOS ENVIRONMENTAIS. Plano de Gesto do Arquiplago de Fernando de Noronha Ecoturismo e Desenvolvimento Sustentvel - Fase 1, 2 e 3 (Capacidade de Suporte). Braslia, 31 de julho de 2000.
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The River Estuary and its Impact on the Quality of Life of the Population of a Metropolitan Region
Ftima Maria Miranda Brayner1, Ana Maria de Freitas Barbosa2
1
Universidade de Pernambuco Escola Politcnica, 2 Instituto de Tecnologia de Pernambuco Escola Politcnica; Recife, Brazil fatimab@elogica.com.br
Abstract The urban development of the city of Recife, capital of the State of Pernambuco, in the Northeast Region of Brazil, like other Brazilian coastal cities, has been determined by its rivers, particularly the River Capibaribe, whose estuary is over 15 km in length, most of it within the urban part of the city. The Recife Metropolitan region is showing significant signs of environmental degradation, especially deforestation, contamination or salinification of underground and surface water resources, pollution or reduction of estuarine areas, erosion of hillsides and landslides, flooding of plains and coastal erosion. All of these are a result of pressure being put on the environment by human beings. It can be shown that some problems regarding various aspects of the environment are a consequence of human activities. These include: an increase in water pollution as a result of a significant rise in the population and consequent increase in the quantity of organic matter discharged into watercourses; further land filling of flooded areas; and deforestation of forest reserves. The occupation and urban development of the city's plains have tended to involve land filling of flooded areas and even of canals and riverbanks. In the urban zones, slums, buildings, and industries occupy the banks of the Capibaribe and only 34.3% of the urban population has regular access to sewerage and garbage collection. Key words: estuary, pollution, environment, degradation Introduction Coasts and estuaries are environments on which human activities tend to lead to a whole range of changes with considerable variation in the degree of impact (French, 1997). Coastal areas come under high pressure and heavy demands from varying activities, such as habitation, industry, ports, tourism, leisure, and so forth. By occupying and settling these areas, human beings modify the environment and become agents that influence the visual characteristics, and the flow of energy and materials, thereby disrupting the equilibrium of natural ecosystems. The urban development of the city of Recife, capital of the State of Pernambuco, in the Northeast Region of Brazil, like other Brazilian coastal cities, has been determined by its rivers and canals. The coastline of the Recife Metropolitan Region contains the estuaries of a number of river basins, in particular that of the River Capibaribe, whose estuary is 15 km in length, most of it lying within the urban area of Recife. Urban Environmental problems I Recife Metropolitan Region (RMR) The RMR is located in the eastern part of Northeast at 80403 S latitude and 345500 W longitude. It covers a surface territory of 2,761 km2 and, consists, almost in its entirety of a marine flood plain. The environment of RMR is characterized by various ecosystems and is modified by biological, geological, morphological, climatological and human factors. Forms of occupation and land use and socio-economic characteristics determine how environmental modifications occur and their degree of impact. Given the spatial configuration of the RMR, the kind of problems that have arisen include: the replacement of fragile ecosystems with urban areas; the occupation of hillsides and of flooded areas by un-controlled land reclamation; the emergence of industrial areas that were later absorbed into the urban nucleus; and the exploitation of mineral resources within the urban area causing problems with smoke emissions. 2 Water problems In the RMR, a number of kinds of water pollution can be identified, including agricultural (fertilizers and pesticides), industrial (heat, metallic ions, residues, various kinds of effluent, and solvents), urban (domestic waste, detergents, sewage, and oil), and transport (fuel emissions and residues). River pollution Previous studies have observed an increase in the discharge of domestic effluent in the urban nucleus, as well as in the release of industrial waste, related to the metallurgical, chemical and sugar cane industries. It should be pointed out that the contamination of water reservoirs by micro algae has caused damage to the quality of the water available for the local population.
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The pollution of aquifers There are constant problems with water supply in the RMR, owing to the rapid growth in the urban population. Whenever there is a longer than usual period of dry weather and surface reserves run dry, wells are dug to provide for the needs of this population. The main aquifers of the RMR, despite the fact that they contain water of excellent quality, are under constant threat of pollution or over-exploitation. The defence of reload areas and the protection of the water supply have been achieved by municipal laws that prohibit intensive urban occupation, as well as industrial installations or sanitary landfills, in order to prevent the pollution of these areas. However the large number of incidents of dangers being detected in water supplies shows the inefficacy of such legislation and the failure on the part of authorities responsible to enforce it. In recent years, the salinity of wells located in urban areas has reached alarming levels, owing to the high demand for groundwater, especially in the coastal zone. The Estuary The coastline of RMR represents 63% of the State's 187 km coastline and this area contains the estuaries of a number of large fluvial basins, such as that of the River Capibaribe. The mangroves found in these regions are typical of areas where salt water meets fresh river water. In recent years, the estuaries of RMR have been taken over by shrimp nurseries built in or near mangrove areas, where water is supplied by the tide. Areas that were once used as nurseries for fish, to attract the local population, are now being transformed into shrimp nurseries and eventually shrimp farms. It should be pointed out that this activity causes great changes to the estuarine area through the destruction of the mangroves and the pollution of water by chemical products, pesticides and antibiotics used in the nurseries. Although the flooded areas of the RMR are quite degraded (Brayner, 1998) they continue to serve as an important source of food (Freire, 2000) for local population and also retain contaminants, acting as a natural filter. Land Reclamation in Estuarine areas According to Baltar (1951), the hydraulic functions of mangroves and flooded areas mitigating the effect of inundations by acting as a reservoir during periods of flooding and high tide have not been taken into account and this poses a serious risk to the city. With the rapid growth of shrimp farming, mainly along the northern coast, it is probable that the cutting and land filling of mangroves will increase significantly in scale in order to implant or enlarge the production substructure or provide access to nurseries. 3 Environmental risks The RMR's coastal zone contains eight important estuaries, some of them fed by more than one main river. Besides these important estuaries, there are several other river mouths of minor importance. Over the years, the gradual narrowing of the River Capibaribe, as a result of land filling, has obstructed the drainage of river water and led to tide reflux causing flooding in several areas. 4 Comments and Recommendations The precariousness of the provision of treated water has a direct effect on the poor population and, on the other hand, the precariousness of sanitation, mainly in slum areas, is responsible for the pollution of rivers and the water supply. Besides this, there are very poor housing conditions in these areas, and contact with contaminated water and sewage is almost certain to occur, particularly in areas located on the banks of rivers and canals. Organic matter in water supplies derived from rivers or as a result of invasion of protected water supplies leads to complex environmental problems that have a huge impact on public health. Although there are at present no health indicators which can be used to establish such an association, it is important to note the presence of typical industrial pollutants both in rivers and in estuarine areas. The increase in water pollution as a result of faster population growth between 2000 and 2015 will lead to the release of a larger quantity of organic matter into watercourses (Moreira, 2001). Given that, at present, 26.9% of all households in the RMR habitations are situated in slums and 70% of these are not connected to the sewerage system (Hoffman, 2001), if there is no investment in sanitation, the tendency will be for the quality of water to deteriorate still further as a result of pollution by domestic effluent. Furthermore, such an increase in the population will also lead to the land filling of more flooded areas and the deforestation of forest reserves. The levels of salinity and contamination of water supplies will worsen, if no clear legislation is put in place. Flooding will become more frequent as a result of urban condensation, insufficient drainage and land reclamation. The problems mentioned above before will be used to guide the recommendations described below: Restoring the quality of water As seen above, the quality of water has profound consequences for the quality of life of the population, especially health. In the short term, there is a need for effective action on the part of government to enforce existing legislation of both the private sector and public institutions, in order to 376
Ftima Maria Miranda Brayner, Ana Maria de Freitas Barbosa: The River Estuary and its Impact on the Quality of Life
avoid the release of industrial effluents and domestic sewage into watercourses. On the other hand, in the medium-term, it is very important to reduce the sanitation deficit in the metropolitan region. Environmental sanitation This article has also shown that a large number of the RMR's environmental problems stem from the significant deficit in terms of basic environmental services. Redressing this deficit is, therefore, one of the great challenges faced by the various State and Federal Government agents involved. Organisation of aquiculture activities in estuaries The RMR has a large estuarine area that is suitable both for direct (wood extraction, food, tourism, leisure and housing) and indirect (natural sanitation, erosion, flood prevention and water drainage) uses. It is, therefore, necessary for governments to oversee these areas, as they form part of the natural heritage and environmental damage to them is irreversible. Bibliography
BALTAR, Antonio. Diretrizes de um Plano Regional para o Recife, 1951. Editora Universitria, Recife BRAYNER, Ftima Maria Miranda. Determinao de taxas de reteno de metais-trao por sedimentos orgnicos em um viveiro de piscicultura em rea estuarina e urbana. 1998. 88 f. Tese, Universidade de So Paulo, So Carlos de MELLO MOREIRA, Morvan - "Projees Preliminares da Populao dos Municpios da Regio Metropolitana do Recife por Grupos de Idades: 2000-2015" - Banco Mundial/IPEA/FIDEM - Recife - Dezembro de 2001 HOFFMANN, Rodolfo - "Distribuio da renda e pobreza na Regio Metropolitana de Recife" -Banco Mundial/IPEA/FIDEM - Recife/Campinas - Dezembro de 2001
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Urban Planning in Metropolitan Areas: urban development versus environmental preservation? A case study: Nova Odessa
M. C. L. D'Ottaviano, F. Atique & G. T. Fricke
Universidade So Francisco Itatiba / SP / Brazil camilald@uol.com.br
Abstract To work with Urban Planning in the Campinas Metropolitan Region is, nowadays, a very challenging task: urban governors are mostly interest in economic development although we, the technicians, are always trying to improve some environmental preservation into the urban planning process. The Campinas Metropolis has large urbanized areas, some with high densities and some not; some large areas with rural production, but also, some areas where the nature is still preserved. During 2006, we had the opportunity to develop the "Plano Diretor Participativo" (Participative Director Urban Plan) of the city of Nova Odessa, a small city that is part of the Campinas Metropolitan Area. During the process, especially during the Zoning definition, the municipal government wished mostly to increase the industrials areas, and had appointed many areas closer to water reservoir or to water sources as a valid place to it. We, as the consultant technicians were against to this idea, but the only type of solution for this problem was obtained by the popular request. Then, the definition of a industrial zoning (or industrial classification) and green belts protection between industrial and residential areas were only included in the Director Urban Plan after popular discussions and solicitation. The impact of this kind of urban planning is the main topic of analyzes in this paper. Introduction Nova Odessa is a city located in the hinterland of the State of So Paulo, in Brazil, in a region officially known as Campinas Metropolitan Region, also designated, in Portuguese, by the letters RMC. This Region was formed by a Federal Law of June 19th of 2000, and stipulated by a Specific Law promulgated by the State of So Paulo, in the same year. The RMC has 3.348 km2, and corresponds to 6.3% of the total population of the State. Nova Odessa's total area is 84 km2, divided in two zones: an urban that corresponds of 35% of the total area, and a rural, with 65% of the total amount. The population of this city is 42.071 inhabitants as the official data from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, divulgated in the 2000 Census. The Demographic Density of Nova Odessa is 468 inhabitants per kilometer square. The weather of the city is Tropical, characterized by a dry winter (June to August) and a rainy summer (December to March). The annual volume of rains is 1.300 mm, closer to the annual media of the State. The altitude of the city is 540 meters upper of the ocean level. Its latitude is 4719'51" W and its longitude is 2247'20" S. The Hydro System of Nova Odessa belongs to Piracicaba River Drainage-Basin, and, also to the secondary Drainage-Basin of the Jaguari River. The main rivers of Nova Odessa are Quilombo River that runs to Jaguari River; Foguete, Santo ngelo, Lopes, So Francisco, Capoava, Palmital and Recanto streams. The water is abundant in the Municipal Area, and is so easy to find artificial lakes and reservoirs that permit leisure for the citizens and, in addition, the water supply. The city's boundaries are the City of Sumar (South), the City of Paulnia (East), the City of Americana (North), and the City of Santa Brbara D'Oeste (West). Many important State roads like Anhanguera and Bandeirantes cross the Municipal Area, and keep the inhabitants connected with the Viracopos Airport, in Campinas; with the Port of Santos, in the littoral; with the City-Head of the RMC, Campinas, and with the State Capital, So Paulo City. In the past, Nova Odessa was also connected with the country and the other countries of South America by the State of So Paulo Railway, one of the most important railway systems in Brazil. Unfortunately, today, the city does not have a Train Station in operation because of the change in the national Politics of Transportation which had decided to stimulate the roads instead of the railways in the Country. By the way, In 1990s, Nova Odessa obtained an excellent growing in its economy by the development of its industrial park. The City is a traditional polo of Textile Factories, and in the past, 90% of its inhabitants had worked for this type of industry. In the 2000s we can find another condition in Nova Odessa's Industrial Park. Attracted by the roads, by the abundance of water and by a Municipal Politics formulated to increase the Industrial Development, the city is changing its economical base. Today is possible to find new kind of industries there, like: Metallurgic, Plastic, Chemical, and Pharmaceutical (Prefeitura Municipal de Nova Odessa, 2007). Those transformations conducted the city to get 25 million dollars in its Internal Brut Product, what means, in fact, 10.500 dollars per capta. Those values represent the double of the media of the State of So Paulo, and, at least, the triple of the Brazilian media in the same period. The industrial development of the RMC, and in a closer view, the Nova Odessa, has been showed the fragile of this kind of development. In one 378
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hand we can enumerate the economical benefices acquired by the industrial growing, but, in the other hand, we can discuss about the serious environmental disturbs caused by it. The genesis of these environmental problems is easy to find. It is linked with the new model of Urban Planning in use in the Campinas Metropolitan Region, which intents to attract the major number of Industries to its limits. In 2000, a Federal Decree known as the "Cities Statute" (Estatuto da Cidade) had established the obligation for all the Brazilian cities with more than 20.000 inhabitants and for all the cities included in Metropolitan areas to develop new Participative Director Urban Plan until October, 2006. This request intent to change the traditional form of Urban Planning in Brazil based in a political decision by the mayors and his secretaries without the agreement of the local populations. By a Complementary Law sustained by a Grant from the Cities Ministry the Universidade So Francisco got the opportunity to be a consultant for the Plan of Nova Odessa. The initial responsibility of the University was to be the assessor of specific points for the Plan, like Housing, Health, Transportation and Hydro Resources. But with the deflagration of the process the University was transformed in the Plan's executors. This challenge occurred because the employees of the Municipal Government had declared their incapability to conduct the process causing an unexpected drama. Because of this modification the Course of Architecture and Urbanism of this University started the execution of the Director Plan and realized how difficult the work would be. The principal reason for it was the interest of the Municipal Governor to transform the city in an Industrial Polo, forgetting many of the natural and environmental obstacles for it. One of the most important characteristic was forgotten by the Municipal Government for this decision: the eminent failure of the water supply in the State of So Paulo. Since 1984 the State Secretary of Water and Electric Energy is alerting about the danger of an immense growing in the borders of the Anhanguera Road. The reason for this alert is the conflict of the water renovation in the Piracicaba Drainage-Basin and the water supply in cities like Sumar, Santa Brbara D'Oeste and Nova Odessa (DAEE, 1984). The constitution of an impermeable membrane by the construction of new streets and roads inside the Piracicaba Drainage-Basin has caused a fall in the quality of the water used for consumption (Fricke, 1988). In Nova Odessa, the new Director Plan had changed the character of the city. Until 2006 the city had a considerable zone called as rural, but in the future, with the new points of the Director Plan, the Industrial Zone will take the place of the free spaces. The University and the population, by the public meetings, promoted by the force of a Federal Law, could establish in the original idea of the Municipal Government some attitudes to minimize this terrible panorama. To preserve the lakes, reservoirs and many streams which are important for the water renovation and for the maintenance of its good quality, a Green Belt will be designed surrounding the new industries. In addition of this idea, the University could keep the resolution for the conception of an Industrial Classification (figure 1). This Classification, if executed as projected by the University will permit that the industries with great environmental risks keep out the areas considered fragile in its soil and air. To protect the environment and, in the other hand, to promote a necessary economical growing with the industrialization has been the principal dilemma in Brazil. The economical appeal is one of the most devils for the Urban Planners that have to be not only technicians, but also, psychologists and lawyers to keep the good quality of the cities in this Country and to teach the inhabitants what are theirs rights in Urban Policy. The expe-
Figure 1: Map of the City of Nova Odessa, showing the main Rivers, Streams and Reservoirs, and, also, the Green Belts and the Proposed Industrial Classification produced by Universidade So Francisco.
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rience with the Municipal Government of Nova Odessa showed us the limits of a Technical and Political Decision. The effective participation of the population had permitted us to realize that a city can be planned with the conjugation of the interests of the Mayor, the Technicians and the people that lived there. Bibliography
DEPARTAMENTO DE GUAS E ENERGIA ELTRICA. Plano Global de recursos hdricos da bacia do rio Piracicaba. Primeira Ed. So Paulo: Coplasa S.A., 1984. EMPLASA. Evoluo da Estrutura Urbana. Regio Metropolitana de Campinas, volume 1. So Paulo, 2005. 151p. FRICKE, Glacir Teresinha. Vulnerabilidade do Sistema de Abastecimento de gua de Campinas a acidentes com o transporte de produtos perigosos. 1992. 115 f. Dissertao de Mestrado - Curso de Engenharia Civil, Departamento de Engenharia Civil, Unicamp, Campinas, 1992. INSTITUTO BRASILEIRO DE GEOGRAFIA E ESTATSTICA (IBGE). Cidades@. <http://www.ibge.gov.br>. Acesso em 05/abr/06. NOVA Odessa.<www.novaodessa.gov.sp.br>. Accessed in March 24, 2007.
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Environmental management in the context of building construction in Brazil

J. R. R. Menezes, J. J. Rego Silva, L. F. R. Miranda
Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Brazil jmenezes@ufpe.br
Abstract Major environment requirements are being imposed to the industry of building construction in Brazil. The society is becoming more concerning about environmental impacts, which are being better understood, divulged, and argued. As consequence, the implantation of environmental management models begins to be seen as business strategy. In this context ISO 14001 certification has been proposed as a viable option for environmental management. It can be noted, based on the implantation of this management system model, that the environmental performance is associated to social and economic aspects. This relation can present conflicts between the sustainable development dimensions, especially in developing countries, as Brazil, where there is expressive lack of resources. This article presents some environmental issues in the context of building construction industry, taking into consideration the metropolitan region of Recife City, located at Brazilian northeastern. It aims to contribute for the environmental management in this sector, coherent with the sustainable development. Key words: Building construction, environmental management, sustainable development Introduction In Brazil the civil construction was responsible for 70% of the total capital resources in 2004 (Gondim et al, 2004). In 2005 it was represented 7.3% of National Growing Production (NGP) and it has grown 1.3%. Between 1991 and 2004, it has grown not more than 0.9% per year. The prediction of such growing for the last year was around 6%. There are 119 thousand of civil construction companies with around 1.46 millions formal work posts, which 94% of the total are micro and small companies with an average of 26 post workers per company. The informal activity represents around 63%. In 2004, there were 14,361 building civil construction companies with 529 post workers, and 5,324 ones with 30-more post workers (CIBIC, 2007). The big chain of civil construction can be also observed by the enormous raw material consumption and the emissions. On the one hand, the civil construction consumes 240 million tons of aggregates, 40 million tons of cement and 40% of the total consumed energy in Brazil. On the other hand, it is responsible for 40% of total CO2 emission and it uses 40% of national transportation. The city of Recife, state of Pernambuco, has 1.5 million inhabitants and 6.98 thousand inhab/km2. It is one of other 13 municipalities, which together form the Metropolitan Region of Recife (MRR). So, MRR contains 3.65 million inhabitants and 1.32 thousand inhabitants/km2, and the property market is growing. The city is located 60 Km far from Suape port, where related civil construction activity started for petro chemistry area and harbor area. So, the building civil construction sector may expressively increase in the next years and the environmental impacts. So, the challenges for the sustainable development also increase. The environmental dimension of the sustainable development considers the inter-relation analysis between elements, which passes though the origin and the use of materials and energy, the constructive process and the related emissions. Such analysis requires input and output diagnosis of each constructive process. This paper presents the background of the environmental situation of the building civil construction sector for MRR. The data were taken from the bibliography and interviews in municipalities and building construction companies. The goal is to achieve an integrative model for quality-environmental-health and occupational security for building construction companies. The inter-relationships in the building construction environment are presented (Figures 1 e 2), including the challenges where the interventions can be done. Figure 2, which is based on Iswikawa diagram, presents the six elements of the building construction process. There are three stages in relation of the environmental concerning: the first one, which considers the compliance of legal rules, standards and implementation of pollution control equipments; the second one, which integrates the environmental control management; and the third one, which the environmental management focuses on the reduction of waste generation and other impacts. Legislation The federal environmental legislation that firstly incorporates the concept of sustainable development was the law 6938, approved on 1982. It gave the support for the environmental politics in Brazil.
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Figure 1: Relationship in building construction
Figure 2: Elements of construction process.
The federal resolution 307 from National Council for Environment (CONAMA) was introduced in 2002. It establishes procedures, criteria and proceedings for civil construction waste management. The resolution obliges the building construction sites and the local authorities to implement the civil construction waste management in order to priory the reuse, recycling and best disposal practices. This resolution is very important for Brazil and it is responsible for the some practices of building construction waste sorting and the implementation of construction waste recycling plants. 14 recycling plants, at least, have been producing recycled aggregates. In contrast, many local authorities and building construction sites have not implemented such resolution. One of the reasons is the inability of public sector in stimulating the creation of private licensed areas for the reuse and recycling. Water The water supply in many construction building sites comes from excavated underground. Because of that, the quantity of water supplied is not easily quantified, which induces the wastage. In many municipalities, the water supply is not enough for the total consumption. 63% of the building constructions are located near the seaside, where the use of ungrounded water is causing problems in buildings foundations and presence of salts in the water. One of the challenges is to analyze the potential water quantity supply and to implement regulations for the use. The goal is to install water measurement equipments and to implement use restrictions. One construction building site of Recife, which has ISO 9,000, installed a good practice: a parallel system of water captions or input and reuse of rain or grey water achieving the reduction of treated water consumption. Sand In general terms, building construction companies are used to buying in raw aggregate suppliers, which are working legally. However, a part of the suppliers extracted yet natural sand from illegal areas and the extraction of such material in sedimentary rivers has an expressive environmental impact in bentonic communities. In many cases, the use of police is necessary in order to obstruct the activity of such illegal companies. It is necessary the production control of sand in the region and the implementation of the co-responsibility of the building companies on the buying act. Energy and emissions In Brazil, US$ 13,600 billions will be necessary between 2007 and 2010 in order to increase 1% a.a./hab (UNC, 2006). The energy consumption in the building construction sector reached 40% of the total supplied. Many news are warning about the imminent lack of energy supply for the expected Brazilian growing. The increase of such supply will certainly demand resources and generate pollution. In order to reduce the reduce CO2 emission related to the civil construction, initiatives, which priory the consumption of blended cement with high contents of blast furnace slag (CP III). The quantity of CO2 emission per ton of cement is much lower than other types of Portland Cement (CP II e CP IV), yet usual in market. The acceptance the cement blended is not so higher: despite being cheaper it is necessary to increase the cement content in order to achieve same concrete strength levels. There are also other simple actions in MRR, which regard the use or temporary transparent plastic roofing system in order to exploit the better use of natural lighting.
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Construction waste In Brazil, the use of improper construction process results in wastage. 50% of the wastage keeps incorporate on the building sites and the others are waste (Carvalho Filho, 2005). Regarding the raw building material life cycle and the illegal dumping of the construction waste, many problems are identified: visual pollution, proliferation of vectors, soil, water and air pollution (Dias, 2004). The average construction waste generation per capita is 0.5 ton/inhab.year (Pinto, 1999), near 150 kg/m2 constructed area. In Recife, regarding the population, constructed area constructed per year and construction waste transportation data, around 1,500 tons/day of waste can be expected. Three building sites of MRR, which have implemented construction waste management practices, demonstrated reduction in the wastage rate and the costs of waste transportation. Other benefits are: the better organization of the site, marketing benefits by better corporative image and compliance with the national regulation from CONAMA. If compared with other Brazilian regions, some different related activities have been developed: - recycling of the rendering gypsum waste in the building construction site by manual crushing, sieving (fineness modulus around 3.5) and blend of 10-22% of gypsum hemihydrates. The remaining gypsum waste is collected by one company that recycles the material for agriculture purposes. - brick, mortar and concrete waste have been recycled as crushed aggregate for masonry blocks. In Brazil, the lack of handling and recycling areas, the absence of control system during the material waste flow and the unavailability of incentive for the application of recycled aggregates are important barriers that must be surpassed. In demolition activities, there is no culture of reuse and recycling Carvalho Filho (2005). Part of these barriers have being surpassed in some Brazilian municipalities. In Santo Andr, there is a control of construction waste destination document. In this case, the absence of such document will result in penalties for new construction licensing activities. In Diadema, there is a law obliging the use of cheaper recycled aggregates instead of natural ones for construction of the public sector, when the recycled aggregate complies the national standard requirements from NBR15116. In 2006, the Volkswagen factory in So Bernardo do Campo used selective demolition practices in order to recycle part of the construction waste. The reuse and recycling of construction waste can reduce the quantity of waste dumped. More recycling plants are necessary for the cities where the market consumption attends the requirements for the economical feasibility. Also the use of recycled materials should be extended for public and private sector in applications of large consumption and low structural responsibility, such as pavements, drainage, masonry and rendering mortar. Conclusions The incorporation of environmental management in building construction sites is necessary in Brazil, one great challenge for governments and building construction companies. Such environmental aspects should also be considered on the architectural design and planning stage of the building construction sites. The building technologists and planners are also responsible for the introduction of clean procedures in building sites. The paradigm change depends of necessity-education. In Pernambuco state, nowadays just one construction building company employee the environmental management suggested by ISO 14,000. The company has been selected the raw building material producers according to the compliance with environmental laws and sustainable politics. So, punctual actions regarding sustainable development are in-course despite the enormous challenges involved. Many organizations have been acting in order to promote sustainability through seminar, technical research and volunteer workers for citizenship. In this sense, business organizations applying ISO 14,001 tools for environmental management have just started in order to surpass the regional challenges. Referencies
ASSOCIAO BRASILEIRA DE CIMENTO PORTLAND - ABCP. Iniciativa para a sustentabilidade do cimento (CSI) Plano de ao. Disponvel em < http://www.abcp.org.br/desenvolvimento/arquivos_pdf/Agenda_CSI.pdf >. Acesso em fev.2007 GONDIM, I. A.; Marchon, P.H.A.M.; BARROS NETO, J.P.; JORGE NETO, P.M. Anlise da economia nacional e a participao da indstria da construo civil. In: X Encontro Nacional de Tecnologia do Ambiente Construdo ENTAC.18-21 julho 2004, So Paulo. CAMARA BRASILEIRA DA INDUSTRIA DA CONSTRUAO-CIBIC. Macrossetor da construo: Efeitos totais. Seo: A construo em nmeros. Disponvel em < www.cbicdados.com.br/constructnumeros2.asp >. Acesso em mar.2007 CARVALHO FILHO, A.C. Impactos Ambientais da Construo Civil. In Curso de Gerenciamento de Resduos de Construo e Demolio. Escola Politcnica de Pernambuco. Abr. 2005.
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DIAS, J.F. A construo civil e o meio ambiente. In: Congresso Estadual de Profissionais. CREA-MG Uberlndia, Brasil. 2004. UNIO NACIONAL DA CONSTRUO - UNC. A construo do desenvolvimento sustentvel: a importncia da construo econmica e social do pas. So Paulo: FGV Projetos, ago, 2006. Disponvel em http://www.sindusconsp.com.br/especiais/Uniao_nacional_construcao/doc_unc.pdf. Acesso em fev, 2007.
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Design of stormwater and retention facilities

R. Mansouri & M. Kherouf
University of Guelma, Algeria rmansouri2001@yahoo.fr
Abstract This paper presents the development and application of two hydrological rainfall-runoff models for extreme flood estimation, and its use to investigate potential changes in runoff processes, due to effects of imperviousness degree. Land cover percentages are then combined with average precipitation data, rainfall distribution information, percent slope, and hydrologic soil group, to estimate how urbanization affect runoff volume, time of concentration, and peak flow. A flood protection measure of a town is a modern and ambitious work; its complexity is a feature of scientific, economic, ecologic and sociologic aspects. The paper presents a dimensioning work of Sdi Ammar town protection schemes (Located in eastern Algeria), and an environmental integration of the proposed installations. Its presents methods and procedures for the estimation, routing, and attenuation of peak flows and flow volumes for sub-catchments as a prerequisite to the design of stormwater conveyance systems, and detention and retention facilities 1. Introduction The knowledge of the rainfall runoff relationship is an essential tool in modelling and design of urban drainage networks. Moreover, as increasing urbanization makes the flow in drainage networks larger and larger and urban catchments are usually designed to convey only medium intensity rainfall, it can be useful to perform fault detection and supervision and to design control systems for real-time storm effect management. In order to perform effective management of urban drainage networks, accurate models are needed, which must be capable of simulating and predicting the water flow in the main sections of the network, Therefore, in network design simple models are used in order to obtain rainfall-runoff relationship models on the basis of a restricted data set. Management of food-prone areas is the result of a complex decision-making process aimed to define and implement, in the analysed zones, all those measures that can determine the compatibility between land-use related activities and the risk to which human, natural and economic resources are subjected . Structural mitigation measures modify the characteristics of a food (i.e., the volume and timing of food waters, their extent and location, their velocity and depth) or the susceptibility of people and properties to food damage. In this study a different approach is adopted. The historical land use data is used to study the impacts of land use changes on the floods by modelling. An increase in impervious surface area is the inevitable result of most land developments, witch in most cases results in an increase in runoff volume and an extended period in flow. In order to illustrate this effect a simulation is carried out for the basin of Sidi-Amar located in eastern Algeria. The latter is composed from two subcatchments: the first is a rural subcatchment having 0% impervious degree, and the second is urbanized with 75 % impervious degree. 1.1 Classical reservoir model This model is based on the hypothesis that the urban drainage network can be effectively considered as a linear tank, i.e., it can be described as a linear system with the following impulse response u (t):
1 u( t ) = exp k
t k
(1)
Since it is difficult to obtain k from measurements, many empirical methods based on experimental data and network design parameters have been proposed in the literature for its estimation. In particular, in this work, the estimation formula (Desbordes, 1984) have been chosen. 1.2 (SCS) dimensionless unit hydrograph The Soil Conservation Service (SCS) dimensionless unit hydrograph procedure is one of the most well known methods for deriving synthetic unit hydrographs in use today. The dimensionless unit hydrograph used by the SCS was developed by Victor Mockus and was derived based on a large number of unit hydrographs from basins that varied in characteristics such as size and geographic location. Both methods were used, and the results are plotted in the figures (1) and (2). From the figures (2) we can quote that the reaction of the urbanized subcatchment is better reproduced by using the SCS method. Therefore this method is adopted in further calculations.
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12 10
Hydrograph from linear reservoir Hydrograph from SCS
Runoff (m /s)
8 6 4 2 0 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (hours)
4,5 4,0 3,5
Figure 1: the hydrographs resulting the SCS UH and the linear reservoir for the SC 01 (IMP=0%).
Hydrograph from linear reservoir Hydrograph from SCS method
Runoff (m3/s)
3,0 2,5 2,0 1,5 1,0 0,5 0,0 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time in hours
Figure 2:. the hydrographs resulting from the SCS UH and the linear reservoir for the SC 02 (IMP=75%) .
2. Hydrologic Routing Techniques Hydrologic routing employs the use of the continuity equation and either an analytical or an empirical relationship between storage within the reach and discharge at the outlet. In its simplest form, the continuity equation can be written as inflow minus outflow equals the rate of change of storage within the reach. In this study two methods are used: Muskingum method. Muskingum-Cunge. By analysing the figures (3) and we can
16 14 12
Inflow Outflow Muskingum Outflow Muskingum Cunge
3 Runoff (m /s)
10 8 6 4 2 0 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time in hours
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Figure 3: Inflow and outflow using Muskingum and Muskingum Cunge (IMP=75%).
R. Mansouri & M. Kherouf: Design of stormwater and retention facilities
notice that the greater attenuation of the peak runoff is realised by the Muskingum cunge method. For this reason the latter will be used in next operation. 3. Sizing of a detention basin Urban storm water management systems typically include detention and relation facilities (basins) to mitigate the negative impact of the urbanisation on storm water drainage. These basins act as a filter mechanism and are primarily designed to hold water and slowly release it at an act similar or less than that of encountered before urbanisation. That is, the intent is to allow water out of the urbanised region at an artificial, but pseudo natural, rate. Initial sizing of a detention basin may be undertaken in order to assess the feasibility of a basin as a flood management option, or to determine the order of magnitude of the storage required the initial sizing of a basin volume can be undertaken by a comparison of four estimation procedures (Culp 1948, Boyd 1989 ,Caroll 1990 ,Basha 1994; in QUDM, 1994),. It has become common practice to take the average of the following estimation procedures (Aron and Kibler, 1990), (Scraggs and Lemckert , 2004). Note when used individually, these estimation procedures may give widely different answers and thus should be used with care, hence the benefits gained by calculating an average of all four methods. In any case, these procedures should only be used for preliminary sizing. The flows that were routed through the basins were hydrographs from storm events up to a 1 in 50 year storm. For the study area the typical results are shown in Figure 4. These results show that the average detention volumes lie between the estimates obtained by using the Basha and Boyd methods.
13 4. Conclusion 12 Hydrological studies of rainfall11 runoff process provide the basis for 10 estimating design flows for urban 9 stormwater drainage systems, 8 which control floods. This paper 7 presents the application of two mod6 els (Linear reservoir and SCSCulp 5 hydrograph method), and its use to Carol 4 investigate potential changes in 3 Basha runoff processes, due to effects of 2 Boyd imperviousness degree. Land cover 1 percentages are then combined with Avearge 0 rainfall information, percent slope, 0 10 20 30 40 50 and hydrologic soil group, to estiStorm Event (year) mate how urbanisation affect runoff volume, time of concentration, and Figure: Typical results obtained from the comparison of the preliminary peak flow. In the absence of ade- detention volumes. quate controls, urban development will inevitably bring about an increase of storm runoff volumes and peak flow rates. These increases can aggravate the flood risk. Flood Protection Measures of a Town is a modern and ambitious work; its complexity is a feature of scientific, economic, ecologic and sociologic aspects. The paper presents a dimensioning work of Sidi-Amar Town protection schemes. The paper presents methods and procedures for the estimation, routing, and attenuation of peak flows and flow volumes as a prerequisite to the design of stormwater conveyance systems, and detention and retention facilities.
5. Refrences
Aron G & D.F. Kibler (1990), Pond Sizing for rational formula hydrographs, Water Res Bull., 26, 255-258. Desbordes, M. (1984). Evacuation des eaux pluviales urbaines: les orientations franaises, recherches et applications de la modlisation, perspectives d'volution. Proceedings of Seminar on Urbain Drainage, Queensland Urban Drainage Manual (QUDM) (1994), Neville Jones & Associates, Australian Water Engineering, Queensland Department of Primary Industrie. Scraggs C. J. and C. J. Lemckert (2004) :Preliminary Estimation Methods for Sizing Detention Basins in Queensland. 15th Australasian Fluid Mechanics Conference The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.
Volume (m^3)
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Solid waste management for the abatement of health and environmental impact in Lagos, Nigeria
O. A. Oyediran
Department of Architecture, University of Lagos, Nigeria osuoye@yahoo.co.uk
Introduction Waste management in general has been a serious concern all over the world. While the industrialized countries have over time perfected a series of legislations and customs that regulate and ease the waste management issue, developing countries like Nigeria still battle with both control and management of waste. No political or social formation worldwide has ever existed without the concern for the increasing danger inherent in the rate which the environment is being depleted due to air, water and land pollution. A most ubiquitous phenomenon that is associated with rapid urbanization is the ever-increasing tonnage of solid / liquid waste materials in the cities. This Study sets out to examine the current practices in Lagos with regards to solid waste generation and disposal, and to proffer innovative solutions for a positive health and environmental impact. Historical perspective In 1928, the 'Lagos Town Planning Act' led to the setting up of the 'Lagos Executive Development Board' (LEDB). The Board was charged with proper sanitation control and land use. The first major solid waste environmental pollution was noticed in the 70s shortly after 'FESTAC 77' (Festival of Arts and Culture) in Lagos State. In April 1977, Edict No 7 established 'Lagos State Refuse Disposal Board' This Board was charged with the responsibility of cleaning all drains within Lagos. In 1984, it was renamed 'Lagos State Disposal Board' thus extending its functions to ridding all streets within Lagos of broken-down vehicles and other traffic hindrances. The 'sand, laterite and gravel spillage' edict No 4 of 1984 was intended to check various private and other public contractors from dumping their building materials on the road to avoid blocking traffic. The 'Lagos State Environmental Pollution control Edict' No 13 of 1989 led to the present day set-up for waste management systems in the Lagos Metropolis. Under this Edict, the Lagos State Government created the Ministry of Environment which oversees the day-to-day administration of waste control in Lagos. Funding Funding for refuse management in Lagos has been on the increase from both international bodies (UNDP) and from funds deducted from local Governments grants and administered through the Lagos State Ministry of Environment. Funding should be given directly to the companies (PSP) handling the refuse. When the amount is made public, the public can hold the companies responsible when they do not perform. Indiscriminate dumping of solid and liquid waste This is the single biggest refuse problem in Lagos on the road and in drainage channels. In industrialized countries, refuse and pollution is managed by both legislative and human control. According to a 2005 LAWMA report, Lagos generates about 4.5 million tons of domestic waste annually and over 10,000 tons daily (see table 1). The LAWMA report also stated that only 40% of the State enjoyed sanitation coverage, with only 20% of house-holds connected to sewage system and only 8% enjoying regular waste collection. The solid waste generated includes domestic refuse, clothing waste and various containers and packages such as water sachets. The State has 16 major drainage channels that open into the Lagoon. But due to poor waste management, most of the drainage routes are blocked.
Table 1: Solid waste collected and disposed by Lawma in 1993
S/N 1 2 3 4 5 6
TYPE OF WASTE MATERIAL DOMESTIC / HOUSEHOLD WASTE DOMESTIC WASTE (LOCAL GOVERNMENT) INDUSTRIAL / COMMERCIAL WASTE SCRAPS SAND / SILT SPECIAL / GARDEN WASTE TOTAL
TONNAGE 2024197 2035 11548 1074 2723 9503 2152080
PERCENTAGE 94.6 0.1 5.23 0.05 0.13 0.43 100.0 %
Source: Lagos State Waste Management Authority (LAWMA) report.
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Environmental pollution control agencies These are concerned about the quantity, volume and weight of solid waste in Lagos State. These agencies include LAWMA (Lagos Waste Management Agency) which is responsible for solid waste and LASEPA (Lagos State Environmental Protection Agency) which is responsible for industrial pollution (liquid and gas). The monitoring and enforcement task force units include KAI (kick against indiscipline) which is also charged with the enforcement of various laws and edicts governing street trading, illegal make-shift structures, etc. The WAI (war against indiscipline) brigade acted as foot soldiers to educate and counsel people on the need to enforce all the sanitation rules and regulations. Enforcement of good sanitation practice has been poor, where refuse beside the street has accumulated because people empty their refuse on the street as they drive by and refuse trucks litter the streets as they are not well covered. Current practices These include the PSP (private sector partnership) in which collection, transportation and disposal of solid waste at special dumping sites have been privatized. From these intermediate dump sites (see table 2), the refuse is transferred to various land fills. To illustrate how disorganized these refuse collectors can be, the refuse pours back unto the streets from their trucks as they move about to collect refuse because the trucks are not following the laid down LAWMA regulations. However, sorting out the refuse has not been a priority, which has hindered the development of recycling. There are cart-pushers who are largely patronized in Lagos due to the cheap fees they charge. They also dump refuse beside the street. The monthly environmental sanitation exercise carried out by the public (during which no-one is allowed to go out until 10.00am on the last Saturday of every month) is frustrated because there aren't enough refuse collection trucks to cart away the refuse collected in front of each house.
Table 2: Disposal capacity of Lagos State in 1994.
S/N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
LAND FILL SITES OMOLE ESTATE ABEOKUTA EXPRESSWAY ISOLO ANTHONY OJOTA ACHAPE ADENIJI ADELE ORILE TOTAL
CAPACITY (m3) 4000000 3150000 2300000 1400000 70000 60000 50000 50000 11080000
TYPE OF WASTE INDUSTRIAL DOMESTIC INDUSTRIAL DOMESTIC / INDUSTRIAL DOMESTIC DOMESTIC DOMESTIC DOMESTIC DOMESTIC DOMESTIC
Legal framework Sanitation policies such as the 'Lagos State Pollution Control Edict' of 1989 and the 'Lagos State environmental protection agency Edict No 3' of 1997 have not been effectively implemented. The Local Governments, which are supposed to ensure compliance, are not properly equipped to enforce proper sanitation control. Despite the 1983 Law, people still dumped their wastes in undesignated areas and so in 1985, another 'Environmental sanitation Edict was promulgated. This Edict conferred the power to designate proper refuse disposal sites for different kinds of refuse on the 'Waste Disposal Board' along with the legal power to enforce the Edict. Apart from limited technical experience on refuse disposal management, the Board was poorly funded. By virtue of section 15 of 1985 Edict, all vehicles and containers employed in the transportation of refuse or waste must be properly secured to ensure that the contents do not litter the roads during transportation. In spite of this clause, various refuse carrying vehicles usually ply the roads during monthly sanitation day distributing refuse contents as they move around without any official to check them. Consequently in 1991, the 'Environmental Sanitation Enforcement Agency Edict No. 3 was promulgated. This edict identified other already enacted laws and Edicts that were to be enforced by the Agency through the use of law enforcement Agents. The Agency can arrest and prosecute culprits in order to sensitize the community on the importance of a healthy environment. Industrial and vehicular pollution These cause toxic contamination of the air, water and land, with over 70% of industries in Nigerian e.g. paint, textile, metal fabrication, pharmaceutical, etc. Accidental spillage such as pipeline leakage at Apapa jetty is on the increase.
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Conclusion and recommendations 1 The Federal and State Governments should include the concept of recycling in the school education curriculum and transmitted on television and radio to re-orientate the public. In addition to this, if children know that a certain quantity of paper or glass will attract a small payment, they will be encouraged to remind their parents to sort out the garbage into various bags for recycling. 2 The Town Planners must take into cognizance the resultant solid waste that would be generated when an area is zoned for a particular type of development. E.g. Ogba Industrial Estate. Presently there is a communication gap the inhabitants in Lagos and the waste management agencies. 3 The current refuse disposal trucks have to be replaced with newer, more effective ones. 4 The Local Government should inform the State Government of the areas in their Local jurisdiction that are not covered by the PSP waste collectors. 5 To boost landfill capabilities, about eighty acres of new land fill site being developed at Epe should be properly integrated into the network system for intermediate transfer loading stations 6 The database of necessary information for Lagos State should be updated to reflect the current population in Lagos State. This statistics will reveal how many trucks are needed in Lagos. 7 Funds are not well managed due to corruption. If the funds can be increased and given directly to the waste collectors instead of having half of it disappear into government pockets, then waste management will become more effective. 8 There is a need to acquire the necessary technology to maintain recycling plants, as past efforts have gone down the drain due to lack of maintenance culture and know-how. 9 The use of environmentally-friendly incinerators with easy maintenance can help to turn waste into smaller, more useful quantities of source of fuel energy. 10 One of the most important aspects of waste management is to have the right orientation for the public, so that they sort out waste into various sections for easy recycling. This will encourage more recycling plants to be developed in Lagos 11 Corrupt enforcement agents should be removed 12 The Waste Management Disposal Board should be properly funded and equipped 13 There is a need to update the Lagos master plan in view of the large population increase, insufficient drainage waterways and other environmental factors such as illegal construction of houses along drainage channels. 14 A Committee consisting of Government and Non-Government officials should be set up to coordinate the effective education of the public on environmental sanitation issues. 15 There has to be a system by the Authorities where we have prompt repairs of damaged roads, maintenance of water supply pipes and constant clearing of drainage channels. References
1 - Makinde, Remi (1995) Solving the environmental problems of Lagos metropolis in Oyediran (ed), Lagos Urban Environment Publication of Faculty of Environmental sciences, University of Lagos 2 - Ngoka, N.I. (1980): Lagos - A city destroying itself, in Tropical Architecture 3 - Taiwo, O.O. (1995): Legal and Institutional Framework for effective sustainable environment in metropolitan Lagos, Seminar publication, Faculty of Environmental Studies, University of Lagos, Akoka
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Sustainability strategies in planning and design industrial areas sites

Carmen Ruiz Puente, Antonia Prez Hernando, Pelayo Villanueva lvarez
Universidad de Cantabria, Santander (Cantabria), Spain ruizpm@unican.es
Abstract Planning and design of sustainable industrial areas requires to put into practice some environmentally-sensitive strategies and techniques in all of the project phases: selection of the location, planning and design of the site, design of the infrastructures and industrial facilities, design of the operation, design of the buildings, construction and disassembling. In this paper, practices and sustainability strategies that should be considered in the physical design of the site are analyzed and proposed, classing them according to the arrangement of the place, mobility, green zones and urbanization. The research goes from classical designing strategies and analyzes the viability of the new techniques and strategies in order to achieve different objectives of sustainability, being the final result an aid guide for innovation in designing industrial areas. In the arrangement of the place the activities that will be developed in the area are analyzed in order to propose zoning strategies for the site. For the mobility aspects, two types of analyses are done: a dynamic one of the external and internal mobility throughout the park with different transport modes and avenue types and a static one of the typology, location and design of the parking lots. In the green areas planning for the industrial zones a group of strategies are proposed according to the distribution suitability and design considerations. Finally, referring to urbanization some basic remarks concerning to building layout, street furniture and lighting are suggested. The last aim is to propose a new dimension to the classic basis of this type of urban structures. 1. Introduction The association in industrial areas has become an important economic strategy followed by many countries, especially in development ones. However, it could bring back negative consequences for the surroundings, because all the problems for the environment caused by the industries, are concentrated in a small area, added to the impact of infrastructures and services of this activity. Planning and design of sustainable industrial areas demands to put into practice different eco-efficient techniques and strategies in all the project phases. There are several papers around the world that gather examples of eco-industrial parks [1-3], although its development degree is still insufficient [4]. Classical socio-economic issues and environmental aspects, like existing residual currents which offer the possibility of establishing exchange networks with possible companies coming to the area, analysis of environmental policies and risks carried by local governments are collected in some of these experiences. Despite the new vision of industrial areas, there is still not a common design process for sustainable industrial areas. There are only some papers gathering instructions for the development of future ones [5], which implies to consider the environmental criteria throughout all the development. In this document the main planning strategies for the location are taken out after a wide and detailed documentary of sustainability practices affecting to industrial urbanism. Place arrangement analyzes ground types of activity that will take place in the site for proposing zoning and location strategies [6-7]. About mobility, it has been done a dynamic analyze of external and internal mobility throughout different types of avenues and an static analyze of typology, placing and design of parking [8-9]. In addition to that, several practices for green areas have been proposed for their correct distribution and design [10-11]. Finally, basic considerations in building and equipments are set out [12]. With these strategies it is expected to insist on the conceptual idea of designing productive spaces without having great economic and environmental costs induced by most of modern technological designs. 2. Industrial site arrangement Industrial site arrangement is the disposal of several rules and standards required to distribute the necessary activities and elements for specific industrial processes development in a defined area. It is possible to consider the development of industrial site arrangement in two phases. Site uses of the emplacement, surface, situation and size are defined at the beginning. Once defined the uses, comes the site distribution that supposes the internal organisation of the industrial area. It consists of the establishment of urban parameters for each of the previous portions in which the site will be divided in. The considered uses in site design are mobility, facilities, green areas and public places, infrastructures and finally the specific industrial use. The classic industrial urbanism uses the site distribution as the main tool for the arrangement, reducing the strategies to the block divisions, plot's shapes and sizes and individual con-
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ditions that each plot must meet. However, a suitable definition of uses and division requires bearing in mind the following general sustainable strategies: Site analysis Meteorological conditions: characteristics of the place referred to exposition to wind and sun. Geomorphologic conditions: existence of surface water, natural drainage natural and depressions. External proximity conditions: proximity to residential areas, train or traffic lines. Industries organization to minimize environmental impact Define the exploitation capacity of the place. Keep the natural areas and native vegetation as much as possible. Conserve natural drainage networks. Shape and make uneven flat surfaces. Search the synergies between companies or industries. 3. Mobility Mobility is the ability of the factors of production to move from one place to another. This chapter is related to the transport of employees, goods transport conditions and all the necessary infrastructures for the activity to take place. However, external and internal mobility of goods and employees in the industrial areas are at the moment one of the main reasons of congestion and environmental pollution. Therefore it becomes fundamental to define new types of ways of transport. Hereafter are listed the main alternative strategies: External mobility Employees Extension of metro and train lines to industrial areas. Establish and finance public transport with high frequency and requested stops. Construction of pedestrian lanes from housing to place of work. Construction of bicycle lanes to place of work. Implementation of companies routes. Implementation of traffic lights and signs that gives buses the right of way. Car sharing. Goods Depending on the proximity of transport infrastructures. Internal mobility Employees Internal buses which cover the industrial area making the employees movements easier . Internal bike lanes that cover the area favouring the use of this kina of transport. Suitable entries and pedestrian lanes. Goods Establish a central system to distribute goods, allowing its process and store. Generate an underground structure of roller conveyor that covers the area, avoiding surface distribution. The previous strategies must be considered when avenues and parking lots are distributed, drawn up and designed. About those elements, that must serve basic dimensional requirements, it is also possible to apply several design strategies if viable, that are enumerated in the following list. In the case of parking lots, some ways of placing them, are in itself a specific strategy. Roadways Motorized traffic Narrow traffic lanes, minimizing paved surface. Transform internal bends into 90 degrees intersections, diminishing traffic speed. Design the road network with preferred directions NE-SW and NW-SE. Channel the traffic to an underground ring road. Exclusive bus-lane. Non-motorized traffic Construction of bike lanes. Design a pedestrian and bicycle network sufficiently illuminates, covered and accessible.
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Carmen Ruiz Puente et al.: Sustainability strategies in planning and design industrial areas sites
Parking lots Types Parking lots for non-motorized vehicles. Parking lots for motorized vehicles. Distribution, placement and design Surface parking lots Situate in between natural ground. Use permeable materials in parking surface. Vegetate, plant trees and place other architectonical elements to delimitate parking lots. Plant trees into paved parking lots to create vegetation cover. Establish setbacks between planting and parking zones. Not using harder surfaces than necessary. Substitute gutters and sewer by vegetated channels (bio retention). Special parking lots in buildings Create parking that function with lifts. Underground automated parking Design underground parking totally automated. 4. Green areas and public places Green areas and public places are the ones which main aims are to serve as recreation areas and ways of organizing the urban space of the site. Those space elements must be defined as a untilled zone with public characteristics or a reserve for future impacts or necessities of the industrial area. Usually the reserves of space are defined as minimum requirements by law and established like residual spaces. The amount of green zones is very important to improve the environment of the site, and the right design and distribution must be ruled by several strategies: Distribution and placement Concentrate the amount of parks, nearby public equipments. Communicate parks corresponding to bordering zones with trees lanes. Articulate the industrial use zone of the industrial area with squares. Preserve particular morphological and hydrological elements to characterize the landscape. Design Constitution of natural boundaries base don natural lanes. Construction of ponds and gardens for keeping rain water. Keep the natural drainage elements. Plant trees and bushes into degraded ground to absorb toxins. Construction of enough space for correct growth of tree roots. Use of selected species for the site. 5. Building arrangement and services Finally there are as well some general considerations about the industrial buildings and necessary equipments. These following policies increase the social and economical worth of these productive areas. Building arrangement Establish an uniform construction along the industrial area referred to colours, materials, and outer appearance. Face buildings to midday to accomplish a better passive use of solar energy. Small buildings connected by pedestrian paths. Leave corbels in buildings benefiting the creation of spaces. Design the industrial areas keeping efficient-energy ideas. Added value equipments Creation of a buying and supplying centre. Provide the industrial area with assistance needs: canteens, hygiene services, medical services, cultural services, nursery, sports services, housing and public telephones. Automated cleaning services and garbage collection. Study the possibility of concentrate part of the equipments in a central building, coordinator of the activity developed in the area.
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6. Conclusion The design and planning of an industrial area with sustainable criterions involves the application of the sustainable urbanism to the industrial urbanism. A definition of the productive spaces is necessary to guarantee the integration with the urban environment and an eco-efficient operation during its lifetime. In this way, it has been tried to emphasize the main sustainability strategies which work as a guide and support for the responsible agents and technicians of urbanisation project designs of industrial areas. 7. References
[1] Heeres, R. R.; Vermeulen, W.J.V.; Walle, F.B., Eco-industrial park initiatives in the USA and the Netherlands: first lessons, Journal of Cleaner Production, 12, (2004), 985-995. [2] Oh, D. S.; Kim, K. B.; Jeong, S. Y, Eco-Industrial Park Design: a Daedeok Technovalley case study, Habitat International, 29, (2005), 269-284. [3] Roberts, B.H., The application of industrial ecology principles and planning guidelines for the development of ecoindustrial parks: an Australian case study, Journal of Cleaner Production, 12, (2004), 997-1010. [4] Fernndez, I., Juan, A, Ruiz, M.C., Anlisis del estado actual de desarrollo de parques industriales sostenibles, 9 Congreso Internacional de Ingeniera de Proyectos, Mlaga (Espaa), junio 2005. [5] United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), The Environmental Management of Industrial Estates, Industry and Development Technical Report no. 39, Paris, 1997. [6] Potts Carr, Audra J., Choctaw Eco-Industrial Park: an ecological approach to industrial land-use planning and design, Landscape and Urban Planning, 42, 1998. [7] United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Environmental Management of Industrial Estates, Industry and Development, Quarterly review, vol. 19, no. 4, 1996. [8] Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OCDE), Communicating Environmentally Sustainable Transport: The Role of Soft Measures, Berlin, 2002. [9] Ibeas Portilla, A., Daz y Perez de la Lastra, J.M., Ingeniera de los transportes o la vocacin de un desafo permanente: el futuro sostenible, Departamento de Transportes y Tecnologa de Proyectos y Procesos, Universidad de Cantabria, 2002. [10] Thompson, W., Sorvig, K., Sustainable Landscape Construction: a guide to green building outdoors, Island Press, 2000. [11] Luising, A. A. E., User experiences with decentralised water systems in an ecological residential area, WIT Transactions on The Built Environment, vol. 86, 2006. [12] Federacin de Polgonos Industriales de Asturias, Manual de buenas prcticas en la gestin de reas empresariales, 2006.
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Shopping Center and Sustainable Environment: The case of the Parque Dom Pedro Shopping Center in Campinas, State of So Paulo, Brazil1
Gilda Collet Bruna & Elaine Maria Sarapka
Presbyterian University Mackenzie, Brazil lanarq2001@yahoo.com.br
Our acknowledgement to MACKPESQUISA Abstract This article analyses the shopping center impact on the urban area, detaching: the urban expansion; the impacts and the sustainability; the environment and urban planning and the sustainability. In conclusion it shows that it is necessary to count on the environmental urban management, which can be reflected on projects adequate to the environment, like the case of the Parque Dom Pedro Shopping Center in Campinas, State of So Paulo, Brazil. Urban expansion and the Shopping Centers formation The great metropolitan urban areas like that of Campinas in So Paulo State, that earlier had concentrated population and activities around its main center, come to sprawl themselves, that is, they are expanding and increasing the continuum of urbanized area and the population that used to live in central areas and in its surroundings, comes to search for new sites to settle. The accessibility that before was commanded by the railways, at the second half of the 20ieth century started to be constituted by the roads that became to guide the urban sprawl vector. This urban sprawl phenomenon is associated to the industries location in these metropolitan municipalities, like Paulnea, Indaiatuba and Sumar at Campinas Region and by itself was a factor of population attraction. Thus, the town urban expansion nowadays of about one million inhabitants continues to keep its textiles industries, petrochemical and today also many multinationals enterprises within its metropolitan area of 19 municipalities. The Campinas region also is known by its high technology, counting on the educational sector with the State of So Paulo Campinas University (UNICAMP), the Pontifical Catholic University of Campinas (PUCCAMP) and the Paulista University (UNIP) and, still, with the Technologica Center of Information (CTI), the Foundation Center of Research and Development (CPQD) and the Sncroton Light Laboratory, located at the Technologic Park (Cosmo, 2007). That urban expansion was accompanied by the changing of land uses, and also by the population migration that comes to locate on more peripheral areas, as these areas count on jobs possibilities. Consequently new urban centers gain dimensions; these, many times are promoted by investments in shopping centers. It is possible to verify thus that the urban scenery one knows today doesn't give up the presence of shopping centers. According to the Brazilian Shopping Center Association (ABRASCE) there are 168 centers in Brazil classified as shopping center (ABRASCE, 2005). The first one the Iguatemi Shopping Center was inaugurated in 1966 in the town of So Paulo, and it is possible to say that it changed completely the purchasing population habits, which was used to by in street fairs. That way the shopping center caused environmental impact on the neighborhood, modifying streets and land uses, being traffic generators and inducing of urban density. Urban impacts and sustainability In order to minimize impacts like these, it is important to count with the community and its public and private sectors. From these impacts, perhaps the more visible one is that generated by traffic, causing thus congestion in certain hours of the day, and this congestion can be translated into air pollution and urban noise, bringing severe trouble to the population. Another aspect that also should be considered in this is the big freight trucks flow distributing goods and even to supply the shopping centers, and also the route and flow of solid wastes. It is important to remind that the cause of many of these negative impacts are the road projects details that are designed with old patterns, while the present needs demand new dimensioning, as for instance, providing bicycles roads, adequate treated (ANTP; IPEA; DENATRAN, 2006). These considerations reach higher or lower levels of impact, according to the shopping center type, since the small ones, around 0.5 hectare, composed by a number of 3 to 6 stores serving the immediate neighborhood, until those bigger ones, on a surface of 7 to 16 hectares, known as regional shopping centers, which count in their space area with hypermarkets and department stores. Also it is accordingly to the shopping center typology that one observes the large or small change in the land use patterns within the surroundings, as well as with small or huge congestion.
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Also the population consumption habits had been modified so that those who were before accustomed to buy in the town main commercial streets now prefer these new "urban centers" that keep them safer in times of increased urban violence. This user prefers also to make a longer shopping trip although toward centers offering more possibility of choice among many offers. The purchase of compared goods comes then to be valorized very much, as it attracts clients to the commercial and services establishments. Besides, the client comes to make multipurpose trips, to satisfy its needs, including others opportunities like leisure, recreation, art and food. Still these shopping trips are complemented with the possibility of be attended by banks, exchange, mail, and other services, since the small repairs until documentation services, also found in shopping centers. These modifications accompany the technologic innovations and each time the population is more used to the information specificities, utilizing credit cards and nowadays buying through Internet. This one, nevertheless, is not emptying the shopping centers, which have their characteristic as point of meetings increased, substituting even the traditional public spaces that many times become degraded. Also in terms of social impacts, it is important not to forget that these new planned centers offer direct and indirect employment to a wide variety of types of work that each time is becoming a specialization, like the personal services that also are found in shopping centers, like physical centers, esthetic clinics, among others. Still one shouldn't forget that within this shopping center typology, location becomes the main requirement and, therefore, the road accesses are detached, even though in some places the public transportation must be considered as a major access, be it on rails (undergrounds/subways or trains), be it on tires (buses). Considering all cases nevertheless, to offer accesses and parking areas is a high typology aspect, as it provides commodity, safeness and quickness to the client who feels protected from rains, winds and other robbery when in a shopping center that offer him comfort. With these peculiarities in Brazil it is already possible to distinguish shopping centers types and different urban impacts that had been received and worked out in terms of urban planning, creating new areas with such peculiarities. Therefore there are recognized five types of shopping centers: the convenience, the neighbourhood, the community, the regional and the super regional shopping center, respectively occupying an area around 0.5 ha, 3.5 ha, 7.5 ha and over 7.5ha (EASTERNET, 2006). These new urban centers constituted by shopping centers that are private spaces of public uses, turns to be true meeting points, substituting the old public squares, and being used, for instance, in some days and hours by teenagers, adults, children or seniors. Also these shopping centers attract other commercial establishments to locate in the vicinity and this doesn't occur only in those towns that count on severe urban legislations. Many times this legislation allows even to modify the urban properties size, enabling then to build high rise buildings, increasing thus the population density in these surroundings and, consequently, gentrifying the area, or in other words, "sending away" the low income families that finish by selling their properties. This, it is possible to say, is one of the social impacts that is happening, as seen in the vicinity of the Parque Dom Pedro shopping center in Campinas, considered as a super regional shopping type, due to its size and its wide trading area involving 26 municipalities (QUINTELA, 2002), while the metropolitan Campinas region is constituted by 19 municipalities. Another impact to recognize is that of the road accesses, which flow of vehicles increases significantly, taking thus to congestion and consequently increasing the air pollution with gases produced by these motor vehicles, producing CO2 and particles in the air. In the case of the Parque Dom Pedro shopping center (Fig.1 and Fig. 2), in order to its implementation, it was required that they did adaptations in the road system in order to enable the vehicles entrance and exit, decreasing the local and inter-regional flows attritions. Also, as part of the shopping centers construction, the deforested area was balanced with the structuring of a park around the shopping, providing green area to the population. This park is structured in two parts, one formed by the Santa Cndida Park and the other by the Universities Park, separated by the Dom Pedro I state road. In order to implement the shopping center it was necessary to rearrange the green area to make room for the shopping, but also to recompose the existing Figure 1: Parque Dom Pedro Shopping Center Campinas. Photograph: Elaine Sarapka (2006) park. Nevertheless these two parks workout as a buffer 396
Gilda Collet Bruna & Elaine Maria Sarapka: Shopping Center and Sustainable Environment
area among the urban uses, allowing a decrease in the urban noise generated by this super utilized retail area. Still there is there is the das Pedras stream crossing this area characterized as water reservoir protection, preserved with 7.6 ha (QUINTELA, 2002). Sustainability and environmental urban planning From the above mentioned it is possible to stress that there was a local urban restructuring. The municipality master plan did worry with the urban expansion control, so that it would be possible to balance the activities distribution and to optimize the existing infrastructure with socio-cultural, environmental and density characteristics. The master plan tried to keep the old neighborhood Figure 2: Parque Dom Pedro Shopping Center historic peculiarities. For this it used parceling and land Campinas. Photograph: Elaine Sarapka (2006) occupation criteria, treating the different regions accordingly to their geological and geotechnic specifications, proposing the preservation of the floodable low lands to the implementation of green areas, linear parks, water basin retention and sports areas, not allowing the buildings' construction in these areas (CAMPINAS, 2007). With these characteristics the master plan creates nine macro zones (Fig . 3), accordingly to the physicterritorial and occupation peculiarities: macro zone 1 relating to the Environmental Protection Area; macro zone 2 dealing with the environmental control area; macro zone 3 focusing the controlled urbanized area; macro zone 4 relating to the area with priority to urbanization; macro zone 5 referent to the urban area with priority to requalification; macro zone 6 dealing with the area with agriculture vocation; macro zone 7 focusing the area of airport operation influence; macro zone 8 dealing with area to specific urbanization with large regional facilities and allotments' pattern to median and high residences; macro zone 9 focusing the northwest area of integration concentrating large housing estates (CAMPINAS, 2007). That way there is a view of protection, control, consolidation and recuperation of urban areas, as well as the one of exclusion of urbanization in areas considered improper. This was the frame the Campinas population approved in its municipality council, the master plan legislation. This legislation was re-examined in 2006, although not yet approved. Such way the impacts also can be seen through the need of road adaptations, as proposed by the Campinas master plan guidelines that propose the implementation of service roads in areas topographic free of floods, as well as the definition of criteria to control land impermeability and floods in areas already occupied. It is possible to see thus the relevance of the environment planning in the town, mostly through care with the green areas and water resources protection maintenance and preservation in order to search the urban sustainability. That way it is remarkable the worry with the land occupation rates that allow or not the urban parcels impermeFigure 3: Macro-zones Map - Campinas. ability, as well as the creation of leisure spaces for living, recreation www.campinas.sp.gov.br and other purposes that contribute to minimize floods, besides offermofified by Elaine Sarapka (2007) ing access to disabled people, making easy the free circulation. Discussion and conclusions From the above said, it is possible to see that the urban settlements are great generators of the non-sustainability. Be by the population growth; be by the regional urban sprawling; the regions constitute themselves typically as heterogeneous, in terms of physical space as well as of human occupation. The human behavior comes to increase the natural areas degradation and even the old urban areas suffer by the lack of maintenance and de-concentration of activities and population. By its turn this central area emptiness comes to stimulate the urban sprawl, modifying the existing environmental characteristics. This is what this analyzed Parque Dom Pedro shopping center exemplified tries to show. Thus if on one side these activities of retail and services are generating jobs to substitute those the industry automation cutout, on the other side the population that before livid in those recent occupied urban areas
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comes to change to further areas as these areas values increased very rapid and they cannot support the urbanization costs. There is lost and compensation in terms of urban costs. To the environmental urban management these costs increase, as they have to support the old central degraded infrastructures with renovation and also the new infrastructures of these new expansion urban areas (DUANY; PLATER-ZYBERK; SPECK, 2000; BURCHELL; DOWNS; MCCANN; MUKHERJI; 2005). The role of the environmental urban planning is each time more important, not only because of the related legislation, but mainly because of the urban projects developed, more concerned with the environment and for this reason these projects contribute to sustainability. In this terms the example presented of the Parque Dom Pedro shopping center shows the municipality is worried with the environment and thus had adequate de project to the existing physical structure and so has respected the environment, be concerning the das Pedras stream water resources preservation, be concerning the reframe of the Santa Cndida Park/dos Universitrios Park, used also as a buffer area separating the commercial shopping area from the adjacent residential neighborhoods. It is possible to say then that there could be a search for the sustainability through the urban projects, like in the Campinas in the State of So Paulo. References
DUANY, Andres; PLATER-ZYBERK, Elizabeth; and SPECK, Jeff. Suburban Nation. The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline of the American Dream. New York: North Point Press, c. 2000. BURCHELL, Robert W; DOWNS, Anthony, MCCANN, Barbara and MUKHERJI, Sahan. Sprawl Costs. Economic Impacts of Unchecked Development. Washington, USA: Island Press, 2005. QUINTELA, Jos. Comida, Diverso e Arte. Revista AU Especial, So Paulo, maio 2002. ANTP; IPEA; DENATRAN, 2006. 1 CD-ROM. Sites: http://www.campinas.sp.gov.br (06/11/2007) http://www.abrasce.com.br http://www.easternet.edu/depts/amerst/MallsDef.htm http://www.cosmo.com.br/hotsites/campinas229anos/materias/mat19.shtm
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Environmental Preservation in the Production of Built Environment in the Tropics A Matter of Sustainability
Maria da Purificao Teixeira, Carmen Ruth Stangenhaus
FAU, UGF Faculdade de Arquitetura e Urbanismo, Universidade Gama Filho Brazil carmenruth@terra.com.br
Abstract This paper proposes a systematic approach to urban planning for the future, focusing on environmental preservation and production of a healthy built environment under the particular ambiental conditions of the tropics, especially in Brazil, keeping in mind that 92% of the brazilian territory lies within these limits. Considering the intense solar radiation during the whole year, and the extremely rich variety of ecosystems in these latitudes, we presume that countries in the tropics offer wider possibilities for using natural resources and landscapes than those identified up to now. The same considerations apply to the production and occupation of urban soil and the factors of sustainability envolved in the process, such as preservation of the environment, rational use of building materials, thermal comfort, sanitation and health conditions. Within this approach , this paper points out to ecological characteristics and tropical environmental patrimony of these areas, highlights present sustainable conditionants for the process of occupation of tropic urban soil, and describes needs of the population concerning quality of life. The methodology adopted will allow the proposal of study-based premises and guidelines for the plannig process, will point out indicators for proper sustainability of built environment in the tropics, and will suggest further topics of research . Key words: sustainability, environmental preservation, planning instruments 1.Introduction The economy of a society should be measured by its capacity of production, exchange and levels of waste, rather than by its size and level of development. Almost every culture established on the planet, prepares for its future by saving and preparing the supplies it may need. Therefore the economy of every society depends on the level of its technological knowledge, which limits the capacity of production, but all societies are able of develop the techniques they need for survival, as simple they may appear (MARCONI and PRESOTTO 2001). According to RIBEIRO (1998), civilization, especially the occidental and industrial one, is producing lots of increasing indicators in the last decades, such as growing population taxes associated to urbanization process and food demands but also associated to a large waist of energy in the process. Civilization knows, by now, that man shapes nature and nature also shapes man. Civilization also knows that the use and extraction of natural resources have consequences on the environment and that sustainable environmental action is needed to reduce the negative environmental impacts. It is well known how important it is to select properly the energy transformation process needed for the production chain. Within this context we highlight the importance to developing technologies which understand, adopt, treat and deal with nature as natural patrimony, and the importance of planning urban soil occupation focused on environmental preservation. 2. Brazil, a country in the tropics 2.1The sun and the life on the Earth According to GOMES apud CIRROTA et al. (2003), studies about solar incident energy along the year for latitudes between 0 and 45 north and south, indicate that it is possible to use about 84% of the solar incident energy in countries located in latitudes between 32N and 32S latitudes, when we consider solar incidence on different orientated surfaces, and the amount of radiation received in one year. According to CIRROTA et al. (2003), Brazil is a very special tropical country as on a generic view, the largest part of the Brazilian land (92%) is situated in a tropic zone above the Capricorn tropic, distributed between equatorial and tropical climates. It is interesting to notice that this applies to developing countries as Brazil and Mexico in the American continent and a great part of the African continent, situated between these latitude limits, where urban areas are superpopuleted, due to poverty in these places. 2.2The relation between climate and soil in the tropics In a larger part of the Brazilian territory, climate has high temperatures, and also, high intensity of rain fall, in some periods of the year. This tropical-humid characteristic is a great challenge for all professionals involved
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in well being in built environment, and environmental preservation in tropic areas. OLIVEIRA (1985), highlights that the urban climate is different from natural climate due the urban shape and the activities going on in it. Observing the tropical urban cities it is possible to identify some specific characteristics which need further investigation, for instance, the heavy problems related to impermeabilization of ground within urban areas which must be much more investigated and respected as project elements for a correct Environmental Urban Design. Multidisciplinary approaches of public policies, concerning environmental sanitation, public health and housing, in particular for the low-income class, become specially interesting and important when they combine strategies of Urban Sanitation and Urban Bioclimatism. 3. The urban landscape in the tropics Brazil is a tropical country where a correct Environmental Architecture and Urbanism have do deal with great incidence of daily solar radiation, great offer of solar radiation along the year, high possibility of use of incident solar energy (84%) and therefore large variety of possible efficient energetic systems, as well as a great amount of not occupied land. Considering that: Brazil presents a rich and large variety of ecosystems, where it is possible to observe different relationship levels and different exchanges of energy between the species and the environment, not yet sufficiently explored and known in its characteristics; The sun is the great source of life for the Earth, but not all solar radiation that comes to the planet reaches the soil. As it depends on the duration of the day, the angle of solar incidence, the air transparency, etc. we receive near 47% of the total arriving energy, absorbed by atmosphere, land and oceans surfaces, and, part of it is converted into heat; As a result, the ecosystems in Brazil are extremely rich and differentiated, as well on earth as in water environment. This creates the big challenge for planers and constructors who have to be much more engaged on environmental cause, specially: men reflecting decisions, men taking decisions, men executing decisions; Temperature variations are higher in earthly environments than the aquatic ones, because of the high specific heat of the water; Man's action upon the environment, urbanization, and the change of field activity, damage the environment, interfer and change climate natural conditions, unbalancing the existent ecosystems. We understand that is a responsibility of the professionals and all the people involved with this question, to discipline this process, minimising and compensating impacts on the ecosystems. By now, it is necessary to think about the urban space not only as a place to work, to live, to circulate and to leisure, but also, as an ecologic organism, with lots of relations within itself, some not yet identified by human knowledge, integrating needs from different actors in this environment, and not only the human ones. If we look at the soil as an agent where all space organization happens, and see it through the optic of environmental sustainability, the land is to be considered much more than only a place for agriculture and mineral exploration. It must be seen as an organism which has to be able to support our survival and maintenance needs, and receptive to new technologies for this purpose. Considering that the soil is the platform that hosts the whole process of urbanization, it becomes clear, in this connection, that the possibilities for sanitation, climatization, and building, suggest new sustainable approaches for Public Health, Environmental Sanitation and Urban Bioclimatism. Each Brazilian region presents a different climate characteristic, and consequently, different natural pictures and ecosystems. Keeping all this in mind, and looking at the tropical limits with a sustainable view, a major number of professionals working with healthy built environment and environmental preservation agree about the need of observing the tropical soil characteristics, as a basis for any project. 3.1Soil premises for environmental preservation in the built environment When we observe how soil characteristics are organised in order to provide the important natural sustainable agent which exists in natural ecosystems, we realise how much farming and urbanization can change the ecosystems balance . In these processes the vegetal covering of the soil has to be removed , which ruins the soil superficial layer. Negative actions of this kind frequently disrespect important premises related to sustainability and environmental preservation. It is important to keep in mind that erosion is not always an undesirable phenomenon, as in nature, erosion is something associated to a geological process of renewal. But when erosion disrespects natural soil cycles, expressing an occupation process that results of man action, interfering and changing the velocity,
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Maria da Purificao Teixeira, Carmen Ruth Stangenhaus: Environmental Preservation
intensity and proportion of the natural phenomena, it is no longer geological erosion it is human erosion, and becomes dangerous. This understanding shows the need of reviewing building and urbanism indexes used today. Soil characteristics and climate are the major reference for this purpose. Observing environmental effects resulting from human erosion we suggest, according to TEIXEIRA (2004), the following recommendations for an environmental architecture production: respect for natural topography and landscape, use of sustainable drain and soil permeabilization solutions, choice of sanitation concepts more harmonized with soil environmental capacity, choice of building materials and technologies which produce less waste and pollution, and are able to be reused or recicled . Observing architecture and urbanism in the tropics , we realise that soil and environmental factors were not yet identified this way and listed as guide lines for its production. Research made after "Agenda 21 Global" on Rio 92 in Brazil, demonstrate that studying carefully each natural resource, it is possible to create preservation strategies, to establish environmental impact indicators and correct environmental project recommendations. Observing physical and chemical characteristics of the building materials, planners and constructors have important decisions to make, when selecting them, in order to guarantee: economic viability, easy use and transport, reliable sanitation and health conditions, adequate permeabilization of the soil, capacity to support physical efforts, fire and humidity resistance, as well as pleasant appearance and thermal comfort for the final product. Considering sustainable concepts for building materials, it is necessary to extend recommendations to topics associated to their source (natural resources), their structure and final destination, such as: capacity of being decomposed in nature, extraction costs and management of the places they come from , presence of organic volatile components, integration to the climatic reality were they are used, capacity to conduce, circulate, transform, store or irradiate some kind of energy. Considering urban planning concepts, it is already agreed upon the need to respect climatic characteristics and to apply project strategies aiming the best performance of local natural (provide the best orientation for streets and principal accesses, improve air flux and shading when planning the buildings disposal, provide solar radiation protection by means of shading elements and vegetation, provide efficient urban transport). Conclusion Keeping in mind the relation between soil and ecological factors due to climate, we understand the important integration which exists within the GREAT BINARY SOIL AND CLIMATE This integration exists all over the planet, and is, consequently, associated to the sustainable production of cities and buildings, but becomes very special in tropical countries. Based on the understanding of a sustainable built environment focused on environmental preservation for tropical climate realities, the present paper presents the following conclusions: the understanding that man's action when modelling urban landscape, changes natural environment climate conditions, favouring unbalances on existent ecosystems; the understanding that Brazil is a country where 92% of the land is located within tropic limits, favouring focus on environmental preservation, based on the special relation between climate and soil; the understanding that the main strategies for achieving urban sustainability in tropical countries should be based on Environmental Sanitation and Urban Bioclimatism; the understanding that uncontroled settlements and urbanization, which unfortunately occur very often in developing countries, produce severe negative environmental impacts, reaching soil conditions and earthly ecosystems, unbalancing possible sustainable options for soil use and occupation process; the understanding that there still remains an infinite investigation field on the climate-soil binary, focussing urbanization process and environmental rules, aiming correct environmental sustainable architecture and urbanism. A lot of work focusing soil sustainability and environmental preservation has already been done, but not enough, to take this new consciousness about natural resources, about environmental values, actually about our own way of life, to every human being in this World. It is necessary that Humanity as a whole understands these new ideas. References
[1] CIRROTA, Paulo; PORTO, Maria Maia: TEIXEIRA, Maria da Purificao. A Integrao de Cor e Luz no Projeto
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Arquitetnico Bioclimtico. XVII Congresso Brasileiro de Arquitetos. Rio de Janeiro, RJ. 2003. [2] CORBELLA, Oscar e YANNAS, Simos. Em Busca de uma Arquitetura Sustentvel para os Trpicos - conforto ambiental. Rio de Janeiro: Revan, 2003. [3] LEPSCH, I. F. Solos - Formao e Conservao. So Paulo: Oficina de Textos, 2002. [4] MARCONI, Marina de Andrade e PRESOTTO, Zlia M. Antropologia, Uma Introduo, 5 edio. So Paulo: Editora Atlas S.A, 2001. [5] MINISTRIO DO MEIO AMBIENTE; Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renovveis; Consrcio Parceria 21 IBAM-ISER-REDEH. Cidades Sustentveis: Subsdios Elaborao da Agenda 21 Brasileira. Coordenao Geral: Maria do Carmo de Lima Bezerra e Marlene Allan Fernandes. Braslia, 2000. [6] OLIVEIRA, Paulo Marcos P. de. Cidade Apropriada ao Clima - A Forma Urbana como Instrumento de Controle do Clima Urbano. Instituto de Arquitetura e Urbanismo da Universidade de Braslia - Dissertao (Mestrado em Arquitetura), 1985. [7] RIBEIRO, M. Ecologizar: Pensando o Ambiente Humano. Belo Horizonte: Rona, 1998. [8] TEIXEIRA, Maria da Purificao. O Solo, como Agente de Sustentabilidade para uma Arquitetura e Urbanismo Ambientalmente Corretos. Orientador: Mnica Santos Salgado. Co-Orientador: Maria Cristina Moreira Alves. Rio de Janeiro: UFRJ/FAU/PROARQ, 219p. Dissertao (Mestrado em Arquitetura), 2004.
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Environmental and Economic Development Shrinkage of Atenquique

Jos Gpe. Vargas Hernndez
Instituto Tecnolgico de Cd. Guzmn, Jalisco, Mexico jgvh0811@yahoo.com
Abstract This paper is aimed to analyze the environmental economic development shrinkage of Atenquique after the industrial boom of the paper mill during the second half of the last Century. The town of Atenquique was settled down and grew up in terms of population, social and economic development in the same proportion that the Industrial Company of Atenquique did during the period when the company was property owned by the Mexican State. The impact on the environmental and economic development has initiated the shrinking and declining of Atenquique but also of the surrounding cities and towns, while the new owners are increasing the levels pf productivity and profitability. Key words: Atenquique, environmental development, economic development. 1. Introduction Atenquique was the site of battle of Atenquique in 1858. Before the construction of the paper company in Atenquique, this village only had 50 inhabitants. The village was created in 1946 as the consequence of installation of a paper mill named Compaa Industrial de Atenquique, S.A. (CIDASA) in a strategic point to capture the water the two rivers: Atenquique and Txpan, vital for the industry. The Compaa Industrial de Atenquique was inaugurated in October, 1946 and became the largest one in the Southern Region of Jalisco. Although the area of the Nevado de Colima was declared "protected zone" in 1934 and considered national park in the times of President Lzaro Crdenas, the decree was modified two years later in 1936 to give opportunity to a company in Atenquique to exploit the forest. The 3rd of August of 1936, by decree was created the National Park El Nevado after the visibility of strong interests for the forestry wealth existing in the area. Under the ongoing structural reforms and privatization programs, the Industrial Company of Atenquique, a conglomerate producing paper most important of Latin America, was sold to the is the Grupo Industrial Durango. GIDUSA was founded in 1980 and has been the only one producer that integrates vertically the whole productive process of cardboard and packing from the lumber exploitation, cellulose, manufactured paper and products. The firm provides 65 percent of packing of cardboard utilized by the Mexican export sector, 80 percent of Mexican packing utilized by the maquila sector and 40 per cent of the packing consumed in the country. The firm shut down operations the 26 of April, 2001 firing employees and workers. The company of paper Kraft was closed due to the increase of production costs, and more specifically the labor costs. After half a Century of operating, the Industrial Company of Atenquique closed the doors. It had transcended that the Company had taken out equipment of the plant, which had motivated protests of employees. Under the argument that the Company was operating with high costs, the plan was shut down and 900 employees were fired. It was quite difficult to think that an Industrial Group like this had economic difficulties. Actually, the fundamental reason to close Atenquique was its high cost of manpower (Milenio, 2001). The labor conflict in the paper plant GIDUSA was part of the strategy of the Company to overcome the labor collective contract to reduce labor costs. All the workers and employers were fired ending the labor collective contract that had been enforced for 55 years, with an estimated cost of 160 million pesos. Once settled this collective labor relation, Atenquique could open the plant without the heavy burden of the payment of labor benefits. On the 3rd of September, 2001, Gidusa declared it was ready to open again (El Financiero, 2001) investing 50 millions of dollars (Rodrguez, 2001). 2. Economic impact The once considered the "economic motor of Southern Jalisco for more than 55 years, closed the doors. The labor conflict was a social and economic conflict not only in the region of South of Jalisco, but also at the level of the State of Jalisco. The labor conflict had not only an economic impact, but also and affective implications. 95% of the workers of the Company in Atenquique were from Txpan, a municipality that had 33 thousand inhabitants. The main economic activity of Txpan is the agriculture of sugar cane and vegetables. The company provided more than 1,000 direct employments and more than 4, 000 indirect employments which had an economic impact not only in Atenquique but the neighboring cities of Tuxpan and Cd. Guzmn and the towns of Zapotiltic and Tecalitln. It was calculated that the economic spill over was around 150 pesos
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daily per employee as an average which amounts to a total of 750 thousand pesos per day or 22'800,000 per month. 650 workers plus 300 employees were affected by not earning its salaries with an impact on the living standards of 4, 750 inhabitants. It was estimated that 4 out of 10 families of the municipality of Txpan depend of the Atenquique worker's income. More than 600 families were directly damaged in their income. The immediate impact on local economy of Tuxpan was the falling down 60% of sales and consequently less than this percentage, although it was not estimated, on the falling down of sales in the regional market of Cd. Guzman. An study of the State Legislatura concluded that in the multiplication effects of the salaries spill over were estimated around 800,000 pesos per month only in the municipality of Tuxpan, but should consider its impact on Mazamitla, Tecalitln, Tamazula de Gordiano, Tolimn, Zapotiltic, Zapotln el Grande and other locations in the State of Colima, limiting consumption and eroding the living conditions. The economic effects of the labor conflict were visible at the Tianguis (the street market) on Sunday, where fewer customers than before had gone to buy. The earned wages as the direct economic sustainability of families and also indirectly were dependent of the labor conflict. For example, as a consequence of the labor conflict, it was estimated a reduction of around 40 percent in income of restaurants. 3. Environmental impact Starting the second half of the past Century, the environmental degradation on the area has been significant and reached alarming dimensions when it surpassed the natural capacity of natural regeneration of forest communities. The most serious problem of the Southern Region of Jalisco has been the irrational deforestation which started since the beginning of the CIDASA today GIDUSA. The Federal Government also modified the limits to shrinking the protected area, from 2,300 meters above the sea level to 3,000. Besides the limits never were well defined which always had confused. Thus, the Company took advantage of the National Park and ruined brutally the forest resources of the Nevado of Colima`s area. When the Company started to exploit the forest, it had the capacity to transform around 200 thousand cubic meters of lumber per year, which represented an enormous quantity of felling trees. The abundant ecological resource supply without almost any restrictions motivated that the Company over exploited annually more than 230 thousand cubic meters of lumber, above the sustainable capacity of regeneration of forests. In this way, Atenquique raised its production to more than one million of cubic meters of lumber, more than five times the capacity of regeneration of the forest. This caused an ecological debacle of the forest. The results after 50 years of forest exploitation are the secondary vegetation and deforested areas utilized for agriculture and cattle, infrastructure and commercial exploitation. The company sub utilized the forest resources not having any planning of byproducts derived from lumber. The Company exploited the pine for manufacturing paper and the holm oak for the furniture industry, but never exploited hundred of tons of shaving that were spoiled. Besides, the interests have been of others to the local communities from have taken advantage. There is not other form of getting away that to maintain a clientele relationship with the lumber industry that manages the forest. Many owners of forest decided to exploit on their own the resources springing up and proliferating sawmills around Cd. Guzman, where more than 25 are operating and exploiting irrationally the forests, argues Garca de Alba, (2004). This irrational exploitation of forests is the cause that hills collide originating in a sudden manner the fluxes of rubble and debris. After the natural forest disappears, the roots of the trees can not retain and compact the ground. Because the high slope of the hills, the water erodes the ground and cause the removing of materials. Several systems of forest management had been implemented according to the needs, such as the Mexican Method of organizing irregular forests (Mtodo Mexicano de Ordenacin de Bosques Irregulares or MMOBI), Forestry Development Method (Mtodo de Desarrollo Silvcola or MDS), Jalisco Coastal Plan (Plan Costa de Jalisco), Integral Management Plan for the Region of Atenquique (Plan de Manejo Integral para la Regin de Atenquique or PMIFRA), Forestry Conservation and Development (Sistema de Conservacin y de Desarrollo Silvcola, or SICODESI), Integral Management System (Sistema de Manejo Integral or SIMANIN). However, the results of implementing these plans are not positive. Alter the earthquake of Armera in 21 January 2003, the geomorphology dynamics of the Atenquique basin has been accelerated. This dynamics can generate flows of detritus in the short term as it had occurred in October of 1955 that had destroyed a great part of Atenquique. It is necessary to incorporate in the urban development plans the risks by flows of detritus in the locality of Atenquique. Natural phenomena, such as the crawling of hills and solifuction when de materials suddenly and fast split apart as flood, cause these natural disasters. 404
Jos Gpe. Vargas Hernndez: Environmental and Economic Development Shrinkage of Atenquique
The other area of high landslide concentration was along a 6-km stretch of the Barranca de Atenquique, a deep, steep-sided canyon cut into the eastern flank of Nevado de Colima. On the south flank of Volcan de Fuego and along several smaller canyons south of the Barranca de Atenquique, moderate landslide concentrations evidently involved similar materials to those along the Barranca de Atenquique. GIDUSA spill over the sewage on the river Tuxpan polluting the running waters pitting at risk any forms of living. 5. Referencias
Garca de Alba, Ricardo (2004). "Cuenca de Zapotln. Deforestacin y deterioro ambiental", IV Taller internacional de rehabilitacin de la laguna de Zapotln. Ciudad Guzmn, Centro Universitario del Sur.13-15 Octubre. Milenio Diario (2001). "Nocault a Atenquique". Mayo 2. Rodrguez, Luis ngel (2001). "Invertir Gidusa 50 mdd para reabrir la planta de Atenquique", 14 de septiembre del 2001, p. 28.
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Workinggroup 5: Urban planning and change management
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Shrinking Cities: Environmental Legacy and Management

M. Cristina Martinez-Fernandez & Chung-Tong Wu
University of Western Sydney, Urban Research Centre; NSW Australia c.martinez@uws.edu.au
Abstract Urban shrinkage is seldom discussed in most OECD countries where the growth paradigm has been dominant for much of the last century and into the new millennium. However, the debate has recently intensified in Europe especially regarding its Eastern European cities, posing new questions about the efficacy and sustainability of planning for urban growth in an era of substantial global socio-demographic and environmental changes. A significant part of this debate is fuelled by the so-called new economy, where footloose production systems is an expression of mobile capital thus threatening or indeed replacing what were once anchored industrial systems in cities and regions. Endogenous growth, entrepreneurship and innovation have not traditionally been a priority of industrial urban planning (if any) and so, in the new world order, some cities in the world have become the 'winners' of city growth competition while others shrank and are considered the 'losers'. Both categories are found in every country though most of the work so far concentrates on the 'successful' part of the story, therefore limiting the possibility of learning from the experience of shrinking cities. Many shrinking cities and towns share particular environmental assets often associated with the decline of their major industry or economic activities that expose a legacy with specific urban management challenges such as expensive maintenance or environmental regeneration. In a few notable cities urban management policies developed to deal with this legacy focus on housing demolition. The visual impact of this strategy can be striking but it is often the solitude of some of these places and the environmental changes which makes the landmark of shrinking cities so particular across the world. This paper discusses some of the drivers of shrinkage and environmental management challenges. Shrinkage, Planning for Growth and Environmental Management Planning paradigms have been focusing on urban growth for a long time. Governance in the 'City' is primarily oriented to reinforcing the image of cities as 'growth machines' (Logan & Molotch, 1987) and therefore cities growing slowly or declining are surrounded by a certain stigma. The consequences of the perception of cities with rapid growth as the 'successful, desirable and admired' identify the residents of those other slow growing or declining cities as living in places with 'diminished sense of self-worth' (Leo & Anderson, 2006:169). The reality is that cities growing slowly1 or declining are found in every continent and among the most charismatic cities. Downs (1994) refers to European cities such as Copenhagen, Rome or Florence as declining in population, in the US 180 of America's 280 metropolitan areas are growing slowly or declining, and in Canada 13 out of 26 metropolitan areas are also growing slowly or loosing population (Leo & Anderson, 2006). In Russia 93 cities were shrinking in 2000 compared to only 7 in 1990; Japan has hundreds of small and midsize cities shrinking and there are speculations that inland cities of China are "thinning out" to megacities such as Shangai (Theil, 2006). The rapid growth in urbanisation, predicted to rise to two-thirds of the world population, or 6 billion people, by 2050 (UN-habitat, 2006) suggest that growth and shrinkage are parallel urban processes exacerbated by the forces of globalisation and therefore both are found in every country, in many cases due to interdependence of population movements. Shrinking cities share a similar background of steady population loss for a significant period but often intertwined with periods of slow growth and in limited cases, rapid growth, in which they experience both the migration of capital and human resources, lack of endogenous growth, lack of entrepreneurship, low levels of innovation and low levels of intellectual engagement. The result is a powerless position of urban managers to scrutinise and negotiate settlement conditions with new businesses willing to relocate to these cities (Leo & Anderson, 2006). For cities where shrinkage is wide spread, like Liverpool in the UK or Youngstown in the United States, the issue to consider is what is the wealth creation path for these cities, what conditions contribute to the lost of skilled, qualified and creative people and how urban managers are able to preserve city assets until the next wave of growth (if and when it takes place). The rush to seduce global mobile capital might only produce 'illusory development' (Friedmann, 2006) not creating the sustainable path that shrinking cities want to achieve. Therefore, the role of government and planning authorities in shrinking cities is both critical and different from main stream planning for growth. Attracting foreign capital or cultivating culture-led development are strategies that can work but not exclusively nor in isolation (Scott, 2006). Some of the policy responses to shrinkage focus on the revitalisation of the housing market via significant disinvestment and demolition of old housing stock. The concept is to improve the overall inner city environment by providing additional attractive open spaces and recreational areas thus enhancing the amenities of
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living in the city. This is a policy being trialled in eastern Germany (Theil 2006). Housing vacancy and abandonment is found also in countries such as the United States. In the USA, Cleveland counts more than 36,000 vacant and abandoned properties; Baltimore has more than 40,000 vacant housing units; Philadelphia has nearly 10 percent of the City's housing described as abandoned; St Louis has nearly 17 percent of total housing units vacant; Detroit has been hit hard by vacant properties for many years (Brachman, 2005). Abandoned buildings have extraordinary visibility in cities, especially in smaller cities, and are symptomatic of the detrimental impacts on quality of life: decreased property values, increased crime, environmental hazards, rising health and safety issues, increased disinvestment in the city and so on. The high vacancy rates is not only a loss to a city's tax base but also exert negative influences leading to a loss of vitality on the activities performed in city centres such as shopping, cultural and sports activities. This environment creates a vicious circle that increases the chances of people moving out. As operating costs increase in shrinking cities and fiscal bases are reduced, some effects become evident: infrastructure maintenance is deferred; a reduction in population density makes municipal services more expensive; there is a reduction of social and retail activity; lack of social energy and dynamism; reduced sense of safety; loss of urban fabric and disjointed urban areas with 'wild zones' for illegal activity and vandalism in the middle (Rybczynski & Linneman, 1996). Thus, shrinkage of population and economic activities has tremendous physical impacts and equally important impacts on the quality and vitality of the city. Environmental planning is attracting attention in cities such as Youngstown where local authorities accept that planning for shrinkage means more open spaces and an attractive 'green' downtown. Despite the significance impact of shrinkage there has been little development on the conceptual framework to facilitate its analysis. An attempt is presented in Table 1 below to relate the relevant conceptual frameworks that may be applied to study shrinkage. Space does not permit a full discussion of the elements in the table but the rest of the paper will focus on mining cities to illustrate the impacts of globalisation on shrinking mining cities and the consequent environmental outcomes.
Table 1: Conceptual Framework for Shrinking Cities
Shrinking Cities Conceptual Frameworks
Macro Models Drivers of Shrinkage
Center-Periphery Concentration of public/private investments; Centripetal forces created by growth poles
Post-industrialisation Concentration of professionals; Flow of creative class; technology changes; industrial restructuring
Globalisation Global city formation; Competition between world city regions Shift towards professional services employment; concentration of innovation and knowledge workers; New Megalopolis; Global cities: Decline/Abandonment of cities/parts of cities/metro areas; Gentrification; (silicon valley) Branding of cities; Science Parks; Bio-tech Parks creative cities
Population Transition Decline of birth rate; Ageing of Population; Absolute population decline; population echo
Climate Change Persistent droughts, floods, Natural disasters-hurricanes, tsunamis, Corporatization of farming
Environmental manifestations
Rapid development of centres; Industrial zones; free trade zones
Downtown decline Inner cities decline; Brown field sites;
High levels of housing vacancy Abandonment of residential areas, Wastage of infrastructure; Demolition & renewal; smart shrinkage reinventing urban centers; Re-urbanization
Abandoned farms, Destroyed infrastructure; Changing coast lines; Shrinkage of territories; Rapid change of ecosystems Water management; Disaster recovery; Environmental refugees Visa concession
Urban & Regional Policies & Strategies
Growth Poles/Centers; Decentralization policies aimed at stimulating growth in the periphery
Urban renewal programs tax free zones Industry clusters; Smart cities; Creative cities; Design cities; Land banks Innovative industries; Service sectors; Mining Technology Services
Sectoral Studies
Higher education; Industrialisation manufacturing
ICT; Mining; Clothing & Footwear; Auto
Building & construction; Retail; Health care; Housing
Agriculture; Tourism; Rural industries; Fisheries
Note: An early version of this table was presented at the Shrinking Cities Symposium organised by IURD/CMS/SCiRN at University California Berkeley, February 2007 (Pallagst et al, forthcoming) Environmental Challenges of Shrinking Mining Cities Examples of shrinkage are more common in areas outside major cities or regional centres. However, some suburban areas of large cities have also experienced shrinkage. Three patterns of shrinkage can be identified. 'Urban shrinkage' is characterized by long-term population and/or economic decline of large cities or parts of a large cities or metropolitan area. It includes suburbanisation change or doughnut effects. "Rural shrinkage' is characterized by long-term population and/or economic decline of smaller towns or a cluster of small towns in a rural region. 'Industrial centre shrinkage' is characterized by long-term population and/or econom408
M. Cristina Martinez-Fernandez & Chung-Tong Wu: Shrinking Cities: Environmental Legacy and Management
ic decline of small- and mediumsized cities servicing a mining site, a system of mining sites, mining settlements or a dominant manufacturing industry (MartinezFernandez & Wu, 2007). Shrinking industrial cities are a particular 'type' of city whose cultural footprint is shared across countries. A more specific example is mining cities which often have cycles of economic boom and bust but the environmental legacy may be catastrophic and persistent. Many of these towns experience periods of growth and shrinkage depending on international mineral and manufacturing markets. What Figure 1: Tremor River in Torre del Bierzo (Leon, Spain) characterises them is the corporatisation of the city, which exacerbates the interdependence of population movements, mineral exploration and heavy industry. This dependence on the main industry operating in town produces a parallel development between workforce fluctuations and population fluctuations. Thus, in these towns, strategies of the main company can, to a great extent, determine future developments of the town as well as having a great impact on urban management plans. Therefore, people living in these towns have very different 'realities' from people living in other cities where the economy is either much more complex or not overly dependent on one large dominant economic sector. Climate conditions, knowledge, education and health services, as well as transportation links are important factors but it is the parallel developments with the private sector operators (often a single corporation) that constitute the distinctive features of these cities. The question here is whether 'shrinking' is a problem that needs to be solved or an opportunity to create a different development path for the future of these cities. In cities dominated by a single firm, the fortunes of the city rise and fall with the fortunes of the corporation and the economic viability of the resource being mined. At the same time the environmental legacy of industrial corporations, in many cases, perpetuates the dependency path of this type of cities because opportunities to develop other industries such as tourism and natural adventures may be significantly reduced. This is again a global phenomenon that can be observed in numerous locations. For example, Figure 1 below shows the effects of coal mining on the River 'Tremor' in the town of 'Torre del Bierzo' in Spain. The town has been shrinking for almost a decade since the progressive closure of underground coal mines. Although mining activity has ceased long ago, the river, paths and mountains have not been able to recover and a thick, black substance covers the whole area. The destruction of natural capital, and specifically of rivers, can occur in as little time as 20 years as, despite regulatory efforts in developed countries, mining operations cannot guarantee some of the most devastating effects such as cracking the river bed. The environmental legacy does not only refer to the natural capital; the built environment soon becomes too costly to maintain in shrinking cities. Empty housing estates, industrial infrastructure, train stations, vacant shops and closed pubs soon constitute a 'stay away brand' on these cities. Figure 2 shows one of these images so effective to display a town that is not longer Figure 2: Abandoned mining-site building in Torre del Bierzo (Leon, Spain) liveable.
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At the same time that the environmental legacy in shrinking mining or industrial cities is much bigger that usually anticipated; the more intangible, positive assets of knowledge and innovation occurring in mining sites have little impact on the host communities. It could be argued that industrial cities shrinkage is partly due to the disconnection of the knowledge intensive activities undertaken by corporations in the industrial site that are not embedded in the cities where they are located (Martinez-Fernandez & Wu, 2007). The corporations grow from making use of global knowledge networks while the cities 'shrink' because they are isolated from the truly global knowledge and the impact of that knowledge in other business and organisations in the cities. Industrial cities only receive part of the impact that is more 'place-dependent' while the global knowledge where the corporation is embedded is 'foot-lose'. In the end, when corporations move on either because the resource is exhausted or no longer economically viable to exploit and with them the financial bases of the city, it is the environmental legacy what stays and the lack of tools for managing change. Concluding Remarks The challenge for managers of shrinkage industrial cities is to plan alternative scenarios long before the main industrial activity declines, to preserve the natural advantage of the place for alternative economic activities and to create instruments oriented to capture and transfer knowledge and innovative performance from the main corporation to the general business community. Specifically, the mining site or main manufacturing industry should be seen as a critical intellectual asset for the development of knowledge networks across the city and region, together with any research and education institution, scientists, industry associations, Knowledge Intensive Business Services (KIBS), community and government organisations. The aim of the development of this network is to facilitate the flow of knowledge among and between different stakeholders in the city, the connection to other international networks through its more internationally oriented participants and ultimately to enrich the regional innovation system. These are the seeds for developing learning environments to retain innovation, creativity and vitality; all key factors to keep a place competitive. Planning in shrinking cities also needs to embrace the public in a vigorously way; residents who feel their hope for a better life is declining leave for better conditions elsewhere. Community engagement provides an opportunity for these residents to participate in the design of their future in the town, therefore providing some control about their own destiny. The tragedy of many of these cities is that a lack of environmental planning results in a legacy of destruction of rivers and land to an extent where recovery is very difficult without the capital investment that these declining cities cannot longer afford. References
Brachman, L. (2005) 'Vacant and Abandoned Property: Remedies for Acquisition and Redevelopment'. Land Lines. Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. October 2005:1-5. Cambridge, MA. Downs, A. (1994) New Visions for Metropolitan America. Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution and Cambridge, Mass.: The Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. Friedmann, J. (2006) The Wealth of Cities: Towards an Assets-based Development of Newly Urbanizing Regions. UNHabitat Award Lecture, University of British Columbia. Leo, C. and K. Anderson (2006) 'Being Realistic about Urban Growth'. Journal of Urban Affaires, V 28 (2): 169-189. Logan, J.R., and H. Molotch (1987). Urban fortunes: the political economy of place. Univ. California Press, Berkeley. Martinez-Fernandez, MC and C-T Wu (2007) 'Stadtentwicklung in einer differenten Wirklichkeit. Schrumpfende Stdte in Australien'. Berliner Debatte Initial, Schrumpfende Stadte International 1/2007: 45-61. Pallagst, k. J. Aber, J. Rich, I. Audirac, E. Cunningham-Sabot, S. Fol, M.C. Martinez-Fernandez, S. Moraes, H. Mulligan, D-C Shin, J. G. Vargas-Hernandez, T. Wiechmann, C-T Wu (eds.) 'The future of shrinking cities - problems, patterns and strategies of urban transformation in a global context'. Institute of Urban and Regional Development, Center for Global Metropolitan Studies, and the Shrinking Cities International Research Network Monograph Series, forthcoming. Rybczynski, W. and P. Linneman (1999) Shrinking Cities. Wharton Real Estate Research Centre, http://knowledger.wharton.upenn.edu (accessed 20/07/06). Scott, A. (2006) 'Creative Cities: Conceptual Issues and Policy Questions'. Journal of Urban Affaires, V 28 (1):1-17. Theil, S. (2006) The Shrinking Cities. Newsweek, Inc. www.msnbc.com (accessed 25/07/06) UN-Habitat (2006) Urbanisation Facts and Figures. World Urban Forum III, Vancouver, Canada June 19-23 2006.
________________________________________________ 1 Less than 10% a decade (Downs 1994)
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Decline and sprawl

Henning Nuissl and Dieter Rink
Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research UFZ, Germany dieter.rink@ufz.de
Declining Cities in urban research The theoretical debate on urban sprawl is for the most part focussed on 'successful' cities or urban agglomerations in the 'Western world' generally reflecting that urban research has always tended to deal with problems of growth and usually regards conurbations that are growing in terms of both economy and population as clues as to the (assumedly) universal patterns of urban development. The conditions, causes, and patterns of urban sprawl, as well as its meaning to society have often been discussed by referring to "global cities" (Sassen) which have gained a certain fame among urban researchers such as New York, London, Tokyo, and, particularly, Los Angeles "as a synekistic milieu for the development and expression of the new urbanization processes as well as for the generation of interpretive discourses aimed at making theoretical and practical sense of postmetropolitan transition" (Soja, 2000, p. 154). Additionally, especially if the interest is into the effects and impacts of urban sprawl, other towns and cities with astounding growth rates have attracted scholarly attention for instance thriving urban centres in predominantly rural regions or the mega-cities of the developing world, let alone the concern about 'edge cities' (Garreau) which overcomes the centre-orientation inherent to the traditional discourse on the city. On this empirical basis the main principles of urban sprawl have been defined Urban research has, of course, also been concerned with less prominent and 'glamorous' cases of urban development in the 'Western world'. In particular, attention has been spent on the problems of urban decline and restructuring in old industrialised cities or agglomerations of the 'rust belt type' where various forms of shrinking set rather peculiar conditions for urban development; and this discourse has got its 'heroes', too for instance the metropolitan areas of northern England, the German Ruhr area, or the conurbations of Detroit and Pittsburgh in the US. The focus of this discourse however has by and large been quite different from the discussion related to the urban 'growth poles'. Attention has mainly been given to specific problems of urban or regional policy making and planning in declining contexts, such as how to deal with derelict buildings or land, how to resurrect the urban economy or how to create new images for the cities concerned. The issue of urban sprawl in declining contexts, on the other hand, has widely remained marginal. Moreover, the problem of identifying abstracted patterns of urban development in declining cities or agglomerations has generally attracted limited attention, and if it has been discussed the dynamics of societal production of urban space that could be identified by analysing the ongoing restructuring of growing conurbations are deemed meaningful to declining urban regions, too. However, it seems uncertain whether urban sprawl in urban regions that are shrinking could really be interpreted as a derivative of what is happening in growing places. Rather, it may be a path-dependent process. Features of urban sprawl in declining city regions the cases of Liverpool and Leipzig The examples of Liverpool and Leipzig are highly suited for an investigation into whether urban sprawl may have distinct features if happening in a context of decline. Both cities had reached their historic peak in the 1930s with a population of around a quarter of a million and both have experienced considerable urban sprawl in a situation of urban decline. Besides, they are sufficiently similar to each other concerning their history and spatial structure so as to provide a comparable empirical basis, but different enough, in particular in terms of urban policy making and planning, to enable an informative comparison. Three main findings can be drawn from the two cases under scrutiny: 1. Not surprisingly, urban sprawl in shrinking cities cannot be traced back to dynamics totally different from urban sprawl in growing cities (of the western world). The well known drivers of sprawl seem to be effective there, too: Industrial investors are invariably inclined to develop 'fresh' land if possible (unpolluted and without any restrictions to how and what to build). Big, out-of-centre retail and leisure facilities are becoming the focal points of today's shopping and recreation activities. Living in a detached suburban house remains a major aim in life for many people. However, the underlying dynamics of residential sprawl may be specific: the decline of (parts of) the inner city is increasing the wish of inner city residents to live somewhere else (i.e. in suburbia). (This problem does occur in growing cities, too, but is aggravated if cities are shrinking.) On the other hand, the push stemming from the land market is much lower in declining cities since prices are moderate throughout the urban region. Thus, on balance, there is no increase in "push-factors".
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2. The suburban zone in declining urban regions is rather similar to the suburban zones in thriving regions at places one can observe however that developments haven't come to an end (unfinished buildings, vacancies, fully developed but mostly empty industrial estates), but there is more opportunity to control residential expansion. The urban fabric in the inner city is perforating with increasing vacancy and a deteriorating urban environment. Suburban and non-urban elements are returning into the cities: in Liverpool in particular detached suburban houses on private plots; in Leipzig urban micro-parks, mostly covering a few plots, where trees are established so as to contribute to the environmental quality of the respective areas. These 'micro-parks' are seen as an "intermediate use" until somebody wants to build on these plots, they were also a feature in Liverpool in the 1970s and 1980s. 3. Liverpool gives a good example for what is needed in order to make use of a lack of growth dynamics for the containment of urban sprawl: Anchoring the goal of economic use of land (i.e. brownfield redevelopment) in national policy so that regional land use planning can effectively obstruct greenfield developments. In connection with this establishing an effective monitoring system which gives account of how much development is taking place on brownfields / greenfields Development agencies on the regional and local level which effectively promote and organise brownfield redevelopments. Steering investment programmes towards inner city brownfields by making the reuse of already developed land a prerequisite for subsidies. However, Leipzig won't be able to repeat Liverpool's post war experience of 'gradual downsizing': Whilst in Liverpool much of today's inner city regeneration is concerned with the redevelopment of social housing from the 1950s and 1960s and earlier rounds of area improvement from the 1970s, urban decline in Leipzig came more as shock. Thus, the task to bring forward a coherent development of whole inner city quarters is more difficult to pursue and is further complicated by the fragmented structure of property and proprietors. Hence, there is little chance of an orderly reversion of the city's former expansion by organising a process of inward regression, beginning from the outer fringe. Instead, much of what recently has been built on the periphery will remain whilst, at least in parts of inner Leipzig, we have to expect the dissolution of the compact city in favour of a perforated, fractal, somewhat 'typically suburban' structure. So, 'weakly defined' open spaces within the fabric of human settlements will no longer be typical only of the "Zwischenstadt" (Sieverts), the anaesthetic assemblage of architectural forms, spaces, functions, and colours which has been emerging on and beyond the outskirts of western cities for about half a century, but may, as brownfields prove permanent, become a characteristic feature also of the inner city. Conclusion Notwithstanding the differences which undoubtedly exist between Liverpool and Leipzig, and despite the periodical phases of stability both cities have seen within the last decades, their common fate has been a steady decline since the 1930s. Efforts to stop or better reverse this decline by attracting (and subsiding) industrial investors and by developing big infrastructural facilities with public money, which have been undertaken in both cities, have met with mixed success. Moreover, since most of these investments have been located on the urban periphery they often have changed the functional structure of the urban space to the further detriment of the inner city. Moreover, given that little demographic growth is to be expected in Europe in the foreseeable future, declining cities like Liverpool and Leipzig should not anticipate a return to their former importance and place in the urban hierarchy. Hence, urban policy making and planning will have to determine whether to (further) try (without success) to bring back growth in or to concentrate on the organisation of shrinking and redevelopment. In Liverpool this lesson has definitely been learned during the last decades and also in Leipzig we see at least signs of urban governance based on realism. However, the latter task requires more than most current activities of urban redevelopment can achieve. In the long run it will prove inevitable yet also much more difficult to keep or rebuild urban infrastructures than to manage the adaptation of the housing stock, i.e. the housing market, to the changing needs of a declining but increasingly demanding population which is at the heart of urban redevelopment programmes. It is impossible to simply reduce and trim down such infrastructures, be they technical facilities or social services, in the same way as buildings are eradicated for instance the council housing of the 1960s and 1970s in Liverpool and the 'slab housing estates' of the GDR era in Leipzig. New concepts and strategies are to be deployed the development of which has only just begun.
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Urbanisation Models and Green Space Development in Shrinking Cities

S. Rler
Leibniz-Institute of Ecological and Regional Development (IOER), Dresden, Germany s.roessler@ioer.de
The paper discusses the spatial consequences of urban-shrinking phenomena in connection with a changing perception of green spaces.1 What spatial models and ideas for future urban forms have been developed in shrinking cities? Is the perception of open and green spaces changing in shrinking cities? What relevance do green space development and environmental demands have for future urbanisation models? 1 Shrinking Cities in Eastern Germany Many cities in eastern Germany are affected by processes of demographic and economic shrinkage. The many different reasons for shrinking are both the cause and the effect of demographic change and economic decline (HANNEMANN 2003; GATZWEILER et al. 2003): (1) Demographic processes mean changes in the size and structure of the population. Lower fertility and rising life expectancy cause the absolute population to drop and lead to demographic ageing. Additionally, internal migration results in regional population decline. Meanwhile immigration and changing lifestyles make populations more international and heterogeneous. (2) Deindustrialisation in eastern Germany has led to economic problems, also resulting in declining budgets of the local authorities. (3) Loss of population and economic downturn result in a fall in the demand for housing, commercial property and buildings of the social infrastructure, creating a surplus. Increasing vacancies call for the demolition of buildings, producing more empty spaces and transforming the urban fabric. Concurrent suburbanisation and land-use change reduce the structural and spatial density of shrinking cities. Shrinking phenomena impact on various aspects of urban development in diverse ways. From a spatial perspective, the most pressing problems are the vacancies in housing and commercial premises, the demolition of buildings and the increase in vacant lots, since less redevelopment is required. The spatial effects of shrinking are countered by various policy measures and joint federal and state programmes. The government grants financial aid to affected real estate owners and public utilities to pull down surplus housing stock, demolish obsolete infrastructure, and enhance the affected quarters (programme "Urban Renewal in Eastern Germany"; Programm "Stadtumbau Ost"). 2 Urban Restructuring and Sustainable City Development Urban restructuring is regarded as a strategic response to the current situation and a way of improving the quality of life and sustainable development in shrinking cities by revitalising urban areas. Green spaces are supposed to provide an answer as to what to do with the open spaces arising and to be an intrinsic part of a sustainable city. The increasing number of open spaces implies opportunities for the long-term development of green spaces and the accomplishment of environmental demands. These challenges are confronted by manifold barriers in planning practice: shrinking processes and restructuring practice fundamentally change the conditions for not only the shape and function of future urban green spaces but also the implementation, organisation and funding of green-space planning (RLER 2007). The political paradigms (National Strategy on Sustainability, RNE 2004) of sustainable development are based on aims to cap changes to land use for building and transport to 30 ha per day by the year 2020 (the average in 2002-2005 was 114 ha per day, BBR 2006). There are several measures to achieve this aim; one particularly important step is to reduce urban sprawl by avoiding suburbanisation and fostering inward urban development by the parallel reuse of urban brownfields for housing and business. This approach leads to a preference for urbanisation models and strategies following the idea of the compact city, with clearly defined borders and a sharp distinction between inside (compact building structure) and out (surrounding landscape) (BMVBW 2005). But despite political paradigms for inward urban development by avoiding suburbanisation and also strong economic desires to reuse the abandoned sites in east German cities, most of these disused areas will probably remain as such. The basic ideas of sustainable city development are challenged by spatial shrinkage and urban restructuring practice based on economic and legal demands, building needs and living preferences which do not currently match to ideas of sustainable city development: The demolition of buildings is mainly decided by private owners and banks and not the government (even though government subsidies are used). Consequently, specific spatial development under shrinking conditions is largely influenced by the age of build-
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ings, their structural condition and state of renovation, the ownership structure, and the spatial distribution of the housing stock. Demolishing the buildings on the outskirts of the city both prefabricated housing estates before 1990 and the detached houses and flats built since which are relatively new would be uneconomic. According to social aspects, it must be borne in mind that although such estates are affected by vacancies in the order of sometimes 50%, there are people who want or need to live there. As a result, urban restructuring frequently appears to happen more by chance than planning. Furthermore, many inner-city brownfields once used by heavy industry cannot be reused for light industry, other commercial activities or even housing because of contamination, bad transport links and their unsuitable layouts. Moreover unsettled ownership issues may restrict the reuse of these abandoned sites. Taking all this into account, it is clear that land-use change even continues under shrinking conditions (e.g. ARL 2004; BRKNER et al. 2007). In addition, sustainable inward development also requires the long-term appreciation of urban green spaces, i.e. sites dominated by vegetation original (remains of the natural or agricultural landscape) or planned (parks, squares and gardens) within the urban structure. Their ecological, aesthetic, societal and also economic benefits and their key role in improving the quality of urban life and the environment make them essential structural and functional elements of cities and urban regions. The necessity of preserving green and open spaces may sometimes run counter to the paradigm of inward development. 3 Spatial Patterns of Shrinkage There are two basic processes of spatial shrinkage (see Figure 1): (1) concentration on dense building structures/cores expressed in contracted built-up areas and (2) perforation of building structures resulting in disperse urban forms. Although both processes may overlap in practice (partly influenced by the reasons named above), the second pattern is generally more common. These patterns independently from whether they are controlled or incidental set the framework conditions for the shape, potential function and use of the open and (if qualified) green spaces arising: (1) patterns of concentration mean a more or less dense urban structure without open spaces within the urban fabric but outside the borders or between different urban cores; (2) the perforation of urban structures followed more or less by the disintegration of the urban form generates smaller, scattered open spaces in the direct vicinity of buildings. Both patterns have pros and cons concerning ecological functions, aesthetic perception and the usability of existing and potential green spaces. While small-scale green spaces in formerly dense housing estates can improve the microclimate and provide recreation areas near housing, a large-scale green system supports ecological networks and allows for various recreational activities. However, deciding about the physical density of urban structures is something of a tightrope walk. Given the lack of ideas for the design and use of vacant lots and dwindling public finances, these (potentially green) spaces may also appear abandoned and deteriorate, fostering an air of decay and a downward spiral in shrinking quarters. Due to the presumed interdependencies of urbanity and building structures of cities the intended future physical density has to be taken into account. 4 Urbanisation Models and the Relevance of Green Spaces The current theoretical debate about the landscape and the city tends to regard the city or the urban form more as part of the landscape than the other way round. These ideas also follow the urban reality of suburban sprawl and urban brownfields and can also be applied in shrinking cities. Accordingly, landscape theory has introduced buzzwords such as "total landscape" (SIEFERLE 2003), "landscape three" (JACKSON 2005) and "landscape urbanism" (WALDHEIM 2006) to describe the current situation. In this view, green spaces are to be seen as equal elements of the urban landscape just like buildings or the infrastructure. The question is whether (including against the background of the theoretical debate) the growing amount of (potential) green spaces is accompanied or followed by changes in the perception and significance of urban green spaces in urban planning processes and strategies. In other words, are urbanisation models responding to the new challenges by integrating green spaces or even accepting green-space development as a driving force of city development? Approaches to urban development not based on regarding town and country as opposites are by no means a phenomenon of current urban theory. Since the turn of the 19th to the 20th centuries, models have been developed which are based upon landscape as the basic element of urban form or the ideas of diffusion of natural and urban elements (e.g. Ebenezer Howard's "Garden City", Le Corbusier's "paysage urbain", Frank Lloyd Wright's "Broadacre City"). In addition to the changed framework conditions and motivations which led to these ideas, the reasons for their development differ: On the one hand urban utopias were developed with little chance of realisation, while on the other hand the actual approaches are a more or less enforced reaction to urban realities. Besides, the general approaches of former ideas can sometimes be more helpful for the current challenges in shrinking cities (assuming they are applied critically) than conventional paradigms of the European City (BORMANN et al. 2005). 414
S. Rler: Urbanisation Models and Green Space Development in Shrinking Cities
Figure 1: Diagram of shrinking processes, patterns and structural urban models of urban development.
Derived from the patterns of spatial shrinkage, a system of urbanisation models can also be made out in urban development concepts in shrinking cities in eastern Germany (REUTHER 2002). There is a wide difference between ideas following the concept of a (total) compact city and visions of a complete disintegration of urban form. Yet apart from the more hypothetical suppositions of some extreme cases, all models are influenced by both general patterns of shrinkage, i.e. concentration and perforation. Nevertheless, this results in very different models of city development under shrinking conditions (see Figure 1). But irrespective of actual shrinking processes, there is an obvious tendency towards compact models following the tradition of the European City in planning practice (DOEHLER-BEHZADI & SCHIFFERS 2004). Indeed, the professional debate about urban models also argues for models of fragmentation, implying opportunities to restructure urban form and being more realistic regarding shrinking practice (BLUME 2005). The patterns of spatial shrinkage and the actual urbanisation models also influence green-space development and call for strong ideas for the future of the growing amount of green spaces: Compact City: A single compact area perceived as a coherent city of short distances corresponding to the vision and image of the traditional European City is crucially characterised by the historical opposites of town and land. Fostering urban development in inner-city areas and demolishing dispensable housing stock on the edge of the urban area offers an opportunity to create new areas of countryside and recreation. This can be used to develop larger, interconnected green spaces in the surroundings of urban areas. Moreover, some open or even green spaces could be lost through the redevelopment of brownfields and vacant lots in the inner city. Fragmentation of urban areas: The (deliberate) encouragement of both concentration and perforation together with suburbanisation proceeding independently from shrinking opens up possibilities for a new spatial formation of the city. Densification and decentralisation correspond to the real distribution of structural density and can be both a planning objective and a steering tool. The formation of different dense urban cores is assumed by breaks and interspaces in terms of open and green spaces and corridors. This requires a redistribution of uses and users but also offers a wide variety of possibilities and clusters for different demands and lifestyles (DOEHLER-BEHZADI & SCHIFFERS 2004). Besides conventional green spaces such as parks and gardens, these open (inter-)spaces could be used as new agricultural or recreational areas or even wilderness. Disintegration of the city within the region: The ongoing perforation of the existing urban fabric results in a more or less perforated city. The level of perforation defines the perception of the city as a stable or disintegrating urban form. If this process is superimposed by the dispersion of urban structures in the region (suburbanisation) without any concentration of uses or buildings, a kind of archipelago of new and old urban fragments will occur. However, although both scenarios can lead to dissolution of the city, this is a more hypothetical discussion not reflected in actual urban models or concepts.
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5 Relevance of green spaces in urban concepts It is supposed that in shrinking cities, the influence and significance of green spaces on urban form will change. The cities concerned are developing strategies to deal with spatial transformation. These actual urbanisation models range from ideas to preserve the traditional city form following the concept of the compact city on the one hand to visions of the ongoing disintegration of urban areas on the other. Urban development in the 20th century showed the difficulties of urban strategies which granted high significance to open and green spaces. It can be assumed that this was also caused by the lack of aesthetic and functional concepts suitable for the quantitative and substantial relevance of green spaces. To avoid these deficiencies in shrinking cities having to cope with a large amount of open spaces, the call or necessity for more green spaces has to be accompanied by ideas and strategies for physical reality and long-term financial support. In particular, models which reflect the idea of the fragmentation of urban form are characterised by growing importance and the demand for the planning of green spaces. Nevertheless, the actual (theoretical) models never start deliberately with green spaces. But meeting the challenge of an "era of landscape" (GANSER 2001) means dealing with functional and aesthetic perceptions to avoid problems when creating new and enhancing existing green spaces aiming at high-quality and valorising sites. Hence the high significance of open and green spaces in shrinking cities has to be followed by high political perception in planning decisions to implement the associated opportunities. References
ARL (2004): Flchenhaushaltspolitik - ein Beitrag zur nachhaltigen Raumentwicklung. Positionspapier aus der ARL, Nr. 58. Hannover: ARL. BBR (2006): http://www.bbr.bund.de/cln_005/nn_21988/DE/ForschenBeraten/Fachpolitiken/ FlaecheLandschaft/Flaechenmonitoring/Thema__dummy/Fl_C3_A4chenerhebung_202005.html (last access: 14.03.07) BLUME, T. (2005): New Urban Configurations. In: IBA OFFICE: The other cities. IBA Stadtumbau 2010. Band 1: Experiment, Dessau: Jovis: 111-116. BMVBW (2005): Nachhaltige Stadtentwicklung - ein Gemeinschaftswerk. Stdtebaulicher Bericht der Bundesregierung 2004. Berlin. BORMANN, O., M. KOCH, A. SCHMEING, M. SCHRDER & A. WALL (2005): Zwischen Stadt Entwerfen. Zwischenstadt, Bd. 5 Wuppertal: Mller + Busmann. BRKNER, H.-J., O. BERGER, C. LUCHMANN & E. TENZ (2007): Der demographische Wandel und seine Konsequenzen fr Wohnungsnachfrage, Stdtebau und Flchennutzung. Working Paper, Erkner: IRS. DOEHLER-BEHZADI, M. & B. SCHIFFERS (2004): A Story of Density. In: LTKE DALDRUP, E. & M. DOEHLERBEHZADI: PlusMinus Leipzig 2030.Transfoming the City, Wuppertal: Mller + Busmann: 32-48. GANSER, K. (2001): Auf der Suche nach neuen Bildern fr die Landschaft. Garten + Landschaft 111 (11): 34-36. GATZWEILER, H.-P., K. MEYER & A. MILBERT (2003): Schrumpfende Stdte in Deutschland? Fakten und Trends. Informationen zur Raumentwicklung: Stadtumbau 2003 (10/11): 557-574. HANNEMANN, C. (2003): Schrumpfende Stdte in Ostdeutschland - Ursachen und Folgen einer Stadtentwicklung ohne Wirtschaftswachstum. Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte 2003 (B 20): 16-23. JACKSON, J. B. (2005): Landschaften. Ein Resmee (1984). In: FRANZEN, B. & S. KREBS: Landschaftstheorie, Kln: Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther Knig: 304-325. REUTHER, I. (2002): Leitbilder fr den Stadtumbau. In: BMVBW & BBR: Fachdokumentation zum Wettbewerb "Stadtumbau Ost": Expertisen zu stdtebaulichen und wohnungswirtschaftlichen Aspekten des Stadtumbaus in den neuen Lndern, Bonn 12-24. RNE (2004): Mehr Wert fr die Flche: Das "Ziel-30-ha" fr die Nachhaltigkeit in Stadt und Land. texte (Nr. 11), Berlin: Rat fr nachhaltige Entwicklung. RLER, S. (2007): Aktuelle Herausforderungen fr die Freiraumplanung in schrumpfenden Stdten. Tagungsband CONTUREC-Tagung "Perspektiven und Bedeutung von Stadtnatur fr die Stadtentwicklung", Oktober 2006, Darmstadt (in print). SIEFERLE, R. P. (2003): Die totale Landschaft. In: OSWALD, F. & N. SCHLLER: Neue Urbanitt - Das Verschmelzen von Stadt und Landschaft, Zrich: gta-Verlag: 59-76. WALDHEIM, C. (2006): Landscape as Urbanism. In: WALDHEIM, C.: The Landscape Urbanism Reader, New York: Princeton Architectural Press: 35-53.
________________________________________________ 1 The paper is based on an ongoing thesis sponsored by the Scholarship Programme of the German Federal Environment Foundation (DBU).
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Old industrial, capitalist and post-socialist cities structural similarities with implications for a sub-urban development?
D Reckien, MKBL Ldeke
Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK), Germany reckien@pik-potsdam.de
Abstract Despite the different political backgrounds, old industrial urban regions of the West and post-socialist cities of Eastern Europe reveal remarkable similarities, e.g. in terms of the organisation of the regional economy, its implications for local politics, the built environment and the living conditions in industrial cities, as well as the consciousness of the population within the regionally and locally oriented society of labourers. Starting from the assumption that major similarities exist with respect to these issues, which is documented by other studies, a more detailed comparison of the urban development between Liverpool/UK and Leipzig/Germany can bring further insights with respect to the extent of the similarities. Old capitalist and former socialist cities are often shrinking urban areas but nevertheless sprawling. A comparison across different political backgrounds can help to reveal whether these observed phenomena are of a more structural nature, going back to the specific industrial past or whether these jointly occurring processes of suburbanisation and population decline are independent of the industrial character. This would suggest in turn that the more recent different political past is of higher importance with reference to urban-suburban developments. Empirical investigations with household questionnaires addressing the causes and consequences of urban sprawl back up the analysis. The results reveal that a few similarities exist when it comes to the causes of urban sprawl in terms of push factors of the former place of living. This suggests that the regional urban environments are perceived to have similar problems. However, more similarities exists with respect to the pull factors of the suburban neighbourhoods. Differences exist with respect to the consequences this process implies for the moving actors. Here, the legacies from the political backgrounds are felt stronger. One can summarise that substantial similarities between old industrial, capitalist and post-socialist, cities exist on several levels including the urban environment but that it is only one factor that leads to the synchronic occurrence of urban sprawl and population decline. Experiences of western industrial cities can bring important insight into the question of how the challenges of population decline can be managed by politicians and planners in Eastern European regions. Theoretical background and research question The aim of this study is to test the kind and degree of similarity between old-industrial Western cities and the post-socialist, formerly industrial cities. It is envisaged to assess whether the historical circumstances of being both old industrial areas overwrites the more recent, capitalist and socialist history. Different authors writing separately about old-industrial capitalist and post-socialist cities report about similar characteristics with respect to the housing market, the housing fabric, the organisation of employment, the cultural infrastructure, urban political elites etc. It is hypothesised here that this will lead to a similar city development, and that it might foster the preferences of people to move to the urban fringes. Because many of these characteristics feed back onto and shape the identity of people, Hudson (2005) calls the uttering demeanour a constituted social behaviour. The whole (social, physical, mental) environment of old-industrial areas seems to condition the people's behaviour and in turn reflects back onto the possibilities of people conditioning city development. Often, old-industrial, capitalist and socialist regions were mono-structurally oriented towards one core industry, with big factories in terms of the number of jobs they offered. Mass unemployment resulted when this branch declined. The operation of factories did not leave the possibility to react quickly and adequately, e.g. with a diversification in their range of products. Politically and economically important, the director staffed crucial political positions. Often these factories were nationalised, as e.g. in Britain, likewise as in the former GDR. A first strategy to make mono-structurally oriented businesses in the capitalist realms survive was privatisation. But the new private owner -as not responsible for the societal development- often answered with additional releases. It happened to a large extent at the turn from the social democratic to the neo-liberal mode of state intervention in Britain (notably with the commencement of the Thatcher government in 1979)(Hudson 2005). It was also seen in the early days of the reunification of Germany (Lichtenberger 1995, Fassmann 1995). Consequently, at that stage the economic decline impacted on the social conditions of the cities, but may be they were also evoked by it. Hudson (2005) recalls, that there has been a considerable re-emphasis upon the instituted character of human behaviour: "Instituted behaviour can be thought of as embracing a wide spectrum from the informality of habits, norms, and routines [...] to the formality of behaviour within the state and its constituent apparatuses and organisation" (Hudson 2005, p.586). Some of these unintended habits
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might be a cause for the inflexibility of old industrial regions and can help to explain the population and longterm economic decline. Following issues seem especially important: The majority of employees in industrial cities are workers, formerly content and proud of their jobs. They experienced the contribution to the growth and prosperity of the region. With the breakdown of the major industries, the pride might result in mental stubbornness towards change (Hudson 2005). Because of the experience as dependent employee there was a reluctance towards the founding of small and medium firms, e.g. as family business or as entrepreneurs. The educational level of the population is very specifically oriented towards the one practised job or craft. Retraining might be burdensome, time consuming, unsuccessful or even not welcomed. The traditional economic branches were strongly gender divided. With the collapse of the manufacturing, male employment opportunities broke down while female jobs increased, mostly in the emerging service sector. Especially the men became long time unemployed and had to cope with a changed role as domestic workers. This resulted in psychological entanglements and apathy that often left the women being both single wage earner and main unwaged domestic worker. Because the activity spaces of the population was traditionally very small (firms, factories and living places were organised close together) there is a marked reluctance to commute. Even modest distances to work are often regarded as unreasonable. With a limited number of jobs in the region, people would often need to commute over long distances (Hudson 2005). Hudson (2005) explained the situation in the old-industrial, capitalist areas. But this can be related to the political and economic situation in the East-German industrial cities too (Lichtenberger 1995). One could assume that the same structural similarities remain as legacies from the industrial past in both, old-industrial capitalist and post-socialist cities. This assumption shall be tested. With reference to the city development and intra-regional migration the last point is of particular interest. People are very emotionally bound to their region, their home-work-distance was traditionally small. The strong connectivity of the population to their city and inertia in change might also contribute to a loyalty towards the place. However, old industrial cities might be undersupplied with natural and green spaces, the environment might be polluted, the built environment is dense. The housing stock is old, facilities poor, dwellings small and dark (Power 2001). These factors might accelerate the rate of sprawl. The residents' preferences are one of the most important reason for sprawl (Gaebe 2004). The preference towards a suburban location is the imperfect (the new place is not know at the time of the decision to move) choice in comparison to other locations. Sprawl can result from high suburban attraction and from strong antipathy towards the cities. Central city problems are a strong imperative for suburban migration in old-industrial regions (Mumford and Power 2002, O'Sullivan 2003). The combination of serious inner city problems, and the strong connection of the people to the place seems to be a breeding ground for sprawling, in particular in the old industrial regions (Reckien 2007, Reckien & Karecha, 2007). Whether this applies for old-industrial capitalist and post-socialist cities alike remains to be tested. Study design In this study suburban households have been approached with a postal questionnaire asking to indicate the most important reasons for leaving the former living place and for moving to the new (the current), the suburban neighbourhood. If substantial similarities exist and go back to the industrial past, the assumed instituted behaviour should be felt through the moving intentions of the households. The suburban area of Western Wirral, west of Liverpool/England/UK and the Eastern, suburban area of Leipzig/Germany have been selected as case studies. In these areas households were approached which have recently been moving (within the approximately 6 last years prior to investigation). In Western Wirral 203 questionnaires were retrieved, in Eastern Leipzig 194 questionnaires were returned. 25 households in Leipzig, respectively 31 in the case of Wirral moved there from the inner urban areas. The rest of the households changed their place of living within the suburban area or moved in from elsewhere outside the region. Statistical analyses were used for interpretation, including frequency distribution, confidence intervals, test for independence in cross tables and for homogeneity in contingency tables (Sachs, 1992). Results and Discussion Out of a set of 15 given reasons (closed questionnaire) 20.5% of the households that recently moved to Eastern Leipzig and 24.1% of those in Wirral mentioned the size of the flat being too small as one of the most important push factors to leave the former place. Additionally important in Leipzig were noise/air pollution (23.7%), traffic intrusion (20.5%) as well as social problems or problems with neighbours (20.5%). In Western Wirral also the crime level (14.8%) was an important reason for people to move to another place. These factors are regarded the most important push factors of the dwelling and the neighbourhood. Push factors of the 418
D Reckien, MKBL Ldeke: Old industrial, capitalist and post-socialist cities
personal circumstances include the change of work place (30.5%) and the wish to change tenure (26.8%) in Leipzig, the wish to trade up (27.6%) as well as the change of household size (21.7%) in Western Wirral. These findings underline that a small dwellings can be an important reason for moving in old industrial regions like Wirral and Leipzig. Here the legacies of the industrial era are noticeable although personal circumstances condition a move more often. It is the personal circumstances that relate to the more recent past, as e.g. the wish to change tenure shows for Leipzig, and the wish to trade up to a more expensive home demonstrates for Wirral. Looking at the push factors of only the inner urban areas in both case studies (a subset of 25 respondents in Leipzig, 31 in Wirral, respectively, moved from the inner urban areas to the suburbs) the differences are more pronounced. In Leipzig, households leave the inner urban areas because of noise/air pollution (52.0%) and traffic intrusion (48.0%), the main inner urban problems in Leipzig. In Wirral the lack of or the little size of garden space (19.4%) as well as the crime level (35.5%) are mentioned most often. Inner urban problems seem to differ between the case studies. But, because of the small samples the findings are less certain. The personal circumstances for moving are more similar. Households from both, inner urban Leipzig (32.0%) and inner urban Wirral (29.0%) appreciate to trade up to a better/more expensive home. The regional housing structure in general seems more similar in the case studies than the specific inner urban housing conditions, and the industrial past seems to have left traits more on the former than on the latter. Regarding the pull factors of the suburban neighbourhoods, people in eastern Leipzig mentioned the quiet and safe/low-crime neighbourhood (both with 53.6% of the respondents), the good road network (53.1%) and the proximity to nature and landscape (48.4%) the three most important reasons for the decision to move. In western Wirral the safe/low-crime appearance (71.9%) and the reputation of a quiet neighbourhood (68.5%) have played the major role in the decision to move to the suburbs. Proximity to countryside and coast was additionally important (53.2%). For the households formerly living in the inner urban areas a safe/low-crime neighbourhood (60%) and the proximity to nature and landscape (60%) are most important. The good road network (56%) and the quietude of the neighbourhood (48%) contributed to the decision to move to that particular suburban area. Referring to inner Wirral, the households moved because of the quietude of the suburbs (71.0%) and the (seemingly) low(er) crime levels (58.1%). Also the affordability of the place (51.6%) was mentioned often. A comparison between the averaged magnitude of importance of all push and pull factors mentioned can reveal additional information about the potential influence of the industrial past. Table 1 shows the result.
Table 1. Comparison of the magnitude of push and pull factors on average
In both case studies the pull factors of the suburban areas have been more important in the decision to move to the current home than the push factors. This indicates that the living conditions in the inner urban areas of the chosen postindustrial cities are not particularly salient in pushing households to the fringes. Although a comparison to a non post-industrial city cannot be undertaken within the outline of the study, one would not conclude that post-industrial cities experience more sprawl. The investigation also concerns the consequences of sprawl for the moving households. Frequently mentioned consequences are an increase in the need for mobility and the necessary dependency on or preference for the car (Squires 2002, Newman & Kenworthy 1989). In Leipzig, data of the same households before and after the move could be used from the questionnaire survey; in Wirral statistical data of different households from the inner and outer urban areas were used as comparison (Figure1). The preference for the car clearly dominates in Wirral. It is higher in outer than in inner Wirral, but in inner Wirral buses/taxis are slightly more often used than compared to outer Wirral. This would indicate that sprawl might increase the preference to use the car. Also among the Leipzig households the preference for
Figure 1: Preferred means of transport in Leipzig and Wirral
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the car dominates. However, the data for Leipzig show that more heads of household who formerly lived in inner Leipzig had a preference for the car in the former place, and there are fewer who prefer the car in the suburbs still. For certain households the preference for the tram/train in the inner urban area was replaced by the preference for the bus/taxi. This finding might partly be explained with the existing infrastructure. The inner urban areas of Leipzig are covered by a good tram network while the outer areas are served with buses. It also relates to the socialist times where it was common to use public transport among all social classes. For the 'old' suburban households the preference for the car increased by the move while the preference to use the bus/taxi was reduced. The preference structure of the old suburbanites in Leipzig is more similar to that one of the Wirral households. One cannot conclude from the data in Leipzig that a move from the inner to the outer urban/suburban areas leads to an increase in the preference for using the car. Secondly, there seems to be a relation to the transport behaviour of former decades with more public transport used in Leipzig. Another issue concerns the living space of households. It was hypothesised that the eventually old building structure leaves dark and small dwellings from industrial times, and that this might increase moves to the suburbs. In Wirral (Figure 2), the suburban households live in bigger dwellings as compared to those in the inner urban areas. However, the distribution of smaller versus larger dwellings differs only slightly. In Leipzig (Figure 3), one can see that living space increases with a move to the suburbs. But, it is not the households living in very small dwellings who left the inner urban areas for the suburbs. It is rather those households that lived in relatively spacious flats in the inner urban areas who moved to the fringes. Nonetheless, the highest increase in living space is with the households moving from the inner to the outer urban areas. It is a hint that the desire for more space is indeed a reason for many to move to the suburbs (as found as a reason for moving in the questionnaire) but that it might not be the exceptionally small dwellings that push people outwards. It seems not to be the particular building structure in old industrial cities that leads to urban sprawl. References
Figure 2: Living space in Wirral [% of respondents]
Figure 3: Living space [sqm]in Leipzig. Thick lines represent the median, boxes the upper and lower quintiles, whiskers the second up to the ninth deciles. Circles are outliers.
Fassmann H. 1995. "Transformationsprobleme und gesellschaftliche Konsequenzen". Mrkte in Bewegung, Fassmann H, Lichtenberger E (Eds). Wien. Bhlau: 16-27. Gaebe W. 2004. Urbane Rume: UTB, Eugen Ulmer GmbH & Co. Hudson R. 2005. "Rethinking change in old industrial regions". Environment and Planning A 37: 581-596. Lichtenberger E. 1995. "Vorsozialistische Siedlungsmuster, Effekte der sozialistischen Planwirtschaft und Segmentierung der Mrkte" Mrkte in Bewegung, Fassmann H, Lichtenberger E (Eds). Wien. Bhlau: 28-35. Mumford K, Power A. 2002. Boom or Abandonment - Resolving housing conflicts in cities. Coventry: Chartered Institute of Housing. Newman P, Kenworthy J. 1989. "Cities and Automobile Dependence".
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www.web.apc.org/users/ortee/transportation/report8/classic1.html O'Sullivan A. 2003. "Suburbanisation and Modern Cities". Urban Economics, O'Sullivan A, McGraw-Hill, Irwin BR (Eds): 251-275. Power A. 2001. "Social Exclusion and Urban Sprawl: Is the Rescue of Cities Possible?" Regional Studies 35 (8): 731742. Reckien D. 2007: "Intra-regional migration in formerly industrialised regions". PIK-Report 105, http://www.pikpotsdam.de/research/publications/pikreports Reckien D, Karecha J. 2007. "Sprawl in European cities: The comparative background". To appear: Urban Sprawl in Europe: Landscape, Land-Use Change & Policy. Couch C, Leontidou L (Eds). Blackwell Publishing. Sachs L. 1992. Angewandte Statistik - Anwendung statistischer Methoden. Vol. 7, Berlin: Springer Verlag. Squires G. 2002. "Urban Sprawl an the Uneven Development of Metropolitan America". Urban Sprawl - Causes, Consequences and Policy Response, Squires GD (Ed). Washington D.C.: The Urban Institute Press.
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"Cairo" an increasing mega city

Ashraf Elmokadem
Sues Canal University, Egypt elmokadem1@gmail.com
Notification This publication discusses the environmental questions in Cairo and in the extension areas surrounding it. The reasons of the extremely expanded city, the transformation of the urban structures, the highly concentrated settlements and the efforts of the new development plan of Cairo are trying to reach demands, recommendations as well as references. Those are addressed on the city planner, research institutes and to project participants to analyze an experimental example "mega City" for the environmental debate. Pattern analysis (a metropolitan city develops) The Pattern of the city Cairo is extraordinary. The structure of the city flutters between alto and decaying, between Occident and Orient, between order and chaos, Nile and desert, as well as between antique and new. The explanation of these structures is in the historical-political background and in the outstanding features of the highlights of the story of Egypt, which had a direct influence on the city development and the city form. The development layers represent the historical epochs of the relatively very old city. Already the place choice of the pyramids (E 31/08/15 N 29/58/39) caused a core action for accumulation of citizen around this area. whether this choice was actually the establishment of the city, can this or other party argue. But the position of the city at the lowest point of the Nil delta is undoubted outside the agriculture land one of the reasons for the city location. Before taking over Egypt by the Arabs was a Coptic fortress on the eastern side of the Nile located (E 31/13/45, N 30/00/9). This fortress capitulated with a peace agreement. The blockade of the Arabs around this fortress created the first Islamic settlement, which expanded toward the north in the following centuries. In these quarters was during the Turkish and mamelukischen rule until the departure French invasion (end 18. century) no European influence on architecture or urban structure. Although the European commercial establishments in Cairo were active and an intensive trade relation between the ports of Egypt in the Mediterranean sea and the ports in south Europe were dynamic. 1818 began "Mohammad Ali " his attempts to transfer the European culture and their technical achievements. This led to large progress in the agriculture, road construction and the industry. The urban structure remained with Islamic identity. From the year 1863 to 1879 governed " el-Khedeui Ishmael "and his successor Egypt. He had been educated in Vienna and Paris and played the main role with the westernizing the town face of Cairo, this ran in two phases. The first phase marks his tendency to create in Egypt a mirror image of Paris. This planning was released 1874. The second phase was particularly characterized between the years 1897 and 1930 by a boom of construction activity. That witnesses also from the social change in that century and played a grate role in the change of the architecture in Cairo. At the same period the first satellite city Heliopolis, which was originated and connected in the first half of the 19. Century with a railway (Metro) Population migration, environmental degradation & social decline After the Egyptian revolution in the middle of the 20. Century and during the increasing conflict in the near east prevailed a population explosion in the urban areas. Long term development concepts for the cities and specially for the Egyptian villages were neglected. One was content with apparent development of the large city and concentrated the economic forces for this purpose. Satisfaction with short term expectations of profit, pressed the long-term development concepts in the background and was the most negative development phase of Egypt. For the development of the rural areas or for the development of the Egyptian cities the were the development funds relatively small. This contributed emergence of underdeveloped regions and cities and caused environmental degradation, social decline and migration from the land. A mega city suffers With the concentration of economics and human migration and with accelerating, uncontrolled growth in the last period the infrastructure was overloaded. This can be observed from the fact that a very large share of the fond development for the city for the infrastructure was awarded. Cairo devoured in the last 20 years approx. 40% of the entire national product of Egypt. The immigrants created a considerable areas of informal structures. Those areas are over the half of the entire city structures. The informal structures were created on private fruitful fields. These areas grew faster than the implementation of intended planning course the desert. That leaves a considerable space for unformed world of the mass and presses the ecology in the background, 422
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which affects the micro-climatic and geographical environment of the city negatively. The extraordinary expanded structures of the large city as well as the number of its population (approx. 20 million 2006) made Cairo an energy consumer giant and primed its traffic as a nightmare. The air pollution in Cairo reached threatening limit values and the green areas are mostly disappeared, which on large regions designed and cultivated in the 19. Century. One descript them at that time as "Cairo gardens". Concepts The future population and planning strategy in Egypt are supported on a global political concepts. This planning aims solving the ecological city problems on three levels: Regional planning level, city planning level and village planning level. The strategy of the city development plan of Cairo aims spreading the commercial centers and the populated areas in the city and by establishing new urban communities in the east and west desert of Cairo. This can be accomplished by comprehensive measures. The city planning of Cairo orients itself mainly to preservation of the historical structures and creating satellite cities as well as planning expansion areas. Economical basis, housing needs and commercial centers and green areas will be accomplished The public transport plays in the new development plan a considerable role. The construction of an underground metro in Cairo and a gigantic ring road surrounding it were for certain easement of the volume of traffic absolutely essential. The underground will be connected with a rapid transit railway in such a way that the internal areas of the city will be with the satellites cities as star shaped running network of public transport attached. A regeneration process in the commercial and residential environment in sense of a structural alteration in the city as well as the planning of the surrounding expansions around the entire city direction desert is the emphasis of the concept. The task to create new centers within the city is an important planning measure. The formation of well distributed centers in the entire city would moderate the commercial concentration, ground speculation and local traffic into and by the city center. The underdeveloped areas and informal areas are in a great needs for such procedures. Some satellite cities around Cairo are created, in order to promote multi centralized planning and to shift mass traffic and over population from the city. A great amount of citizen are living in those cities, which need more attraction and accompaniments and common needs. Those common needs must be inserted rapidly to promote the concept. To determine is, that the workers in the "10. Ramadan" city prefer to remain living in Cairo. For preservation: The industrially private sector in this satellite city are paradoxically forced to transport the workers from and to Cairo. A high priority position for completing the urban needs and facilities in the satellite cities must be carried out. Thus the resettlement politics became faster effective. Green areas, "common need" and Expansion areas The orientation values for the common need in the city, in the last city development plan of Cairo, are to be regarded under the reservation, that the needs of humans cannot be scientifically seized. They depend on a part of quality judgment, how they are described today with the demands after quality of life or after " human being-worthy life". As a mixture from empirically determined status datas and political value decisions or technical necessities they cannot stress also the character of approximate values or of "goal indicators". They can be for the planning practice an assistance with the not sufficient operation of the term "quality of life". Green areas remain the lungs of a city and have various functions, particularly since the air pollution in Cairo reached threatening limit values. It cannot be said exactly, how much green humans needs. More green should be the result of an ecological contribution of city-spreading. 1. Place for green areas is to be achieved, with new building code for loosening the building density and with given percentage between green and building density. That means for a local planning of an area a minimum values for green areas must be given by the city development plan of Cairo. 2.Landscaping every outside space: The closely cultivated roads and the smallest area, which can cultivated is important. Area for green is to be created in the smallest yard. Measures for landscaping in the private and half private outside space as well as footpaths are appropriate and serve the ecological total situation in the city. 3. Green in form of city furniture such as Trees and flower carriers is to offer optical incentives and pollution free micro-climatic tasks. Appropriate measures are intended of the town development plan of Cairo for the town ecology. These measures can be supported by controlling the self initiatives and NGO`s . Measures for the creation of handels and business centres on global level within Cairo are indispensable. The mono centric planning of business centres within the city, led to some today's problems. This practice neglects the common need of other quarters. The difficult task to create new centers within the city is an important planning measure. The formation of multi centric planning in the entire city would moderate the commercial concentration, prevent ground speculation and adapt the traffic in the city center. Undeveloped areas in the city are suitable for this recovery process.
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Population migration to Cairo in the last 40 years
City expanding Scenario
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Jakarta a Sustainable City?

Florian Steinberg
Asian Development Bank (ADB), Philippines fsteinberg@adb.org
Introduction Jakarta is on the way to become a "world city", but to classify in this regard, it needs to be more than the size of the metropolis but it should be enlightened management, the kind of services the city offers to ensure a balanced economic, social, political and environmental development, thus, criteria which would indicate its social, economic and environmental "sustainability" and quality of life. The recent years have shown Jakarta's current management to evolve as promoter of centennial projects like the modernization of the centre, the establishment of an integrated public transport system, the redevelopment of the waterfront and a new harbor, the conservation of the Old City, and creation of a few gentrified public parks. While these grand projects are still in the making, many infrastructure and environmental problems still continue to prevail, and there is substantial concern about the pro-rich and anti-poor policies which are being pursued, while Jakarta pretends to make the quantum jump to a modern city. The evolution of the city a struggle against environmental odds Before Jakarta came into existence, in the 5th century A.D. there was a Hindu settlement called Taruma Negara. In the 16th century, the Portuguese showed an interest to extend from Malacca into Java, but they were defeated, and the settlement's port of Sunda Kelapa was renamed Jayakarta, the "victorious". The Netherland's first expedition to the East Indies arrived in 1596, it was, however, only in 1617 that the Dutch were looking for a base in Java and their choice fell on Jayakarta where they built warehouses and the Fort "Kasteel Batavia". The Dutch set about to create an "Amsterdam in the tropics". A geometric matrix of streets and canals named after Dutch cities and provinces was laid out. Houses, warehouses, churches, a court and a 'Stadhuis' (town hall) were built in an area today known as Kota which consists of the colonial part and the famous Chinese quarter. As business in the East Indies expanded so did the city towards the South. The canals of the city were nevertheless a mixed blessing. They were ideal for commercial and social transportation, but also served as the solid waste dump of the city. Accordingly there was a lot of stench in Batavia, and for a hundred years (1730-1830) there were frequent outbursts of malaria and Batavia, often gloriously depicted as the "Queen City of the East", was actually rather known as a "graveyard of the Orient". Besides the high population increase in the 17th and 18th century the main problems of Batavia were caused by lack of sanitation and by flooding. By the end of the 19th century Jakarta had established a development pattern that consisted of many subcenters scattered alongside the main road axes running from the north to the south of the city. Between these centers were scattered the ever growing Kampungs, many of these flood prone still today. With the rapidly starting urbanization of the post-independence period, Jakarta has undergone a massive expansion, southwards, and into the low-lying plains to the West and East of the city. Today, Jakarta is a metropolitan region of five municipalities within the city proper, plus the adjoining cities of Bekasi, Bogor, Depok, and Tangerang, with a population of some 13 million. Jakarta's Environmental Infrastructure Water: Jakarta still does not have a good coverage of piped water and good clean water remains a luxury for many Jakartans. A mere 40% of the supply are estimated to be piped, some 40% through bore wells, and some 20% through traditional water vendors who still operate in the poor Kampungs were improvement measures are yet awaited. The two big private operators joint ventures PT Thames PAM and PT PAM Lyonnaise Jaya are trying hard to deliver a modern water supply service, but flaws in the management and low rates are said to be causes of deficient performance of these two providers. In turn, the two providers have argued for years that rates needed to be brought up to improve water quality (purity), maintain connections, reduce water losses (currently at 44%!), and expand the service area. Since early 2004, the water rates have indeed been increased by a whopping 30%. Secrecy of the city administration's deals with the two water providers has angered the Jakarta Water Consumers Community (Komparta) which claims that consumers expect more transparency in the commitment to service quality and should have a say in the development of the sectoral development strategy. And much debated by most of the NGOs, the issue of privatization of the water sector now enshrined in a law of 2004 is a permanent issue of contention. Much of the city and even good neighborhoods in North and or South Jakarta still depend on bore wells. The increasing demand for water has led to over-utilization of the ground water resources through excessive pumping. This in turn has resulted in a dropping of the natural water levels and subsequent sea water intrusion in North Jakarta which has led
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to a deteriorating ground water quality in many areas. Occasionally the public is being blamed for "over-pumping" of ground water but seemingly this is due to viable alternatives offered by the public or private sector. Drainage: In 2004, Jakartans were startled to see thousands of dead fish washed dup on the beaches of the Jakarta Bay. While official tried to explain this as a "natural" phenomenon, it became apparent soon that inorganic waste, untreated industrial refuse and sewerage were let into the rivers and ended up in the Jakarta Bay. The Jakarta Environmental Management Agency (BPLHD) has frequently reported discovery of E-coli bacteria in all of the 13 rivers of Jakarta monitored by BPLHD. Jakarta's population produces 1.2 billion liters of sewerage every day, or far above the 600.000 liters that can be handled by the Pulo Gadung, East Jakarta, Duri Kosambi, West Jakarta and Setiabudi, South Jakarta sewerage treatment plants. In the absence of sufficient public sewers and treatment facilities, many Jakartans rely on private septic tanks, many of them inadequately designed. Many of the private tanks which need half-yearly emptying are not properly discharged and out of "convenience" many operators tend to use the rivers for discharge. In the late 1980, the Ministry of Public Works and the Agency for Sewerage and Sanitation Management (BPAL) worked together on a pilot project to help filter waste water from households in Pemjompongan and along Jl. Sudirman, Setiabudi and Rasuna Said in Central Jakarta to aeration ponds. Today this system of an integrated low-cost sewerage treatment lies forgotten and unutilized. Instead of recurring to such already existing systems of decentralized sewerage management, the sewerage company PD Jaya names the shortage of funding as the principal reason for not being able to expand the coverage, the issue at heart seems to be that there is no coherent sewerage policy and a lack of innovative thinking. Linking up with the water sector and specifically for charging for sewerage services would enable different options of financing and management which could help to avert the growing threat of an ecological disaster. Solid Waste: Solid waste collection is another major environmental issue in Jakarta. The garbage crisis is manifested by some 23.400 cubic meters of garbage per day of which only 14.700 are disposed by the City Sanitation Office. The remaining garbage is being disposed by consumers or neighborhood waste collectors, either on informal neighborhood disposal sites or in rivers and canals. Jakarta's major waste dumping ground no sanitary land fill at Bantar Gebang (in the sub-urban town of Bekasi) only absorbed some 6000 tons/day, but had to close in 2004 due capacity limitations and the massive environmental impacts which became subject of many protests by residents of Bekasi. During 2002-2003 there had been months of haggling about the future of the disposal issue for Jakarta. As Jakarta could not negotiate a new site there were fears that Jakarta would end up with a huge garbage crisis. However, by mid 2004 Jakarta and its neighbors in the Bodetabek (Bogor, Depok, Tangerang and Bekasi) region, home to 27 million residents, reached a historic agreement for an integrated waste management system. The Greater Jakarta Waste Management Corporation with support by the World Bank-funded West Java Environmental Management Project (WJEMP) will purchase waste collection trucks, coordinate the procurement of waste incineration plants, the closure of informal waste damping grounds and promotion of alternative localized low-cost waste collection and management techniques (including generation of energy). By 2007, Jakarta plans to copy Singapore's example and buy waste incinerators. It is planned to buy four units (at a cost of US$ 550 million each) which each will have a capacity of 2000 tons of waste per day. These efforts seem to head into the right direction as far as macro-management of solid waste is concerned, but there is no clear strategy yet for the collection (and intermediate storage) of domestic garbage which is collected by informal garbage collectors at ward level. Cases of innovation like the UNESCO award winning "best practice" in RW 8 'Banjasari" in Cilandak which demonstrates neighborhood capacity for collection, recycling, composting, are yet to be known to the public at large. Equally, the issue hazardous waste is still of sizeable dimension. Hazardous waste is a further threat to Jakarta with chemical reactivity, toxicity, corrosiveness or tendency to explode. Flooding: Big floods have hit the city almost every five years, but in this decade, flooding has been at an unprecedented scale. In late January 2002 excessive monsoonal rains hit West Java, and the subsequent floods crippled the city for days, with thousands of houses submerged and 300.000 people homeless, and 30 people dead. In February 2007, an even bigger flood affected 60% of the city-region, killed 80 persons through drowning or electrocution, forced 430,000 residents from their homes, with thousands of homes again totally destroyed, and large parts of city disconnected from electricity and telecommunication services. The 2007 floods were worse than those of 2002, which only underscores that both root causes of the flooding problem have been aggravated, and mitigation and flood control measures have not been implemented as required. The paralysis of the city in the 2007 floods was massive, the loss of life, property and economic capacity, and health problems due to water borne diseases, diarrhea, acute respiratory infections, fever, itching skin, and dengue fever so unprecedented. It was seen as a national calamity, with the economic cost estimated by the National Development Planning Agency (BAPPENAS) at US$453 million, and more damage was expected to emerge since the floods ruined crops on 1,200 square kilometers of land in West Java and Banten provinces. With subsequent increases of commodity prices, inflation is likely to accelerate as well, and even the global 426
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market outlook for Indonesia was affected, and international financial advisors suggested to investors the sale of Indonesian government bonds, which used to be the best performer in 2006. To mitigate the losses and damage, the governor announced grants of US$110,000 for Jakarta's subdistricts, to clear up the devastation caused, however, these funds were not meant for compensation of household losses, and explicitly not for "houses built without planning approvals". As floodwaters receded after two weeks in February 2007, public anger became audible about the lack of flood warning, the inadequacy of emergency assistance, and the failure of long-term planning and civil works. Governor Sutiyoso has been criticized for failing to implement the essential flood control measures after the flooding of 2002. The Jakarta Post proclaimed in an editorial: "if any head must roll for the poor handling of the disaster, it is Sutiyoso's, and his alone. It is simply unforgivable for a governor to see two major floods hit the city, and on both occasions leave the citizens helpless" (Jakarta Post 5 February 2007). Flood control, e.g. the anticipation and control of floods, is difficult in a city-region with 40% of its territory below sea level, and its many rivers carrying massive amounts of water from the nearby mountains towards the sea. Even in a 'normal' year some 10-15.000 Jakartans may have to flee to or be evacuated to emergency accommodation (at schools and mosques) because of seasonal floods affecting Jakarta. The causes for flooding in Jakarta go beyond the geographical difficulties of this water-rich region, and are mostly man-made. The main causes are (i) lack of carrying capacity of flood control infrastructure; (ii) reduction of capacity of existing systems, due uncontrolled garbage dumping; and (iii) reduction of rainwater absorption due to urbanization and deforestation. Firstly, the city's flood canal system remains largely incomplete. The Dutch-built Western Flood Canal is not sufficient and the Eastern region of the metropolis dearly lacks the completion of the Eastern Flood Canal. Secondly, the reduction in width of important water ways for instance the Angke river used to be 40-60 meters wide and has shrunk to 5-10 meters over the years is blamed on inappropriate waste dumping by riverbank settlers (usually squatters), who are not covered by public waste collection services. The 14,000 cubic meters of household garbage and 900,000 cubic meters of industrial waste are emptied into Jakarta's rivers each year, and the fact that this is not cleared by the authorities or the adjacent communities, substantially contribute to increase the probability of regular flooding. And, not surprisingly, the authorities have not been reluctant to put the blame on this most vulnerable group of citizens, the informal settlers. Thirdly, the reduction of water absorption is due to uncontrolled urbanization in the city and suburbs. Among others, the huge Kapuk Indah area, the traditional water catchment area of North-West Jakarta (near its international airport), has been reduced substantially, and this reduction in catchment area is seen among the prime causes of the massive flooding. Equally, deforestation and new real estate colonies in the neighboring districts have had additional impacts in those areas where majority of rain fall occurs. The city's budget regularly caries allocations for these emergencies which the government considers "a natural phenomenon that comes every five years" (Governor Sutiyoso in Jakarta Post 5 February 2007). However, obviously, the curative nature of this approach contributes little to the abatement of the causes of flooding. The real agenda, first of all, remains to build the full capacity of both the Western and the Eastern flood canals. These two projects are said to be high on the agenda of the Governor of Jakarta but investment has been slow. In 2004, the Ministry of Public Works began work on a 24 km section of the East Flood Canal, costing an estimated $210m million for the civil works alone, for which only partial financing was available while land acquisition costs were not covered. Additionally, an upstream river basin rehabilitation project tries to regulate water flow of the Ciliwung and Cisadane rivers, in the South of the Jakarta metropolitan region, and to introduce at the same time an improved early flood warning system. The Ministry of Forestry has started to rehabilitate river catchment areas as part of its reforestation program. As an immediate reaction to the flood crisis in February 2007, the government announced US$300 million in finance for the completion of the East and West Flood canals. But these funds are not only insufficient, but a similar announcement had been made in 2003. The high cost of land to be acquired for the construction of the canals 230 ha need to be purchased for the East canal alone had stalled the implementation of the East canal project. However, the question remains whether both the population and the authorities have learnt anything from the 2002 and 2007 floods? And next year, like all previous years, will there be the similar flooding in January-February, with new victims who require emergency aid and compensations for the loss in property and household belongings? General environmental issues: It can easily be concluded that Jakarta is a City with a poor environment. The issues range from air pollution due to vehicular, industrial and emissions and informal waste burning, unclean drinking water, pollution from solid, liquid and hazardous wastes, mercury pollution of sea water, seawater intrusion, disappearing mangrove forests, poorly maintained parks, noise pollution and the widespread menace of insects and mosquitoes to mention the most prominent ones. The bad smell in the Jakarta Bay or along the rivers and canals is testimony to this permanent crisis which seems to exceed the management capacity of the Jakarta Environment Management Agency (BKLHD). In 2004, the city administration failed to predict even the peak of the dengue hemorrhagic fever which killed 77 and hospitalized more than 3.500. The stories about the impacts of environmental damage as visible in mutant fogs or other animals abound and
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it seems that the capacity of BKLHD is not only rather limited but even what used to be "good practice" in environmental management during the years prior to the crisis has been lost. On the positive side it needs to be pointed out, however, that the municipality of Tangerang has started to prosecute firms which pollute the Cisadane river, and the Ministry of Environment has experimented with an incentive through environmental awards which it provides to companies which excel through good (liquid) waste management. Natural hazards and disasters: Natural hazards like rising sea water levels and the occurrence of heavy tropical storms are real threats for which Jakarta seems unprepared. Additional issues need to be seen in the possibility of a major earth quake that could hit Jakarta since Java is part of a seismically active region. However, there is virtually no preparedness and no consciousness about the issue of disaster management. Man-made disasters are also increasingly possible. Various sources have described Jakarta's many high-rise buildings, and in particular the government-owned ones, as death traps. Fire protection, although inexpensive, is widely unavailable as the regular incidents of deadly fires illustrate. Better City Better Life? Repeatedly in recent years, Ali Sadikin, a former Governor of Jakarta, has insisted that the administration shall improve services, the thoughts of the skeptical and critical were articulated by one of Jakarta's most prominent historian of urban heritage, A. Heuken: " a lack of a coherent road map for the city's development has led the administration to taking discriminatory action against many residents. For the rich the administration [has shown] mercy, sometimes turning a blind eye to the illegal conversion of houses into business premises. Meanwhile, aggressive demolition and eviction policies against slum residents and street vendors left no breathing space for negotiation. These discriminatory policies could also be seen in the issuance of permits for the construction of permits for the construction and operation of many enterprises. Shopping malls and gas stations were often permitted to be located near riverbanks and encroach into green areas" (Jakarta Post 22 June 2004). Betawi observer Ridwan Saidi added with reference to his book on Betawi and the modernization of Jakarta: "This is a city with a limitless demand for land development and few controls. Evictions will be carried out aggressively because rich conglomerates want to build plush housing estates, offices, leased apartments for expatriates and shopping centers" (Jakarta Post 22 June 2004). Much remains to be done, to convert Jakarta into a "world city" and to make it an equitable city. The political cost of this year's flood crisis is yet to be seen. In mid-2007 Jakartans will vote for their new governor, in the first direct election since democratization and decentralization began in 1998. Although the current governor is not running for re-election, his deputy is, and it can be anticipated that the flood and other environmental issues will have substantial impacts for the outcome of the local election.
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Impact of High Quality Landscape of Commercial Areas on Land Values The Ruhr Area Experience
Bernd Mielke Institut fr Landes- und Stadtentwicklungsforschung und Bauwesen des Landes NRW (ILS NRW) (Reseach Institute for Regional and Urban Development, Building and Construction), Germany bernd.mielke@ils.nrw.de
Abstract The redevelopment of brownfields into business parks with a high landscape quality is an important policy to overcome the structural crisis of the Ruhr area. On the other hand there is an increasing pressure to prove that the public funding is well invested. The paper discusses methodological questions and gives empirical evidence of the impact of high quality landscape of commercial areas on land values. Chapter 1 Introduction In a world with global competition an attractive setting for investment becomes more and more crucial for regional development. Within this context the revitalisation of brownfields is playing an important role. Landscape measures can enhance the appeal of a site and moreover the attractiveness of the local environment. On the other hand there is an increasing pressure to prove that the public funding is well invested. The analysis is a module of the Interreg IIIB-project "Creating a Setting for Investment" (CSI) which aims to assess the link between landscape measures and investment decisions in the context of the redevelopment of brownfields. It does not address all aspects of brownfield redevelopment projects, but deals with the impact of high quality landscape of commercial areas on brownfield land only. The key questions are: Does a high landscape quality of commercial areas which are developed on brownfields mark up land values (and thereby reduce the need for public funding) or is it justified by external effects? Partners of the CSI-project are investment agencies, universities and a state government research institute in England (Yorkshire), Belgium (Walloon Region) and Germany (Ruhr area). The project is co-funded by the European Commission. Chapter 2 Geographical Background: Structural Change and Regional Policy in the Ruhr area The Ruhr region is still one of the biggest metropolitan areas in Europe, but it has been suffering from structural change and decline for about 40 years. Many problems of the region have been solved in the last decades. The Ruhr area has an excellent infrastructure and fine universities. One of the remaining problems of the region are the brownfields which originate mainly from the declining coal and steel industry. The revitalisation of brownfields by development of high quality business parks was one of the main objectives of the International Building Exhibition IBA EmscherPark which took place from 1989 to 1999. The main intentions were: The reuse of brownfields should stop the consumption of agricultural land for industrial sites. Excellent settings should meet the demand of high technology enterprises with R&D activities. The lack of public open spaces of the surrounding urban areas should be balanced. Therefore often more than 50 % of the sites are used as green areas. In total 22 business park projects with an area of 500 ha were implemented. Among others, the IBA-projects are the empirical basis of this study. Chapter 3 Analytical Concept To assess the impact of a project it has to be taken into account what would have happened without the project. Fig. 1 shows that the net impact of a project might be much smaller than the gross impact. Therefore the impact of a redevelopment project with high landscape quality (intervention case) has to be compared with reference cases without landscape measures. Reference cases can be: real reference sites, e.g. other commercial sites without landscape measures but with equal qualities in all other respects or fictitious alternatives of the intervention (e.g. a fictitious redevelopment of the intervention site without landscape measures). This presentation is confined to the comparison of intervention sites and real reference cases. It is nearly impossible, however, to find reference sites with equal qualities in all respects besides the landscape quality. But the differences should be as small as possible therefore retail areas have to be excluded for example.
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Figure 1 Assessing additionality (Carr et al. 2004)
Regarding the remaining differences the impact of the interfering factors should be assessed. This can be done by cross-section analysis, controlling the interfering factors which is difficult because among others due to the small number of cases statistical methods cannot be applied or time-series analysis supposing that interfering factors stay constant during the period of investigation.
Chapter 4 Preliminary Considerations a) Land value of the commercial site A commercial area with high landscape quality should be attractive for the firms for several reasons (Verkade 2006): An attractive surrounding let customers get a positive impression. It can facilitate the recruitment of employees. Landscape quality might enhance the health of the employees or motivate them to achieve better results. Thus a positive impact of a high landscape quality of a commercial area on land values is plausible. But while there are several studies that analyse the impact of parks on the value of residential property there is no study for commercial sites. b) Land values of surrounding residential property Several studies show that there is a correlation between land values of residential property and a green surrounding: Studies in the USA, Canada, the UK and Germany indicate that proximity of green spaces increases house prices depending on proximity, type of park and visibility. However, it is difficult to isolate the effect of the landscape quality from other factors that influence the value of residential property (Holm-Mller 1991). Regarding the development of land values in the neighbourhood of brownfield redevelopment projects different stages of the site should be distinguished. It can be assumed that the closure of the old industry causes stagnation or even a decrease of the values of surrounding properties because it leads to a local depression with high unemployment rates, has an unattractive appearance and there is uncertainty about the future use of the site. After the brownfield redevelopment land values of the surrounding properties should increase. Our hypothesis is that the increase is steeper in the case of the development of a business park (with a high landscape quality) than in the case of the development of a traditional industrial site (without landscape measures) because the green spaces have a nicer appearance and can be used by the residents, for example for walking the dog. The increase of the property values resulting from the landscape quality is not a public benefit but accrues to private property owners. It can be seen as an overall indicator of the benefits that accrue to all local residents as a result of the green space, however. Following this consideration the analysis of property values often is used in the US und the UK as an approximation of the total external economic benefit. Nevertheless external effects might be underestimated by this method because benefits which accrue to people who live outside the local area but use the green spaces as well or benefit of an improved regional image are excluded. Furthermore it has to be taken into account that green spaces are valued differently by different groups: While children like the wild forests on former industrial areas as an area for unrestricted experience adult immigrants prefer neat green parks. Chapter 5 Empirical Analysis 5.1 Intervention sites and reference sites The analysis covers commercial sites which were developed in the Ruhr area on brownfield land during the eighties and nineties of the last century. Some of the sites were developed into business parks (intervention sites with high landscape quality) while other sites were developed into industrial sites (without landscape quality); the latter are used as reference cases. All in all 19 sites were classified by site visits on the basis of a "landscape quality matrix" and reference pictures which were developed within the CSI-project. Five sites were ruled out because they could not be classified unambiguously. Therefore seven business parks and seven industrial sites in the Ruhr area were analysed. All sites are situated in the core area of the region.
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Bernd Mielke: Impact of High Quality Landscape of Commercial Areas on Land Values
5.2 Impact of landscape measures on land values a) Land values of the commercial sites Fig. 2 shows the development of standard land values of the sites. The expectation that the land values of the business parks generally exceed those of the industrial sites could not be confirmed. This corresponds with the result of previous studies in the Ruhr area. They show that firm owners predominantly think that a nice landscape on a commercial site is not really necessary. Only 20% attribute importance to it (Bauer 2005). Interviews with firm owners and experts which were made within the CSI-project 65 came to the same result: The ownbusiness parks industrial sites ers of the enterprises often like the 60 high landscape quality of the business park in which their company is 55 located but they are not willing to pay for it. Furthermore a survey of 50 business park 27 development agencies in NRW industrial sites 45 confirmed the result. The attitude of the firm owners is 40 backed by the discrepancy between brownfield supply and demand for commercial 35 sites in the Ruhr area and the competition of sites which were de30 industrial area veloped on agricultural land. This makes it easy to find a convenient 25 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 site at a low price anyway. In regions year with another mix of branches and a Figure 2 Development of average standard land values of investigated busihigher demand for sites with high ness parks and industrial sites 1970 - 2005. Source: author landscape quality an analysis might Note: The plotted boxes for the periods of old industry, brownfield and redecome to a different result (see for veloped site are to be seen as a general indication because the exact date example Cox 2006). of transition of the sites differed. b) Land values of surrounding residential property The time series analysis of standard 220 land values of residential properties business park industrials sites 200 in the neighbourhood of business parks and industrial sites shows 180 some stagnation between 1985 and 160 1990 while the index of the land values of residential properties in the 140 Ruhr cities increased. By contrast business park industrial sites 120 there was a steep rise of land values in the neighbourhood of redevel100 oped brownfields from 1990 to brownfield 80 2000. This confirms the hypothesis that brownfield redevelopment proj60 ects have a strong impact on the 40 industrial area local development. The stagnation 20 between 2000 and 2005 corre1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 year sponds with the weak economic development in Germany in this Figure 3 Average land values of residential property in the neighbourhood of period of time. investigated business parks and industrial sites 1970 - 2005. Source: author Furthermore the comparison of land values in the neighbourhood of the business parks (with landscape measures) and in the neighbourhood of the industrial sites (without landscape measures) shows that on average the increase is steeper in the neighbourhood of the business parks especially after 1985 when the redevelopment projects started (see fig. 3). This indicates that the landscape measures within the business park yield a more attractive environment and a higher appreciation for the quarter which can be the basis for a positive future urban development.
land value
land value
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Chapter 6 Resume There are mainly two results of the analysis: The hypothesis that landscape measures within brownfield redevelopment projects cause higher land values of the redeveloped site could not be confirmed. The reason might be an excess supply of commercial areas in the Ruhr region and the structure of demand (mainly light industry). Therefore in this region brownfield redevelopment projects with high landscape quality often are not profitable for a private investor. On the other hand the hypothesis that landscape measures cause an increase of land values is supported for the surrounding residential property. They counteract the lack of green spaces in the densely settled Ruhr area and upgrade the quality of life in the neighbourhood of the site. Thereby the development can encourage the community to tackle the local potentials and to face up future demands. Furthermore it can improve the setting for investment as a soft location factor. Therefore business parks with high quality landscape on brownfield land can be profitable from a regional point of view. Because of the long time period between cause and effects and several interfering factors the causal connection between the landscape quality and the local development hardly can be proven. But the impact of landscape measures on residential property values the first link in the chain of evidence can be regarded to be a hard fact. References
Bauer, T. 2005. Arbeiten im Park. Anspruch und Realitt qualittsorientierter Gewerbeflchenentwicklung. Evaluation des Modellvorhabens des Grundstcksfonds Nordrhein-Westfalens anhand von 19 Projekten des Brachflchenrecyclings. Materialien zur Raumordnung. vol. 65. Bochum Carr, S.; Dancer, Simon; Russel, Graham 2004. Additionality Guide Second Edition. English Partnership (ed.). London Cox, N. 2006. Landscape Quality; Meaning Business. Presentation at the Conference Making Places Profitable, Sheffield on 19-20 September 2006 Holm-M., K. u.a. 1991. Die Nachfrage nach Umweltqualitt in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Berlin Ibert, O. 2000. Lernen von der IBA EmscherPark? bertragbarkeit von Erfahrungen aus Gewerbeprojekten der Internationalen Bauaustellung. RaumPlanung 89, pp 79 Verkade, G.-J. 2006. Maak wetenschappelijke kennis operationeel voor de praktijk. Groen. Vakblad voor ruimte in stad en land, 2, pp 17
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What is your Matrix? Reading Regimes of Hamburg-Wilhelmsburg

Jorg Sieweke
Technische Universitt Berlin, Germamy jorgs@mac.com
Abstract The master plan layout of the next International Building Exhibition (IBA) located at Hamburg Wilhelmsburg in 2013 is taken under critical revision. The research is looking at the overall physical structure of the Island in order to understand the complex spatial system and its potential for further urban development. The research conducted addresses the question of the matrix of this landscape. In the outcome several alternative perceptions of the matrix of Wilhelmsburg are presented and discussed as green master plan schemes for the IBA 2013. The concept of opposing regimes that resemble the emergent spatial development is introduced. Site Hamburg-Wilhelmsburg is known as the largest in-stream-island in Europe. The territory of aprox. 10 sqkm is located just south of the prominent Hafen City development and east of the active international port within the river Elbe. Due to its enormous potential to be developed as a water related central part of the city this inner periphery is chosen for redevelopment and refinement conducted by the international garden (IGS) and building (IBA) exhibitions running until 2013. The territory has gone through dramatic transformation processes through history. The dynamic of transformation were facing little resistance of the fluid topography of the marshland. Since the big flood in 1962 the former marshland is managed as a polder-area. In the aftermath of the floods destruction, reconstruction was in doubt for centuries consequently the district has been neglected by urban planning and investment were in question. In the outcome Wilhelmsburg structure is a fragmented diffusion as a result of opposing intentions. The fragmented structure hat is neither city nor landscape is interpreted as real-time laboratory that can be understood as a gradient transition between harbor and agriculture. The geographic limits of the island are defined by the northern and southern Elbe.
Fig.1 Transformation through history
Agenda In the beginning process of catching up with the status of other districts, how can a tendency of homogenization be avoided? How can a procedure be established, that can relate to the intrinsic qualities that are specific to the island today. First it is important to get broader understanding of the found phenomenon. Anthropologist Clifford Geertz suggested a theory of interpreting culture, known as "Thick Description". This technique demands a precise analysis and documentation on the one hand and an interpretation on the other. The McHarg overlay-method can be understood as an early corresponding planning tool. The thick overlay of maps with different content is the analog working technique established in 1970s before computer-aided GIS took over. The manual work to draw a line was addressing competence and skill in interpretation layers of information as a decision making process. Landscape can be understood as the tissue expressing and "housing" our culture at the same time. The research conducted is therefore not about scientific research, but about interpretation and meaning of landscape as the physical witness of our everyday culture.
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In contemporary urbanism and landscape theory common analogies can be found: "Thick living matt" is a definition for the contemporary city by architect Stan Allen. "dynamic system of men made spaces" is the expression for the contemporary landscape introduced by J.B. Jackson. Both suggest an emergent structure that is constantly in flux and ever evolving, without one central authority. Who can these structures be made tangible? Methodology The goal of the research is two folded: 1. Identify the territory structurally as a spatial and physical system that contributes to the specific local "Eigenart" of each place. Utilizing the patch-corridor-matrix method of Forman. Documentation of the analysis and the Matrix 2. Identify generating forces (Regimes) that are already at work and steer the development and motivate mayor decision making processes, interpret their spatial effects. The fragmented urban environment can neither be sufficiently described as landscape nor as city. The Patch-Corridor-Matrix method of Harvard based Richard Forman originally developed, as an instrument in landscape ecology is interpreted as an integrated morphological research tool for landscape and urban design analysis. The research is looking at the overall physical structure of the Island in order to understand the complex spatial system and its potential for further urban development. The research conducted addresses the question of the matrix of this landscape. Forman's abstract definition to decide which element most likely represents the matrix proved to be very productive. The first (size) and second criteria (linkage) are simple, but the third has a projective notion: "The Matrix can be defined by the control over the dynamic", If the climate or the human activities would change fundamentally, which element of will influence the transformation in the future? This definition can be linked to the term "agency of landscape" how James Corner defines it. In the outcome several alternative perceptions of the matrix of Wilhelmsburg are presented and discussed as green master plan schemes for the IBA.
Fig.2 residual network
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Jorg Sieweke: What is your Matrix? Reading Regimes of Hamburg-Wilhelmsburg
1. Residual open space network: Most characteristic for the island are green voids. Along the infrastructure corridors are wide zones. Brownfields within the harbor are together with cut of residues that are not accessible in the first place. Border zones of legal Regimes The spatial-structural outcome is a prime example of the a pattern evolved by short history of immediate functional demands and necessities in the post war urban and harbor development in deregulated urban framework. The given structure is a scattered patchwork of urban fabric glued together by enclosed natural preserves, allotments, remains of cultural landscape and three different water systems. Canals are remains of early utilization, a drainage-system linked to coastal pumping stations and heavy infrastructure. In the interstitial spaces large numbers of allotments can be found. At first glance it seems chaotic. A contemporary definition of chaos becomes obvious here: Chaos is a higher degree of order, not the absence of order. The aim of the research is to learn from the complex environment and understand its basic emergent development mechanisms. The lack of central urban planning in the past, motivated emerging bottom-up processes that are confronted with mayor infrastructural top down decisions. The urban condition is a product of negotiation-processes with stronger opponents. The landscape can better be described, understood and developed by process than by form. The term regime is introduced to understand the autonomous forces. Spatial transformation processes are triggered by the identified performances of each regime. The most obvious are short listed as follows 1. Regime of the River Rhine: Short term and long term dynamic changes in tidal range, dynamic hydraulic system, salt- and sediment-load, current, storm surge danger 2. Regime of the harbor: Port Authority Restructuring and expansion of docks and inner-harbor infrastructures due to international standards. 3. Regime of natural preserves Internationally acknowledged tidal-sweet-water-alluvial-forest preserves/ pre-levee areas. 4. Regime of flood protection: Defense-lines: Levees, Polder, Pumping station, Watergates, canals 5. Regime of Infrastructure/transport Sovereign corridors: national autobahn and railway system 6. Regime of urban agriculture Plots of vegetable farming, dairy cattle pasture In the light of these opposing regimes, what is the role of the cultural landscapes if the landscape is a weak regime itself that is threatened by other dominant regimes? Or is the landscape the underlying ground respectively the overall outcome integrating all the other regimes? Conclusion: Emergent structures can best be understood by identifying bottom up procedures, they have to be understood based on the codes and regulations of their making and not by their formal outcome as direct result of central planning. It is important to understand that the structure of landscapes resemble not in a horizontal alignment of discrete patches next to each other like the analogy of the mosaic would suggest, but much more as thick living matt that is layered in strata on top of each other. In 1983 Andr Corboz introduced the term palimpsest -originally a document that is re-written over and over without erasing the former layers. He compares the territory with a multilayered script in which every new text relates to traces of earlier texts in an interdepended way. In consequence the concept of cultural landscape is not only a product of our actions, but also a precondition/pre-requirement of further actions and development. A contemporary concept of landscape should not be about preservation, but about ongoing qualitative transformation. Cultural landscapes are result and starting point of further development. Therefore we can relate to their presence. The architectural theory of dekonstructivism originated in postmodern architecture theory can be applied to this concept of landscape. Mark Wigley states that deconstructivism is not about the abandonment of given structures but about the designation of their latent qualities. To accept the present landscape implies to understand the heroic quality of our present culture: true modernism or Vergegenwrtigung. The contemporary concept of the city is not a formal product it is not about nostalgic desire, but the ongoing evolution of different forces at play. This may be understood as a cultural landscape project on the one
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Fig.3 cultural landscape scheme
hand and an urban design project on the other hand. It may be called landscape urbanism. The research was conducted in a seminar held by Jorg Sieweke (Chair of Undine Giseke) and Joachim Schultz (Chair of Wouter Vanstiphout) in the summer 2006 with students of the TU Berlin. In close co-ordination with the IBA 2013 planning committee in Hamburg. Literature:
Corboz, Andr: "Die Kunst, Stadt und Land zum Sprechen zu bringen", (2001), Basel Geertz, Clifford "Thick Description: Toward and Interpretive Theory of Culture," The Interpretation of Culture, (1973), Basic Books, New York Forman, R.T.T. & Gordon, M. (1986)." Landscape Ecology", Wiley: New York McHarg, I.L., (1969): Design with Nature, Philadelphia. Wigley, Mark: 1994, Architektur und Dekonstruktion, Birkhuser: Berlin, Basel, Boston
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The challenge of developing countries in the application of sustainability assessment methods to social housing
N. J. D. de Azevedo1; J. J. Rgo Silva1; P. M. W. Maciel Silva2; S. C. Angulo3
Departamento de Engenharia de Civil Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Brasil Curso de Arquitetura e Urbanismo Universidade Catlica de Pernambuco, Brasil Instituto de Pesquisas Tecnolgicas do Estado de So Paulo Brasil jjrs@ufpe.br
1 2 3
Abstract Several tools have been proposed in order to evaluate building's sustainability. These tools are mostly conceived based on environmental indicators, which are due to developed countries demands. This work approaches the conception and development of building sustainability assessment indicators oriented to lowincome housing in the context of developing countries. In these regions economic and social issues, related to social housing demand, are also relevant. This paper deals with some specific challenges concerning social housing and its sustainability. The case study refers to Olinda, a town in the state of Pernambuco, northeast of Brazil. Keywords: Sustainability Assessment; Developing Countries; Housing; Low-Income Communities. Introduction The classic definition for sustainable development is attributed to Brundtland, former president of the United Nations World's Environment and Development Commission, and included in Brundtland Report in 1987. (ZIMMERMANN; ALTHAUS; HAAS, 2005). This definition implies granting the modern needs without compromising to the future generations. In this concept there can not be development unless environmental, economic and social issues are considered and associated. Characteristics such as high usage of energy and natural resources, significant urban space interventions and the amplitude of its production show the magnitude of the socioeconomic and environmental impacts related to building industry. Nowadays several initiatives discuss the concept of sustainable housing. Some authors, such as John; Cements-Groome; Jeromidis (2005) associate the sustainable housing with construction practices that aim to reach quality as a whole (i.e. as a mean to achieve economic, social and environmental dimensions of sustainability). In fact, the construction phase may have some significant environmental impacts. For example, in Brazil, the waste generated during the construction phase can represent 40% of the total solid waste production (JOHN et al. 2000). In addition, design and occupation phases are extremely important. Zimmermann; Althaus; Haas (2005) claim that 50%f the whole energy consumption is attributed to the buildings, considering all the phases of its life cycle, when compared with the transportation, industry, agriculture and commercial activities. Therefore, the three basic dimensions of the sustainable development should be considered throughout the life cycle of a building. The phases of planning and designing must be highlighted once then in these phases it is possible to determine guidelines which induce (or not) the construction and the operation of more sustainable buildings, including the several aspects referring to usage of materials and technologies. The phase of occupation, in the other hand, is when the planned and applied concepts can be really verified and opportunities of improvement for the following projects come up. In spite of all the different demands and understandings concerning the basic sustainable development dimensions (directly associated with building), it can be said that developed countries have already reached a higher social and economical level when compared to developing countries. However, in all cases, the environmental degradation and the air, soil and water pollution is reaching high levels (MELCHER, 2007). In developing countries, such as Brazil, the priority of reducing housing deficit demands construction initiatives oriented to economically less favored social class (social housing). In these cases, due to severe social and economic problems, the incorporation of modern sustainability concepts is extremely clogged. In this context, in spite of environmental problems being common to all countries, in general, the concept of sustainable development becomes a greater challenge to developing countries. Besides facing problems related to CO2 emission and granting environmental protection, these countries need to raise the housing quantity, associated to income raising and basic conditions improvement of water supply, sewerage and education. These are only a few issues for obtaining sustainable development. For comparison, some social, environmental and economic indicators (BRAZIL, 2006) demonstrate the large difference between developed and developing countries. Applying the sustainable development concept to buildings including design, construction and occupation phases, some indicators need to be defined in order to evaluate its sustainability level. This article is a con-
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sequence of the proposal of indicators for more sustainable social housing, in order to take into consideration the specific aspects of the Brazilian northeast region. This work counted on the significant participation of technicians of Olinda's Mayor Office, in Pernambuco, whose experience on implementing social housing projects was of great importance for formulation and selection of indicators. In this paper some of the most important themes discussed for the definition of social, economical and environmental indicators concerning the assessment of social housing sustainability are brought up. These themes are related to the specific region study, its needs and challenges, in order to contribute for the introduction of these concepts and improvement of buildings standard. Sustainability indicators in context of social housing The first building environmental assessment method was developed in the United Kingdom, known as BREEAM, which applies to commercial buildings, and has been used as the basis to other methods, such as the HK-BREEAM adapted to Hong Kong (LEE; BURNETT, 2007). Another widely-known method is the LEED from the U.S.A., mostly used in commercial buildings (LARSSON, 2007). These methods are based on preestablished criteria and benchmarks and their main function is to certify the building. Another tool is the Green Building Challenge method (also known as GBTool), which offers a structure for implementing specific regional priorities (CHANG; CHIANG; CHOU, 2007). GBTool is an assessment system which was developed to have environmental focus. Posteriors, social and economic indicators related to a wider concept of sustainability have been added to it, justifying its new name SBTool, which reflects the intention of not only evaluating "green buildings", but also sustainable buildings. Today SBTool receives contributions of several work groups, becoming an international reference in this area. This study discusses indicators regarding environmental, economic and social sustainability dimensions and, besides having SBTool indicators as a reference; it also counts on the regional experience of engineers, architects, professors (academics) and public organs managers. The formulation of these indicators will help to develop of guidelines for more sustainable designs. Even though, they face wider structural difficulties concerning not only more sustainable housing policies adequacy, but also the lack of resources and the need of more appropriate and also economically suitable technologies. Social housing are usually planned in order to reduce the housing deficit, with low requirements concerning life quality. The community which will live in these places are originally from urban areas occupied in improvised and disorganized ways, with no basic infra-structure (water, electricity, sewerage, transportation, etc.) and many times in unsuitable hygiene conditions. Some of these areas had originally been reserved to environmental preservation, such as river borders, mangroves and mountain slopes. Another common characteristic of these spontaneous occupations is that they are located inside urban areas. This is a significant aspect as a demand for social housing, also concerning sustainability, once it provides income-raising alternatives (job, commerce, services, etc.). Therefore, it can be said there is a necessity for implementing housing in the original occupied areas or nearby. Due to limitation of urban areas close to employment centers, multi-store houses have become the recent mostly used alternative. On the other hand, this alternative has presented drawbacks, some of them concerning specifically to the building typology: The financial resources can not guarantee good quality building (sometimes not even enough for the housing closure conclusion). As a consequence, the buildings have short-term usage. This situation is reinforced by the low-income users, who are not able to invest in the maintenance. Once the available area occupation is prioritized, the edification orientation is not always able to give the best option to the environmental natural comfort inside the building. Some conflicts occur during the occupation period, due to limitation of basic social education skills. The typology of building does not offer options to future spatial adequacy, for instance, to the amount of people who will live there. Most projects do not have plans for areas for income raising (services, commerce, etc.). In some cases, the users come from different communities, and that causes conflicts which may increase the violence rate (which has actually happened in some situations). Social and educational actions, when planned, are not enough or do not work in the sense of promoting social cooperation. The usage of socio-economic and environmental conscious services and materials is not a priority. Therefore, social and economic indicators for social housing are as important as the environmental ones. In this work 70 indicators had been formulated. The most important themes considered for the proposition of the indicators, taking into account the peculiarities related to social housing, follows below.
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Table 1: Main themes for sustainability indicators for social housing in developing countries.Conclusions
Sustainability dimension
Main themes for sustainability indicators Using the environmental depredated area Availability of potable water, sewerage and electricity supply Collect and selective storage of solid waste
Considerations In many cases after the invasion of protected areas by several families, the re-urbanization and repairs of the area becomes necessary. Not all areas have suitable water, sewerage or electricity supply, especially in invaded areas due to its illegality. Besides the public health aspect, the selective storage (clean residuals) helps recycling and reusage and it also works as a fund rising. In spite of the hydraulic energy generation, which is renewable, the water saving and the usage of alternative sources such as sun light has been discussed and stimulated in several regions. Attitudes that improve the level of thermal, acoustic and visual comfort decreasing the usage of active energy.
Environmental
Usage of renewable energetic sources
Indoor environmental comfort
Proximity to public transportation and jobs Local development Economic
Access to the job market.
Usage of labor, products and services from local workers. Usage of materials and better construction techniques for granting durability to the buildings.
Durability
Proximity to cultural and leisure options, schools and medical services
Infra-structure to improve life quality.
Conclusions This work presents the first results concerning the indicators for social housing sustainability level oriented to urban areas of Brazilian the northeast region. The participation of technicians and public managers helped to understand the applicability and suitability of the indicators formulated in the context of social housing. This process has also contributed to the dissemination of new concepts associated with sustainable housing, in the social, economic and environmental context, promoting the reflection that some solutions could bring benefits without great additional investment, and some solutions require no extra investment at all. It was also evident the difficulty in accepting some environmental indicators due to greater importance given to social and economics issue related to social housing by these professionals.
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Finally, this work aims to conceive a tool that enable designers evaluate social housing sustainability. In this sense appropriate methods to quantifying the indicators proposed and benchmarks are being studied.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank Olinda's public managers and technicians from Secretaria de Gesto e Planejamento Estratgico. The financial support granted by FINEP and CNPq (Brazilian Ministry of Science and Technology) is also gratefully acknowledged. References
BRASIL. Indicadores mundiais. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatstica - IBGE, 2006. (http://www.ibge.gov.br/paisesat/) CHANG, K.-F.; CHIANG, C.-M.; CHOU, P.-C. Adapting aspects of GBTool 2005 - searching for suitability in Taiwan. Building and Environment (In Press), 2007. JOHN, G.; CLEMENTS-CROOME, D.; JERONIMIDIS, G. Sustainable building solutions: a review of lessons from the natural world. Building and Environment 2005; 40(3):319-328. JOHN, V. M. et al. Agenda 21 for the Brazilian construction industry - a proposal. In: Construction and Environment: From theory into practice. So Paulo: CIB PCC USP, 2000. LARSSON, N. An Overview of the GBC Method and SBtool. International Initiative for a Sustainable Built Environment iiSBE, 2007. (http://iisbe.org/down/sbc2008/SBTool/SBTool_Notes_Jan07.pdf). LEE, W. L.; BURNETT, J. Customization of GBTool in Hong Kong. Building and Environment 2005 (In Press), 2007. MELCHER, L. The Dutch sustainable building policy: A model for developing countries? Building and Environment (In Press), 2007. ZIMMERMANN, M.; ALTHAUS, H.-J.; HAAS, A. Benchmarks for sustainable construction - A contribution to develop a standard. Energy and Buildings 2005; 37:1147-1157.
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Peripheral expansion and central decline in Latin American megacities: recent trends and new challenges for governance
Dirk Heinrichs & Henning Nuissl
Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research UFZ, Department for Urban and Environmental Sociology, Germany dirk.heinrichs@ufz.de
Megacitites in Latin America: sprawling beyond the limits? The expansion of cities into their rural hinterland has been changing landscapes worldwide. New settlements are usually characterised by low densities, fragmented spatial patterns, mono-functional land use patterns, social segregation, and lack of public (green) space. Such forms of spatial development typically lead to a profound dependency on an ever increasing private traffic volume. In Latin America, where the urban share of the total population is larger than in any other developing region in the world, urban expansion currently reaches a new stage. In particular the megacities expand far beyond their administrative boundaries. Growth occurs no longer solely within the urban perimeter. Instead, it shifts to towns and secondary cities within the wider metropolitan area. While the cities expand outwards, population growth in the central areas has slowed down. Few of the old administrative centres of the megacities have grown much in recent years. The population of central Buenos Aires, Caracas, Lima and Mexico City are in decline, and in Santiago, there is public concern about the depopulation of the historic core of the city. The spatial growth of the megacities in Latin America is of course not new. The urbanized area of Lima has expanded thirty times since 1940. Mexico City and Santiago de Chile registered a fivefold increase over the last three decades (UNEP 2004). What is new is that the increase in land consumption no longer corresponds to population growth. This is, on the one hand, an effect of megaprojects: new cities for sometimes more than 100.000 inhabitants. They meet a still increasing demand for housing on previously undeveloped land often located beyond the urban fringes. On the other hand, social housing programmes in many instances favour peripheral locations, where the land prices are still comparatively low (Brain/Sabatini 2005). This kind of urban growth brings about a rapid and massive transformation of urban development and city building altogether. The size and the speed of urban sprawl and its so far unpredicted consequences puts into question the effectiveness of current instruments that steer urban development. It challenges both the principles of sustainable development and the established institutions and instruments of urban governance and planning. The reasons behind such urban expansion are not just inevitable effects of socio-economic factors such as the demand of various agents, individual or collective, for land and buildings. Rather, it is the product of government policies and the modes of land use regulation. This paper discusses the issue of sprawl and the associated sustainability and regulatory (governance) deficits for the case of the Metropolitan Region Santiago de Chile. It reviews a set of measures or elements that can inform a regional strategy to reduce land consumption and, thus enhance levels of sustainability. Finally, it outlines an analytical framework to investigate the conditions and prospects for introducing these measures in the case region. The case of Santiago de Chile The Area Metropolitana de Santiago (AMS) concentrates roughly 5.5 Million people, one-third of the population in the country. With its 34 municipalities, it is embedded in the by far larger Metropolitan Region that counts more than 6 Million inhabitants. The urbanized area in the Area Metropolitana expands at a higher rate than ever before (Reyes Paecke et al 2003). As Figure 1 illustrates, the growth pattern has turned the formerly compact into a fragmented city. While the built-up area almost doubled between 1975 and 1999, the proportion of impervious area declined from 97% to 84%. This process coincides with an intensification of intra-city migration. The municipality of Santiago saw its population shrinking from 666,279 in 1952 to 200,792 in 2002 (Institudo Nacional de Estadistica Chile 2004). In recent years, this trend has reached neighbouring communities. Between 1992 and 2002, there has been a decrease of population in 11 inner-city communes. At the same time, the peripheral units increased their population by up to 200% (Reyes Paecke et al 2003). Land use regulations and the role of land markets are major drivers of this transformation (Sabatini et al 2001). Chile had an early and far-reaching liberalization/privatization of its land market. Policies comprised the elimination of the law on urban limits in 1979 and the elimination of several taxes and building regulations. The principle logic of these reforms at the beginning of the 1980s was that the removal of barriers and distortions to the market that were held responsible to keep land artificially scarce. They were complemented by measures to liberalize the real estate market, such as expanding the ceiling for foreign capital. Subsequent to these policy changes, land prices increased dramatically (Luco/Simioni 2001). This has encouraged the purchase
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Figure 1: Urban expansion of Santiago de Chile 1975 - 1999 (Banzhaf, Netzband 2006)
and development of areas with lower land prices in the more peripheral or poor residential locations for the preferences (and capabilities) of high to lower middle income groups. The increase in land prices likewise affected the expanding social housing sector. As a result of the increasing scarcity of affordable land within the city limits, the share of total social housing construction in the city of Santiago declined from 50% in 1994 to 26% in 2004. On the other hand, adjacent provinces outside the Area Metropolitana de Santiago, in particular Maipo and Chacabuco, absorb a growing share of social housing construction (Brain/Sabatini 2005). These pronounced spatial shifts occur under conditions of weak coordination across levels of government. The municipalities, on the one hand, exert far reaching independent political, fiscal and administrative authority. The general Law for Housing and Construction1 empowers them to assign special development zones (Zona de Desarrollo Urbana Condicionada ZODUC, Area de Desarollo Urbana Prioritaria AUDP). Particularly the peripheral municipalities have designated several zones, which are currently developed and marketed by large contractors. In some instances these privatised estates will, once completed house more than 50.000 people (Borsdorf/Hidalgo 2005). Intercommunal cooperation does exist but limited to alliances between neighbouring municipalities on particular problems such as flood control. Competences for integration at the level of the Area Metropolitana de Santiago, on the other hand, are weak (Schiappacasse/Mller 2003). The regional government primarily coordinates the investment of sector ministries. Contrary to the communal mayors, the regional president (Intendente) is not elected but appointed by the president. Measures for sustainable land use in the Metropolitan Area Santiago de Chile The case of the Metropolitan Area Santiago de Chile highlights that any attempts to address the sustainablility of urban expansion with the objective to decrease land conversion from non-urban to urban use in Santiago has to satisfy two preconditions. First, measures have to embrace the regional, i.e. metropolitan, perspective. Second, under the given weak integration competences at the metropolitan level and limited intercommunal cooperation, they have to be suitable to promote voluntary arrangements across and between municipalities. In addition, the decreasing proportion of impervious urban land area (refer to figure 1) suggests that the amount of derelict or fallow land within the city is increasing. If this is the case, bringing these areas back into the cycle can be a strong element and opportunity for a sustainable land management strategy. There is a range of potential measures that correspond to this context (cf. Bundesministerium fr Verkehr, Bau und Stadtentwicklung 2006). They relate to the identification of available reserves within the existing urban area, a good estimation of future demand for urban land use, the assessment of consequences of regional development paths, the agreement on targets for reduction in land consumption and the planning and/or economic instruments to achieve them. Measures that support the reconciliation and balancing of interests play an important role to achieve integration for the metropolitan region. Finally, an indicator-based monitoring and controlling system is of crucial relevance for target achievement.
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However, the application and the mix of particular instruments would require careful contextualization and a more profound knowledge of the current sprawl regime. Any attempt to resolve sustainability deficits needs to take into account by whom, how, and along which institutional lines political decisions are made and public affairs managed. If these governance issues are not considered, the strategies for sustainable urban development are likely to fail for two reasons. Firstly, it would be impossible to gear these strategies to the respective context of imple- Figure 2: Heuristic categories for investigating governance issues mentation; secondly, they would ignore an important source of problems, since governance structures can aggravate undesired trends as highlighted in the context discussed here. In the case of Santiago de Chile, the study of (at least) four central aspects can provide such deeper understanding on the preconditions for sustainability measures of urban expansion: decentralization and coordination, privatization, public participation, informality2. We have developed a heuristic framework to guide empirical investigation of these aspects (Nuissl/ Heinrichs 2006). The category actors features (interests, affiliation, resources etc.) clarifies the fundamental question, who is involved in certain decision making processes on land use conversion. It further clarifies the interests of these (collective) actors and their political and material resources that support their interests. The category actors- relationships attends to aspects of cooperation and coalitions and, thus, divergence of interests between actors, as well as the way, in which these formal or informal relationships are organised. This includes the so-called multi-level-problem that describes the vertical interrelationships between administrative and political levels. The category actor-culture reflects the socio-cultural aspects of governance and planning processes. It reflects that governance is primarily constituted through communicative and cognitive processes (Frst 2001) that shape the development of joint strategies, actions and plans. The category institutions focuses on the societal context (rules and norms), in which the involved actors operate. They can either have a formal character (laws, plans, ordinances) or an informal character (values or so-called unwritten laws). Lastly, the category decision making process picks up the dynamic character of governance. It clarifies the extent to which interests of different actors are reconciled and, for example, opportunities for public participation are indeed utilized. A second focus is on the mechanisms by which different actors coordinate their action and solve conflicts. A third concern is to clarify how different actors utilize information and knowledge, In particular the public sector can determine to a great extent the degree of transparency of a planning process and its openness for actors from the private sector or civil society. Finally, it addresses the question of effectiveness of governance arrangements. It is evident that material and time constraints do not permit an exhaustive investigation of all these categories. However, an exploratory application of the framework can provide the basis for assessing the prospects of land use policies that will eventually reverse the trend of rapidly increasing land consumption. References
Borsdorf, A. Hidalgo, R. (2005): Stdtebauliche Megaprojekte im Umland lateinamerikanischer Metropolen. Eine Antithese zur Stadt? Geographische Rundschau 57 (10): 30-38 Brain, I., Sabatini, F. (2005): Evolucin del valor de la vivienda social-regin metropolitana. Informe del studio. Prourbana. Santiago de Chile Bundesministerium fr Verkehr, Bau und Stadtentwicklung 2006: Umbau statt Zuwachs. Innovative Projekte zur Regionalentwicklung. Berlin/Bonn Frst, D. 2001: Regional Governance - ein neues Paradigma der Regionalwissenschaften? In: Raumforschung und Raumordnung 59 (5-6): 370-379 Institudo Nacional de Estadistica Chile (2004): Division Politico-Administrativa y Censal. http://www.ine.cl/canales/chile_estadistico/demografia_y_vitales/demografia/demografia.php (accessed: 2006/07/10) Luco, C.A:, Simioni, D (2001) Dinmica de valorizacion del suelo en el rea metropolitana del Gran Santiago y desafios del financiamento urbano. Serie Medio Ambiento y Desarollo 44. ECLAC/CEPAL, Santiago de Chile
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Nuissl, H.; Heinrichs, D. (2006) Zwischen Paradigma und heier Luft: Der Begriff der Governance als Anregung fr die rumliche Planung. In: Altrock, U. et al. (Eds.) Sparsamer Staat - Schwache Stadt? Planungsrundschau 13, Berlin: Verlag Uwe Altrock: 51-72 Reyes Paecke, S. et al (2003): GEO Santiago. Perspectivas del Medio Ambiente Urbano. Instituto de Estudios Urbanos Y Territoriales. Programa de Naciones Unidas Para El Medio Ambiente: 35 Sabatini, F.; Caceres, G.; Cerda, J. (2001) Residential Segregation Pattern Changes in Main Chilean Cities: Scale Shifts and increasing Malignancy. Conference Paper, Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, 26-28/07/2001 Schiappacasse, P., Mller, B. (2003). Desarollo metropolitana integrado: El caso de Santiago de Chile, In: Urbano 7(10): 68 - 74 UNEP (2004) Perspectivas del Medio Ambiente Urbano eb America Latina y el Caribe. La Evaluacion GEO Ciudades y sus Resultas. Mexico
________________________________________________ 1 Ley General de Urbanismo y Construcciones 2 In Chile, the issue of informality is predominantly related to privatization, since activities in the private sector are rarely subject to public regulation. These types of informality do not necessarily mean that the activities are illegal. Nevertheless, they do raise considerable concern regarding property rights, security of tenure and legitimacy of urban development processes in general.
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Barreirinhas Sustainable Development Urban Planning

Gustavo Martins Marques
State University of the State of Maranho, Brazil gmarques@elo.com.br
Abstract The poor and neglected towns located in remote areas near natural attractions good for tourism are usually submitted to feeble development processes and are often vulnerable to capital control and exploitation . The town of Barreirinhas, in Maranho State, Brazil, is a good example. The construction of a road to access the town and the efforts to promote the local natural attractions boosted tourism and many enterprises. Unfortunately, all this happened without proper planning. As a result, there was disorganized expansion and a dispersion of settlements that impacted the environment and generated real-estate speculation. Therefore, it is necessary to create conditions for implementing and managing a proper development process sensitive to local realities such as local economy, natural resources, the social and urban structures. The purpose of this work is to study the strategies for sustainable development as well as to find the directives for an urban project designed to promote space qualification and to attract adequate investments to the area. Foreword Isolated societies dwelling on the outskirts of cities and under a modest and primary stage of development, located in the poor regions of third world countries are "easy preys" for capitalistic interests and control over their economic potentialities. The dominant elite in these places generally act as the main agents mediating such domination, consequently, contributing to the obstruction of a proper sustainable development process. The city of Barreirinhas, in Maranho State, Brazil, is known for its geographical isolation, by its economical stagnation, social weakness, natural attractions and proximity to the National Park of Lenis ("Parque Nacional dos Lenis"). Local tourism was promoted due to a road construction that gave access to the town plus the advertisement of the natural attractions and resources but all without adequate planning and marked by the interests of investors and local elite around objectives to implement several business models. Additionally, the local scenario with the lame infrastructure together with institutional and social fragilities cannot provide the sought for integration and synergy between action and investments of both public and private sectors within the urban space. This is why new investments look for positions far from town, right where the natural attractions are. Disorganized expansion, environmental impacts, real-estate speculation, lack of prioritization of local needs and resources are the direct results of bad planning as described above. In other words, we see the implementation of a model of urban and economic growth without any compromises to the needs, priorities, local requirements and characteristics. The present growth is far from being a reference to sustained development or an action to make 'human environment more developed or more organized' (Crowther, 1995, p. 318) or in another more complex point of view, "a multidimensional process involving a complete Figure 1: Lagoon and Dunes re-organization and re-orientation of the economic and social systems" (Todaro, 1994, p.98). The local development process is not providing an increment in structures, behavior, institutions, the economy, or reducing income differences and eradicating misery as recommended by Todaro (1994), consequently the human question is not being emphasized in these cases, as stated by Mabogunge (1989). So it is necessary to create conditions to break this reality and search for means of development. Therefore this work studies some strategies for promoting a small outskirt city in a region rich with natural and tourist resources in a poor State of an underdeveloped country by putting together economic growth, nature preservation and poverty reduction.
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Urban Development As described above, the occupation areas and settlements in the Barreirinhas region are sparse, socially weak, with poor infrastructure and located in the vicinity of natural preservation areas. Furthermore, transportation and integration among the most important settlements and the town seat is made by fluvial waterways. The recent, accelerated and disorganized growth of these towns is a direct consequence of the easier means of access to the municipality, of recent tourism and real state activities in a socially and environmentally poor context. All these factors put together generate uncontrolled soil use and occupation both in rural and urban areas The tourism activity is slowly becoming the great transformation agent of the socioeconomic, natural and urban landscape environments. Sometimes due to this accelerated activity, the environment itself and the integrity of the locals and of the region Figure 2: Strategic Environmental are put to risk. But, on the other hand, Protection because of the tourism activity, Barreirinhas is receiving important infrastructure investments such as sanitation developments, water and sewage systems, water treatment plants, and a new airport. However, all these construction operations are paralyzed at the moment. The municipality must be prepared for the tourism development process, by limiting occupations and developments in the vicinities of natural reserves while expanding at the town seat. However, this is not taken under consideration by locals and visitors due to the poor infrastructure context. The building of an attractive tourist scenario demands complex investment programs in many areas (Hartshorm, 1992), including improvements in the following main social indicators: delivery of services, transportation, infrastructure, lodging, architecture, landscaping, urbanization, culture, leisure, commerce, marketing, education and training, all to be integrated into one adequate management system. This complex process requires a careful and well planned gradual policy that respects investment possibilities and the pace of social transformation at both the local and regional levels in order to reduce social and regional differences. The total area of the urban center is of 358,68acres (not including the new airport of 260,21 acres) with a population of 13,209 inhabitants. Consequently, the net urban demographic density of 36,83 inh/ac is considered low and must be preserved. The downtown area consists of rare empty spaces and small streets, in addition to the airport region, the Preguias River, Tiburcio Brooke and Beira Rio, and the bordering areas near the road at the southwestern portion of the city, as illustrated in Figure 5 below. Additionally, the empty spaces of Bananal and Cruzeiro, these are but a continuation of the downtown area to the north of the urban region are the existing urban references. It is in these areas that the commercial and institutional activities and the rendering of services occur, therefore these are the areas of greater possibility of attracting new economic activities and real estate development. These natural and urban characteristics refrain the city from growing not only because of what has been demonstrated above but also because of the airport on the east and the legal boundaries of Parque dos Lenis on the west. Therefore, the alternatives for urban expansion are reduced and left solely to the southern region, and very limitedly towards the north because of the peninsulae neighboring the downtown area and the areas at the other side of the river, such as the Cantinho. The proposal considers both the existing potentialities and difficulties, such as the natural and urban limitations that need to be addressed. Included in the proposal are ways to avoid intense demographic occupa446
Gustavo Martins Marques: Barreirinhas Sustainable Development Urban Planning
Figure 3: Urban Development Proposition
tion, uncontrolled growth of urban, economic and environmental risks. That is why the suggested urban structure values the spiral growth in a way to avoid large empty spaces and real estate speculation and emphasizes investments, cost reductions and the maintenance of public services. The concentric form simplifies the zoning system and facilitates circulation even though this form tends to concentrate investment and occupation. This concentration can be avoided by stimulating the development of other areas near the center by integrating them with arterial access ways and adapting the solution to the existing natural conditions as illustrated in the picture below on the right: This is the urban structure proposed for Barreirinhas to increase environmental preservation, diversified economic development, social and institutional development, organization and geographic integration, accessibility to infrastructure and services to all regions and social segments existing in the city while providing sinergy between activities. The proposal indicates the new areas for growth in the regions bordering the downtown area and the places with the most significant urban and population concentration and tries to converge the multiple local, private and public interests. This is the reason why a continuous and progressive scaled growth has been proposed. Initially, the areas to be occupied must be contiguous and near the center in order to be easily accessible and near the available infrastructure. The population density in these areas must be kept at a low minimum to avoid congestion, failure in infrastructure, real estate speculation and damage to the urban and natural environments. Interaction between the regions will be possible through the road system made up of beltways, structural ways, corridors and areas prepared for further road enlargements as shown in the zoning map below: Balance between urban, socio-economic and environmental aspects will be complemented by the even distribution of patterns of use and occupation models fit for each of the urban regions. In this way, new constructions and activities will be redirected to central regions like the neighborhoods called Carnaubal and Cruzeiro. This is the focus of the proposal: to achieve low occupational indexes by avoiding overpopulation, optimizing infrastructure and services existing in the central region and helping the full operational role of the administrative center The expansion centers Cruzeiro and Carnaubal have special characteristics: not only they are located near the downtown area but also the Preguias river crosses these areas many times, forming thin layers of land with great potential for urban and environmental development. These areas are capable of agglutinating and integrating uses, interests and landscape vocations with economic, social, spatial and transportation activities.
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In this way, access to these neighborhoods is made through the ring road, binary from the center and through arterial ways; furthermore, this conception projects for these areas the integration of land and river transportations. The concept behind the model for these neighborhoods is to add value to the natural landscape more particularly to the riparian vegetation. In the northern portions of the neighborhoods there are areas of untouched vegetation where some preservation areas were created. Along the margins of Preguias River a wide ringshaped area for leisure and environmental protection was developed. This area encounters the spit that separates the downtown area and the Cruzeiro. There, facing the river, some wide open spaces were created in three different directions. Some of the wide open spaces were reserved for leisure and some indoor spaces were created for commercial and cultural activities. The plan stimulates low demographic density and low occupational and soil use indexes, adding value to the surroundings of constructions made for recreation, sports, cultural activities purposes. It induces multiple uses of the space, more specifically to the following: the tourism activity, housing, events, culture, education, commerce, services and dwellings. Final Observations The remote poor and neglected towns located near natural attractions are very vulnerable to capital control and exploitation. Social inequalities and social disorder will occur because as transportation develops and marketing strategies attract more people to the region, local tourism grows without any previous and adequate planning. The lack of regulatory proceedings will generate real-estate speculation and grave environmental impacts. In turn, this will bring about many social, cultural, and economical local conflicts. It is important to establish a director plan and complementary plans, general rulings and proceedings to incorporate various aspects. It is also important to fight against irregular occupation and predatory expansions into the natural environment. Improving and developing education, healthcare and dwelling conditions must also be prioritized. It is fundamental to provide for the maintenance of strong institutions that will always prioritize local needs and interests especially to the most fragile sectors of society. Bibliography
Consultoria e Planejamento Ltda - Consulplan (2001) Estudo de Impacto Ambiental do Sistema de Esgotamento Sanitrio de Barreirinhas/Ma, Consulplan, So Lus. Consultoria e Planejamento Ltda - Consulplan (2001) Projeto do Aterro Sanitrio de Resduos Slidos Urbanos de Barreirinhas/Ma, Consulplan, So Lus. Crowther, Jonathan (1995) Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuria - Embrapa (2003) Zoneamento Ecolgico do Estado do Maranho, Embrapa, So Lus. Ferrari, Clson (1991) Curso de Planejamento Municipal Integrado - Urbanismo, Editora Arte, Arquitetura e Urbanismo, So Paulo. Ferreira, Jurandir Pires (1991) Memorial Enciclopdia dos Municpios Brasileiros Vol XV, S.N, So Paulo. Fundao Sousndrade de Apoio e Desenvolvimento da Universidade Federal do Maranho - FSADU/UFMA(2002) Plano de Manejo do Parque Nacional dos Lenis Maranhenses, UFMA, So Lus. Furtado, Celso (1979) Formao Econmica do Brasil, Ed. Universitria, So Paulo. Gerncia de Desenvolvimento Humano - GDH (2000) ndice de Desenvolvimento Humano Municipal - IDH, GDH, So Lus. Gerncia de Planejamento e Desenvolvimento Econmico - GEDE (2000) Plo Parque Nacional dos Lenis, GEDE, So Lus. Gerncia de Planejamento e Desenvolvimento Econmico - GEDE (2000) Planejamento Participativo para o Ecoturismo, GEDE, So Lus. GMarques Consultoria e Projetos (2003) Lei do Plano Diretor do Municpio de Barreirinhas do Estado do Maranho em Plano Diretor de Barreirinhas, GMarques, So Lus, So Lus. GMarques Consultoria e Projetos (2003) Lei de Zoneamento Parcelamento Uso e Ocupao do Solo em Plano Diretor de Barreirinhas, GMarques, So Lus. Goulet, Denis (1971) The Cruel Choice: A New Concept In The Theory Of Development, Atheneum, Londres. Hartshorm, Truman (1992) Interpreting The City, Ed John Wiley And Sons, Inc, Londres. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatstica - IBGE (1984) Coleo de Monografias Municipais, UFMA, So Lus. Mabogunje, Akin L (1989) The Development Process, Unwin Hyman Ltda, Londres Prinz, Dieter (1986) Planificacin Y Configuracin Urbana. Gustavo Gili, S.A, Madrid. Todaro, Michael (1994) Economics For A Developing World, Longman, Londres.
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Brownfield's Intervention Proposal in the City of So Paulo / Brazil

M. A. Lombardo & A. C. Fanti
Universidade Estadual Paulista "Julio de Mesquita Filho" UNESP Rio Claro / SP / Brazil lombardo@rc.unesp.br
Abstract Many cities of industrial past experienced, in the last few decades, transformations in its productive structure leading to the closing of countless factory units, and the appearance of several brownfields. In the city of So Paulo, these transformations occurred from the 70s on with the closing of activities, due to high costs to remain in the city, To search for better conditions of life, yearning for tax incentives, necessity of property expansion, among others factors, leaving as legacy, dysfunctional structures many times contaminated for the previously industrial activity. The objective of this work is to elaborate revitalization plans for brownfields in the city of So Paulo, creating a scene for the refunctionalization of these areas, verifying the possible procedures of cleaning and decontamination, thus propitiating a valuation of the place and its surround area. The corrective measures to be adopted in the planning of brownfield's decontamination must be evaluate as function of the place's future use, being more tolerant with the quality of the ground for industrial use for example. In the case of buildings recycling, the application of cleaning techniques is extremely essential for the withdrawal of any toxic substances that can have impregnated in the construction structures, together with the identification of possible existing contamination in the place. The requalification of degraded areas is extremely important, once it recuperates the environmental as well as its built patrimony, encouraging new investments in the place and valuing it. Hence, this work contributes for Brownfield's analysis in So Paulo city, obtaining data that subsidize optimum exploitation of the place, with the objective to supply the surround population necessities, with the possible residual area's refunctionalization and its integration at urban dynamics. Introduction It was during the decade of 1990 that some industries started to worry and to project less aggressive products to the environment considering all its useful life. In a society where raw material are over consumed with any accounting of the environmental costs, the analyses of products' lifecycle, considering all the impacts generated from the beginning to the end, brings to a new boarding of environmental management in the industries. The concept of lifecycle according to SANCHES (2001; 16) was developed aiming at the product, but it also can be extended to the industrial installations therefore industrial facilities have equally a lifecycle and its final destination must be carefully planned in order to avoid future social and environmental damages. Industries are constantly suffering transformations in its productive structure that many times leads to the end of activities and, as consequence, the abandonment of the place. These abandoned areas, known as brownfields, represent social, economic and environmental problems that extend to many countries where these places contribute for the depreciation of the surround area, damaging the image of the city, beyond being object for clandestine occupation and they also represent risks to the security, public health and to the environment. "To the local authorities, the brownfields are a resource and a responsibility resource because there is an infrastructure that until certain point can be reuse, and a responsibility because of the environmental problems". (VASQUES, 2005:2). The city of So Paulo was established in 1554 and possesses an area of 1.509 km2 counting currently on about 11 million inhabitants (estimative 2005), more than 50% of the population concentrated in the Metropolitan Region of So Paulo and little more than 6% of the population of Brazil. Considered today, as the biggest polar region business-oriented of Latin America, the metropolitan region of So Paulo possess 4.500 abandoned structures according to the CIESP/FIESP periodical. It is in this context that this work contributes for a study of brownfields in the city of So Paulo, analyzing its formation, condition that are find, necessities of cleanness, possibilities of reuse, and the importance of the reinsertion of these areas in the local urban dynamics. Interventions for the creation of future scenes in areas of brownfields It was from the decade of 1970 on that the Metropolitan Region of So Paulo gradually starts to decrease its industrial activity and the interior starts to industrialize. Many industries look for lands far from urban agglomerations due to different factors, as: production of bad smell and solid wastes, necessity of expansion, high land price located in the urban accumulations, environmental restrictions, tax incentives, etc.
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Industrial enterprises had transferred to the countryside or they simply had been closed, as result of its own industrial dynamism, lack of investments, international competition and decline of certain industrial sectors, propitiating the formation of dysfunctional lands that testifies the past economic modification. The East Zone of So Paulo was one of the first ones to suffer with the intense process of industrial concentration and disconcentration and subsequent brownfield's development. Textile industries, glassworks, alimentary industries, and drinks, had later been closed, abandoned, some reconverted, and other destroyed. The reutilization of these areas are most of times made without planning and many of these places are used as parking lot, shelters for collectors of garbage, and other informal activities. The transformation of brownfields in active uses attracts people and new investments for the place, contributing for an improvement of the life's quality, with the reduction of the potential of risks to population and to environment. Among all possibilities of reuse, the places demolition is several times the simplest option, due to difficulty of adaptation of the industrial building for other uses. However the reuse of buildings instead of its demolition can represent a reduction of workmanship costs and raw material. Though, if the building present historical value, the new uses must respect its characteristics, being able to suffer few modifications and one of the options can be its transformation in museums and cultural centers. In great urban agglomerations where the increase of the carbon emissions in the atmosphere contributes for heat retention and the reduction of woody areas decreases the relative humidity of air, propitiating the formation of heat islands, abandod land's reconvertion in parks and green areas are an intelligent option under the aspect of the well-being state and ambient profit. The land property also can be divided into parcels or still be used in its totality and there are a number of possibilities of new uses, after the rearrangement and cleanness, being able to be reused for industrial, commercial, institutional, residential, leisure, cultural, mixing activities or for agricultural and gardening uses, referring to abandoned lands. Exist, however, some problematic aspects that make difficult the conversion of land and industrial buildings, as for example, the zoning of the place that can be restricted with industrial uses; economic reasons, where the market can not be able to absorb certain offer of product, or still environmental reasons. The first industries in the City had been projected without any environmental concern in a time that did not exist any inspection agency and even the environmental legislation was inexistent. The result of this negligent and anti-sustainable attitude is the appearance of abandoned industries, whose process of production created a great polluting potential: ground contaminated, polluted water supplies and presence of toxic residues. In view of the probability of contamination in deactivated industrial enterprises, it's necessary first to raise data on the process of the previous production to identify the potential risks of contamination for the health and environment. In case that the previous industrial process presents characteristics of polluting potential a detailed study is required in order to confirm or not the presence of the contamination so that correct measures can be taken. The collection of information about storage, disposal, treatment, history of emptying and/or accidents, and knowledge of the surrounding, are necessary for one better understanding of the behavior of dangerous substances in the environment leading in consideration with the conditions where they're found. Cleaning up techniques must be applied in the construction's structures that possess as destination to the recycling, and the residual still remaining in the place must be removed, transferred and treated. It's necessary to define the new use of the place for the correct decontamination planning and cleanness since, in the case of reutilization of these areas, some uses are more restrictive with the quality of ground. The new use must be defined in function of surround's necessities and characteristics of occupation for the better exploitation of the area. It is important to observe and study the dynamics of the quarter and the repercussion of the reuse of these places in function of the new use's proposal. In the quarter of the Belm in So Paulo, the old Santista Mill, today current SESC Belenzinho, yields space for the development of leisure and cultural activities. Another example of recycling of industrial buildings in So Paulo was the reconversion, in 1998, of the textile industry, So Paulo Canvas shoes, in a private institution of education, Anhembi Morumbi, located at Brz. The possibilities of reusing these lands are variable. Talking about well located and old quarters of So Paulo one strong real state speculation due exist, because of the valuation of the ground and the trend of vertical intensive occupation of areas. The verticalization of areas is one aspect that must be carefully studied under the point of view of population life's quality, therefore, in attend to huge urban accumulations as the city of So Paulo, where there are a great concentration of constructed areas, agglomeration of people, asphalt, waterproofing, and concentration of pollutants produced in the city, this can be a good economic alternative, but not a good alternative under the environmental aspect. "In the set, with the advance of the constructed area, the urban landscape started to resent of occupied areas with vegetation. This situation drastically aggra-
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M. A. Lombardo & A. C. Fanti: Brownfield's Intervention Proposal in the City of So Paulo
vates the environmental quality, generating favorable microclimates to the biggest thermal contrasts" (LOMBARDO, 1985: 75). The presence of urban green areas contributes to the improvement of the population quality of life uniting favorable aspects of microclimate, beauty of the landscape and attraction of birds and animals, beyond the valuation of the place to the measure that these areas become rarer and smaller, pressured for the growth of the cities. The planning of these areas is important for the recovery of the historic and cultural site, incentive of new investments and creation of a surrounds safe future scenes, valuing the area and bringing economic, environmental and social benefits for the community Conclusions Brownfield's studies are important, to make possible an understanding of the urban structures' evolution and the importance of its refunctionalization and consequent valuation of the space. Appearing in great numbers in the city of So Paulo, the brownfields negatively contributes under various aspects becoming necessary interventions for the process of reintegration and transformation of these places in active uses. In the Metropolitan Region of So Paulo, which vegetation has being systematically suppressed throughout all process of urban occupation, remain today small portions of green areas in the city preserved in the parks and municipal squares. These remaining areas propitiate an improvement in the air's quality, contribute for the climatic control and erosion of sediments, besides being important in containing the flood for increasing the permeate area and reducing rain's impacts. At the current context of change climatic and global warming, the transformation of brownfields in green areas consists in an intelligent option of reutilization of the place, contributing to population's comfort, being an alternative endowed with environmental and social value not obstructing the fact that the same areas can be used for recreation and sport. The revitalization of deteriorated physical spaces creates, according to VASQUES (2005: 142), a new urban space organization, with the use of places that where before devaluated, reducing risks to population and to the environment with the cleanness of the area, encouraging new investments, creating jobs and offering new opportunities for the society with the insertion of these places in the urban area. In the old manufactures quarters of So Paulo the areas with deteriorate infrastructure, need interventions, that must be accomplished observing the peculiarities of the place and the new uses must respect the local's characteristics, and not only consider economic questions as well as the environmental and social ones involved in the process for the selection of reuses' possibilities. References
JORNAL FIESP/CIESP. Indstria quer revitalizar Zona Leste. ano 1/n1,p.8, 2002. LENCIONI, S. Reestruturao urbana industrial: Centralizao do capital e desconcentrao da metrpole de So Paulo. Tese de doutorado, faculdade de Filosofia, Letras e Cincias Humanas, Universidade de So Paulo, So Paulo, 1991. LOMBARDO, M. A. Ilha de calor nas metrpoles: o exemplo de So Paulo. So Paulo, editora Hucitec, 1985. SANCHEZ, L.E. Desengenharia - O Passivo Ambiental na Desativao de Empreendimentos Industriais. So Paulo, Edusp/Fapesp, 2001. VASQUES, A. R. Refuncionalizao de Brownfields: Estudo de caso na Zona Leste de So Paulo. Dissertao de Mestrado, Unesp, Rio Claro, 2005.
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Green Space Strategy (Dublin)

Dimitris Sgouros
Techological Institute of Epirus, School of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Greece disgouros@yahoo.gr
The study area is in the triangle between Richmond Road, Clonliffe Road and Drumcondra Road. Most of the land is covered by the premises of Holly Cross College, where there is the Archbishop's House, the main buildings of the historical college, and other buildings that are recorded as National Monuments. The open area of the site is approximately 20 acres. There is no use or specific activity in the site. Tolka river runs in the site towards southeast. The river is the boundary of the college land. On the north bank there are houses but the land is dominated by old buildings that are currently being used as garages, warehouses and light industries. At the southeast part of the study area there are houses. The character of this part of the city is very degraded. Especially on the north bank the land is almost derelict and the people who live in the adjoined houses are subjected to views of very low aesthetics. The aim of the project is to change radically the character of the study area by creating new housing and a new park. It will be part of a "chain" of green areas which will include the existing surrounding parks. This principle could subsequently be followed in the broad area of Glasnevin, Whitehall and Marino where there is abundance of open institutional land. The river Tolka is a natural feature of significant proportion. It can be the focal point of this part of the urban environment. The geomorphology of the site presents a uniformity that offers a broad potential of The existing mature vegetation offers the opportunity of a plan that can be Implemented in short term, and be integrated with a long term planting plan. The access to the river corridor is presently almost non existent. The current use of land does not step with the creation of a new amenity and recreation space of vast size. At the north bank there are residencies in low density, warehouses and small industries. The south bank is covered mostly by the land of Holly Cross College. Holly Cross College is an institution of great historical importance for Dublin and Ireland that dates in the middle 19th century. The site includes the Archbishop's House and other buildings (i.e. The Red House) which are recorded as National Monuments. Any intervention into the very premises of the institution should not be undertaken without serious consideration. The adjacent land of Holly Cross College can become a new area of amenity. It can be part of an integrated green space strategy for the broad area (Drumcondra, Glasnevin, Whitehall, Marino) that will: 1. Create more publicly accessible open spaces 2. Provide recreational routes for walkers, joggers and cyclists 3. Increase the accessibility of both existing and new public parks 4. Create links between pedestrian origins and destinations for journeys to work, to schools, to public transport. There is a challenge to increase residential density and redevelop derelict lands. Such a task will improve the living conditions and quality of life of the inhabitants, by providing new housing and creating an adjacent amenity area (neighbourhood park) of significance along the river. The project includes the design of antiflooding measures to tackle with the problem of flooding that can occur in the area after heavy raining, as it happened during 2002.
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Public Use Assistance to the Conservation of Environmentally Protected Areas in So Lus Brazil
K. P. Bontempo
Federal University of Bahia, Brazil inabontempo@yahoo.com.br
Abstract So Lus is the capital of Maranho State, in the Northeastern region of Brazil. The capital is located on a small island bearing the same name and with a population of 870,028 inhabitants. Since the 70's the city has been experiencing a dispersing growth. The opposing vectors for this growth are the following: suburban settlements into one direction, and real estate boom near the sea front into the opposite direction. This widespread growth is responsible for the creation of large urban empty spaces but, at the same time, with complete disregard to the environment. On the other hand, dirt deposits and land fillings of natural areas such as swamps, dunes, native vegetation, low lands river banks and rivulets, is now a commonplace activity because the creation of more dry land will increase the offer in real estate development. In this scenario the availability of green public spaces is not enough for leisure and other public uses. The purpose of this study is to offer subsidies for a non-degrading and sustainable management of the remaining preservation areas. Another goal of this paper is to encourage the population to strengthen their commitment and participation in the maintenance of the protected areas. Introduction The Capital of Maranho State, So Luis, is located on a 518 Km island with the same denomination in the north portion of the State (fig. 01) with a population of 870,000 inhabitants (IBGE 2000 census). The city spreads towards its municipal limits while leaving behind empty urban spaces with no environmental quality. Even with the existing Federal, State and Municipal (City) laws and rules concerning the integrity of the environment, the urban settlement in So Lus was careless in the conservation of these areas. The inadequate urban occupancy of the APPs (Areas of Permanent Preservation, Article 2, Federal Law No. 4771 Brazilian Forestry Code) is a common problem in many municipalities due to the shortage of areas for expansion and population increase. In spite of the low demographic density, So Lus has been submitted to the typical consequences of practices such as waterways obstructions or detours, fillings of bayous and rivers, pollution of hydro resources, flooding, and disorganized occupation of dunes and beaches. Altogether these problems demand from the Municipalities some costly solutions inasmuch as the closer to the natural state is the environment, the simpler the drainage infrastructure solution will be, for example (MENEZES, 1996). In So Luis the environmentally protected areas are very seldom integrated to the urban net. These areas are usually excluded from the day-to-day routine and are mostly used as garbage and sewage dumping or are
Pic 1 - Aerial View Jaracaty 1975
Pic 2 - Aerial View Jaracaty 1988
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inadequately occupied by invasions of all sorts regardless of social classes. Because of that, we find in So Luis law protected areas with huge losses in their green mass or in the quality of their natural resources. One can observe from this context that the urban development of So Luis is moving towards the extinction of natural reserves, regardless if protected by law or not, if created by the public administration or by the oversight of the real estate market. No integration between these areas and the built space is a probable explanation for the origin of this Pic 3 - Aerial View Jaracaty 2006 degradation. According to CUNHA (2003), one way to halt the invading settlements in these areas would be to surround the APPs with a transitional area strip for limited and strategic uses only. To this end, the objective of this paper is the preservation of the remaining relevant natural characteristics in areas strategic to the urban infra-structure. Another objective is the recovery of the damaged areas. This can be done through the implementation of an effective, non-degrading and sustainable interaction between the environment and the daily urban routine based upon free access to leisure, sports, tourism, education, low income production and entertainment. The aim of our work is to awaken in the local population an awareness for the maintenance of good environmental quality in order to ensure proper living conditions for the city. "Based upon the principle of man/environment integration through the use of preservation, recovery and conservation principles on human intervention over the land, notoriously on construction and use of the urban artifacts, the cities as seen as human ecosystems and as such not as single items, but in all its complex relations with the so-called "natural" ecosystems." (FRANC, 2001). The Environmental Context of the Municipality The network of water courses in So Lus is deeply affected by the tidal range that may vary up to 7 meters; water courses are spread all over the urban area. River Anil is the main waterway, and it is also the main sanitary sewer collector. A current picture of the area reflects a disorganized occupation, garbage dumping, land filling and deforestation of Anil river's banks. The disregard for the natural water courses is compromising draining and run-off, creating flooding which, in turn, cause grave damages even in the low density areas. In this context, at the moment, the city has the following areas under protection: Municipal Areas: Bom Menino Park, "Non Edificandi" areas at Diamante and Rio Bicas (Bicas River) State Areas: Jansen and Bacanga Ecological Parks; Stio Rangedor Ecological Station; Maracan and Itapirac PPAs (Permanent Preservation Areas). There are also many EPZ (Environmentally Protected Zones) and FRZ (Forest Reservation Zones), established by the Municipal Zoning Law (Law no. 3.253 dated December 29, 1992) that are coincidental to the Federal PPA's. Among the municipal parks, Bom Menino is the only park to be fully equipped and integrated to the city. But there are not enough relevant natural resources ("Nature as is () forests, fields, swamps, etc) and other natural resources" (FERRARI, 2004), in the park as a large percentage of its area is urbanized. However, the Diamante area which is also located within the Historical Center presents important natural characteristics but as it is not fully integrated to the surroundings it suffers from constant aggressions. The Lagoa Jansen Park corresponds to an artificial lagoon that in 2001 experienced urban and landscaping treatment in its surroundings. This project radically changed the population behavior by inhibiting invasions and the constant degrading actions (MONTEIRO, 2001). Inasmuch as the lagoon brings the population closer to the natural environment, it continues to be polluted. It is estimated that an average of 2,710 m3 of sewage are disposed into the lagoon daily (SANTOS et al, 2002). The city water supply comes directly from Bacanga State Park. Originally with 3,065ha, the park now is about 2,634ha, due to unlawful occupations. It is possible to observe that, despite of the vital importance of 454
K. P. Bontempo: Public Use Assistance to the Conservation of Environmentally Protected Areas in So Lus
this park, it still suffers constant aggressions. The park is perceived as an obstacle to development and therefore the population does not see any benefits in preserving it. As discussed in the Legal Forest Reserve program, there is not one single park in the city of So Lus with relevant preserved natural characteristics that could support the social function of integration with human activities. It is possible to observe that when the preserved areas are not used, as established by law, the preservation is jeopardized. If the preservation area is integrated with human activities, the population will feel co-responsible for the use of the space and thus will help in the maintenance of the area, and will get the benefits it provides this representing the environmental conservation within the urban limits (FRACO; 2001, p.89). The public administration is responsible for re-directing the populations' interest towards this kind of benefit and not the opposite, pushing the population away from the protected areas. "The least the knowledge, the respect, and the regard, the greater will be the lack of integration" (Lerner, 1971). The city of Curitiba, Brazil, was successful in applying some helpful tools. The Building Lease Law applied in cultural and historical buildings began to be applied in green areas as well, and the purpose was to benefit the properties with natural vegetation and give incentives for their maintenance (CUNHA, 2002). As consequence of this policy, the green area per inhabitant in Curitiba expanded from less than 1 m to over 16m in ten years, not considering that the population tripled between the years 1965 and 2000 (MENEZES, 1996).
Pic 4 - Sewer system Jaracaty 2006
Pic 5 - Top view Jaracaty 2006
Proposal This paper aims to provide some subsidies to the development of a management model for the existing areas with environmental and landscaping potential. The management model will be based upon the non-degrading use of these land areas in such a way that it will facilitate their integration with the city and consequently creating a connection with the local population. The micro Bay system called Jaracaty was chosen as a representative for the findings of this paper. Upon identification, the area would be classified according to its land use. (not restricted to public lands). The privately owned land would have to respect all occupation restrictions but would receive preservation and conservation incentives. Extending these principles to other areas, priority should be given to the bay lands, freshwater marshes, dunes, rivers, and swamps. As preliminary directive and actions for the implementation of this proposal, it is suggested the creation by the administration of a multidisciplinary committee that would be responsible for preparing urbanization and land use proposals for the surrounding areas. This planned urban development would act as a physical barrier to the real estate expansion; it would be like a "transition zone", corresponding to a pre-determined strip of land depending on the situation. Some activities to be developed in these areas would include: elementary schools, nurseries, community schools, research centers, bars, cultivation of medicinal, ornamental or all-purpose plants for consumption as long as they are native from the region, rest areas, rental of leisure equipment (bicycles, children attractions, skateboard ramps, horseback riding, etc). The "transition zone" would serve as a Linear Park. In privately owned areas the proprietor would be able to use and explore the land as long as he also pursues the Municipality interests, such as permitting public access to the area and not obstructing circulation. There is no need for Municipal Administration disbursements for the development of these areas as long as tax incentives and cuts are given to private investments, corporations, and land owners that would invest and receive exploration rights for food and entertainment. In 1986 tax incentives were used in Curitiba: "one of the incentives, established by law, is property tax exemption (IPTU) or the proportional reduction of
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this tax according to the percentage of green areas preserved on the lot" (MENEZES, 1996). In this case scenario the lots eligible for receiving the tax incentives were located in the area of Municipal interest, the socalled "Green Area Special Sector". This may seem a far fetched possibility for So Lus but it is not. At the present time, the main restaurants, bars, gym clubs and similar activities have all moved to the Lagoa Jansen area without any tax incentive. On the contrary, the land prices in this area are much higher than in any other part of the city. Other existing tools that could be used for the maintenance of the green areas would be the Building Lease Law and Urban Operations. The focus would be kept on the elimination of unlawful settlements, on the implementation of park infrastructure and on the increase of green areas done by exchanging fractions of land with building potential, with areas of natural quality and strategic location. Besides the creation, increase and maintenance of these green spaces through the proposed mechanisms, it is of vital importance to this work that the society has ample access to the parks and that there is a straightforward integration between the parks and their surroundings. With this in mind there are plans for the construction of a network of bicycle routes that will link this space to the existing and future parks. "The bikeways serve not only as an alternative to transportation and leisure activities, but they also help to protect and preserve the areas vulnerable to occupation and environmental degradation." (MENEZES, 1996). Some other actions such as successful experiences or developing our own solutions may be added to the present proposal for carrying-out an efficient preservation policy as long as the population is co-responsible and able to identify improvements in the quality of life generated by the existence and conservation of the natural property in their city. Conclusion The green areas within the urban centers must be included in the daily activities because they serve as a solution or they may provide drastic reduction to human problems. State oriented free access to green areas is the first step for integrating the common citizen to the green spaces and to balance the open public spaces with the built ones. In this context the green areas play a fundamental role in urban viability and security, and must be considered and respected and not to be excluded from the city dynamics. It is a shared responsibility but the Municipal power is the one who shall conduct the role playing. It can not be left at the exclusive will of the economical and immediate interests the quality and environmental health of the city. "So, the Environmental Planning must try to fulfill this lack of coordination between region and economy by foreseeing critical situations." (FRANCO 2001). Bibliography
BACANGA Floresta Viva. (2005), in O Imparcial, Trilha Verde, page 4-5, O Imparcial, So Lus. CUNHA, R. D. A. (2003), Os Espaos Pblicos Abertos e as Leis de Uso e Ocupao do Solo: Uma Questo de Qualidade Para Ambientes Sustentveis, In: Encontro Nacional Sobre Edificaes e Comunidades Sustentveis set., 21 - 24, ANAIS, Working Paper, So Carlos. FERRARI, C. (2004). Dicionrio de urbanismo, Disal, So Paulo. FRANCO, M. de A. R. (2001). Planejamento ambiental para a cidade sustentvel, Annablume, So Paulo. Instituto Municipal da Paisagem Urbana, (2003). Plano da Paisagem Urbana do Municpio de So Lus-MA, IMPUR, So Lus. MARQUES, G. M. (1996). Uma Estratgia de Desenvolvimento para So Lus, Brasil, Oxford Brookes Universiy, Oxford. MENEZES, C. L. (1996). Desenvolvimento urbano e meio ambiente: a experincia de Curitiba, Papirus, Campinas. MONTEIRO, L. C. C. (2001). Percepo Ambiental dos Usurios de Uma Laguna Urbana Impactada Durante a Sua Revitalizao Pelo Poder Pblico: Bases Para Uma Educao Ambiental, UFMA, So Lus. SANTOS, M. C. F. V; CASTRO, A.C.L; CAVALCANTE, P. R. S; DARDIERE, R; LIPES, M. J. S; PIORSKI, N. M; AZEVEDO, A. C; PESSOA, C. R. D; e FONSECA, V. (2002) Diagnstico Ambiental da Lagoa da Jansen, Labohidro, So Lus. TUAN, Y. (1980). Topofilia - Um estudo da Percepo, Atitudes e Valores do Meio Ambiente, Difel, So Paulo.
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Can slums reach a sustainable development in Latin America's cities?

G. Leito
Escola de Arquitetura e Urbanismo da Universidade Federal Fluminense, Brasil geronimo_leitao@uol.com.br
Abstract Our work intends to contribute for a better characterization of the dynamics of the production of the space built at slums in the city of Rio de Janeiro and what it means to the natural environment. For the development of this study, we chose the slum of Rocinha, with a population of 70.000 habitants, located in one of the mountains of the south zone of the city. The main objective of this research is to analyze the evolution of the process of housing production in this community, since the decade of 1930 when the occupation of the area begins to the end of the decade of 1990 when many consider Rocinha as the largest slum in Latin America -, analyzing, also, the impacts of this development in the urban environment of Rio de Janeiro. In our research, we demonstrate, initially, that, from a space predominantly residential, Rocinha developed, more and more, for another one, more complex, in what concerns to the use and occupation of the soil. The constructive patterns of the houses also have changed: precarious constructions of wood can be seen, but buildings of six pavements are common. Changes happened, also, in the process of construction of housing: from the self-construction, almost exclusively involving the family, to the action of small entrepreneurs, contracted by costumers who live in the slum. Finally, we discuss the great challenge that represents the conciliation between the improvement of life conditions in this community that grows five times more than Rio and the sustainability of the natural environment of the site where it's located. We believe that the relevance of this study is associated, also, to the expression that the spontaneous settlements assumed, in the last decades, in the process of urbanization of the great cities of the Third World and, particularly, of Brasil. Introduction In Brazil, similar to what happens in other developing countries, the expression assumed by the informal production of housing is one of the consequences of a picture of social exclusion and of space segregation, characteristics of the intense process of urbanization the country has experimented (Fernandes, 2003). In the Brazilian case, Fernandes (2003:139) points that urban illegal/informality "stopped being the exception and started to be the rule, the phenomenon is structural and structures the processes of production of the city". It is also necessary to highlight the significant role carried out by that form of production of housing in the Brazilian "late capitalism", so much in what refers to the accumulation of the capital, as in what concerns to the reproduction of the workforce (Bonduki and Rolnik, 1978). For Gordilho of Souza (2000:47), the land property and the execution of the town planning's norms constitute the central subjects of the informal and illegal urban occupation in the great Brazilian cities, once these establishments arose and consolidated for "spontaneous processes, to the margin of the town planning's norms and of established constructions codes and law". Already in 1980, almost 80% of the slums were concentrated on the metropolitan areas according to data of the Census -, so, in Brazil, slums are an urban problem and, above all, metropolitan, reveals Pasternak Taschner (1998). That number would be reduced for 71,64%, in 1991, with the appearance of slums in smaller cities. In the beginning of the decade of 1990, that author affirms that "the growth of slums is big: if, in 1980, IBGE computed the existence of 480.595 houses in slum 1,89% of the Brazilian houses in 1991, the percentage arose for 3,28% of the Brazilians houses, with more than 1,14 million located in slums" (1998:92). In 2001, Brazilian Municipal District's Profile, published by Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatstica (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics), revealed that 1.542 municipal districts had slums 28% of the Brazilian municipal districts. According to that document, "all of the municipal districts with more than 500.000 inhabitants informed to have slums and cortios (houses in degraded properties in the central area), percentile that falls for 12% in the smallest, with up to 5.000 residents" (Pasternak Taschner, 2003:31). In the end of the XX century, Brazil presents a total of 3.905 slums: plus 717 than registered in the Census of 1991 (Pasternak Taschner, 2003). In agreement with the data of the Census of 2000, Rio de Janeiro is in second place in the list of the Brazilian municipal districts, in what concerns to the number of slum dwellers communities. In agreement with the Research of Municipal Basic Information of the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, accomplished in 2001 and ended in November of 2003, exist, in the state of Rio de Janeiro, 1.269 slums, distributed in 48 of the 92 municipal districts. The municipal district of Rio de Janeiro
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possesses the largest number of houses registered in informal establishments (283.306 homes), being followed by the municipal districts of Niteri (50.020), So Gonalo (29.500), Duque de Caxias (28.617) and Maca (8.000). Rocinha, with nearly 70.000 dwellers, is one of the slums of Rio de Janeiro and a example of what is life on these communities. Rocinha: an emblematic slum of the city of Rio de Janeiro In the last twenty years, few cities in the state of Rio de Janeiro grew so much, proportionally, as this one: its population practically triplicated. The great majority of the new residents came from the northeast of the country. They are from Cear, from Paraba, from Pernambuco, from Alagoas, people from all the parts of that area of the country. People say that the residents of that city if they are not from Northeast, they are sons or grandchildren of those that came to try the luck in Rio de Janeiro and decided to stay. As in any other city of the state of Rio de Janeiro, you can find people that live with larger income and others that are poorer. This cannot just be verified in the appearance of streets and of buildings. The diversified and numerous stores more than 1500 establishments are a reason of pride for the residents, when they affirm that, more and more, it is not necessary to leave the city for other places in search of something they need buy. Almost all of these shops are driven by the own proprietor, although there are news in the press that reveal the interest of great organizations to install there too. Many of these small companies got access, in the last years, to special lines of financing, what contributed to stimulate the growth of the businesses. New opportunities of businesses appear everyday, the most recent ones are in the tourist activities: the city was recently included in the itinerary of agencies that promote visits that allow foreigners to discover the beauties of the nature, the peculiarities of its urbanism and their residents' lifestyle. The vitality of the commercial activity in this city seems only to be smaller than the one of the construction sector: the impression is that people are always building, such the number of constructions being built, enlarged and reformed. To face a growing demand for space, the solution found by many of its residents is the vertical growth of the buildings, investing everything they can in the foundations, since it depends on them, mainly, that growth process for the high. Maybe a lot of people won't believe how much is paid and the substantial number of purchase, sale and lease transactions that happen in that city: in one of their neighborhoods, the value of the rent of an apartment, only to mention an example, is the same of a property with similar characteristics in the neighborhoods of Glria, Catete and Flamengo, located in the valued south area of the city of Rio de Janeiro. But the people of this city don't live only for the work: the culture and the leisure also have its place and an important one. It is well known that there aren't cinemas or a theater there but this is also a problem of other cities in the state of Rio de Janeiro. However, from the night house visited by some of the main artists of the Brazilian popular music to the amateur groups of theater that, a lot of times, accomplish their presentations in the streets of the city -, besides the singers from Northeast, that intone their verses in a fair accomplished at the main square and the samba school created in the end of the 1980's, it can be said, without fear of being wrong, that culture is present everywhere. And also cannot be forgotten the FM Radio, inaugurated some years ago, that became one more reason of pride for the local community, as well as the TV cable system, that connects the city to whatever happens in the rest of the world. In this city, the residents' associations have been struggling, along the years, for the improvement of the conditions of life of the local population. Some are more active and representative than others; however those entities play, with other non-governmental organizations, an important role in the community's daily life. But, problems also exist and a lot of them. First of all, there is the question of the infrastructure, that most of their inhabitants consider the main existent problem in the community. There are countless complaints regarding the absence of investments of the public power in works of basic sanitation not without reason: most of the streets don't have sewerage system and the water supply is quite precarious in some places. In spite of the several private clinics that have been settled in the last years some even sophisticated -, the population demands a better public service of health. And there's the violence a subject which most of the residents avoid commenting with foreigners. The leaderships of community associations lament that the city is almost always shown as a violent place, where crimes and murder are part of the daily life. For those leaderships, it is not fair that an entire community of hard-working people must have such a reputation due to the action of a small group of criminals. Many complain, also, of outrages practiced by policemen. They recognize, with regret, the power that the drug traffic possesses in the city, shown in different manners: from the social welfare provided to poor families to the warranty of maintenance of the safety in the neighborhood, around the points of commercialization of drugs. This "city", however, doesn't exist, except for the imaginary of many of their residents. In the imaginary of thousands of residents really exists a city called Rocinha (see images). Located in the south area of the city of Rio de Janeiro, it is considered the largest slum of Latin America by many people an expression invari458
G. Leito: Can slums reach a sustainable development in Latin America's cities?
ably used, mainly by the press, to qualify this enormous slum. For those who live at Rocinha, it is something more than that: it is a true city, with several "neighborhoods" that have, each one of them, an own identity. Some of the residents that came from the distant state of Cear and there a lot of them like to say, in a mix of pride and exaggeration, that "Rocinha is the second biggest city of Cear, after Fortaleza (its capital)". Nor the "biggest slum of Latin America", nor the "second biggest city of Cear": from the half of the decade of 1980, Rocinha is another neighborhood of the city of Rio de Janeiro, after decision of the municipal administration, in order to recognize the needed and wanted integration between formal city and the slum a destiny certainly not imagined by the Spaniards that planted vegetables in that place, fifty years before. Occupying an area of approximately 453.440 square meters, in the hillside of Dois Irmos and Laboriaux hills, with a population of approximately 70.000 inhabitants according to data of the Census 2000 -, Rocinha is limited in the lowest part by the Lagoa-Barra (RJ-071) freeway and grows until the highest points, bordering the Gvea Highway. The area occupied by the slum presents a shell form and it is constituted of a plane part that represents the central nucleus, close to the entrance of the Dois Irmos Tunnel, growing, soon afterwards, for lands of great steepness to the top of the hill. Rocinha has as neighbors the neighborhoods of Gvea and of So Conrado two of the highest income residential areas of Rio de Janeiro. That proximity evidences, especially for the foreign visitor's glance, the disparities of the income distribution in Brazil: it is not necessary to walk much more than a kilometer to go from the "hell" of the precarious huts of wood located in risk areas in the hillside, without services of water supply and sewerage to the "sky" of the sophisticated stores in one of the most refined shopping centers of Rio de Janeiro, where it is possible to find the most expensive consumer goods. The data presented by the Report of Human Development of Rio de Janeiro elaborated by United Nations, in partnership with the Institute of Applied Economical Research (Ipea) and the City Hall confirm that social polarization: Gvea has second largest IDH (Index of Human Development) of the city 0,89, in a scale from 0 to 1 -, while Rocinha has the fourth worst 0,59. When it is considered the question of education, half of the population of Gvea has graduation at universities, while only 2% of their residents are illiterate. The opposite happens at Rocinha: 20% of the citizens that live there neither knows to read nor to write and only 2% had access to academicals courses. While the resident of Gvea has, on average, 12 years of study, the resident of Rocinha has only four years. Still in the field of education: in Gvea, only 5% of the children from 7 to 14 years are out of the school, however, in Rocinha, 25% of the children don't have access to schools. When it is the income, the disparity is so accentuated as in the case of education: the per capita income of Gvea is 10 times bigger than the one of Rocinha. In Gvea, only 1% of the residents get less than half minimum wage a month. In Rocinha, that number reaches 41%. In Gvea, the monthly medium income is of R$ 2.042, in Rocinha, just R$ 214. The children mortality tax in Rocinha is five times higher than in Gvea. The residents of that neighborhood, however, live, on average, 13 more years than those who live in Rocinha. When the discussion is about the access to the infrastructure of basic sanitation, 99% of the residents of Gvea have official sewerage system, while in Rocinha, 60% of the population don't possess appropriate sanitary services. However, it is possible to find, in the slum, areas relatively well provided of infrastructure water supply, sanitary services, paved roads, public illumination -, as in the case of the Bairro Barcelos (section located in the low part of the hill, close to the access of the Dois Irmos Tunnel). But it is also possible to find places of more recent occupation, where the constructions are quite precarious, without any infrastructure and, almost always, located in risk areas. Despite all the problems, in the universe of slums of Rio de Janeiro, Rocinha can be considered a special place, a place "where things happen first", as a local community leadership affirms, highlighting the innovative projects of income generation and of social promotion that had begun there. The future of Rocinha: a sustainable development of urban space? In 2004, the Government of the State of Rio de Janeiro promoted, with the cooperation of the Institute of Architects of Brazil, a "National Contest of Ideas for the Urbanization of Rocinha", having been selected a team, coordinated by architect Luis Carlos Toledo, whose project has as main proposals: "to complete the infrastructure of sanitation (water, sewer and pluvial waters) and removal of solid residues; to guarantee better accessibility conditions improving the conditions of circulation in the Gvea Highway, prolonging and enlarging, whenever possible the other streets that exist in the community, creating parking areas and eliminating the physical barriers that today hinder the pedestrians' circulation; to establish limits to the horizontal and vertical growth of Rocinha through echo-limits and an appropriate town planning legislation considering local characteristics; to adopt a Master Plan of Housing that makes possible the reallocation in the own community of the families that will have to leave their houses in function of the urbanization works or because they are located in risk areas; to implant in Rocinha a factory of prefabricated elements of concrete for the pro-
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duction of walls and roofs of the new constructions, and also of drainage stairways and walls of hillside contention; to value the culture and to strong the identity of the people of Rocinha, will be created a "cultural corridor", to improve the memory of the neighborhood through the maintenance of constructions and spaces considered notables; to implant a cultural infrastructure by the construction of cinemas and theater, cultural centers, small libraries and spaces for the development of the arts, music, dances, etc.; to give a special treatment to the areas of contact of Rocinha with the near neighborhoods of Gvea and, especially of So Conrado, where Rocinha certainly will occupy the role of main trade center and services of the neighborhood; to locate in these transition areas between the formal and the informal city equipments of common interest that can attract the populations of Rocinha and of the near neighborhoods; and, finally, to implant in Rocinha a series of urban equipments: two day nurseries, a public market, a hospital unit and a technical school". The project selected in the National Contest started being developed on the beginning of 2007, with the support of the federal government. Certainly the development of this project of urbanization will help to change for better the life of Rocinha's dwellers, but one question still remains: is it possible to order the process of use and occupation of land in a slum as Rocinha? Is it possible to regulate a dynamics of production of houses that has in the "freedom of building" an essential character? Not existing, however, a minimum order of the occupation and of the use of the land in the slums, how to assure that the habitability conditions still won't become more precarious, with the perspective of population growth of those communities in the 1990s, the increase of the population of slums in the city of Rio de Janeiro was due mainly to the expansion of the existent ones, more than due to the appearance of new communities. In that sense, it seems relevant to rethink the possible norms of ordering the built environment of the slum, in way to avoid the creation of "strait jackets" that disable practices that assure, in the construction of the house, not just the shelter (the house), but, also, the work (the birosca), the future projects (the room for the son that married) and, even, the retirement (the income of the rented house) usual practices that give answers to the demands and needs of the population that lives at the slum. To recognize the peculiarity of the space structuring of the slum, with its practices and own dynamics, seems to be the first step to avoid control mechanisms of use and occupation of land originated from the logic that structures the official city. To define a group of basic constructive norms, that should have as main objective the warranty of minimum conditions of habitability for the dwellers of slums. These norms that must be thoroughly discussed and result of a pact with the different representative groups of the slum dwellers can be the next step. Some actions of the public power can enlarge and optimize the practices of the different social agents that participate in the process of houses' production in the slum. It's necessary to promote programs of technical consultantship to people who builds with the active participation of the public university. Another necessary action would be the creation of permanent lines of financing, with low interest rates, in order to make possible the acquisition of construction materials in order to guarantee the improvement of the conditions of habitability of the existent homes and the accomplishment of enlargements of others, always according to the new rules that will order the expansion of the slum. A third action would be the establishment of partnerships with non-governmental organizations, which already act in the slums, so these organizations could cooperate in the diffusion and fiscalization of regulations and norms that will order the use and occupation of the land. It should be remembered that these organizations have an expressive role in the quotidian of slums' dwellers and its action will surely be a contribution to solve the operational difficulties faced by the municipal public power. We believe, therefore, that the implementation of actions such as those cited above can contribute to promote a new form of ordering the expansion of slums, in the beginning of the century XXI- now in a coherent way with its particular dynamics of production of the habitat. These actions can contribute, also, to the assurance of better habitability conditions to the people who live in slums. The researches accomplished in the last ten years seem to indicate that the exception is more and more next to the rule: the expression of the informal city cannot be anymore ignored. To recognize the particularities of the dynamics that structure the informal city is indispensable to assure the success of public politics that will guarantee better conditions of life for all the citizens of a society that we want with social justice and democracy and a sustainable environment. References
Leito, G. (2004) Dos barracos de Madeira aos prdios de quitinetes: uma anlise do processo de produo da moradia na favela da Rocinha, ao longo de cinqenta anos. Tese de Doutorado. Programa de Ps-Graduao em Geografia. Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro. Rio de Janeiro, Brasil. Leito, G (2007) From the wood huts to the building of seven floors: an analysis of the process of production of houses in the slum of Rocinha, in Rio de Janeiro, Brasil, along fifty years. International Symposium on Vylnerable Urban Space "Making Communities Work". Center for SustainableUrban Regeneration (cSUR). The University of Tokyo. Tokyo, Japan.
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Criteria of Sustainable Occupation for Territorial Planning in the Federal District (Braslia) Brazil
Ceclia Maria Parlato
Companhia de Desenvolvimento Habitacional e Urbano do Estado de So Paulo - CDHU ciparle@uol.com.br
Presentation Brasilia has been, since its construction, a referring one for city planners, architects, architecture's students and also for social scientists. Being the biggest materialization of the Principles of Urbanism consecrated by the modernist's architects and city planners, it has been object of controversy, admiration and critical. However, it must be admitted the enormous contribution that the experience of Brasilia have proportionate to the theory of the urbanism and the understanding of the city as a partner-space culture that has been built, nowadays it works as a city and as time passes earn adepts and has its proper tradition. The utopian thoughts of the modernist's architects Oscar Niemeyer and Lucio Costa, built in the flat Central Plateau, made believed that the new capital summarized the spirit of a time that would go to solve the Brazilian contrasts and antagonisms, redeeming our inheritances of inequalities. The 1964 (the beginning of the Military Dictatorship) took this fancy into dust. The national communion imagined in the previous period showed itself as an illusory, fragile and incapable thought that could not resist the social excluding dynamics of the country. Brasilia became, throughout the period of the military dictatorship, synonymous of cold and disagreeable, a refractory city to the social pressures, and an island of technocrats, separated of the country. At this time, we could notice that its architecture, huge, and futurist, also served to the authoritarian vocation. With the redemocratization, after 1985, it appeared as another city. In it, the original modernist project is plastered by the misery, the violence, the explosion of the Satellites Cities and at last, many slums quarter around the main city. Brasilia has been wide considered as the symbol of the modernist city, whose urbanistic and architectural charm integrates the national imaginary as the example of quality of life and enviable environmental quality. However, less than 50 years after its inauguration, Brasilia Pilot Plan and Satellites Cities, suffer from serious socioambientais problems. Imagined as symbol of a new civilization, Brasilia became a kind of precocious museum of what we could not get to be. The capital was swallowed by the country. Desired Future Scene The city is an entity in permanent transformation and the process of urban planning has that to be capable to foresee the future of the society in order to obtain and to create the best conditions of life in this city taking short, medium and long time periods. Planning is a continuous process and the conception is only one of its stages, even though in this phase the lines of direction are defined and will guide the subsequent stages, that is, the implementation and the management of the territory: accompaniment, monitorship, necessary corrections and revisions, making possible the feedback of the process. It's important to stand out that monitorship is much more that a simply check, because it involves the qualification of all the actors. Although all the efforts made, mainly in the decades of 80 and 90 of the XX century, Brasilia needs to materialize solutions for serious problems and historical trends that still persist. Among them, the most important is the one related to the informal city, the enormous area of irregular occupations, essentially for populations of low income. For this basic step of citizenship, we need to use the established tools of the using legislation related to the occupation of the ground and, mainly, in the "Statute of the City"1, to organize and regularize the occupations of low income populations, remembering always the relationship with environmental rules. At the same time we cannot accept anymore the regularization of occupations made by people who, working against the law, enrich with the money of the common wealth. It's fundamental get deep in the containment of the urban expansion, reducing the parcel of agricultural areas and with the real estate speculation, to get the city growing in a sustainable form and spatially compact. The intervention in physic-territorial can and must be a form to induce the creation of job and income, from the consolidation of zones that offer to favorable conditions to specific activities. The Joined Urban Operation, foreseen for the "Statute of the City", and the Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) must receive special attention from the Public Power and the society, as instruments of the requalification of the urban space. The first one brings enormous power and flexibility to the city to innovate in the planning and urban management, bringing the necessity of the partnership between governments and private agents, as an ample participation of the interested actors. The PPPs, in its turn, appears as form to make pos-
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sible the overcoming of the fiscal problem of the public administration and also initiates the transition in direction to a new model of management, based in one positive interaction with the private initiative and the society. However, we cannot forget that both of them must be based in right and equitable principles. The Public Power cannot be the only one to pay the risks of the investments. We will also need to think again the way to face the agricultural zone, not seeing it as a land of primary production destined to disappear or as land reserve for the urban expansion and real estate speculation. The agricultural zone must to be seen as privileged provisions space of basic services for the quality of life of the city: climatic balance, food production of high-quality and high aggregate value and, over all in Braslia case, water production. For this change of vision, one basic instrument will be the effective use of the EcologicalEconomic Zoning (ZEE)2 of this agricultural zone and the consequent order of its occupation, with focus in the maintenance of the basic ambient services. Another basic point is the necessity to study again the ample form urban mobility. This new mobility if relates to the access ways the services and urban infrastructures, that must be decentralized and to have its rethink schedules of functioning, form to diminish the displacements or to remove them of the peak schedules. The central point, however, must be the absolute emphasis in the collective transport, the pedestrian and the alternative transports. Brasilia has, for example, a highly propitious relief to the implementation of cycling road, widely used in countries developed with high index of functionality. Criteria for Territorial Planning In relation to the points highlight above, we search to rescue in the most recent literature related to the sustentabilidade of the cities, mechanisms, tools and pointers that when incorporated to the criteria of urban planning and the existing legislation, can not only correct, mitigate or, in the case of Brasilia, minimize ecological situations of risk and serious problems that will affect, the city itself as all its around region. Among the analyzed documents, we can choose: The Agenda 21, program of actions based on a document of 40 chapters, for which had contributed governments and institutions of 179 countries, that decided together to promote, in planetary scale, a new standard of development that conciliates methods of environment protection, economic efficiency and social justice. Although its environmental commitments, Agenda 21 is, before everything, an agenda of sustainable development. From its adoption for all the countries represented in ECO 92, it will guide the actions in the direction in the sustainable development in the next years and will be the text-key for all the people implied in the formularization of policies and practices for the sustentabilidade. The implantation of Local Agenda 21 is not an only event, document or activity, but a continuous process in which the community learns on its deficiencies and identifies proper innovations, forces and resources, making their choices to become a sustainable community. A successful Local Agenda 21 will mobilize consciences, public support. "It is the creation of a partnership accomplishes between Government and society, in which the citizens participate and collaborate, and the Government shares the power to decide power on what it must be made". In Brazil, the Ministry of the Environment (MMA) searched for itself the task of the implantation of 21 Agenda and Local Agenda 21. During the last years it is working to create conditions for the dialogue between all the parts of the society looking for its implementation. United Nations Goals of the Millennium: The Declaration of the Millennium was approved by United Nations in September, 2000. Brazil and the others countries members of the ONU, signed the pact and established a commitment shared with the sustentabilidade of the Planet. The Objectives of the Millennium are a set of 8 macro-objectives, to be reached for the countries until the year of 2015, through concrete actions of the governments and the society. They are the agenda of the Planet the agenda of the Humanity. In the case of this study, we focus the objectives: 7. Guarantee Environment Sustentabilidade and 8. Establish a World wide Partnership for the Development. We cannot forget the rules inside of the Brown Agenda that has as priorities the promotion of the Sustainable Development and the local politics for control the pollution and environment degradation, as the promotion of the recovery of degraded areas. In accordance with the different stages that compose the activity of the planning, we enumerate bellow recommendations and criteria to be used to get the territory social functions of the City, in order to make compatible the urban development with the use and the occupation of the land, its environment conditions and the offer of transportation, basic sanitation and the others urban services, with the perspective of the partnership of environment-social sustainability. Diagnosis - Produce a detailed design of the land, with exhausting information related to the ground characteristics, the topography and vegetation; 462
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Apply sustainability index to the available data; Identify and to analyze the vectors of growth and its vocations; Analyze the housing deficit; Elaborate the Environmental Impact Study (EIA/RIMA) of the chosen lands including the Plans of Handling of the Area with environment Protection and to verify the environment problems that the implantation of the new nucleus could bring to the whole region; Plan of Development From a tool as the ZEE, to analyze the possibility of implantation of no pollutant industries, the promotion of ecological, civic and historical tourism and others activities, besides the creation of income that helps the preservation of the natural resources of the territory; Promote the participation of representatives of all the involved segments of the society with the space to be planned, to be rearranged or to be corrected.
Use and Occupation of the land - Use as measure of planning the geographic division of the water basins; - Demarcate the areas non aedificandi of the land related Environmental Impact Study (EIA/RIMA) and turn them as green areas and Leisure Areas. In case that of springs, streams, rivers, forests that belong to Permanent Protection, surround them and identify, when possible, adequate use in accordance with the pertinent legislation; - Locate the water reservoirs, whenever possible, in the superior part of the land to prevent unnecessary bombardments; - Follow, whenever possible the urban rules of the Athens Charter, used by Lcio Costa: - Hierarchize the Road System, preventing local ways for crossing traffic; - Project and to implant ways with low declivity as possible, to help pluvial waters go down; - Provide ways and sidewalk with accessibility to the handicapped people, as existing legislation; - Make urban design stimulates the use of bicycles and restricts the use of cars; - Make sure that the buildings high respect the 3, 4 and 6 floors as it is in rules of the Pilot Plan and to liberate, the most possible percentile greater of Green Areas and Systems of Leisure, promoting the economy of energy in its buildings; - Minimize ground movements in the implantation of the buildings; - Produce housing units of different sizes and consequence value so that "ghettos" of any type are prevented; - Opt for less pollutants and more durable products; - Endow the nucleus with compatible infrastructure to stimulate collective transportation; - Stimulate the reduction, reutilization and recycling of the garbage - Displacement: guarantee that a percentage of the resident population can work in the proper nucleus (schools, center of health, commerce and services). Institutional development - Promote the institutional development and the strengthener of the capacity of planning and democratic management of the city, incorporating in the process the environment dimension and assuring the effective participation of the society; - Adjust the space aspects of planning and management to the regional characteristics of the urban net, strengthening the water basin as unit of planning and management; - Institutionalize agencies, processes, mechanisms and tools of management fortifying the environment dimension; - Incorporate to the Housing Policies the aspects of environment sustentabilidade, associates to the job generation and use of adequate technologies; - Guarantee to the Environment Sanitation with advance in the regulation, flexibility in the management forms and attendance the 100% of the population; - Operate the transport system by the public-private partnership; - Guarantee the integration among the urban and agricultural politics aiming at the reduction of the ambient impacts provoked by the production and consumption or the population flows. Production and Consumption - Promote changes in the standards of production and consumption of the city, reducing costs and wastefulness and fomenting the development of sustainable urban technologies. - Chose standards and pointers for the urban planning; - Establish routines of environment verifications in the public sector;
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Reduce the chronic losses in the sanitation system and modernize the tax policy; Prevent and reduce the generation of residues and the emission of pollutants; Promote greater integration between urban and the agricultural areas; Create jobs and income to diminish the existing inequalities.
Economic instruments - Develop and stimulate the application of economic instruments in the management of the natural resources aiming at the urban sustainability; - Pay taxes for the use of natural resources to extend the financial founds to the correction of environmental problems and to create sustentation for the activities of maintenance; - Perfect the tributary system creating incentives economic-tributaries and stimulations inductive extrainspectors of environmental sustainable behaviors; - Promote of the competitiveness of the Brazilian industry using resultant resources of the Industry Environmental Found, based in taxes on pollution; - Foment the financing for the transportation sector with the priority of systems of collective transport, associates to integrated nets; - Insert environmental criteria in the purchase of goods and services for the public sector to stimulate the economy and induce the profile of these products and services; - Recoup the agrarian valuation of the public investments in the urban areas that allow creates founds for the improvement of the constructed environment. Accompaniment after-occupation and maintenance (Management) - Create mechanisms and incentives to reduce, to recycle and to reuse the urban garbage; - Use the sustainable index to monitor the evolution of the occupation, as the index of pollution of air and water; - Develop communitarian activities of environmental education and share management with representatives of the community (implantation of periodic system of evaluation); - Divulge the result of the evaluation meetings; - Get constantly better the regulation of the use and the occupation of the urban land to promote the planned territory to contribute for the improvement of the conditions of life of the population, considering the promotion of the fairness, the efficiency and the environmental quality; - Promote the joint between the policies, programs and action, beyond the cooperation among different sectors of the government; - Keep responsible team for the production, revision, consolidation and implementation of federal, state and municipal laws and legal instruments; - Promote policies and actions of access to the land, agrarian regularization and reduction of the housing deficit. Bibliography
This work is based on the Monograph presented to the University Catholic of Brasilia, Post-Graduation Program - Latu Sensu in Environmental Management in Cities, for attainment of the Grade of Specialist. Braslia, 2006. BRASIL. Congresso. Cmara dos Deputados. Estatuto da Cidade. Guia para implementao pelos municpios e cidados. Braslia: 2001. CONFEA - Conselho Federal de Engenharia, Arquitetura e Agronomia. 5 CNP / 61 SOEAA. Agenda 21 Brasileira Cidades Sustentveis. Braslia: 2003. CORRA, Roberto Lobato. Regio e Organizao Espacial. So Paulo: tica, 1986. DANTAS, Fagner. Braslia: A utopia desfigurada. Revista Urbana. Disponvel em <sburbanismo.vilabol.uol.com.br/brasilia_utopia.htm>. Acesso em 11 mai. 2005. ESAF, WBI, IPEA e CEF. CURSO DE GESTO URBANA E DE CIDADES: A AGENDA MARROM. Disponvel em <http://www.eg.fjp.gov.br/gestaourbana/arquivos/modulo07/mod7arq1.html>. Acesso em 18 out 2005. Frum das ONGs Ambientalistas do Distrito Federal e Entorno. Propostas de poltica ambiental para o Planalto Central. Braslia, 2002. Disponvel em: <http://www.ambiente.org.br/conferencias/V/V_index.htm>. Acesso em 17 nov. 2004. Mapas do Distrito Federal, mapas e fotos de satlite do Plano Piloto de Braslia. Disponvel em: <http://www.brasiliense.hpg.ig.com.br/mapabrasilia.htm>. Acesso em 29 mar. 2004. MINISTRIO DO MEIO AMBIENTE. Agenda 21 Brasileira - Aes Prioritrias. Braslia, 2002. Disponvel em: <http://www.mma.gov.br/?id_estrutura=18&id_conteudo=915>. Acesso em: 03 abr. 2004. ________. Agenda 21 Local. Braslia, 2002. Disponvel em: <http://www.agenda21local.com.br/fer1.htm>. Acesso em:
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04 nov. 2004. MINISTRIO DO MEIO AMBIENTE, IBAMA, CONSRCIO PARCERIA 21. Cidades Sustentveis - Subsdios elaborao da Agenda 21 Brasileira. Braslia: 2000. ORGANIZAO DAS NAES UNIDAS - ONU - Metas do Milnio. Disponvel em: <http://www.undp.org.br>. Acesso em: 04 nov. 2004. PAVIANI, Aldo. Braslia: a metrpole em crise: ensaios sobre urbanizao. Braslia: Editora Universidade de Braslia, 1989. ________; GOUVA, Luiz Alberto de Campos (Org.). Braslia - controvrsias ambientais. Braslia: Editora Universidade de Braslia, 2003. ROLNIK, Raquel; PINHEIRO, Otlie Macedo. Plano Diretor Participativo. Guia para elaborao pelos municpios e cidados. Braslia: Ministrio das Cidades, jun. 2004. SANTOS, Cleon Ricardo dos (Org.). Desenvolvimento Urbano e Meio Ambiente. Textos Escolhidos. Curitiba: UNILIVRE, 2003.
________________________________________________ 1 A federal law that regulates the urban policy in Brazilians cities with more than 20.000 inhabitants 2 Ecological-Economic Zoning - basic and referential tool for the planning and management of the development process, identifying the potentiality of each region and guiding the investments of the government so that they are made in accordance with the natural vocation of each sub-region.
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Revisiting a Vision. An Investigation into Vision, Implementation and Results of Developing Hashtgerd New Town in Iran
Sebastian Seelig, Florian Stellmacher
Institute for Architecture, Technische Universitt Berlin, Germany1 stellmacher@youngcities.org
In the last decades, governments of developing countries have been trying to cope with urbanization processes by different regional strategies, et al. New Town programs. Particular New Towns projects frequently start with highly visionary ambitions. Comparing vision and current results, real developments did not live up to the hopes on both the regional and the city level in a majority of New Towns. Investigating the reasons, it seems most important not only to concentrate on the visioning but primarily to analyze the dynamic process of implementation as there frequently is a gap between vision and implementation regarding involved actors and processes. The implementation procedure in itself is characterized by changing approaches and learn-ing processes. This analysis allows for the modification of the implementation strategy and simultaneously implies a dynamisation of the New Town's vision. 1. The Vision In the mid-1980s a vision arose in Iran, a vision of a new city at the foot of the Elburz Mountains west of the emerging Megacity of Tehran and the exploding city of Karaj. A vision of a bubbling, vital town grown from the brownish steppe extensively used for agriculture to house some 0.5m inhabitants, industries and univer-sities; a vision contrasting with the nightmare of ever increasing problems of pollution, traffic, inadequate housing and the "monster of population"2 in the major cities. The vision was formulated by the Iranian gov-ernment in 1985, adopting a nation-wide New Towns program of twelve towns aiming at "a proper distribu-tion of population and employment facilities across the country"3. By 1994, the number of proposed towns was increased to 25 with a target population ranking from 12.000 to 500.000 residents. By 2007, 22 of these towns are under construction aimed at a combined target population of over 4.65m inhabitants. The focal point of the program is the Tehran Province, particularly the western growth corridor reaching from the capi-tal beyond Karaj to Qazvin, forming the country's most densely populated and fastest growing urban ag-glomeration (see fig 1). The government's vision was transformed into a planning vision, when the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development (MHUD) seized responsibility and installed the New Towns Development Corporation (NTDC) in 1989. NTDC appointed consulting offices to prepare studies formulating the planning vision of the New Town of Hashtgerd. From the results, MHUD and NTDC approved the highly ambitious vi-sion of the Hashtgerd New Town: its urban area will cover some 4,600ha, 4,000ha dedicated to the town lo-cated north of the TehranQazvin highway and 600ha to the industrial zone south of it. Hashtgerd is organ-ized in a north-south grid pattern following the topography at the foot of the Elburz Mountains. 25 neighbor-hood units of 20,000 residents each separated by green spaces shall be developed, amending residential units by public and service facilities and supplemented with large-scale facilities, like shopping centers or a university (see fig 2). The town's master plan, mainly developed by Tarh-va-memary Consulting Engineers, Tehran, was approved by the High Council of Architecture and Urban Planning in 1993. An outlook for the New Town from the same year summarizes the vision based on the master plan and the studies.4 The ambitions for Hashtgerd New Town can be outlined by the subsequent main objectives, each illustrated by a number of related policies. Adequate housing provision By attracting migration, esp. from Tehran and Karaj areas, and preventing migration to the major ur-ban centers and areas, the town shall contribute to an adequate housing provision. Thus the devel-opment of informal settlements shall be contained and the population be channeled to the New Town. Population diversity The town shall provide housing for as wide and varying a social group as possible including different employment groups. Planning and development shall enable for the settlement of low-income groups. Balanced economic development The town shall attract economic activities and employment for its inhabitants and the region with a broad variety including major employment centers. Economic development shall keep pace with resi-dential development preventing the town from becoming a dormitory town. It shall therefore attract pri-vate sector investments in all sectors of urban development. Environmental quality By developing the town, the conservation of the environment shall be observed, by promoting public transport, urban traffic shall be restrained, and sufficient green spaces shall be created. 466
Sebastian Seelig, Florian Stellmacher: Revisiting a Vision. Developing Hashtgerd New Town in Iran
Fig.1 The western growth corridor
Fig. 2 New Town's master plan
Integrated programming The town shall offer housing in proportion to economic growth to continuously reach relative equilibria in the provision of employment, housing and basic services. The formation of a town center and an ac-tive, vital urban life shall be pushed forward and diverse growth to be prevented. 2. Results The vision of a New Town at Hashtgerd had been transformed into a planning vision ready to be imple-mented. 15 years later, the interim results accomplished so far are revisited in order to confront the inten-tions with the achievements. This comparison helps to understand to which extent the vision could and will be implemented.
Fig. 3 Overlooking Hashtgerd NT
Adequate housing provision In 1996, some 2,000 inhabitants of envisaged 30,000 residents were living in the town. This number increased to 28,400 in 2001, contrasting with a target number of 56,000.5 Recent surveys show that about 5,000 residents moved in in the last five years, summing up to a total of 32,000 in 2006.6 Hence, Hashtgerd New Town did not reach the expected population.7. Although 85% of Hashtgerd's residents originate from Tehran suburbs8, the town's low impact on the quantitative housing provision on regional and national level becomes evident. 40% of the region's rapid urbanization population almost doubled from 5.25m in 1976 to 10.34m in 19969 was absorbed by informal settlements outside Tehran. Accordingly, twelve out of the 18 towns newly established from 1991 to 1997 were former informal settlements.10 Hashtgerd New Town's con-tribution to the adequate housing provision by attracting migrants from the region and the whole country can be regarded as rather low. The qualitative provision with housing, however, cannot be neglected. Population diversity According to a social-cultural survey conducted in summer 2004, the majority of the town's inhabitants is literate and graduated, whereas only 5% of the residents are illiterates. Correspondingly, the majority of the employable residents are economically active, since 80% is employed and only 5% is jobless.11 Both the survey and a 2004 NTDC report emphasize that the majority of the residents belong to middle income groups, predominantly employed in the public service and industries sectors,12 contradicting the aim of es-tablishing different employment groups. Currently, the town's population can considering its similar origin be characterized as a rather homogenous social group. Balanced economic development In the industrial zone, established already from 1985, a wide range of companies, mainly from light indus-tries, erected production facilities and associated research facilities; products cover cell-phones, electronics, computers and industrial equipment. Referring to built-up areas outside the industrial zone by 2005, 26%13 of all intended public administration areas were completed, the highest rate for economic areas; none of the lar-ger retail areas like shopping centers, office spaces and economic areas were developed so far unlike some small manufacturing units. Current investments include a hydroponic farming complex with over 4,000 ex-pected
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employees. Although industrial zone construction started before the residential part, the town lacks economic development and could not attract employment to the intended extent. Until 2006, economic development was increasing slower compared to population development.14 Consequently, the degree of self-sufficiency is rather low as shown by a 2005 survey indicating Hashtgerd to be rather a "bedroom town".15 Environmental quality In accordance with the town's population figures, no transport system was installed so far. The destination to Karaj and Tehran is characterized by weak regional bus connections; the metro extension to Hashtgerd New Town is under construction for many years. Until today, Hashtgerd's inhabitants merely rely on means of private motorized transport. Regarding wastewater discharge, the untreated effluent is kept in open air ponds. It might seep into the aquifer resulting in contaminating of the regional groundwater system. The town's residents, in 2004, named recreational and green areas as one of the major shortages regarding public facilities in the town.16 Until 2005 1.5% of all intended green spaces were completed not sufficiently catering for the population living in the already erected housing estates. Integrated programming By 2005, over 21% of the town's intended housing area was completed. The allocation of basic services for communal use seems appropriate in relation to the housing stock erected so far. The social-cultural survey conducted in 2004 also specifies cultural and educational facilities as a minor shortage.17 The provision of employment opportunities does not keep same pace as is true for most New Towns including those in Te-hran Province.18 The formation of a town centre and the creation of vital, urban life were not accomplished yet. The up to now merely monofunctional land-use structures, also relating to standardized building types and design solutions and car-dominated urban design, lead to an absence of activity in public realm, a lack of legibility and of distinct character and identity (see fig 3). 3. Implementation Reviewing the current results in comparison to the vision, real development in the explored regards did not live up to the ambitious objectives to the intended extent. This implies that the town's contribution to limit the growth of Tehran, Karaj and their suburbs and the urbanization problems has to be regarded rather low, yet. In order to understand some reasons behind the gap between vision and development, it seems most important to analyze the dynamic process of implementation together with its determining conditions. Determining conditions in institutional and economic structures The main institutions determining the implementation process include the NTDC Holding, the local Hasht-gerd NTDC branch, national ministries, investors, and the city administration. The NTDC Holding established a local NTDC branch, providing for the elaboration of master and detailed plans. Pursuing a sites-and-services policy, NTDC concludes contracts with interested parties in site development and finances the town's development from site preparation and selling. All infrastructure connections from the outside are to be developed by the relevant ministries. Before the establishment of a Hashtgerd New Town municipality, NTDC also acted as local administration, with both now sharing responsibilities. Institutional connections to the (old) Hashtgerd municipality are low. Accordingly, joint opportunities of New and old Hashtgerd, apart from social infrastructures in the New Town and retailing in old Hashtgerd, are not explored, yet. Moreover, the ties with the involved ministries are rather weak; e.g. Hashtgerd's industrial zone was developed under responsibility of the Ministry of Industry and Mines without directly involving the NTDC. Most of the ministries follow own priorities not necessarily adjusted with the needs of the New Town, such as the integration into external transport networks (e.g. metro link to Tehran). Since NTDC finances its activities from selling land, its investment in developing the town's urban centre and the economic base are limited. Additionally, the de-velopment of New Towns generally is more expensive than other growth policies due to additional costs for external access and for buildingup central functions19. The resulting high estate prices hinder low-income groups from settling in New Towns and the expensive and hence slow development of urban amenities pre-vents higher-income groups from moving. Thus, Iran's New Towns population results to be rather homoge-nous in terms of income groups. Despite of that, the constantly high inflation rate in Iran leads to strong in-vestment in the real estate market by private investors, thus triggering vacancies and speculation. First implementation strategy From the very beginning, NTDC focused on its sites-and-services tasks. NTDC sold land or titles to individual investors, housing cooperatives and volume builders inducing an obligation to prepare the land without im-plying construction start by the buyer. Despite an intended phasing, NTDC sold stakes in all parts of the town 468
Sebastian Seelig, Florian Stellmacher: Revisiting a Vision. Developing Hashtgerd New Town in Iran
from early stages. Thus, land and infrastructure preparation started at once widely spread across the town. Focusing on these tasks, the development of the town's attractiveness and economic base were rather disregarded. The provision of facilities and infrastructures like the external access, the industrial zone or the planned university were left to the respective ministries without incentives. After an initial boom among lowand middle-income households paying deposits for titles in the town in the early 1990s, Iran's economic decline in the mid-1990s led to a rapid drop of private investments, which could not be compensated by cooperatives and volume builders. A slow development, lack of incentives and a disadvantageous perception of the New Town contributed to a lack of attractiveness both to applicants and investors. Despite the initial in-terest from low-income households, the decline was not met e.g. by incentives for individual low-income in-vestors. The same applies to special employment groups of particular relevance for the town's economic de-velopment. The combined investment in housing and economic activities did not realize as intended, though the provision of basic services and infrastructures was advanced. This indicates NTDC's degree of influence being major in provision of infrastructures and services, medium in the attraction of housing investment and minor in establishing employment facilities. Moreover, the employment opportunities developed in the indus-trial zone did not match with the housing structures as Hashtgerd's middle-income inhabitants mainly com-mute to Karaj and Tehran. The disperse housing development contributed to a lack of integration of envi-ronmental qualities as well as the partly disregard of natural characteristics and the insufficient creation of green spaces. Due to the disperse and rather monofunctional development, the town center was not devel-oped. The town firstly became a housing estate. Second implementation strategy Around the turn of the millennium, NTDC recognized the rather unsatisfactory development and reacted by a shift in its implementation strategy. It perceived itself now more as partner in exchange with other major actors, seeking to gain more influence on investment activities. NTDC now focused on housing cooperatives and volume builders. These were to develop larger areas, partly including land preparation investments. Thereby, NTDC kept ownership of the building sites and sold the estates only after development, further re-ducing the number of major actors involved. Moreover, the NTDC introduced guarantees to investors regard-ing minimum sales or profits. By this strategic change, more coordination on the building plots and improve-ments were achieved, addressing especially the problems of disperse development and design of public realm. The housing cooperatives, being affiliated to large, government-owned companies, ministries or au-thorities mainly in the major cities, became the most important investors mainly drawing middle-income resi-dents to the New Town. Despite improvements, the growth in the number of inhabitants even shows a de-crease for these years as other major problems remained; the economic base, the town center development or the public transport were not touched. The continuing mismatch between infrastructures and services pro-vision, housing construction and employment creation limited the NTDC's opportunities to engage in other crucial areas due to lacking revenues. The New Town continued to be mainly a housing estate. Third implementation strategy NTDC acknowledged the changes and the perpetuated shortcomings. Consequently, a third implementation phase can be observed since 2004 characterized by a continuation in the adopted changes. NTDC increasingly adopts the role of a developing agency complementing its original site-and-service tasks. It tries to actively coordinate the different players involved in development. Regarding its original tasks, it tries to shift responsibilities to the investors by concluding contracts for large plots with construction and developing companies including installation of infrastructures and creation of public spaces. The contracts may include both profit guaranteeing incentives by the NTDC and profit sharing agreements. Thus, NTDC actively acquires international developing companies, e.g. from Malaysia (10,000 units) and Turkey (1,450 units). NTDC also tries to assume new partnerships. For accelerating the metro link-up, NTDC now pre-finances the investment being rather low on the responsible ministry's priority list. NTDC seeks also scientific partnerships, a vivid example being the interdisciplinary research project "Young Cities New Towns in Iran" with Hashtgerd New Town in the focus, conducted by Iranian and German research institutions and companies since 2005 and partly financed by the NTDC. Finally, MHUD and NTDC are about to revise the New Town's vision by review-ing its set of functions for establishing an appropriate economic base and fostering urban life. However, the university could not be established yet since the asked land price was not accepted. The image of the town up to now continues to be a major obstacle for its attractiveness and growth. The partnerships with main housing investors do not foster lower-income housing; this will probably only be achievable by public invest-ment. The town's general contribution to channel urban growth in the Tehran Province and to the prevention of squatter settlements has still to be regarded marginal. For most of the dwellers in the major urban centers and in infor-
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mal settlements, it is still not attractive to move to the New Town due to the level of estate prices, the weak transport connections as well as the lack regarding urban life and employment opportunities. 4. Expectations This analysis allows for the continued modification of the implementation strategy and simultaneously implies a dynamization of the New Town's vision. Analyzing the original objectives, the vision strongly corresponds with major elements of sustainable urban and regional development, of which the principles have been developed and adopted in the Agenda 21 in 199220 in incidental temporal parallelism with the vision for the New Town. Although the authors cannot prove this connection to the current stage of research, the vision' objectives follow the central aims of sustainability (see section 2.). Comparing, however, the objectives to the perception of sustainability discussed in the early 1990s, it becomes apparent that the objectives are frag-mented and thus do not correspond to the aims of sustainability per se. Relevant but missing elements of sustainable development concern reduced material and resource consumption, adaptation to demographic changes, participation and capacity building, prevention of hazards, integrated water and waste water management, stronger land-use control, and strategic integrated implementation. This lack might explain some of today's complex problems in the town. Incorporating these elements will not only amend the original vision by adding central but lacking elements, by integrating new actors, new coalitions and procedural aspects in the original vision. The first attempts already undertaken on the implementation level will be strengthened and incorporated into the major objectives of Hashtgerd's urban development forming a revised vision. Being driver and part of the emerging new coalitions among other, the above mentioned research project tries to contribute to this sustainable qualification of the original vision and the practice. 5. Outlook Concluding from the development of Hashtgerd New Town, it becomes clear that realizing highly ambitious visions to their full extent is a hardly accomplishable endeavor. Nevertheless, visions might have a tremendous influence in the promotion and implementation of urbanistic projects, since visions are pictographic in illustration and embody long-term perspectives. Thus, a vision can act as a powerful instrument stimulating communication in both regards, facilitating professional debates as well as addressing and activating the general public. Up to now, the vision of Hashtgerd New Town was predominantly used as an internal plan-ning tool, but it offers the possibility to be used as a central tool for urban development if all potentials are ac-tivated.
________________________________________________ 1 This work was significantly supported by U. Assmann, G. Haun, O. Jahn, G. H. Jasbi, M. Khalili, A. Machu and B. Maulwurf 2 NTDC Hashtgerd (ed.), Hasht Behesht, No. 2, July 2005, p.1 3 NTDC, Primary Objectives, Secondary Objectives and Operational Program of NTDC, NTDC website, 25.03.2004 4 NTDC (ed.), An Outlook: The New Town of Hashtgerd, 1993 5 Etamad, Giti, Evaluation of Hashtgerd New Town concerning Planning, Implementation and Management, Paper presented at the International Conference on New Towns, Hashtgerd, 2005, p. 3 (in Persian language, Conference Proceedings forthcoming) 6 Pakzad, Jahanshah. et al., Assessment of New Towns Self Sufficiency based on Working and Non-working Trips by Mathematical Models, in: International Journal of Contemporary Mathematical Sciences, 12 (2) 2007, pp. 591 - 600, p. 595 7 l.c. Etamad, 2005, p. 3 8 l.c. NTDC, 2005, p.2 9 No census numbers available for the 1996-2006 period 10 Zebardast, Esfandiar, Intra-Metropolitan migration and the expansion of spontaneous settlements on the Tehran Metropolitan Fringe, in: Brebbia, C.A (ed.), The Sustainable City II - Urban Regeneration and Sustainability, 2002, p. 190 11 l.c. NTDC, 2005, p.2 12 Paykadeh Consulting Engineers, Detailed Plan of Hashtgerd New Town, vol. 1, 2004, pp.162-163 (in Persian language, not pub-lished) 13 Number refers to detailed master plan area (covering development phases I to IV), cf. Fig 2 14 l.c. Etamad, 2005, p. 3 15 l.c. Pakzad 2007, p. 598 16 l.c. NTDC, 2005, p.2 17 ibidem 18 Etemad, Giti, New Towns: Solution or Problem? in: Abadi, No. 29, 1998, p. 4 (in Persian language) 19 Farhad Atash, New towns and future urbanization in Iran, Third World Planning Review 22(1) 2000, pp.67-86, p. 85 20 United Nations Organization (UNO), Agenda 21: Earth Summit - The United Nations Programme of Action from Rio, 1993
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Dynamics of the new cities neighboring Cairo, the effect and the challenges for supportable development
Amal Abdou
Faculty of Fine Arts, Department of Architecture, Helwan University, Cairo, Egypt Molly_abdou@hotmail.com
Introduction The most of the Islamic world became colonizes from European nations in the 19th and early twentieth centuries, and were only after the Second World War independently. This foreign citizen particularly affected the town development plan of Cairo. Housing developments was placed outside from Cairo developed around a closed society for foreigners far away from the traditional city, as well as garden city (fig.1), Maadi (fig.2) and Heliopolis (fig.3). The planning of this area was integrated with green areas which are not found in the traditional planning of Cairo. After the revolution development models, which followed the European and Sovietexperiences, should make developing city available for the physical and social necessities of the urban development. Both models failed, because they were not compatible the political, social, economic, demographic and cultural realness of the societies, at which it were used. Consequently the urban environment in most Islamic countries worsened; Helplessness led to corruption; formal sector planning cannot reach arms, which depend increasingly on an informal sector for the fulfillment of their necessities. The reactions of the losses of these two models to established environment were many. However are four expenditures of the primary value, because they have a harmful effect on the established environment on the traditional city? These four expenditures are the absence agriculture protection; the increasing distance in the housing offer and inquire; the absence Fig.1: Maadi planning transport and charge in connection of standing infrastructure; and environmental moderately unfriendly developer-established housing. Nearly all Egyptian city governments have masters and/or country Land use plans. These plans are followed rarely and an efficient politician development connection (formal and informal) makes it possible, so that country can intervene for the appropriate commercial purposes illegally acquire. This process causes climatic reduction, refuses the urban space for recovery, culture and infrastructure and makes a mockery of official planning. Obviously something is wrong with the institution preparations for developing and the introduction of the urban plans, if they can be hurt by routine. Millions, if not billions dollar were invested in building "the capacity and the ability "to the urban development agencies in Cairo but land-use violations grow continuously (fig.4). Therefore Fig.2: Garden City it is also obvious that the problem is not related to the capacity and ability alone. It is also important to notice that into many large cities, groups of the citizens began to exert, pressure on development agencies to have followed their plans and undertake steps to protect against interference. In the housing arena, the supply-and-require distance has increased. Egypt offers the formal sector to less than 20 per cent of the housing demand. This supply-and-require this distance met in three possibilities: (1) by invalid occupation and the partitioning of the land condition by informal developers; (2) by the informal partitioning of the agriculture land on city-fray, always in the defiance of the government regulations; and (3) by densification the inside city regulations. These processes lead to badly planned -not by any professional entrance- and, supported or led disservice regulations, which do not have relationship to the larger collecting main plan Fig.3: Heliopolis
Landschaftsentwicklung und Umweltforschung 471
of the city. Since many of these regulations do not have the security of the possession, they cause also immeasurable social and political problems for the city. The partitioning and the sales of the agricultural land for the housing purposes in the sensitive positions also affect unfavorably the ecology of the regions, in which Cairo was set up. Many inventive projects are over the last 25 years for the high classification of the informal regulations and for to order place the country to the urban arms to reasonable prices developed. However none of these programs was able to extend in the extent that the growth of the informal regulations could be limited on completely. Actually these programs shrank considerably in the last decade. Into most cities, the informal development of the housing was Fig.4: Cairo and building agricultural land above described now institutionalized, and its different actor has a well furnished relationship to each other and to the government officials. The work cannot replace process to official planning, which the informal developers accomplish, and it explains the government experience agencies, the knowledge of the development procedure or the ability to supply housing, which is compatible with the sociology and the national economy with low-income groups. Developing modern style of planning and architecture Many populations of the cities trebled in the last five decades due to agricultural-urban (fig.4) migration and quadrupled. Consequently the demand for transport, retailing, and in connection standing service multiplied charge treatment accordingly, however most ordered these cities only to the necessities for living, of retailing and from formal industrial requirements. When result have the other requirements informally, frequently in the old city centers developed, which determine the historical urban fabric. Much the economy of the cities is unsupervised also from an informal nature and this also developed in the city centers, and environmental problems causes city damages. Attempts are to rehabilitate this fabric formed, but this work was regarded as part of a larger town planning exercise, those with city-possessed land, infrastructure and expenditures for housing is rarely connected. Finally there is the expenditure of the developer-established housing. In the last years, it gave a phenomenal increase of the urban middle and low-middle categories in Cairo. Spacious housing projects were developed by private sector developer, in order to offer to the housing necessities for these categories. Reality is connected with the fact that Egypt has liberalized economic system. Substantial services are denationalized, sold condition country for income production, were reduced investment for general housing and it give pressure to eliminate aid on country and social service. Condition agencies and politicians therefore play obviously few role in the development and management of the city work in the future. New cities spread fast around Cairo, and are with difficulty the spatial and organizational order, which formed modern cities (fig.5). The physical and spatial main characteristics of the emerging urban landscape are the physical barriers and the reduced entrance of a gated community. These characteristics eliminate the traditional interface between buildings and public opened areas, which were placed by the doors and from windows to the order, which the roads confront. Despite these developments the effect of the function and view barriers of the gated community has the use of security. The different configurations of architecture in Egypt became historical by the energy of geography and the rich multiplicity of the culture, which defines value systems and the life-styles. Emerge like a result of the sudden radical and arbitrary changes in the housing-political guidelines, new cities and other gated communities in new Cairo make large and exciting puzzle form. It is possible, for change and passage in Cairo by a study of the cultural to understand ideological and social mosaic of its communities provided with a gate. Such an examination of architecture and the urban traces uncovers the different cultures and the social's groups, which live together within these living ranges. By experiencing this multilayered sample will it simple to understand the visible and invisible measures of the new cities and their gated communities which issue the new hybrid identity of new Cairo. Fig.5: Cairo and the new cities 472
Amal Abdou: Dynamics of the new cities neighboring Cairo
If we reconstruct the enormous quantity advertisements of the daily newspapers in Egypt covering and many material-done exhibitions it visits in which models locked housing developments, together with illustrations live buildings are shown, which spread everywhere, we find that people spend their goods as enjoying the newest Design, the highest end and the most cost effective service and the equipment to announce. The material-done market was opened far, where such exhibitions or numerous even real estate magazines in the Arab market, appeared, provide the reader with the messages of the property market, and indicates lots of lives and relaxing projects, as if it was appropriate Bazaar, in which everyone tried to indicate its goods in order the clients with their different taste to fulfill, differently cultures, and different potentials. In this considerable architectural production the visitor under different style of architecture keeps lost. This style is in the traditional style, while this reflects the environment. A French style, the other one is Italian or Andalusia style. In the end they are the catalogs, which show the newest way in the world of architecture. Everyone strives to be different to the other one so that his merchandise can find a good market. Site and visitor management The idea of the capacity and. pay the attitude of delimitations on visitors, is substantial, if we wish long-lived tourism. Support-cash tourism can be only obtained, if we have long-term policy, which a long-lived for cultural inheritance and natural inheritance operational funds guarantee. Place of assembly management and Visitor guidance techniques, must fit the means of paying for them hand in hand. World inheritance places of assembly are actually important for their historical, aesthetic, architectural and cultural contribution for human civilization. These places of assembly are the foundation-stone of the international tourism, the large economic use and. Prestige to the landlord nations gets, in which these world places of assembly are located. Experimentally Regionalism Into eighties years the first period experimental ( internationalism) is modernism and the period witnessed, which is called the context with phenomena of the architects, who copy other work and which copying the international Design bends. The economic political influences were clear. The economic boom provided the region with elective high standard with more promising economic situation. The boom affected most our industry and improved the middle class life-style. Architects practiced during this period with heavy influences of their international educational background. This situation leads themselves to the new architectural tendencies, and flashing electing announced itself in gimmicky kind of architecture. Residential architecture was a main boom for the middle and high income people in Cairo. Work mostly marked by new forms and new materials like the use of the marble, large spans by new structural methods. This era was marked also by professionalism, rational planning however by expensive experimentalism. The existence of the separation between the general opened areas and the adjacent buildings confirms the results of main research, resulting from the function and view barriers. The private life remains a fundamental necessity and that the physical climate the following must support in addition other necessities: Health, security, control, social relations and contact with the natural environment. Result of the investigation of the gated community at the edge of desert of Cairo The investigation with asking three different groups of inhabitants ( high class Egyptians, mixed marriages and European foreigners) shows that the closed housing development groups are inhabited of 60-80% foreigners. The case study was done for Kattameja Hights compound (fig.6), Arabella (fig.7) and Madinaty (fig.8) which is till now only planning but in a larger scale than other compounds. It has a scale of a city with 450 thousand
Fig.6: Kattameja hights compound
Fig.7: Arabella compound
Fig.7: Arabella compound
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inhabitants. The first and second compound was sailed by mouth reclamation. Planning the recreation facilities made it more attractive than only housing projects. Most gated housing developments offer golf courses, sport activities and are from the native inhabitants distinguished. The high prices of the settlements prevent the mixture of this society with the law and middle class society of the Egyptians. It is understandably that tradition and this life style is very different. This demarcation of the society creates only the contact if necessary in the external world in the occupation and economic activities. The negative effect, uncovered by this investigation, caused by the view and function barriers of the communities within the new urban ranges of Cairo and in the security of its adjacent general opened areas of the gated community and indicates a critical necessity at the general regulation of the relationship between this society and its neighboring general opened areas. This was solved by high walls and barriers. Since the inhabitants of this locked living grouping no needs necessary contacts with the Egyptian society, this can be regarded as a locked living island, which distinguishes itself from expanding the Egyptian housing developments. The government sails the Land to investor with a double price to spend it in building economic housing to solve the housing problem in Cairo. Later many private investors's contacted famous international architects to attract the owing of such a house and connecting that with the good climate all over the year in Egypt. History repeats itself during the new town development with the colony epoch and similar planning develops in the Peripheries of Cairo. Favorably however the profit of duration is tourism, which is useful the economic situation of Egypt.
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Gated residential communities in So Paulo Metropolitan Area: a new pattern of urban development?
Maria Camila Loffredo D'Ottaviano
Universidade de So Paulo/University of So Paulo Brazil camilald@uol.com.br
"Before I built a wall I'd ask to know What I was walling in or walling out, And whom I was like to give offense"1 Gated Communities Gated communities constitute an urban phenomenon that is nowadays spreading on all Brazilian metropolis, as well as a topic more and more studied by Latin-Americans specialists. MARCUSE (2002) pointed that closed and segregated residential neighborhoods are not a recent urban form of living. The existence of ghettos, citadels or enclaves could be observed during long periods of our history (the Jewish ghettos in Venice, etc). In the Latin-America context of developing countries, security is pointed as the central problem for the choice of this type of residence. We could consider that these would be a residential pattern for the upper classes in countries with great social inequalities. Nevertheless, analyzing the contemporary literature we can testify that it is not a correct supposition. Books as Blakely and Snyder's "Fortress America. Gated communities in the United States"(1995), McKenzie's "Privatopia: Homeowners Associations and the rise of Residential Private Government" (1995) and Setha Low's "Behind the Gates. Life, security and the pursuit of happiness in Fortress America" (2003) shows that gated communities are also a question for researchers from developed countries, where we cannot observe such social inequalities. Terminology can vary according to the country or region: gated communities in United States, condominios in Chile, countries in Argentina or condomnios fechados in Brazil. These are all names for closed residential areas which are spreading on almost all western great cities, and are defined by BLAKELY and SNYDER (1995) as "residential areas with restricted access, where the public spaces were usually privatized". In United States, spatial segregation is usually accepted as part of asserting social and ethnic identities. Anglo-American, Protestant culture seems to accept more easily social and spatial segregation. This is not the reality for Latin America. A civic culture of social integration is manifested in a socially mixed physical environment. According to SABATINI (1998) this widespread social mingling could be linked to the Catholic cultural ethos and the phenomenon of a cultural mestizo, or melting pot. Latin culture defends that the sociability between different can lead to a greater social tolerance. The public space should be the right place for the sociability. The privatization of public space is then a major question about gated communities in Latin American countries. SVAMPA in Argentina (1994) and QUEIROZ RIBEIRO in Brazil (1997) indicate the rise of social inequalities and social exclusion as consequences of the economic globalization, the restructure of the social relations, State crisis, unindustrialization and growing urban insecurity.2 Spatial Segregation Patterns in the So Paulo Metropolitan Area As a solution to the urban violence growing problem a new kind of gated community began to appear: horizontal gated areas, located at large glebes at suburban regions. The first one was "Alphaville", situated on Barueri, a city at the So Paulo metropolitan suburban area. New horizontal gated communities began to be implanted on suburban cities as Barueri, Santana do Parnaba e Cotia, all of them originating new areas of metropolitan spreading. These communities were implanted mostly at the poor and depopulated south and west regions. Since the 1980's, we can observe an increasing number of gated communities within the So Paulo Metropolitan Area. In 1994, the "Lei de Vilas" (Villas Law) made possible the indiscriminate installation of small-gated communities among all residential areas within So Paulo city (SANTOS 1993). The gated communities, initially located at suburban areas and used by upper classes, at the present time serve other social classes and have new and distinct characteristics (size and location, houses sizes, services at the collective areas, etc). The initial concerning to comfort was substituted by the need of security and the search for status (BOGUS and PASTERNAK 2003). "At that moment, the appeal more than the security to live in a gated area referred to the comfort to live at a place where several urban functions were attended without the need to cross great distances and with-
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out transportation problems. This residential solution spread to other city places, and the vertical gated communities became a living solution for the upper class population, that with the increasing of urban violence began to search new ways of living, with comfort and security in fancy places of the city."3 (PASTERNAK and BOGUS, 2003:12) To understand the crescent proliferation of gated communities in So Paulo and other Brazilian cities we can't only think about the security problem, but also about the "status" of living in this kind of residence. According to BOGUS and PASTERNAK "there is also the search for status, for the appropriation of powerful distinction marks, in contemporary society people are distinguished by their consumer capacity, as a dimension that involves projects and life style." (2003:13) According to Caldeira, (2000:211) during the 20th century, the social segregation had three different expressions on So Paulo urban space. The first one lapped from the end of the 19th century to the 1940's, produced a concentrated city, divided in different social groups compressed in a small urban area and segregated by residence types. The second urban form, the center-suburban type, dominated the city development from the 1940's to the 1980's. During this period different social groups were divided by great geographic distances: medium and upper classes were concentrated on central areas with good infrastructure and poor classes moved to distant suburban and precarious areas. During the last fifteen years, a new urban form has been configured and is now changing the city and its metropolitan region configuration. Overlapped to the rich center X poor suburbia pattern, recent changes are creating spaces where different social groups are sometimes very close to each other but separated by walls and security technologies. These groups neither have any social contact nor use the same public areas. This is what Caldeira calls the "fortified enclaves". These are privatized spaces for living, working, leisure and consumption. They are closed and controlled spaces for people who don't want to divide public spaces with poor, marginalized or even homeless inhabitants of the city. As Caldeira analyzes for the case of So Paulo, SABATINI (1999) indicates for Santiago, Chile, a change on residential segregation patterns, from a macro scale to a micro scale, from a center-suburbia to a "fractal" model. Gated communities pretend to be a residential area with security, comfort, a better life quality and social homogeneity. They consist of neighbourhoods closed by walls, barriers, fences and gates. They are designed under the intention of providing security to their residents and of preventing penetration by non-residents, by using security devices (guards, doors, barriers, alarms and cameras). About the Gated Communities in So Paulo Since 1992, So Paulo Metropolitan Area (SPMA) concentrated a total of 10544 new horizontal gated communities. The communities are not homogeneous and an effort to analyze their specialties is needed. We defined tree different classifications for the metropolitan gated communities: the total useful area, the number of bedrooms and the number of bathrooms of the residential unities, in the aim to understand the impact of this phenomenon in the urban environment. The analysis of the maps (1 and 2), tables (1 and 2) and chart makes possible the comprehension of Table 1 a brief frame with important questions about Bedrooms Number / Unit (1992-2004) So Paulo's residential gated communities. Bedroom N Total Enterprises % In MAP 1, we can observe the new 1 3 0,28 enterprises since 1992, when the gated communities itself began to appear inside 2 405 38,46 SPMA. The map on top shows the introduc3 414 39,32 tion on the real state market between 1992 4 230 21,84 and 1995. The left map on bottom shows 5 1 0,09 the enterprises between 1996 and 2000. Source: Embraesp And the last one shows the gated communities introduced between 2001 and 2005. Table 2 We can observe that 70% of the metropoliBathroom Number / Unit (1992-2004) tan gated communities have been introBathroom N Total Enterprises % duced on the real state market in last five 1 366 34,76 years. 2 422 40,08 In MAP 2, the maps on top show the 3 137 13,01 enterprises with useful area from 35-75m 4 128 12,16 (left) and 75-150m (right). We can observe Source: Embraesp a great concentration of this type of resi476
Maria Camila Loffredo D'Ottaviano: Gated residential communities in So Paulo Metropolitan Area
dential unit at the east CHART 1 - Horizontal Gated Communities / Useful Area (m) part of the metropolitan area, usually a low 12,00 income neighborhood. The Ermelino Matarazzo 10,00 neighborhood for in35-75 8,00 stance concentrates 22 75-150 enterprises, while So 6,00 150-300 Bernardo do Campo city 4,00 has only 20 gates com>300 munities. 2,00 The maps below 0,00 show enterprises with useful area from 150300m (left) and above Year 300m (right). We can observe a concentration of bigger residential units in the south-west portion of the metropolis, were the upper classes usually leaves. Although, we can observe also two enterprises at the east zone and one at the north zone.of So Paulo, and one at Guarulhos city.
Useful Area (%)
1997 1998 2000 2001 2002 2003
MAP 1 Residential Horizontal Gated Communities in So Paulo Metropolitan Area Enterprises/Year (1992-2004)
Source: EMBRAESP
Looking at both maps we can observe a great concentration of the gated communities within the So Paulo city, in the central part of the metropolitan region. Comparing MAP 2 and the CHART 1, we can observe that a important part (30%) of the metropolitan gated communities have small residential units (smaller than 75,00m) and 43% have residential units with useful areas between 75,00m and 150,00m. TABLES 1 and 2 show almost the same reality using different parameters: number of bedrooms and number of bathrooms. Almost 40% of the residential units have a maximum of to bedrooms and two bath rooms. Other important information is that about 35% of the units have only one bathroom. Some questions surge from theses analyses: the homeowner of these small residential units can afford the price of the security apparatus usually associated to gated communities? Are the gated communities the residence exclusively for upper classes? And do the gated communities represents the fractal segregation model pointed by several authors?
2004
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1999
477
MAP 2 Residential Horizontal Gated Communities in So Paulo Metropolitan Area Useful Area from 35,00m to 74,99m; from 75,00m to 149,99m; from 150,00m to 299,99 m; more than 300,00m
Source: EMBRAESP
Bibliography
BLAKELY, E & SNYDER, M (1995). Fortress America. Gated Communities in the United States. Harrisonburg: Brokins Institution & Lincoln Institute of Land Police. CALDEIRA, Teresa. Cidade de Muros. Crime, segregao e cidadania em So Paulo. So Paulo: Edusp/Editora 34, 2000. D'OTTAVIANO, M.C.L. "Condomnios Fechados na Regio Metropolitana de So Paulo: fim do modelo centro rico versus periferia pobre?" In Anais do XV Encontro Nacional da Associao Brasileira de Estudos Populacionais - ABEP. Caxambu: ABEP, 2006. LANG, R and DANIELSEN, K. (1997) "Communities in America: Walling out the World?" in Housing Policy Debate 8(4): 867-899. LOW, Setha. Behind the Gates. Life, Security, and the Pursuit of Happiness in Fortress America. Nova York: Routledge, 2003. MARCUSE, Peter and KEMPEN, Ronald van (ed). Of States and Cities. The Partitioning of Urban Space. Oxford University Press. MOLLENKOPF, J. CASTELLS, M. (1991). The Dual City. New York: Russel Sage. PASTERNAK, Suzana e BOGUS, Lucia M. M. "A Cidade dos Extremos" in Cidades, comunidades e territrios. Portugal, FCT (Fundao para a Cincia e a Tecnologia), ISCTE, n 6, 51-72, junho 2003. SABATINI, F. Tendncias de la segregacion residencial urbana en latinoamerica: reflexionae a partir del caso de Santiago. Santiago do Chile, Sries Azul n 24, Instituto de Estudios Urbanos, Pontificia Universidada Catolica, 1998. SVAMPA, Maristella. Los que ganaron. La vida em los countries y Barrios privados. Buenos Aires: Biblos, 2004. VIDAL-KOPPMANN,S. Dinmica de las urbanizaciones cerradas en la re-configuracin de la periferia metropolitana de Buenos Aires. Anais do Seminrio Internacional RII. Baha Blanca, 2006 (1). VILLAA, Flvio. Espao Intra-Urbano no Brasil. So Paulo: Studio Nobel/FAPESP/Lincoln Institute, 2001.
________________________________________________ 1 FROST 1930 ("Mending Wall") in LANG and DANIELSEN 1997. 2 As marked by Castells and Mollenkopf (Dual City - 1991) the social fragmentation leads to the urban fragmentation. Also Friedmann 1997 and Sassen 1996. 3 This text refers to the implantation of the first vertical gated community in So Paulo in 1973 - Condomnio Ilhas do Sul , Alto de Pinheiros. 4 All data about gated communities in So Paulo Metropolitan Area is from the data basis about enterprises of the EMBRAESP (Brazilian Enterprise Patrimony Study).
478
A new housing demography under conditions of shrinkage? A household-based model approach to conceptualise residential mobility and residential vacancy
Dagmar Haase
Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research UFZ, Department of Computational Landscape Ecology, Leipzig, Germany dagmar.haase@ufz.de
Summary In this paper, a micro-simulation model on residential mobility in a shrinking city is presented. In order to explain residential mobility and where residential vacancies will occur, households have been chosen to represent the model agents. According to the theory of the Second Demographic Transition (SDT) households get smaller and less stable. Their living arrangements are adapted to individual life scripts. The resulting clusters of classic household types and those called "non-traditional" household types provide an innovative conceptual model of the residential agents. Given that households move to their preferred residential location when there are only limited financial restrictions of the urban housing market because of the high vacancy rates, the model bases on a preference matrix for the single agents containing a specific profile for each household type with respect to socio-demography, economy, infrastructure and environment. In doing so, a probable attractiveness of a residential location is determined. The city region of Leipzig, Eastern Germany, being faced with shrinkage and large scale housing vacancies provides both an illustrative example and a real world challenge of urban shrinkage. Results have been achieved in form of a simulation of the population and age class development as well as future household composition and distribution pattern of Leipzig for the coming 20 years. 1. Socio-demographic changes as drivers of the urban housing sector Demographic change is considered one the major forces remodelling European land use, settlement and housing development in city regions, alongside globalization and technological change. At present, large parts of Europe undergo considerable demographic changes (Wilson, 2006; Lesthaeghe & Neels, 2002; Lutz, 2001). Related processes such as a decline in fertility, the postponement of childbearing, rising life expectancy, ageing, changes in age group spectra as well as size, structure and stability of household patterns (van de Kaa, 1987; Ogden & Hall, 2000; Haase et al., 2005) impact enormously on affiliations and motivations of residential mobility. This challenges urban land use and the development of housing markets (Deutsch et al., 2003; Ekins et al., 2003). One major issue is to find scientifically-based methods for predicting trends in the spatial effects of this demographic change for urban areas. As it is particularly true for migration and residential mobility, household-related decision making goes beyond what can be revealed by statistics. In addition to that, spatial neighbourhood relations and population dynamics, concepts of individualisation and the break-up of traditional class society due to modernisation (Beck & Beck-Gernsheim, 2002), second demographic transition (van de Kaa, 2004), household structures and stability (Buzar et al., 2005 and 2007; Haase et al., 2006b) and lifestyles (Schulze, 1992; Dangschat & Blasius, 1994; Schneider & Spellerberg, 1999; Richter, 2005) have to be "translated" into quantitative data for latter use in the profiling of agents in the micro-simulation. 2. The research challenge of modelling residential mobility in shrinking cities In consequence of population decline flats and housing stock are falling vacant to an increasing degree although the number of households increases. Residential vacancy is no more restricted to uninhabitable housing but also affects completely renovated building stock. The supply of flats outweighs the demand even if at present household numbers still continue to rise up to 2015. Whole residential districts exhibit vacancy rates higher than 30-50% (Kabisch et al., 2006). In this vein, demolition came under serious discussion. Demolition produces new spatial pattern such as perforated structures with scattered housing and decreasing house density, demolition corridors within a city or, respectively, 'housing islands'. As a new strategy, a federal program of urban renewal (titled "Stadtumbau Ost"; BMVBW, 2003) operates in terms of a strategy to organize and finance the demolition of overhanging housing stock (~350,000 flats) and revaluation of the remaining residential areas. What will be future scenarios of this dramatic development of the urban housing sector? In contrast to the mostly cell- and rule-based urban growth models grounded at the urban-growth theory and respective empiric findings of land use development in the 80s and 90s worldwide, it is still a challenge to model processes such as urban shrinkage, dilapidation in direct neighbourhood to new construction or renewal sites and land use perforation (Haase et al., 2006a).
479
3. A household-based model with respect to the Second Demographic Transition (SDT) Households, chosen as the model agents, vary considerably in form and size. This variety even increases within the context of the Second Demographic Transition (SDT; Lesthaeghe & Surkyn, 2002): households get smaller and less stable, are defined more subject-oriented, and living arrangements are adapted to individual life scripts. Within the FP5 EU Project Re Urban Mobil (www.re-urban.com), households had been classified according to their type for selected districts in four European cities. The resulting clusters of classic household types (i.e. family, elderly one-person households and couples) and those called "non-traditional" household types (i.e. young one-person households, young couples, single-parents, unrelated adults sharing a common flat) provide a highly innovative conceptual model of the residential agents living in a city region. The AB-model bases on this concept and operates itself as follows: The outputs of a population-dynamics sub-model including fertility, mortality (life expectancy) and migration variables (Figure 1) are transferred into the aforementioned household agents with resepctive properties shown in Figure 2. Given that households move to their preferred residential location when there are only a few financial restrictions of the city's housing market because of the extreme vacancy rates (= oversupply of dwellings), the model is structured not only by variables concerning the household dynamics but also by a preference matrix for the household agents containing a specific profile for each household type. In doing so, the agent profile contains variables of the socio-demographic milieu, housing costs, noise, security, accessibility and distances to social and transport infrastructure as well as urban greenery. In the model code, the preference of a household is coded as the probable attractiveness Ah of a residential location (dwelling in a house or block) Uxo(x) with U= surroundings of vector x. The household transition from one type to another works according to a transition-probability matrix and a persistence restriction for each household type (cf. eq.1):
r A h (x 0 ) =
w
k=1,2,..
h,k k
r r ( x )) I ( Ux 0
with
w
k=1,2,3,...
h,k
=1
(1)
where Ah : attractiveness of a place for a household h w : weight of preference vector I I1 : social milieu in surrounding U of h I2 : urban structure type and housing form I3 : social infrastructure (educational, shopping facilities in a defined accessibility radius) I4 : accessibility to urban green (e.g. distance to all parks in a defined accessibility radius) I5 : security (% of crimes per land parcel) I6 : noise (distance to main roads) I7 : transport infrastructure (roads, public transport in a defined accessibility radius) I8 : housing costs (rent, costs to buy a house, land area costs) The preference variables result from both the findings of the aforementioned household-based questionnaire survey and municipal statistics. As illustrated in Figure 2, a range of input data enters both the preference matrix and the spatial representation of the city in the background (in form of a GIS). The social milieu hereby is represented by number and structure of households and the number of committed crimes in the 500m surroundings of the respective residential location. In form of distance functions the accessibility to transport, shopping and educational infrastructure is incorporated into the model using vector data of road network and xy-representations of school and supermarket locations. A land use vector data set based on topographic and planning map information (Haase & Nuissl, 2007) as well as the city's cadastral database are used to define type of housing stock, urban structure type and places of urban greenery. The latter is than incorporated as the overall accessibility (= total distance) to all types of urban greenery (park, leisure ground, cemetery, forest, waters). The resulting residential vacancy is created in the model using eq.2:
r r r if A h ( y ) > A h ( x r r Vac( y ) Mh ( x, y ) = and Ph ( t ) > Pmin 0 else

where Mh : attractiveness of a place for a household h Vac : residential vacancy Ph : persistence of a household type Pmin : minimum persistence of a household type 480
(2)
Dagmar Haase: A new housing demography under conditions of shrinkage?
90000
600000
80000 500000 70000
60000
400000
0-15 total population 16-25 26-35 36-45 46-55 56-65 66-75 >75 total
age classes
50000 300000 40000
30000
200000
20000 100000 10000
0
20 05 20 06 20 07 20 08 20 09 20 10 20 11 20 12 20 13 20 14 20 15 20 16 20 17 20 18 20 19 20 20 20 21 20 22 20 23 20 24 20 25 20 26 20 27 20 28 20 29 20 30
Figure 1: Population dynamics of age classes in Leipzig 2000 - 2030.
Due to the newness of the household type concept containing new "non-traditional" household types such as single-parent and patchwork families or flat-sharers, there is still a considerable degree of uncertainty in the agent profiles, particularly in terms of their properties and persistence of living together as one household which requires additional research in this field. Discussing first results: New scenarios for the housing demography in a shrinking city? However, promising first model results have been achieved in form of a simulation of the population and age class development (Figure 1) as well as the future imaginable household composition of the shrinking city of Leipzig for the coming 20 years (Figure 3). The simulations show that "non-traditional" household types such as young singles, young cohabitation households and flat-sharers prefer old built-up districts with high (Sdvorstadt) and lower flat costs (Neustadt-Neuschnefeld) whereas in GDR-time prefab districts (Grnau) dominate elderly couples whose percentage dramatically increases in the future (Figure 3). The model simulates the population and household development in good accordance with statistical data and predicts verifiable proportions of residential vacancy and migration flows (per district). Particularly the latter give an idea of segregation and clustering processes in a city with massive residential vacancy and a rental market without pressure. Thus, the first model results enable a prediction of future potential vacancies and hot spots for urban planners to interfere recent developments. Conclusions In this paper, an AB micro-simulation model of residential mobility in shrinking cities with particular respect to the SDT had been presented. Using the example of the Eastern German city of Leipzig, the specific local conditions high vacancy rates, "tenants' market" were set in relation to the residential preferences of household types who form the agents of the model. Since urban development beyond growth and respective residential mobility behaviour are likely to determine urban land use and housing (market) futures in European cities, it is crucial to identify the required contexts, variables, terms and inter-linkages for a case in point, Figure 2: Preference profile of the model agents. as it was presented here. Future work will focus on the incorporation of additional economic variables considering better the economic constraints the households are faced with, their choices concerning transport modes and travel distances as well as scenarios of decreased or modified infrastructure supply due to shrinkage.
481
Neustadt-Neuschnefeld 0.2 0.15
0.2 0.15 rel. change (%) 0.1 0.05 0

HHT1 HHT2 HHT3
Grnau
rel. change (%)
0.1 0.05 0
HHT1 HHT2 HHT3 HHT4 HHT5 HHT6 HHT7
HHT4
HHT5
HHT6
HHT7
-0.05 -0.1 -0.15
-0.05 -0.1 -0.15
Figure 3: Household dynamics in an old built-up and GDR-time prefabricated structure: change 2005-2025 (HHT1= young singe , HHT2= young cohabitation, HHT3= elderly single, HHT4= elderly cohabitation, HHT5 = family, HHT6= single-parent family, HHT7= flat-sharer).
References
BMVBW - Bundesministerium fr Verkehr, Bau- und Wohnungswesen, 2003. Dokumentation zum Bundeswettbewerb "Stadtumbau Ost", Berlin. Beck, U., Beck-Gernsheim, E., 2002. Individualisation. Institutionalized Individualism and its Social and Political Consequences. SAGE. Buzar, S., Odgen, P., Hall, R., 2005. Households matter: the quiet demography of urban transformation. Progress of Human Geography 29(4), 413-436. Buzar, S., Ogden, P. E., Hall, R., Haase, A., Kabisch, S., Steinfhrer, A., 2007. Splintering urban populations: emergent landscapes of reurbanisation in four European cities. Urban Studies 44, 5-6, 51 pp. (in printing). Cloet, R., 2003. Population Changes 1950-2050 in Europe and North America. Population Statstics.doc 3-03, 1-11. Dangschat, J. S., Blasius, J. 1994. Lebensstile in den Stdten. Leske + Budrich, Opladen. Haase, A., Kabisch, S., Steinfhrer, A., 2005. Reurbanisation of Inner-City Areas in European Cities. In: Sagan, I, Smith, D (eds) Society, economy, environment - towards the sustainable city. Gdansk, Poznan, 75-91. Haase, D., Nuissl, H., 2007. Does urban sprawl drive changes in the water balance and policy? The case of Leipzig (Germany) 1870 - 2003, Landscape and Urban Planning 80, 1-13. Haase D., Seppelt R., Volk M., Lautenbach S., 2006. Landscape consequences of demographic change - Insights from urban regions in Eastern Germany. In: Mller F., Zurlini G., Petrosillo I., eds. Use of landscape sciences for the assessment of environmental security. Springer (in print). Haase, D., Haase, A., Kabisch, S., Bischoff, P., 2006b. Guidelines for the perfect inner City. Discussing the appropriateness of Monitoring Approaches for Reurbanisation, European Planning Studies (in press). Kaa, D. van de, 1987. Europe's Second Demographic Transition. Population Bulletin 42, 1-57. Kaa, D. van de, 2004. Is the Second Demographic Transition a useful research concept. Vienna Yearbook of Population Research 2004, 4-10. Kabisch, S., Haase, A., Haase, D., 2006. Beyond growth - urban development in shrinking cities as a challenge for modeling approaches. In: Voinov, A., Jakeman, A., Rizzoli, A. (eds). Proceedings of the iEMSs Third Biennial Meeting: "Summit on Environmental Modelling and Software". International Environmental Modelling and Software Society, Burlington, USA, July 2006. CD ROM. Internet: http://www.iemss.org/iemss2006/sessions/all.html, ISBN 1-42430852-6 978-1-4243-0852-1 Lesthaeghe, R., Neels, K., 2002. From the First to the Second Demographic Transition: An Interpretation of the Spatial Continuity of Demographic Innovation in France, Belgium and Switzerland. European Journal of Population 18(4), 225-260. Lesthaeghe, R., Surkyn J.R., 2002. "New Forms of Household Formation in Central and Eastern Europe. Are they related to Newly Emerging Value Orientations?" UNECE Economic Survey of Europe, 2002-1, Chapter 6, p.197-216. Geneva: United Nations Commission for Europe. Lutz, W., 2001. The end of World Population Growth. Nature 412, 543-545. Ogden, P. E., Hall, R. 2000. Households, Reurbanisation and the Rise of Living Alone in the Principal French Cities, 1975-90. Urban Studies 37, 367-390. Richter, R., 2005. Die Lebensstilgesellschaft. VS Verlag, Wiesbaden. Schneider, N., Spellerberg, A., 1999. Lebensstile, Wohnbedrfnisse und rumliche Mobilitt. Leske + Budrich, Opladen. Wilson. C., 2006. The century ahead. Daedalus 135, 1.
482
Environmental impacts in urban areas due to reservoirs construction in semi-arid Brazil

M.C.Sobral1, G.Gunkel2 & R.Paes1
1
UFPE, Brazil & TU-Berlin, Germany; 2TU-Berlin, Germany msobral@ufpe.br
Abstract The global environmental discussion must consider the urban settlements sustainability. At the moment, the global urbanization exceeds 50% and might reach 60% in 2025. In Brazil, this percentage might reach 85% in the next 20 years. This expectative may be followed by Pernambuco state whose urbanization rate is around 77%, some cities present higher urbanization rates, for example, Caruaru-85,69%, Garanhuns-87,83% and Arcoverde-89,75%. The deficient urban policies for middle developing cities, like Petrolina, Caruaru and Garanhuns have increased the problems related to the sanitary infra-structure and the organization of the expansion areas (Sectma 2003). This urbanization process is intensified when large constructions are installed as the reservoirs of multiple use that have been built in the semi-arid region of Brazil. The semi arid region located in Northeasts Brazil has 841.260,9 km2 and is characterized by insufficient water reserves and environmental impacts of human activities. This region is crossed by the biggest Brazilian river, Sao Francisco, that crosses six states, with average outflow of 1.849m3/s, where is located a series of six reservoir managed by Hydroelectric Company of Sao Francisco CHESF. Beyond power generation, those reservoirs are also used for domestic and industrial supply, irrigation, transport, fisher and leisure. In 1978, Sobradinho reservoir was built and in 1988 the Itaparica, which are the two biggest reservoirs of the region in terms of area. Sobradinho has resettled about 70.000 and Itaparica about 40.000 people. During the construction of those reservoirs several environmental impacts were observed, especially in urban areas surrounding the reservoirs that had to be rebuilt. Those urban areas became regional development poles, in face of the migratory process of population. The flooded areas, had as mitigating measures, the reconstruction of all necessary infrastructure (housing, water supply, sewage, drainage and solid waste system, energy, roads, schools, hospitals, among others), aiming to create favourable conditions to the sustainable development of region. However, those urban areas continued growing along the years and nowadays they already present problems of environmental degradation and uncontrolled expansion. The actions of environmental management of those new urban areas require an integrated planning to solve the existing conflicts. The results of this analysis may supports the process of decision making and could subsidy the environmental impacts assessment of future news reservoirs, as well as of other projects that involve population resettlement. Introduction The construction of multiple uses reservoirs originates environmental impacts during its construction as well as after its operation. It produces hydrologic, atmospheric, biological and social alterations all over the reached area of the artificial lake. Such environmental, cultural, social and economical impacts alter the natural operation of the system and they are evident factors of the quality water deterioration process and consequently its availability, becoming source of water use relative conflicts (Tundisi 1999). All over the world there are about 45.000 reservoirs that have caused the expulsion of 40 to 80 millions of people from their residence (WCD, 2000). These reservoirs were built for many purposes and the generation of electric energy is one of them. In Brazil, there are about 2000 reservoirs and the Brazilian Government plans to build more 494 until 2015 (Eletrobras 1994). As one of the consequences of building these reservoirs, urban areas are rebuilt, the existing infra-structure is improved. On the construction stage of these reservoirs, there was a migration of millions of workers. Due to the installed infrastructure, many of them decide to live in the same place when the work was concluded. The site office, constructed for the workers housing, is incorporated as urban areas to the district around the reservoir when the construction phase has finished. These reservoirs help the areas development in the implantation stage as well as in the operation one, since the proximity of the reservoir is an attractive point due to new economic perspectives. The semi-arid region of Brazil is crossed by the biggest Brazilian river, So Francisco, which has a large energetic potential and, as consequence, there are seven reservoirs with the main objective of energy production. Seven of these reservoirs are located in the sub-medium Sao Francisco and are managed by the Hydroelectric Company of Sao Francisco-CHESF In terms of area, the two biggest reservoirs in this region are Sobradinho and Itaparica. By the construction of Sobradinho in 1972 it was necessary the resettlement of 70.000 people. In 1987 by the construction of Itaparica reservoir, 40000 people were resettled, where 15.000 in urban areas. The main urban areas around Sobradinho are: Petrolina, in Pernambuco, and Juazeiro Bahia.
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Regarding the reservoir of Itaparica, the urban areas partially or totally built in Pernambuco were: Petrolndia, Floresta, Belm do So Francisco and in Bahia: Glria, Rodelas, Barra do Tarrachil. The main urban area is Petrolndia. Before the construction of these reservoirs, most of the urban areas were located at Sao Francisco margins, due to the facilities of developing the agricultural activities and obtaining water, sanitation and transportation. The new urban areas were built in a similar way, with the improvement of the housing conditions, the population comfort level and expanding some public service (sanitary infrastructure, school, hospital, health center, commerce, among others). The urban existing areas in the surroundings of the reservoirs without flood damage, however, they did not have observed improvements. Environmental diagnosis The demographic density in So Francisco basin is 20 inhabitants/km2 and 74% of this population is urban (ANA et al. 2004). The increase of the population of these urban areas can be verified in Table 1. The tendency is that the urban population will increase in the future, since new projects in the area are going to be established, such as new irrigation and the interconnection of basin project, currently on discussion stage.
Table 1 - Urban and rural population
Municipality Petrolina Juazeiro Petrolndia Glria reservoirs Sobradinho Sobradinho Itaparica Itaparica year 1970 1970 1980 1980 Inhabitants before reservoir urban rural total 17,908 11,716 29,624 18,012 9,816 1,089 11,528 13,910 8,784 29,540 23,726 9,873 year 2000 2000 2000 2000 Inhabitants after reservoir urban rural total 166,279 52,259 218,538 133,278 19,599 2,365 41,289 7,721 12,194 174,567 27,320 14,559
Source: IBGE (1970;1980;2000)
Some of the main problems of urban areas and their surroundings are: inadequate systems of sanitary infrastructure which saturate the dilute capacity of rivers and reservoirs which cause human diseases, associated to the natural vegetation degradation caused by territorial occupation. Furthermore, the intensity margins occupation cause erosion and consequently the sedimentation increase in the river stream bed (ANA et al. 2003). Regarding the water supply of these urban areas, the water is taken directly from the reservoirs, usually in points next to the margins, where the eutrophication process is more intense and may be dangerous to human health. All the urban area of Petrolndia has water supply. The sewage system was almost inexistent and the existing ones function not properly. Nowadays, all urban areas have sewage treatment and collection. In each urban area resettled it was built the sewage infrastructure. However, in some areas there was no expansion of these systems. Nowadays, only Petrolndia has the whole urban area with sewage system.The direct disposal of non-treated sewage has been polluting the water and increasing the eutrophication process in some parts of reservoirs. Concerning the solid waste, Petrolndia and Petrolina have sanitary landfills. The others urban areas have been disposing their solids waste directly in soil, causing pollution and increasing the health risks for the population. By the time the reservoirs were constructed, the main economic activities used to be the retail and wholesaler trade. Nowadays, Petrolina, Juazeiro and Petrolndia are trade centers of the semi-arid region and most of the population depends directly or indirectly on the reservoirs, either through water supply or the economic activities (irrigation, fishing, aquiculture and leisure). These districts that have flooded areas receive a monthly financial compensation from the Federal Government that should be used for the district development. There is also the possibility of having federal financial support by the Environmental Ministry, as well as by State Government of Pernambuco, through the Social Goods and Service Circulation Tax (Socio ICMS). These possibilities have provided the municipalities to invest in the environmental area, especially in the implementation of an integrated solid waste management system, such as in Petrolndia, located in Pernambucos State. The poor institutional interaction is a problem which makes difficult the implementation of planed actions in the urban areas, and there is efforts dispersion and duplicity of actions among the several institutions. In order to promote a better and interactive work among the state agencies and the civil society, it was created the Committee of So Francisco river basin in 2001. This Committee approved the Decennial Plan of Water Resources of this Basin, which establishes support for the municipalities in terms of sustainable management of the urban and rural soil, as well as the environment. In this plan, it is foreseen the implementation of an integrated management system, in order to coordinate the actions from federal, state and municipal institutions. 484
M.C.Sobral et al.: Environmental impacts in urban areas due to reservoirs construction in semi-arid Brazil
Proposals for improvement the environmental quality of urban areas The perspective of development of the urban areas near the reservoirs in semi-arid areas shows the necessity of planning the expansion urban areas and improving the infrastructure, especially the sanitation systems. In terms of water supply, the points where the water is extracted located in areas with eutrophication process must be replaced to areas far away from the border, where the water has a better quality, therefore reducing the risks health for the population. Referring to the sewage system, it must be expanded in order to reach the whole population. The reuse of wastewater in agricultural projects should be intensified. For the integrated solid waste management system, there must be encouraged the process of selective collecting and recycling of materials. Particularly the composting should be implemented in order to obtain an organic compound that may be used to recover degraded areas in squares and parks. As a guarantee of environmental balance and preservation of the biodiversity in the region, it must be implemented some nursery with native species from the semi-arid and planted in public streets, squares and parks. It is advisable to stimulate consortiums among municipalities, CHESF and Energetic Company of Pernambuco-CELPE in order to achieve this goal. In view of inter-institutional linkage and political efforts what stands out is the need to establish a Regional Council for Coordinating Efforts in the So Francisco Valley, comprised of various organizations and agencies as well as State Government and private sector representatives (BISWAS et al. 1999).The Agenda 21 of Pernambucos State (Sectma 2003) details some proposals to Itaparica region, which were formulated through social participation. Some proposals are: rescue significant social and patrimonial elements of urban resettlements; expansion and improvement of water supply, sewage and solid waste systems; create groups of environmental educations, among others. These measures should be implemented in a participative and decentralized process, where the municipalities assume their functions of environmental management and the organized society is involved in decision process. Inter municipal consortium must be supported for qualification and sharing of resources. Conclusion In Brazil, urban policies have been concentrated in the traditional major cities and metropolitan areas. There is a lack of a decentralized development concept that involves middle and small urban areas, such as the case of the ones located in semi-arid region of Northeastern Brazil. These urban areas are an important element in the construction of the urban area sustainability, once they have consolidated their economies. At the same time they do not present, even for a matter of scale, the same level of problems which are presented by the metropolis. There is, however, the necessity of warranting the environmental sustainability of their territories. In this classification, special attention must be given to urban areas in the surroundings of reservoirs of multiple uses in Sao Francisco semi-arid region, which are in urban expansion process, such as Petrolina. Among the environmental impacts of these urban areas, the insufficiency of investment for the recuperation, expansion and implementation of water supply, sewage, drainage and solid waste system, as well as the technical staff qualifying of the involved agencies. It is also important to implement measures of consciousness and environmental education in the schools and social organizations, as well partnerships among the institutions working in the area. References
ANA; GEF; PNUMA; OEA (2003). Projeto de gerenciamento integrado das atividades desenvolvidas em terra na Bacia do So Francisco. Subprojeto 4.2B - Avaliao dos mecanismos financeiros para o gerenciamento sustentvel da Bacia do Rio So Francisco. Agncia Nacional de guas. Available from URL: www.ana.gov.br/gefsf. Accessed: 15 October 2006. ANA; GEF; PNUMA; OEA (2004). Plano Decenal de Recursos Hdricos da Bacia Hidrogrfica do Rio Sao Francisco PBHSF (2004-2013). Available from URL: http://www.cbhsaofrancisco.org.br/. Accessed: 15 October 2006. BISWAS, A. K. et al. (1999). Management of Latin American River Basins: Amazon, Plata and So Francisco. EUA: United Nations University Press. 309 pages. BRASIL (1997). Lei Federal n 9433 de 08 de janeiro de 1997. Institui a Poltica Nacional de Recursos Hdricos, cria o Sistema Nacional de Gerenciamento de Recursos Hdricos, regulamenta o inciso XIX do art. 21 da Constituio Federal, e altera o art. 1 da Lei n 8.001, de 13 de maro de 1990, que modificou a Lei n 7.990, de 28 de dezembro de 1989. Dirio Oficial da Republica Federativa do Brasil. Braslia, DF; 09 de janeiro de 1997. ELETROBRAS (1994). Plano Nacional de Energia Eltrica 1993-2015. Plano 2015. Rio de Janeiro: Centrais Eltricas Brasileias. Available from URL: www.eletrobras.gov.br/downloads/EM_Biblioteca/volume1.pdf. Acessed: 29 mar 2007. IBGE (1970). Censo demogrfico 1970. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatstica. Repblica Federativa do Brasil. Available from URL: http://www.sidra.ibge.gov.br. Accessed: 29 mar 2007.
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IBGE (1980). Censo demogrfico 1980. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatstica. Repblica Federativa do Brasil. Available from URL: http://www.sidra.ibge.gov.br. Accessed: 29 mar 2007. IBGE (2000). Censo demogrfico 2000. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatstica. Repblica Federativa do Brasil. Available from URL: http://www.ibge.gov.br. Accessed: 27 de marco de 2007. SECTMA (2003). Agenda 21 do Estado de Pernambuco. Recife: Secretaria de Cincia, Tecnologia e Meio Ambiente, 261 pages. Available from URL: www.sectma.gov.br/biblioteca_virtual_agenda21.asp. Acessed: 20 February 2007. Tundisi, J.G. (1999) Reservatrios como sistemas complexos: teoria, aplicaes e perspectivas para usos mltiplos. In: HENRY, R. (ed.). Ecologia de reservatrios: estruturas, funo e aspectos sociais. FUNDIBIO: FAPESP, Botucatu. WCD (2000) Dams and Development. A new Framework for decisions-making. World Commission on Dams Earthscan Publ. London, 322 pp.
Acknowledgement The authors thank the financial support from CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientfico e Tecnolgico) for the Pos-Doctorate scholarship by the Technical University of Berlin from Maria Sobral; CAPES & DAAD (Coordenacao de Aperfeicoamento de Pessoal de Nivel Superior & Deutsche Akadeische Austausch Dienste) for the Doctorate scholarship by the Technical University of Berlin from Roberta Paes and for the PROBRAL Programme UFPE/TU Berlin.
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Effect of Historical Buildings and Zayandeh Rud on Isphahan City Development

Narciss M.Sohrabi & Nilofar Zarei
Ardekan Azad Islamic University, Iran sohrabi58@yahoo.com
Abstract: Isfahan is one of the metropolises of Iran, which is situated in the Iranian central desert, having a strong atmospheric somatic structure affected by man-made factors such as "Naghash-e-Jahan"square and natural factors like the river of "Zayandeh Rud" covering a course of about 600 kilometers along the city of Isfahan. Presence of rivulets(madies) and historical bridges on it as formation elements of urban identity of the city of Isfahan are considerable and need to be studied, as for as this coalition (harmony) of natural and unnatural factors has been designed about four hundred years ago. However, it is properly coincided with today's urban conditions and needs. Zayandeh Rud" acts as the assented element of the city of Isfahan and is the pillar and support backbone to urban body, palms and atmospheric make ups. In this article the relationship between river and its rivulets and its impact on atmospheric formation of the city of Isfahan in the past and its current situation is studied. Key words: Isfahan, atmospheric formation, local identity, Zayandeh Rud, historical bridge, Madi Introduction This article aims to introduce Isfahans. City development and through which madies are used to irrigate Isfahans districts. it also investigates Madies effect on Isfahans city development in a way that has led to this citys fertility and therefore, a change in its scenery. dividing the water of Zayandeh Rud and its branches is scientifically related to king Abbas 2 in safavid era and was done by sheikh Bahaee so to take water to internal edifices and fields, and in fact, these Madies can still be seen in different parts of this city. Regarding the season behind naming them "Madi " (streams), this word might belong to Mad s era since they used to take the water from channels to the ground. In Isfahan Madies were divided in to five main categories, including Niasarm Madi, Jooy shah or Madi Shah, Fashadi Madi, Fadan Madi, Tiran Madi or Tehran Madi and biggest of which was Niasarm Madi. Other big Madies of Isfahan are : Najavan, Nayej, Shayej, Ghomoh and Abdollah khan. Generally, from, Zayandeh Ruds source to Gavkhooni swamp, 154 Madies and streams are separated from this river. Actually, forming these Madies and guiding the water into the districts, led the city to emerge uniformly out of the heart of the desert and this made Isfahan green, verdant and flourished and in general this city came to be like a Garden city. The methodology, in this article is gathering information from written sources and scripts, searching on the internet, field research and interviewing the related authorities. A look at the Relationship Between Zayandeh Rud & Isfahan in the Past Isfahan was among the first settlement of Aryaiees and its history goes back to 1300 years before Islam when this city had gained a considerable civilization and development due to Zayandeh Rud. Zayandeh rud is one of the biggest rivers of Iran which is situated In the center of the country, that is Isfahan province, and flow from the west to the east. This river is the heart and soul and the main cause of Isfahan s being green and fertile. it originates from Zagros mountain ranges and the heights of Bakhtiaris Zard kooh, and after running though hundreds of kilometers of winding paths, it goes to Gavkhooni swamp. Zayandeh rudes area includes a region situated in the south west of Irans internal region between latitude 31.30 to 33.32 north and longitude region 49.30 to 52.49 east of international date line. and its situated between the north east skirt o Bakhtiars zard. This region cover an area in 10 towns including Farsan, Shahrekord, Faridan, Fereidoon shahr, Zarin Shaher, Lenjan, Mobarakeh, Khomeini Shaher, Isfahan, Barkhar and meimeh of 2 provinces of Char Mahale Bakhtiari and Isfahan, covering about 27570 square kilometers.(about 1.7 percent of all of Iran). The Madies and Streams of Zayandeh Rud The streams which are branches of zayandeh rud for irrigating Isfahan and the nearby fields and gardens, edifices and internal fields are, is Isfahani accent, called Madies. The word Madi might belong to Mado era becomes they took the water from the wells to the ground, through channels. Madies are not found in any other parts o Iran and can only be seen in Isfahan and they are actually some big streams which in the past were some branches in both sides of zayandeh rud and were
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used for irrigating the nearby fields.There are some discrepancies around the first person who divided water. Some believe that this water division has existed since Mades era before Islam, that is 700 BC. In Safavid era, the part of the river was divided in to 78 Madies, 47 of which were on he right sides & 31Madies were on the left sides of Zayandeh Rud river.Dividing Zayandeh Rud s water was taken into consideration from days. How ever sheikh bhad a main role in scientific modification and regulation of Zayandeh Rud s water and he did this scientific dividing on the basis o mathematical calculations and geographic exactness. This action, become o its scientific basic, has been noticed since 400 years ago.According to some researches from the regional water company of Isfahan, the beginning o dividing zayandeh rood s water was the old bridge of kaleh. A General Introducing Of Isfahans Madies These madies include, niasarm madi, farshadi madi, shah or joy shah madi, fadan madi, tehran madi, najavan madi, nayej madi, shayej madi, ghomsh madi, abdollah khan madi. The first five big branches of zayandeh rood or the first five big madies of Isfahan are: 1. Nia saram Madi: this madi has in fact been the biggest madi of Isfahan and is separated from Marnan bridge, passes along side lebnan district and flows towards east of Isfahan during the high water, this madi had 200 sang water 2. Farshadi madi : this madi is separated from the river from a place upper than Niasaram madi and it irrigates Charsoo and Shames abad districts and then passes through Khajoo district.it s water is one fourth of Niasaram madi and its length is about 2950 meters. 3. Shah or joy shah madi: which was also called great shah madi, its water was especially for ryal edifices and its water was about half of farshadi madi, its estimated length was 6342 meters. 4. Fadan madi: which is also called fada madi; the safavid kings had devoted the water of this madi to their own health. It was situated upper than the other 3 madies and flowed towards Darvazeh dolat and it was divided in to smaller branches. Its length is about 6000 meters. 5. Tiran or Tehran madi: this madi passed through the west of the city and reached Bid abad and Shirazis Charsogh distracts. With a length about 7000 meters. Up to the last 30 years, each of this madies irrigated at least 8 district and fields (najavan) and at mast 25 districts and fields (Niasaram) and they totally irrigated 118 garden and farms. Nowadays there are still 42 farms which are related to madies water and their branches. Now, the only madi which leads to agricultural farms & city is Niasaram madi. Nowadays, there are about 270 kilometers madies inside Isfahan. The main problem about madies which has been increased during the drought of the few years is the fact that there is not in them all the time. The only madi which always has water is the Niasaram Madi and that might be due to the fact that it ends in agricultural farms and fields.now madies include water periodically and water flows in the other madies expect Niasaram every 20 or 25 days schedule. The Effect of Madies on Isfahan s Urban Atmosphere and Structure The Position of M aides in Isfahan before Modernism Isfahan is uniformly in the heart of desert and the relative freshness in the air, which comes from zayandeh Rud and the flow o water in the city, has made the weather of isfahan pleasant and it has also separated the four seasons and created four regular seasons for the city. The existence of these madies throughout the city, the lines of trees beside the main and he secondary streams,and the gardens and farms( 158 gardens and farms in the city and the suburbs) had made the roads of the city like garden paths and had made mast part of the housing area like housing gardens.finally, a city which is naturally located in the margin of a deserted region, was made in to one of the most pleasant urban settlements in the middle-east.because of zayandeh rud and madies and also the high water in the past (at least about 5 meters in Lenban district and at mast 8.4 meters in Takht Foalad district) gigantic building were founded on water containing surface and they were built by stone and saroje. Being under the influence of soil s humidity, Saroje has always remained firm.This Method was common in such building like Sheik Lotfollah mosque, minarets and etc. Isfahan is actually a garden city. This city is uniform and its freshness and fertility have been provided by tight and deep irrigation by Zayandeh Rud water taken to the city by numerous channels.In different books and travel books by different writers, some streams flowing through or a long pass ways, beautiful pools and paved channels, including small streams, have usually been through winding paths among the tall,walls which surround gardens of houses.this urban structure (madi) is now thoroughly removed from the center of he city but is formed the discipline and basis of house making and city development during king Abbas time. The small flows of water which existed in the paths and ways irrigated those who lived in different districts of the city along with forming the boundaries of small urban islands with irregular forms, a one of the characteristics of city development.
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Narciss M.Sohrabi & Nilofar Zarei: Effect of Historical Buildings and Zayandeh Rud on Isphahan City Development
The Present Position of Madies in Isfahan After the revaluation up to 1368 and 1369, the municipalities did not interfere in the illegal construction of houses with in madies range.Therefore, in the boundaries of there madies & even in some please on the madies some buildings have been built and this has led to the destruction of some parts of madies on the so-called blocking of their way. After the detailed plan of Isfahan during the 1371- 1381 period, some special rules about madies have been considered for the buildings around madies, among them: - The personal cars must be prevented from going to those parts of the streams, madies and springs which are in the detailed plan and these paths should just be used by passerby's. - As it has been shown in the detailed plans, the paths around madies and streams are just for passer bys and cars are forbidden to go there. in the parts near the madies which can only be occurred through the madies, axis special limited and shot paths can be built, under the detailed urban planning's, for emergency cars which have at most a 3 meter width. - Any kind of construction must be prevented in the considered range in the detailed plans about all the streams, madies, springs, channels and rivers. - Commercial and service use of the local centers and inters- local paths in the first degree ownership of the madies. - The maximum area of dissection is 500 square meters. - The maximum number of floors for first degree ownership Lands are 2 floors and for second degree are 3 floors. The parts viewing the madies must have leas occupying surfaces in the top floors of the buildings in comparison to the ground floor and a retreat o at least 3 meters is obligatory. - The maximum height of the one-store public buildings is 5 meters and for 2- storey building it is 7.5 meters. - Four-meter retreat from the final edge of the madi is obligatory for the public building expect those having architectural and historical values. Because of earning incomes for the municipalities,specially during the last few years, almost all these lows have been ignored by calling density near streams and madies, ad now can see even 8-storey building near the madies. Nowadays , having a brief look at the city of isfahan,madies and local streams, we can see that these branches have had a considerable impact on the city's and the distract' s scenery. Because of this scenery and also because of the pleasant effect of madies on air and water,there has been a change in the construction near these madies especially the big ones.now, are can see that skyscrapers and multi-storey building are built. While cars moving is slow or even impossible near some of these madies (because of the aims in the detailed plan), we can see that traffic in these districts is increasing each day due to the irregular and dense constructions. These constructions not only ignore the aim of allocating madies edges to the passersby's coming and going but also have a negative effect on the beautiful scenery near the madies. Besides, the environment near the madies has faced some problems because of constructing housing sky scrapers and their shadows on madies. This is despite the fact that making linear parks near the madies and in the heart of the districts has been considered in the inclusive plan of streams. Linear parks, having an average width of 10 to 15 meters, with adequate shells and with an article for riding bicycles, have been considered for the edge of the madies. On the whale, after 1370, reviving madies has been taken into consideration so to identify and repair the blocked paths of the madies and to open their cut paths to zayandeh rood.This has been done both because of the beauty of the madies paths and also because in case of possible floods, these streams are only paths for guiding the flow of water. Conclusion Isfahan has uniformly come out of the heart of the desert with different garden-paths, farms,and gardens just like a garden- city and isfahan s special city development, which is to some extent a reflection of Islamic city development, originated from the existence of zayandeh rood, Madies and they very beautiful branches existing inside the districts. This river and it is branches have had a tremendous impact on the scenery of the whole city. In the past, the level of which the river s water reached was very high, but in the last few years, because of cutting zayandeh rood s water and also because of strong pumping, this level has gone down a lot and has researched about 50 meters. In addition, it should not be forgotten that because of the existence of huge historical buildings which mostly and generally have saroje foundations and so these survived depends on the under ground humidity, the ways through which under ground water is used, must be taken in to consideration.Besides, in order to establish a hydraulic balance in the city, water must be flowed in the city and returned to zayandeh rood by
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using the remaining paths of Niasaram,Fadan, Farshadi,Shayej,Nayej and the other madies.Considering the fact that some parts of the branched madies of the river are now situated in the urban buildings, protecting the existing trees and defending the new saplings can be recognized as the factors of maintaining the city's freshness ad can be seen as providers of some part of the required environment for the citizens. Since Isfahan is situated in the arid ad semi-arid regions of the world, the flow of water in these madies leads to an increase in the humidity in him housing areas and while mixing with the green environment provides a letter condition for the urban environment. Protecting madies and streams, reviving their blocked paths and distributing water in the raining seasons prevent water construction and the possible damage by flood. In order to protect Isfahan as a beautiful garden- city just like the past, not only these very beautiful madies, the environment and the trees next to them must be protected, but also a more serious surveillance of the buildings, especially near the madies is necessary. References
1.Rahbar, lotfollah. Introducing the historical city of isfahan,1st edition.Golha publication,1372 2.Mir Azimi, Nematollah. Isfahan : birth place of beauty and perfection.1st edition. Golha publication,1379. 3.Stern, Henry." Introduction by henry carbon."Isfahan, the Image of Paradise 4.Hormoz, Lotfollah." Zayandeh rood in the history"Art and peaple journal, No 180 5.Hamshaheri Reporter, " isfahan beauty indebted to zayandeh roods fertility" 6.Hamshaheri Newspaper 1814 (8th of ordibehesht 1378) 7.The General office of Housing and urban development of Isfahan Province ; the consultant engineering of naghash e-jahan pars. the detailed plan of isfahan (1372-1382) 8.Najvan s unit of stream and madies. the detailed plan of repaired and reviving Abdollah khan madi, ministry of the interior. isfahans municipality azar 1381 9.Najvan s unit of stream and madies. the detailed plan of repaired and reviving Abdollah khan madi, ministry of the interior. isfahans municipality day 1381
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Integrated urban green governance comparing shrinking and emerging cities. The examples of Leipzig and Recife
Simone Sandholz & Christian Strau
Cologne University of Applied Sciences, Institute for Technology in the Tropics (ITT), Germany Leipzig University, Department of Urban Development and Construction Management (ISB), Germany cstrauss@wifa.uni-leipzig.de
Abstract Based on the examples of the two cities of Recife and Leipzig, theses concerning the development of adequate planning strategies and tools for integrated urban green governance are compared. As public authorities can't execute planning by themselves integrated urban green governance is essential both in growing and shrinking cities. Initial Point: What is sustainable development of open spaces in Recife? Sustainable development of open spaces is process oriented, problem-oriented and project oriented. Economic, ecological and social issues are likewise integrated and connected to a concept (Kaltenbrunner 2004). It requires an interdisciplinary and due to its normative nature as well an approach which is determined normative and locally. For this purpose a complex answer is needed. Such complex answer is enabled by an interdisciplinary course of action.1 Strictly speaking such approach is necessary on both counts: On the one hand for analysis and conceptual development of space. It is about the identification of holistic goals, sub goals, indicators and of sets of criteria to record the goal realization level. On the other hand an interdisciplinary approach concerning governance of space is essential. It has to be investigated if hitherto existing forms of governance are sufficient. The required holistic approach has to include new forms of cooperative analyse, cooperative planning (response in terms of DPSIR, Smeets & Weterings 1999) and of (possibly cooperative) execution. This is carried out in terms of the sustainable course of action "think global, act local" aiming at realizing local projects with local means and possibilities. The worldwide challenges result from interdependencies of ecological, economical and social matters as well as from interdisciplinary sustainable objectives which are analogical and transferable. But the respective implementation concepts have to be adapted to local conditions. Only that way sustainable planning is ensured. It also takes place in terms of cooperative understanding of urban planning: new forms of cooperative governance instead of traditional government are regarded as promising (Healey 1995). Ultimately cooperative governance is a contribution to a sustainable urban development. From the goal an interdisciplinary valuation of current open space structure and comparative analysis of potential "responses" can be deduced. To identify strengths and weaknesses as well as chances and risks a comparative study is suitable. On the one hand it generally is fundamental to use existing knowledge for one's own research to draw conclusions from successes as well as failures. On the other hand it is useful to carry this out on a large scale. This scale results from the existing comparison of a growing Brazilian city and a shrinking German city. Naturespatial requirements and the current urban structural challenges demand to deal critically with a potential comparison. However this comparison arises concerning the objective target (sustainability) as well as (cooperative) governance. Therefore below initially the example of Recife is presented. The different topics discussed are throughout compared to the example of Leipzig. The example of Recife-Apipucos: Urban problems and interdisciplinary analysis The foundation of Recife as city results from the export orientated agricultural economy of colonial times. The first strategic planning of the urban area derives from the times of Dutch occupation in 17th century, already including planning of several open spaces, in particular the riverbanks. Until the beginning of 19th century no further plan was set up. Since early 20th century a multitude of plans was developed, nowadays Recife is the city with the highest amount of urban development plans in Brazil (Campos 2003). The development plan of 1981 (Plano de Desenvolvimento do Recife, PMR 1981) e.g. included the preservation of natural landscape by maintenance of existing and creation of new open spaces. Current plans envisage amongst others upgrading of public open spaces and preservation of ecologic reserves (CONDEPE/FIDEM 2005). Urban planning partly is already done with participatory approaches, involving the inhabitants of the respective quarters, like in the PREZEIS-approach (Plano de Regularizao de Zonas Especiais de Interesse Social), including amongst others civil society participation in setting up plans for amelioration of living conditions by greening residential areas or upgrading open spaces. A small pilot area (1,2 km) in Recife enables interdisciplinary research about open spaces. This area is located in quarter Apipucos in the southeast of the city, near the Mata Dois Irmos Reserve and shows a great
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variety of urban and social structures, like upper class condominios fechados, middle class settlements and illegal settlements which have been partly legalized. Apipucos originally was an old Engenho, a sugarcane plantation, nowadays still perceivable in urban structures, historic buildings and open spaces. Due to its topography Apipucos and whole Recife is affected by informal and illegal settlements on steep hills which leads to hang slides hazardous to the population (see fig. 1). The result of informal and unauthorized land use can be overuse which will reduce biodiversity in open spaces. Use of open spaces in Recife compared to Leipzig Both in Recife and in Leipzig there is a variety of open spaces with different size and form, a complex system of uses which so far has not been examined as total system. To analyze the potentials, to manage and use these open urban spaces it is absolutely essential to notice them being embedded within the complex urban system. Figure 1: Informal overuse of open spaces in Recife-Apipucos (Sandholz 2005) Informal uses are present in growing (Latin American) cities and they increase in shrinking ones like Leipzig. One has to differ between individual uses and common ones for everyone. One has to differ between to overbuild or to transform the open space. And finally one has to differ between illegal and permitted uses. The accompanying keyword to be stated here is urban tolerance. Beside leisure activities basic needs should be mentioned. Temporary or intermediate uses are currently hardly taken into consideration in urban planning process, neither in growing nor shrinking cities. But as this topic until today occurs more in growing cities like Recife they might become a resource for knowledge transfer from Brazil to Germany. To meet the basic needs of a considerable part of the population is a current problem in Recife. In near future this might become as well a problem in Leipzig, due to continuing shrinking, increasing polarisation of the society and thus increasing impoverishment of some levels of the population. The possible outcome of this is that the subsistence approach should be research topic in Germany as well. This possible use option has to be considered in urban planning. For instance urban and periurban agriculture is an option for the inhabitants, but is more or less without lobby in the municipality. Segregation, social and socio-spatial polarisation are big problems in Recife, in Germany they aren't yet. Until now in Germany the public space and that's what integrated urban green governance is about is safe. A breaking apart of the German society has to be avoided, interconnectedness adhered. Interconnectedness thus has to be object of planning. Interconnectedness Open spaces in Recife lack an ecological and social interconnectedness. From interdisciplinary perspective thus interconnectedness is a basic requirement of sustainable open space development: beside reasons of e.g. biodiversity, urban climatology and ecology it is a matter of assuring a social interconnectedness by linking public space. But this certainly is hardly realizable in Recife, even more, it has to be asked if it is desired at all or if the fear of criminality preponderates and leads to further separation? Do I need a "long distance trail Recife Rio" if I don't even want to walk from one quarter to another along the river? Interconnecting classes of society by connecting subareas only succeeds if there is basic peace and tolerance what can't be assured further in case of Recife. Interconnectedness contributes both to sustainable spatial development and social interlinking of actors in the city. Yet this request only is wishful thinking in Recife but this interconnectedness is inevitable. An urban area as a system only can be properly understood and controlled if the interactions between the basic urban sub-systems are taken into consideration properly. In other words, the main question is not to better understand the individual sub-system (population, service, industry, environment etc.), but to understand how they act together, how they are harmonized into this entity we call a city (Aruninta 2004). A basic requirement of a realistic simulation therefore must be to incorporate time as a variable in the structure of the model, in order to be able to trace the performance or behavior of the system through time. 492
Simone Sandholz & Christian Strau: Integrated urban green governance comparing shrinking and emerging cities
Response: Governance of future uses in Recife and Leipzig Planning of open spaces yet is not integrated sufficiently to urban planning and local action concepts. Partly different plans overlap or concrete local projects and planning are aligned inadequately for lack of an integrated and cooperative governance approach. This approach bases on learning from each other, from good experiences but as well from mistakes. Mistakes like the lacking use of the inner-city brownfields potential, the loss of high-value inner-city green spaces as local object of identification or segregation. To achieve sustainable planning and development it is necessary to bring the aspects of open space use and open space value together. In particular, informal uses and use strategies have to be considered and their effect on the overall planning aims studied. The study of open spaces has to include their spatial and temporal dynamics, also in relation to their interactions with the surrounding matrix. The integration and participation of diverse interest groups, scientists and practitioners, administration and stakeholder, has to be a central element in all working steps. Close interaction is indispensable because integrating instruments to manage open spaces in urban planning in Brazil and other less developed countries so far often failed due to inefficient decision-making and the lacking integration of important political stakeholders (Frischenbruder & Pellegrino 2006). Strategic governance Due to the above named reasons strategic governance is necessary. Having been crucial question of modernity in Europe but also at IBA Emscher Park this topic now is spotlighted again in the shrinking city.2 Here spaces can be safeguarded and novel vision statements (e.g. the vision of "open space related urban planning", where real estates along green corridors gain value, cp. Leipzig) can be implemented. There is only low development impact but persistence of the space's owners and a problematic financial situation of municipality budget to buy up, design and maintain spaces. But a temporary greening and only temporary assured urban space structures aren't sufficient because in case of economic upswing increasing demand will lead to a building boom and loss of open spaces. A parallel approach is necessary, temporarily and also long-term. In the growing city a strategic planning of open spaces is needed as well but difficult to realize. This is related to development pressure and a small or even lacking lobby of open spaces. By reason of environmental hazards but as well of sustainable objectives strategic open space governance is essential. It has to at least support aspects of socio-spatial interconnectedness; even if interconnection of Recife's society won't work only by spatial interconnections alone. Integrated urban green governance Open Spaces are one aspect of the urban environment that is of great importance in daily life for people living in urban areas. In different countries of the world the quality of life in cities will be determined by factors affecting each individual country as human needs and physical and economic conditions vary (Woolley 2003). Urban governance, an expression which recently came up in the urban planning discussion, is based on the assumption that planning of cities is no longer done mandatory by its administration and politicians but includes other stakeholders like citizens as well as the ones involved in real estate and infrastructure by participation". Both, disposal of knowledge and changing the urban development process, are (re-)integrated without giving up basic responsibility of public authorities: they still are responsible for public welfare. The political meaning of public spaces stresses unity and equality as ideal conditions for society. Integrated urban green governance has a strategic importance in the urban development process. Open green spaces in rapidly growing cities of less developed countries are facing much more pressure, formal and informal, than in other cities around the world. Planning, management and monitoring of these spaces therefore forms an essential part of the sustainable urban development. But up to now, planning doesn't react with adequate strategies and measures or interdisciplinary concepts integrating social, economic and ecological aspects (Kaltenbrunner 2004), especially in the developing countries (De Sousa 2002). Conclusion The development of adequate planning strategies and tools requires to understand: the functions and dynamics of intra- and periurban open spaces considering their social-cultural, ecological and economical values, risks and potentials as well as their interdependencies the interactions of open spaces with their surrounding the complexity of formal and informal uses (Frischenbruder & Pellegrino 2006) and integration of informal uses into urban planning process as long as they match the long-term strategies and all three aspects of sustainability. It is not sufficient to refer to the existing and meanwhile established understanding of integrated methods. Therefore the enhanced approach of "integrated urban green governance" has to consider two more issues:
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Integration of stakeholders, who until now have no relevant influence in the procedure mentioned above but who should be aware of the value of urban green to do so environmental education and awareness should form part of urban green governance Integration of the needs of "Green" in the urban development process. A stronger integration of "Green" into the city finally leads to a sustainable balance and therewith to economic, social, ecological and aesthetic urban advancement. As public authorities can't execute planning by themselves integrated urban green governance is essential both in growing and shrinking cities. Bibliography
ARUNINTA, A. 2004. Controversies in Public Land Management Decision Makings: Case Study of Land Utilization in Bangkok, Thailand. Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand. CAMPOS, R. 2003. Stadtplanung und Verwaltungsdezentralisierung. Eine Analyse der brasilianischen Realitt am Beispiel des PREZEIS-Programms der Stadt Recife/PE, dissertation.de - Verlag im Internet GmbH. CONDEPE/FIDEM. PROMETRPOLE 2005 Metrpole Estratgica - Rgiao Metropolitana do Recife. Agncia CONDEPE/FIDEM. PROMETRPOLE. Organisao de Amlia Reynaldo. Recife DE SOUSA, C.A. 2003. Turning brownfields into green space in the city of Toronto. Landscape and Urban Planning 62: 181-198. ERKUT, G. 1997. The Use of System Thinking and System Dynamics in Urban Planning and Education. HEALEY, Patsy 1995: Discourse of integration. Making Frameworks for Democratic Urban Planning. In: HEALEY, Patsy; Cameron, Stuart; Madani-Pour, Ali (Hg.): Managing Cities. The New Urban Context. New York, S. 251-272 Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul. FRISCHENBRUDER, M.T. & PELLEGRINO, P. 2006. Using urban greenways to reclaim nature in Brazilian cities. Landscape and Urban Planning 76: 67-78. KALTENBRUNNER, R. 2004. Der subsidire Raum. Landschaftsersatz oder: Welchen Freiraum braucht die Stadt? In: Bundesamt fr Bauwesen und Raumordnung (Hrsg.). Freiraum, Informationen zur Raumentwicklung, Heft 11/12: 631-644. LAURINI, R. 2001. Information Systems for Urban Planning. Taylor & Francis Inc., New York. WOOLLEY, H. 2003. Urban Open Spaces. Spon Press, Abington. Smeets, E., Weterings, R. 1999. Environmental Indicators: Typology and Overview. Technical Reports No. 25. European Environment Agency, Kopenhagen.
This interdisciplinary approach has been enabled by BMBF-Research Programme "Research for Sustainable Development of the Mega Cities of Tomorrow", Subject of project: "Emerging Mega Cities: Open Spaces in Mega Cities - potential for nature orientated living", Pilot Phase July 2005 - September 2007. The project is located in the metropolitan area of Recife, capital of the Brazilian Federal State Pernambuco, a city which disposes of an innovative tradition in urban development. Recife shows typical problems related to open spaces found in (emerging) megacities in Brazil and Latin America. The approach of cityscape ("Stadtlandschaft") in the sense of European modernism - including a strategic discussion about the open space within the city - has lost its importance in the European debate of urban development during the last twenty years. But nowadays the strategic discussion about how to deal with open space in the shrinking city has increased.
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Planning the Urban Environment in Developing Countries A Dilemma between Theory and Practise. Case Study: Calcutta, India
Ayon Kumar Tarafdar
Department of Urban Planning, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) Ayon.K.Tarafdar@ntnu.no
It is a common perception that under-development or lack of development affects the environment of a place adversely. The primary logic behind relating environmental degradation with development is a hypothesis that absence of development involves economic stagnation and poor living conditions. This creates reasons for a compromise, and environmental considerations take a backseat in the process of securing basic needs. In the context of developing countries, this becomes more commonplace owing to the inherent realities and challenges of urban growth and scarcity of resources. While this has been critically argued upon, the question on whether 'development', which is an outcome of planning, leads to a better 'environment' is also debated. (Tarafdar, 2006) In this context, two critical issues emerge in the domain of development and environment. First, the 'approach in which planning is done' in an area is decisive of the ultimate benefits of planning. Second, the role of the eventual 'beneficiaries of development' or the households who reside and draw resources from the environment becomes crucial in the practice of development. While fully acknowledging the concern for environment and the reality of planning, the paper aims to understand the relations between planning approaches, and the local environmental conditions. 1 Theoretical discussions: Relating Environment to Development In 1950, only 28 percent of the world population was urban. By 2008, it is predicted that more than half of the world's population will be living in urban areas, and by 2030, 60 percent will turn urban (World Bank, 2005). Almost 180,000 people are added to the urban population each day (UNCHS Habitat, 2001). For developing nations, the pattern of urbanisation is comparatively more aggressive. In most of Europe and Americas, where the phenomenon is oldest, the current rate of urbanisation has steadied to around 1% per annum. However, in continents like Africa and Asia, where urbanisation is still less than 50%, the rate is very high and between 3-5%. (UNEP, 1999). The phenomenon of urban growth involves a change in the structure, pattern, and morphology of a place, as well as in the socio economic profile of the people. In this scenario, what becomes significant is how we as academics, planners, city administrators, or citizens respond to this phenomenon. The co-existence of relatively degraded pockets alongside spaces enjoying high levels of city functions portrays a developmental anomaly. This is common in many cities of the developing countries. Inadequate development, in proportion to the urban growth and needs, is likely to affect the local environment and living conditions adversely. When land gets urbanised from its rural function, variety of a lot of transformation issues are involved including changes in occupational sectors, subsistence values, and societal relations. Often this leads to development of occupational and business patterns that are informal, not capital-intensive, low-yielding, and short-termed. (Burgess, Carmona and Kolstee, 1997). In this light, the environmental plight of certain pockets is delicate. Planning Paradigms The whole rationale of discussing environment in the realm of urban planning lies in the direct links between the activities of the planners and their abilities to affect the local environment. While most planning frameworks are concerned primarily with physical growth, the aspect of 'societal growth' cannot be ignored. Planning addresses not only an individual or family, but for a group of households of a particular area, thereby affecting a collective unit. It is this tenet of 'collective well-being' that accentuates the significance of any decision and calls for rationality. Similar to the public responsibilities of law, order, and governance; planning finds relevance in this perspective as "application of scientific methods or a set of scientific actions, to aid policy making" (Faludi, 1973). Theoretically speaking, any planning action is justified and substantiated by three key purposes bringing efficiency and rationality, inducing market functioning, and increasing the choice of individuals. Based on these three broad purposes, the legitimacy of planning can be established theoretically. (Davidoff and Reiner, 1962) Interestingly, even though each of the three main purposes of planning is peoplecentric, the instrumental process that is followed by most experts portrays a variance. It constitutes mainly of three steps or stages value formation, means identification, and effectuation. Each of these stages has a number of sub-stages, is iterative, and is empirically supported (refer Fig 1). The process of environmental planning is similar to this basic process, with the difference being that each stage primarily focuses on the environmental issues of the region. However, the entire discussion of environmental planning can be rooted to three basic approaches, as discussed below.
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Formulation of Goals
Survey, Data Generation & Assimilation
Analysis, Prediction, Data Validation
Development of Strategies and Scenarios
Surveys & Checks for Certain Strategies
Assessment of Needs and Potential
Assessment of Past Trends
Public Opinion
Consultation of Expert Groups (on validity of strategies)
Plan Acceptance and Delegation of Contracts
Implementation of Strategies (and periodic feedback)
VALUE FORMATION
MEANS IDENTIFICATION
EFFECTUATION
Fig 1: Basic Process of Planning (Adapted from Tarafdar, 2006)
A) Ecological strand This stance is to define the city in terms of a closed space. Radical concepts borrowed from natural sciences shape this line of argument, often leading discussions to 'deep ecology'. In this outlook, cities are perceived to be similar to organisms with an evolutionary history and a life of their own. It can be comprehended in terms of its metabolism with its communities, climate, environs, and resources as discussed by various authors (Naess, 1973, 1992; Taylor, 1986; Girardet, 1992; Nijkamp and Perrels, 1994; McHarg, 1998). Policies and strategies in such lines of thought remain heavily tilted towards 'recording' all the existing natural resources and linking every action of development with its associated effect. Every resource in this closed system is considered limited. Within such framework rapid urbanisation with stress on industrial growth is judged to become 'parasitic to the host environment'. B) Techno-centric rational strand In this second strand, the city and its growth are viewed in the form of an entity for pure analytical prowess. Strategies are more like solution-finding exercises. Normative theories that arrive at the need of stringent expert processes based on postulates and empirical data finding techniques, which make 'decisions of urban growth more rational and with minimal risk', evolved. (Faludi, 1973) The emphasis of this approach is on technology and logic. With this approach city planning got institutionalised as a profession to 'decide the rational use of land for public good, and providing infrastructure plans for future' (Brand and Thomas, 2005). In terms of environmental consciousness, the strand believes that human well-being can be improved with modifications to technology and social institutions, and every environmental problem has a technical solution (O'Riordan & Turner, 1983). The key philosophy is that (increased) productivity of land and nature would create a capital that can be utilised to make better living spaces. The main criticism of these lines of thoughts was the unavoidable regulatory mannerism of the agency that decides these values, means, and implements them. Also raised was the question of whether a systematic and prescriptive process was adequate to cover all aspects of city growth (Dakin, 1963). C) Neo-liberal and globalisation strands The third strand, which is the most recent one, focuses on leaving all responses to urban growth in the hands of market. Originating in the supply side of the Chicago School of Economics in the 1970s, neoliberalism as an economic policy has been aptly summarised as 'the belief that open, competitive, and unregulated markets liberated from all forms of state interference, represent the optimal mechanism for economic development' (Brenner and Theodore, 2002). The principal component here is a concept of 'networking of places' based on a common interest of economic growth and fiscal profit. To achieve this profit and remain lucrative in the network, cities automatically upgrade. Various authors (Friedmann, 1986; Castells, 1989, 2000; Sassen, 1991, 496
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1994, 2000; Dick & Rimmer, 1998; Cho, 1997) further built on these notions. The works of these theorists were primarily defining the position of these cities in a hierarchy, evolving criteria of identifying such cities, and evolving certain ranks and categories. Such approach often leads to the formation of an urban system polarised with high value making functions coexisting with pockets of relatively devalued groups and spaces. Hence, in essence, the role of environment in this strand can be argued to be merely that of 'environmental management'. 2 The Case of Kolkata (Calcutta) Fringe Areas, India Kolkata is the capital of the state of West Bengal. The city served as the capital of India until 1911, after which the national capital shifted to Delhi. It is located in east India, on the eastern bank of the River Hooghly (Ganges). It is the third-largest urban agglomeration in India. The municipal area of the city has a population of about 5 million, with an extended metropolitan population of over 14 million (RGI, 2001). The city, under the administrative jurisdiction of the Kolkata Municipal Corporation (KMC), has a municipal area of 185 km. The urban agglomeration, known as the Kolkata Metropolitan Area, is spread over 1750 km as of 2006. The extended urban agglomeration is administered by several local governments, including 38 local municipalities. The urban agglomeration comprises of 72 cities and 527 towns and villages. The city is arranged in a linear fashion along the eastern bank of the river Hugli. It stretches in the north-south direction for about 15 km as per the municipal area and more than 25 km in the metropolitan area. The east-to-west dimension is narrow (of about 5-6 km width), owing to the presence of vast wetlands and salty lakes along the entire eastern stretch and the river in the west. The municipal area has an alarming population density of about 24,760/km (RGI, 2001). Like other large cities, Kolkata has inherent urbanisation problems like poverty, pollution, and traffic congestion (CSE, 1989). The Area of Interest The area of interest is a stretch of land in the northeastern fringe of the city that forms the border of the city as well as a zone of transition, beyond which urbanisation is ad hoc and scattered. The area lies between North Dum Dum and Madhyamgram, which are two small towns lying within the Kolkata urban agglomeration. The area is characterised by continuous urban stretches along its entire south, north, and west, and relatively rural environment towards its east and north-east (refer Fig 2). The area discussed is of about 4.5 sq km and consists of 2 administrative wards, with a population of around 1,85,000. Predominantly this is an urban area spread along the highway, with some concentrated development on its western side. The incidence of private gardens, tracts of open land, and ponds are seen particularly towards the eastern side of the locality. About 40% of the entire eastern part of the area is 'open', which is mostly private. In total, almost 20% of the area is subjected to open land use (excluding areas for transportation purpose). A distinctive character of the area is a spurt of building constructions by private developers for the last one-decade. The area also has a high incidence of tenants due to the proximity of 'Salt Lake' the IT industry node of Kolkata. The area also has some small-scale industries, in the textile and rubber sectors. Environmental Planning Challenges The area has a typical urban planning challenge as faced in fringe areas of large metropolitan cities of the developing countries. The challenge is typified by irregular patterns of building construction, lack of
Fig 2. The case area on Kolkata fringe. Area: 4.5 sqkm. Population: close to 200,000
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control, transportation issues, high population density, pollution, inadequate waste management, drainage and sanitation problems, and eventual consumption of open spaces. i) Landuse Pattern and Traffic: There is no particular land use pattern, control, or guideline that can be followed in the area. The changes in land use are organic, privately decided, and ad hoc. This has led to rampant commercialisation and real estate capitalisation by private developers. Most of these tenants serve in the main city of Kolkata or as migrant labourers. ii) Building Density and Quality: A major issue is the high rate of construction on already built-up structures and the conversion of open land into built-up. Vertical growth, fragmentation of property, total ground coverage, and illegal construction throng many areas leading to stress on the infrastructure. It has affected the natural drainage channels and increased surface runoff significantly. Most buildings have a very high population density.. iv) Drainage and Solid Waste: There are many low-lying patches that submerge during the monsoon. The existing (open) drainage system chokes due to stress during monsoon. The growing population density and commercialisation in the area also leads to excess wastewater generation. Solid waste management system is also in a critical threshold. Understanding the Key Stakeholders The area beholds an interesting and odd situation of multiple and overlapping institutional jurisdiction. Formally, the locality is under the administrative jurisdiction of Madhyamgram Municipality. It is the main planning agency as per mandate. It is also entrusted with the normal municipal functions as in other Indian towns. Most of the adjoining municipalities of Kolkata share functional resources and facilities with Kolkata Municipal Corporation (KMC) owing to the continuous nature of urbanisation. KMC is the main administering body for the entire Kolkata Municipal Area, and it is responsible for the municipal services to areas as close as 1 km from the locality. It has a strong bearing on the decisions of the neighbouring municipalities. The Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority (KMDA) is another important planning body responsible for the planning actions for the entire Kolkata Metropolitan Area. KMDA, hence, is also a key stakeholder. The 'Housing Division' of the local municipality has special roles in sanctioning building plans as per architectural standards. It is also entrusted to check the land use of the plan to be sanctioned. The local 'ward offices', which directly manage the ward, are the lowest level of administration. The Public Works Department (PWD) is a major stakeholder in such fringe areas as it caters to the roads and drainage system. Other than these formal institutions, there are innumerable local business units, civil society organisations, trade unions, clubs, and NGOs operating in the area who have varied connections and role in the city administration. The final group of stakeholders are the residents in these areas. The entire mesh of actors can be grouped into five broad heads as described in Table 1. Diversity in Reality: Can planning help? The case discussed here is relevant for any developing country urban framework. Development ceases to happen in the 'collective rationale', as discussed before, but enters into the domain of individual and household interests and affordability. However, when the local population has a complex and diverse mix of floating population, original residents with transforming occupation, and small business units a situation of conflict is likely. The floating population who are the rural migrants relying mainly on their labour power have a large impact. Such groups have a limited asset profile, and are generally found with varying interests. Some of these are seasonal workers who return to their villages during cropping season, while others have migrated for permanent settlement. Such groups of people start finding and utilising natural and physical capital locally that can be converted into exchange-able assets for livelihood. In the process, they squat, or start urban farming, or become labour force. They grow cash crops on the alluvial soil within the town, in and around their areas of squatting. They serve as labourers in the shops, bigger textile and rubber industries, or local vegetable market. They also serve in many illegal household industries like plastic and paper recycling units, bamboo and tin based industries. This population are relatively poorer and form a key ingredient for the local informal business. Each of the three strands has a viewpoint on the position of environment and each of them holds it to be an important factor in the urban situation. Therefore, it is true that, in theoretical terms, a consciousness is present. But the question is whether the consciousness is pragmatic enough for right action? Compared to Fig 1 that primarily depicts the role of environmental planners as consultants towards the end parts of the chain, we present here a framework (Fig 3) that can seek a better insight of the environmental consciousness in the plan making approach or theory. It divulges at every level assessing and enabling the environmental experts' role in each step, as shown in grey (Fig 2). However, the process drawn in Fig 1 and 3 is heavily tilted towards the techno-centric instrumental rationality mode of approaching planning. However, there is a proactive insistence to include the local actors in every step of the process (refer grey boxes denoting participation). It is also 498
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Table 1. Stakeholder Profile in the Area of Interest, Kolkata, India.
important to understand, through the process as depicted in fig 2, the scale to which the local players and grassroots institutions have a say in the plan formation and management of local resources. Insert Fig 3. Searching for environmental consciousness in planning process (Adapted from Lee and Wood, 1978; and Davidoff and Reiner, 1962). This paper would like to conclude by saying that the concept of a regulated 'environmental determinism' can be a key stepping stone is making urban planning environmentally conscious. While environmental determinism can be the key tools in understanding the techniques and procedures to record, classify, develop inventories, and valuate natural resources of a region, it does not measure whether planning action has been environmentally conscious. Hence a proactive research agenda in developing nations that monitors the use of spatial tools and judges the level of environmental standards at every plan-making step is necessary. References
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Faludi, A (1973): A Reader in Planning Theory. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Frey, H.W. (1999): Designing the City: Towards a More Sustainable Urban Form. UK: Spon Press. Friedmann J (1986): World City Hypothesis. Development and Change. Vol 17, p69-84. Giradet, H. (1992): The Gaia Atlas of Cities: New directions for sustainable urban living. London: Gaia Books. Jenks, M. and Burgess, R (eds) (2000): Compact Cities: sustainable urban forms for developing countries. London: Spon. Marcuse, P and VanKampen, R. (eds) (2000): Globalizing cities: Is there a new spatial order? Oxford: Blackwell. McHarg, I. L. (1998) To Heal the Earth. Washington DC: Iceland Press. Naess, A. (1973): "The shallow and the deep, long range ecology movement" in Inquiry Vol 16, p95-100. Nijkamp, P. and Perrels, A. (1994): Sustainable Cities in Europe: a comparative analysis of urban energy-environmental policies. London: Earthscan. O'Riordan, T. & Turner, R K. (1983): An Annotated Reader in Environmental Planning and Management. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Registrar General of India (2001): Census Tables 2001 - Kolkata District. Government of India. Taylor, P.W. (1986): Respect for Nature. A Theory of Environmental Ethics. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Tarafdar, A., SatyaPrakash and Gupta, R. (2006): 'GeoICT and Development - The Inverted Pyramid Syndrome', in Frontiers of Geographic Information Technology. New York: Springer. UNEP (1999): GEO-2000. London and New York, Earthscan. UN Habitat (2001): http://ww2.unhabitat.org/istanbul+5/bg10.htm World Bank (2005): http://www.worldbank.org/urban/facts.html
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The Theming of Arabia: Dubai and the Emerging Cities of Spectacle in the Persian Gulf
Khaled Adham1 & Ashraf Elmokadem2
1
UAE University, 2 Suez Canal University: Egypt K.Adham@uaeu.ac.ae
Introduction In the past two decades, Dubai has managed to attract international businesses and tourists in a magnitude that a few decades ago would have been unimaginable. These developments in Dubai have been concurrent with a rapid urbanization and building frenzy that are characterized by tremendously expanding the existing city in literally all spatial coordinates: building skyscrapers, constructing scores of themed malls and gated residential communities, importing sea water inland, creating artificial lakes and islands, and building underground and underwater amenities. These urban developments represent the largest real estate explosion the city has ever seen. By conceptualizing islands of work, leisure, and living it calls "cities," Dubai is developing towards becoming a vast archipelago of smaller disconnected new cities: Sports City, International City, Media City, Internet City, Falcon City of Wonder, Rotating City, Medical City, Studio City, to name but a few. In addition to linking economic ambitions to urban ideas the city developers and architects seem to have resorted to the art of simulation, theming the built environment, as a place-making strategy for these new cities. In fact, the entire city seems to be evolving in response to an impulse of artificially recreating real or imagined environments. The strategy that was once limited to specific entertainment spaces is now spreading into everything from chain restaurants to malls to housing developments and various tourist and entertainment venues. In this essay, we want to examine how the city of Dubai has used a particular urban strategy to expand its urban economy as well as physical structure. We will argue that we cannot understand this emerging urban economy with its accompanied phantasmagorical architectural forms in Dubai, which strives to become a global city, without mapping them in relation to other global trends, particularly in the economic regime of late capitalism. What better place today than Dubai can there be to illustrate and synthesize the dynamics of late capitalist spatializations?" to paraphrase what Edward Soja has written about Los Angeles a decade ago.[1] Theming, Lifestyle, and the Remaking of Dubai Brand To describe how Dubai is illustrative of the contemporary workings of global capital, we want to put forward five interrelated theoretical observations that represent slightly different attempts to frame the dynamics of these global urban trends in the city. First, in the past, as it is today, the main focus of the ever expanding global, capitalist corporations has been invariably to add value to their products. It has been through branding, one of the primary instruments of capitalism, that the products assumed the status of symbols and icons; in other words, products acquired sign values in addition to their use values. Thus in the current development of hyperinflated corporate power we entered the age of hypersignification, in which the urban experience is increasingly cluttered with circulating brand icons, sign wars, to use the words of Robert Goldman and Stephen Papson.[2] We will suggest that in the gulf region beyond all the headlines and current media preoccupation with wars in Iraq, an iconic war of hypersignification is taking place in the realm of architecture. Today, architecture has become one of the primary instruments of brand communication, of lending tangible form to corporate brands. In fact, we may not only talk about making a brand into a place but also making a place or even a city into a brand. Of course, cities have always been stereotyped, or branded, because they always reflect a rational or an emotional attachment: Cairo is history; Paris is romance, and so on. What is different in today's globalized, networked world is that every city has to compete with every other city for the share of the world's tourists, consumers, businesses, capital, and so on. Of course, cities with powerful and positive brands find it easier to attract investment and tourists. Thus, in order to gain a share in the global economy, cities are consciously striving to construct, manage, and maintain a brand image. In this brand-setting of cities, architecture seem to have assumed the role of forging backdrops for brand experiences with a high entertainment value, from flagship stores to themed residential gated communities, from innovative museum and mall concepts to spectacular, iconic office towers and hotels. Consider the role played by Burj Al-Arab Hotel in promoting the city of Dubai. Planned in the early 1990's, the hotel architect described his design goal as an attempt to find an iconic form. As Yasser Sheshtawy has pointed out, its iconic image was used eventually in the advertising for Dubai, replacing the old symbol of Fahidi fort and Sheikh Saeed house.[3] One perhaps may wonder which iconic image from the entourage of the new emerging architectural icons will represent the city in the years to come: the Palm, Burj Dubai, among others. Second, we learn from economists that one of the business models developed in the new economy of the internet age was done by Microsoft. In order to speed up the process of developing a particular software prod-
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uct and insure high quality, the Microsoft creates different, parallel competing work units. Competition is therefore not with other rival companies as is usually the case, but within the same work place. Similarly, this iconic competition in Dubai has been instigated internally by H.H. Sheikh Mohamed Bin Rashid, the Chairman of Dubai INC., as it is sometimes labeled. Ian Parker tells us that when he asked Mohamed Alabbar, Chairman of EMAAR, the largest real estate developer in Dubai, about the kind of competition he faces in Dubai, he said "Sheikh Mohamed created the others to compete. He said, 'I'll put three horses in the race, they'll all run, they are all my horses.' I like that. Did Alabbar truly think of himself as a horse owned by Sheikh Mohamed? 'I am his horse, but a horse is very valuable to Sheikh Mohamed.'"[4] Third, many scholars have established that something different is occurring in the nature of the capitalist system since the 1980's and early 1990's. The drive for capital accumulation in advanced, industrialist societies and their corollaries-the loosely connected, reproduced socio-economic and political nodes or clones in developing countries-is distending a second economic tier, which accumulates capital through cultural rather than industrial production, a cultural capitalism tier.[5] The main trade of this expanding economic tier is veritably not the selling and buying of goods produced in factories, but the performance and consumption of cultural experiences produced in specific spaces in the city. From this perspective, the private and public sectors in Dubai seem to have put much emphasis on re-orienting the economy towards this expanding economic tier, which explains much of the recent architectural developments that use culture as a backdrop to answer the lack of cultural venues in the city. Consider for example the new mega project by Dubai properties. "The Culture Village has arrived," announces the newspaper advertisement for the most ambitious of the new developments, a 15-billion USD leisure and tourist project. While primarily the village will be comprised of upscale residences, it distinguishes itself from other similar gated communities by adding cultural venues with a re-invented Arabian architectural style: it has an amphitheater, a library, a museum, a dancing academy, antique shops, numerous art galleries, themed Arabian coffee shops and restaurants, and a rustic traditional souk. Finally, not less than the famous architect Zaha Hadid will complement this cultural ensemble with a new opera house for the city. In Dubai, as in other parts of the region and beyond, culture, once adversary to the values and hegemonizing forces of the market place, is now becoming its primary apostle and the main communicator of its values.[6] Fourth, many social critics call attention to the fact that today the selection of brands have become important factors in defining people's identities and lifestyles. The American writer Mark Gottdiener reckons that today lifestyles are increasingly becoming intrinsic markers of who one is and as a means to connect to others.[7] Akin to the individual's possession of commodities, his or her adoption of a certain brand or lifestyle marks and conveys to one's peer groups meaning, status, and prestige; it displays in one's society some sort of cultural capital. To put it differently, while for the individual the display function of commodity signs remains a significant source for identity actualization and for prestige, the accumulation of cultural experiences, cultural capital, represents an increasingly dominant source for identity formation and status. Illustrative of this reliance on exotic experience as a symbolic, cultural capital is the eagerness of many tourists to take photographs in certain sites so that they can tell their peers back home that they were in a particular place, the 'I have been there' feeling to paraphrase what Jean Baudrillard calls the 'I did it' feeling.[8] It is for the gaining of cultural capital that a large segment of tourists are increasingly motivated to experience differences and the exotic; and it is for supplying this exotic experience that the urban developers and tourism industries in Dubai are manufacturing the exotic brands and lifestyle spaces. Fifth, a growing number of critics in various fields of knowledge are trying to understand what has been taking place as post-industrial societies develop new and more elaborate methods of simulations-an argument very closely related to the observations above, yet puts more emphasis on the animated images and the simulation of exotic themes in the built environment. No doubt, simulation is becoming increasingly evident in the strategies of developing the built environment in Dubai. Some urban analysts contend that theming is happening as a result of the expansion of the service sector, which now dominates all other sectors in advanced and developing economies. Building on this issue, management consultants Joseph Pine and James Gilmore argue that an advanced stage of the service economy is beginning to emerge where businesses are selling experiences rather than merely performing services.[9] This, they suggest, is a natural progression in the value added by the business over and above its inputs. Their core argument is that because of digital technology and increasing competition services today are starting to orchestrate memorable events for their customers, as memory itself is becoming the product, or to be more accurate, the simulated experience. Thus we find in Dubai a plethora of cultural entertainment venues devising and utilizing some overarching symbolic themes in its proliferating spaces. One may say that leisure and tourist spaces in Dubai have become like staged commercial entertainment settings replete with signs that, in addition to their function in differentiating leisure and tourist products, communicate meanings embedded in their signs, which promote specific lifestyles and patterns of consumption for the cosmopolitan citizen, who, as Zygmund Bauman has suggested, thinks of life as 502
Khaled Adham & Ashraf Elmokadem: The Theming of Arabia
a continuous holiday. Entire sections of Dubai indeed seem to be dressing, or redressing, in themed, flashy, stimulating, simulated environments that are intended to seduce consumers and attract tourism. The centerpiece of these makings of the architecture of themed experience is Dubailand, an on-going hyper-real, superlarge development which when finished will comprise more than 45 mega projects in what is promised to be the largest themed, entertainment development in the world. Cases abound. Consider for example, the Falcon City of Wonders, one prominent development in Dubailand. The Dh5.5-billion project will be a large residential community that is themed after carefully selected ancient and modern wonders: Great pyramids of Giza, Wall of China, Eiffel Tower, among others. Or take al-Bawadi, a 25 billion USD, tourist and leisure resort that will feature a cluster of 31 hotels, including the world's biggest, Asia-Asia, and some 100 theatres presenting live cultural shows. Ibn Batuta Mall is another case in point. It is a highly distinctive mall that aims to capture the adventure and excitement of the life of Ibn Battuta, the famous 14th century Arabian traveler and scholar, throughout its single-level expanse which stretches for over a kilometer of six segmented distinct architectural zones, representing key destinations visited by him. Through theming and creating a memorable experience, the mall, which combines typical retail, entertainment, restaurants and family activities, attempts to distinguish itself from other malls in Dubai. The themed mall functions as an inverted, animated city with people flocking for the experience while happily spending their dollars. Conclusion: Branded Urban Archipelagos The branding of Dubai through simulated, themed, and spectacular built-environments and iconic buildings seems to have helped the city to conjure up an image for tourists and visitors. This is how cities are competing under today's global capitalist system. In this iconic brand war, architecture seems to have become geared towards transmitting a message that translates design into an emotional impact, where the success of architectural forms and spaces is contingent on their entertainment qualities. Moreover, whether for work, leisure, or living, these emerging spaces in Dubai are increasingly branded and banded, isolated, from each other and from the existing city. They form a chain of an ever expanding list of cities within the city. They are competing urban archipelagos of lifestyle heavens that attract businesses and entrepreneurs from all over the globe. Dubai's new urbanity is, therefore, a concurrent un-bounding and re-bounding of its cityscape: while its new urban spaces are promising to be isolated physically and perhaps culturally from the city, these spaces will be hyper-linked to other spaces and urban experiences that are dotting the cityscapes in various parts of the world. Preferences
[1] Edward W. Soja, Postmodern Geographies. (London, Verso, 1991), P. 191. [2]} Robert Goldman and Stephen Papson, Sign Wars (New York: Guilford, 1996). [3] Yasser Elsheshtawy, "Redrawing boundaries," in Y. Elsheshtawy (ed) Planning the Middle Eastern City (London: Routledge, 2004), p. 187. [4] Ian Parker, "The Mirage: The Architectural Insanity of Dubai," The New Yorker (October 17, 2005), p. 143. [5] Jeremy Rifkin, The Age of Access (New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam, 2000). [6] Ernest Mandel, Late Capitalism (London: NLB Atlantic Highlands Humanities Press, 1975) [7] Mark Gottdiener, "Approaches to Consumption" in M. Gottdiener (ed) New Forms of Consumption (New York: Roman & Littlefield, 2000). [8] Quoted in Stjepan Mestrovic, Postemotional Society (London: Sage, 1997) p. 83. [9] B. Joseph Pine II and James H. Gilmore, The Experience Economy (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1999). [10] Zygmund Bauman, Postmodern Ethics (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993). The concept of an emerging cosmopolitan citizenship is borrowed from Chris Rojek, "Mass Tourism or the Re-Enchantment of the World? Issues and Contradictions in the Study of Travel," in M. Gottdiener (ed) New Forms of Consumption (New York: Roman & Littlefield, 2000) p. 51.
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Research Training Group: Perspectives on Urban Ecology Shrinking Cities

W. Endlicher, K. Krellenberg
Humboldt Universitt zu Berlin, Institute of Geography, Berlin, Germany wilfried.endlicher@geo.hu-berlin.de
1. Introduction The Postgraduate Research Programme (Grako 780/2) is funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) and gives young researchers the possibility for further academic qualifications. Actual, fourteen scholarship holders (thirteen PhD students and one postdoc) and five associated PhD students do their research embedded within the five different spheres which there are atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, pedosphere and anthroposphere and in the field of methodology (Fig. 1). The overall thematic context of the research are "Shrinking Cities". In addition, a study programme with lectures, excursions, workshops and courses is offered as well as international research cooperation is part of the qualification.
Fig. 1:. Research fields
2. Participating institutions The Research Training Group is a corporate project of the three Universities of Berlin (HU, TU and FU) and the Leibniz-Institut fr Gewsserkologie und Binnenfischerei (IGB). The complexity of the central idea of "Shrinking Cities" asks for an interdisciplinary approach because it can only be completed by cooperating within different science branches. The researchers of the Research Training Group come from different science disciplines as geography, biology, planning sciences, hydrology, psychology and pedology (Fig. 1). 3. Shrinking cities and urban ecology The term "Shrinking Cities" describes the phenomenon of a decreasing population and an economic restructuring within cities. This process is thought of being a generalised tendency, especially in Eastern Germany 504
W. Endlicher, K. Krellenberg: Research Training Group: Perspectives on Urban Ecology Shrinking Cities
cities and regions. The process involves a change in use or loss of functions of formerly intensively used industrial, trade and traffic sites. In the city of Berlin several urban fallow lots have been generated by this structural change. The ecological, social, and economic potential of these spaces is important as a basis for their different optional users. Against this background three investigation areas were chosen for the Research Training Group: the housing estate Marzahn-Nord (1), the former Betriebsbahnhof Schneweide (2) and the ancient airfield Johannisthal (3) (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2: Areas of investigation
4. Key question and research concept The key question of the Postgraduate Research Programme is: How can fallow lots be used to improve life quality of city residents? The research concept includes the following three questions: 1. How can the effects of shrinking-processes in urban environments be understood and characterised, especially in their ecological dimensions? 2. What chances do they give for the development of urban nature? 3. In what way can the change of urban structure improve the living conditions of urban residents? A fundamental goal is the recognition of natural and social mechanisms, and their consequences. In addition, conclusions are drawn for the development of new planning instruments, which can be applied for shaping the novel processes of shrinking cities. All research projects focus on three areas of investigation in order to allow an exchange of data and results. 5. Prospects The third phase of the Postgraduate Research Programme will start in April 2008. The aim will be to work out strategies for optimizing the development of urban nature and their functions concerning the quality of life of the city dwellers, and to evaluate them in an interdisciplinary way. Therefore drastic transformations like climate change, shrinking cities and demographic as well as economic developments and their consequences for the environment and the nature in metropolis are considered in scenarios.
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Workinggroup 6 Energy and environment
Measures of Energy Saving for Buildings in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, P.R.China
Jian Xingchao
Construction Department of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, P. R.China jianchingchao@tsinghua.org.cn
Abstract The paper gives an overview of the energy consumption of buildings in Guangxi Zhuang and discusses envisaged methods and efforts of energy reduction in the autonomous Region of P. R.China. Key words: Energy saving in buildings, energy efficiency, Guangxi, renewable energy Brief introduction of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region is located in the South of China, near Vietnam. There are 13 nationalities living in this autonomous region. The area is 237.000 km2, which is about 66% of Germany's. The population was 49.6 million in 2006 which is about 60% of Germany's. The per capita GDP of Guangxi in 2006 was 1300 $, which is only about 4% of Germany's and about 67% of the average value of the whole China. It is expected that the per capita GDP will increase to 2000 $ in 2011 and to 3000 $ before 2018 since its economy has been developing very quickly during the last several years. The energy production of Guangxi in 2005 was 12.33 million tons SCE (Standard Coal Equivalent), of which about 70.5% was hydropower and 29.1% coal. The total energy consumption of Guangxi in 2005 was 48.90 million tons SCE. That means about 75% of the energy consumed had to be imported from other provinces or foreign countries. According to the order of the central government, the energy consumption per unit GDP of Guangxi has to decrease about 15% from 2006 to 2010. So energy saving has become a challenge for the subordinate governments in all provinces of China from 2007 on. Energy consumption of buildings in Guangxi The energy consumption of buildings includes all the energy consumed in the buildings, including electricity for light, energy for water supply, warm water production, cooking and heating as well as air-conditioning, elevators and all other electric equipment inside the buildings. Currently more than 70% of the energy consumption of Guangxi is used in industry; however, the building energy consumption has been increasing steadily during the last years. The proportion of energy consumed by buildings in 2004 and 2005 is about 17.5% and 18.7% respectively. It is estimated that this proportion will increase to about 20% in 2007 and the consumed energy will amount to 13 million tons SCE. Up to the end of 2006, the total building area of Guangxi was about 506
Jian Xingchao: Measures of Energy Saving for Buildings in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, P.R.China
1.5 billion square meters. About 60% of the buildings were in the countryside; however, the energy consumption of such buildings is relatively low and it estimated that about 80% of the building energy consumption occurs in urban areas and cities but not in the countryside. The tropic of cancer goes through Guangxi and the average annual temperature is 16.5?23.1?. Annual rainfall is about 1080?2760 mm. Air-conditioning and warm water supply make up about 50-60% of the energy consumed in the buildings in Guangxi. In the summer of 2006, the peak value of air-condition power was nearly 3 million kW, which was more than 1/3 of the whole electric power available. In the next 15 years, each year about 70 million square meters of building area will be constructed in Guangxi, which means the building energy consumption will increase even more in the years to come. Measures of energy saving for buildings aim to cut down the energy consumption without reducing convenience and comfort. What has been done in recent years to increase energy saving of buildings in Guangxi The increased power consumption is a problem of the fast economy development in Guangxi. From the end of the last century, with the increase of people's income, more and more air-condition systems have been installed in buildings and the energy consumption of buildings has risen quickly. With the beginning of the new century Guangxi's government started to pay attention to the necessity of energy saving for buildings and real effective efforts have been made after 2003. The 50% energy saving design criterion for hot summer and warm winter zones which is suitable for Guangxi was published by Ministry of Construction in 2003 and the Guangxi regional criterion was carried out in 2005. For a new building constructed according to the new criterion, the energy consumption could decrease by 50% compared with the old buildings in perfect condition. Since the real energy consumption is much less than the perfect condition, the really saved energy is less than 50% but it could be around 10% to 30%. The related local criteria such as those for construction, for checking and accepting will be published in the Aug. of 2007. Many research projects and endeavours on measures of energy saving were financed by the government and a lot of energy saving technologies have been developed and applied. Several energy saving demonstration projects were finished in 2005 and 2006. Some public buildings' central air-condition systems were adjusted and could save more than 25% of electric power. A lot of rules force the design and construction companies to carry out the new energy saving criteria. Many training schools were organized to support technical staff involved with the application of the new criteria. It is expected that all the new buildings will be constructed according to the new energy saving rules by the end of 2007 in all urban areas. However, because of many difficulties, especially the costs of new materials and construction design which have increased about 10%, the implementation of the new criteria in the towns and countryside will actually take 3 to 5 years. The total objective for energy savings of buildings in Guangxi is 1.42 million tons SCE from 2006 to 2010. This amount of SCE that must be saved was distributed among all the cities of Guangxi and it will be checked once a year. Unfortunately, the task of 2006 was not achieved. Thus, the government has to make more efforts in the next 4 years. What will be done for energy saving of buildings in Guangxi in the next years The state's statutory management of energy saving of buildings is still on discussion and will be published in the end of 2007. The related detailed management rules will be prepared then and the management of energy saving of buildings will get strong legal support. More money and efforts could be put into this field and various kinds of encouraging policies to construct buildings with higher energy efficiency will be discussed then. The law on renewable energy has been issued in 2006, and a new policy has been carried out to encourage the use of renewable energy like solar and GSHP (ground-source heat pumps) technology in buildings. The central government could give a subsidy of 30-90 Yuan per square meter if the building uses renewable energy, which could cover 20-40% of the construction costs using new technologies and in addition, its user could get long-term energy saving benefits. The local government was asked to give also financial support to demonstration projects which use renewable energy. The central government expects that more than 25% of new buildings will use renewable energy in 2010 and the proportion could increase to 50% in 2020. The similarly encouraging policy to reconstruct old buildings by insulating outside walls or replacing technical equipment with higher energy efficiency in the building to save energy is also expected to be published by the end of 2007. The energy used for heating during the winter and for cooling during the summer is the main part of the energy consumption of buildings that must be decreased. In China, since most experts in the field of energy saving of building are from the north of China and most technology is developed for the north of China, the technology and technical criteria which are fit for Guangxi climate character are urgently needed. In the north of China, the heat preservation of buildings is necessary for energy saving because the temperature difference between the outside and inside of buildings can be 30 to 40 degree in cold winters. In the
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Energy and environment
south of China like Guangxi, there is not much need of heating in winter since in winter the temperature is normally higher than 15 degrees and the main need is to get a comfortable inside environment during the long summers which can last 5 to 6 months. So air-condition is used more and more widely with the increased income of Guangxi's inhabitants. Since the temperature difference between outside and inside of buildings is less than 10 degrees even in the hot summer, heat preservation for buildings is not important. On the other hand, heat insulation is needed to prevent the heat transportation from outside. In the summer buildings are heated by sunlight, so shade is very necessary for energy saving in summer. Natural ventilation could make people feel comfortable even if the air temperature does not decrease. A new structural approach of energy saving buildings is the design of large eaves to get ample sunshade as well as big windows in the south and north walls of the buildings to get strong natural ventilation and enough light to avoid the use of lamps in the daytime. On the other hand, the lack of windows in east and west walls would prevent heating by strong sunlight. More research and study is needed to get sufficient experience and to find out suitable and affordable technologies and material for more energy savings. For example, normally dope is daubed on the outside of buildings for waterproof and fitment. In the last several years, a kind of dope is widely studied which can reflect more than 80% of solar light energy (most of it in the infrared energy range) and the price is almost the same with the traditional dope. After preliminary studies the temperature inside the buildings could decrease 3 to 5 degree in the summer time with this kind of dope on the outside of buildings. This dope could also be used inside buildings and in winter, it could keep the heat in the house and thus, the energy used by air-conditioning and heating would decrease about 15-20%. This is a very suitable technology for the south of China. The special criterion for this kind of dope will be published in 2007 and it is expected this kind of dope will then be used widely, not only in buildings but also in cars and trains. The electric equipment, especially for air-conditioning and light, will be strictly regulated in the future, in particular for public buildings which consume about 10 to 20 times more energy per every square meter compared with buildings in residential areas. The energy consumption of public buildings will be audited and publicized in next years and gradually each public building will get an energy quota to increase efficient use. A plan of optimizing central air-conditioning systems to improve the efficiency of 300 large public buildings such as government offices and supermarkets in the coming 2 years is carefully studied. It is expected that about 25% of the energy consumption of air-condition systems will be saved in these buildings. 71 universities and colleges, 116 high schools and 368 hotels in Guangxi have been asked to make operable reconstruction plans to improve the energy efficiency of their buildings. The main alteration methods include: the use of solar or GSHP technology to produce warm water, the use of frequency conversion technology for airconditioning, replacement of traditional lamps with energy saving lamps, use of intelligent systems to control lighting, changing the kitchen stove to reduce the energy for cooking, planting tall trees around the buildings, adding sunshade device for the housetop and windows, adding heat insulation materials or high reflecting paint outside the walls. The management of energy savings in buildings will be stricter in the future. For all new buildings designed after 2006, technical data will have to be explained in detail and will be checked carefully by other design companies before construction. The construction company should lay open such technical data for possible investors and purchasers of buildings from 2008 on. The energy efficiency of buildings will be checked after construction and the data will be compared with the design data. If the measured data can not fulfill the given criteria, the building has to be reconstructed and the design and construction companies will be punished. It was demanded that an inciting policy be established by the city and county government to support the higher energy efficiency buildings. Tax and financial incentive policies for energy saving buildings are currently being discussed. Energy saving services which detect and replace or adjust the energy consumption equipment are strongly supported by the government. The establishment of energy saving service companies was prompted by the design and detection companies. The EMC (Energy Management Contract) is encouraged by the central and local government. More energy saving training and education will be organized by the province government. Also an education which helps to change people's habits in order to save energy is very useful, such as setting the temperature of air-condition at 26 degree and shutting down the computer and printer when they are not used. The main method of energy saving on the countryside is to extend the use of renewable energy.
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Energy potentials of wastewater

Matthias Barjenbruch, Alexander Wriege-Bechtold
Technische Universitt Berlin, Faculty Planning-Building-Environment, Germany alexander.wriege-bechtold@tu-berlin.de
Introduction Against the background of political crisis in the Middle East and the increasing demand of raw materials it is inescapable to think about looking for new and sustainable energy sources. The use of energy potentials of waste water could be one part. The energy supply in Germany depends hardly from fossil energy sources. At present more than 60% of the electricity is produced by using fossil fuels. For the primary energy use it is up to 83% in Germany. Only 5% are produced by using renewable sources. In comparison with other European countries, this is a bad performance. /PRESSEDIENST AGEB (2006)/ The look for new energy sources is under discussion. Beside energy saving technologies it is important to find renewable energy potentials. In the field of sanitary engineering there are some possibilities to generate energy either from sewage sludge or under use of the waste water's potential, kinetic or heat energy. On the other hand wastewater-treatment needs a lot of energy. Between 0.4 to 0.8 kWh per m wastewater is required depending to the technology of the plant. The main consumer is the biological stage (nearly 70% for aeration). /BARJENBRUCH (2006)/
other 4% coal 13% brown coal 11%
nuclear energy 12%
water/wind power 1%
petroleum 36%
natural gas 23%
Fig. 1: Total primary energy supply in Germany in 2004 /PRESSEDIENST AGEB (2006)/
Energy from sludge The facilities in a wastewater-treatment plant consume a lot of energy. But wastewater is full of energy, too. With an intelligent energy management, it is possible to produce the most energy for the process at the wastewater-treatment plant itself to work in a nearly self-sufficient state. Sewage sludge and sludge also contain a lot of energy. In the activated sludge process, nearly 40% of the carbon is removed by respiration to CO2. The largest part of the carbon is found the sludge in form of biomass. Sewage sludge in wastewater treatment plants accumulates in the primary and secondary settlement tank. Carbon is a component of methane. Methane is the result of the anaerobic process. Several classes of organisms degrade high-molecular input substances (fats, proteins, carbohydrates) through intermediate substances into final products: methane, carbon dioxide and water. Digestion is a natural process of anaerobic decomposition. Digesters are used in large-scale processes to treat sewage sludge, to produce biogas which can be used to run power electricity generators, provide heat and produce soil-improving material. This process reduces the amount of organic matter. Anaerobic microorganism produces less biomass than aerobic. Methane is the main component of generated biogas. According to the transformed organic matter, /Mudrack (1977)/ mentioned the following theoretical gas production: carbohydrates 886 l biogas per kg; methane content 50% fats 1,535 l biogas per kg; methane content 70% proteins 587 l biogas per kg; methane content 84%
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Biogas is a renewable energetic mixture of methane and carbon dioxide. With a combined heat and power unit (CHP), biogas can be transformed to electric energy and heat. Most of the wastewater-treatment plants use the energy for their own requirements. The power supply system can be fed with the current spill-over of the produced electricity. Generated biogas will be used for mixing the reactor. The heat is applied in the anaerobic process again. In today's waste water treatment, the possibility of concentrate the sludge by sedimentation is limited. For small municipal sewage plants, it is uneconomic to use digesters. Sludge will be concentrated by pressing and will be transported to bigger units. The stabilisation process most frequently used in medium and bigger municipal sewage plants is the digestion process. Sludge digestion is economic applicable for plants with more than 10,000 inhabitants. In municipal sewage plants' digesters, the typical gas production amount is 800 l biogas per kg of degraded organic dry solid or 400 l biogas per kg of organic dry solid input, respectively. Methane content is 60% to 70%. The possibilities of how to use the digested sludge are manifold. Stabilised sludge will be used as soil conditioner/fertiliser in agriculture. Due to the existing pollutant content in sewage sludge, the prospective disposal is just being discussed. In 2003, 56% of sewage sludge was disposed into agriculture in Germany. In Switzerland, sludge disposal to agriculture has been prohibited since 2006 and in Austria it is only permitted in some districts. In Germany, land filling with sewage sludge is no longer possible. The incineration of sludge is increasing. The burning technology depends on the caloric value of the sludge. The smaller the caloric value is, the higher is the energy input for incineration. Caloric values of sludge depend on kind of sludge, different numbers are mentioned (5.0 and 8.5 kWh per m /LOLL (1996)/). The extracted biogas will transformed by combined heat and power units (CHP) to electricity and heat. 1 SCM (standard cubic meter) has a potential of 2 kWh. Modern CHPs reach degrees of efficiency of 40% electricity and 40% heat. If there is all sludge in Germany available for digestion (sewage sludge mass in Germany 2004: 2.3 million t Dry Matter, /STATISTISCHES BUNDESAMT 2006/): 670 Billion kWh electricity and 670 kWh heat are generatable. The electricity consumption of a 3 people household is nearly 3,500 kWh/a. With the electricity from the total volume of sludge approximately 200,000 households could be substituted. This is almost 1% of total population in Germany. New strategies of urban water management with modern sanitary systems reduce of CO2 A short time ago modern sanitary systems seem to be applicable in Germany only to sparsely populated areas without existing sewer systems. But today there are many old sewer systems which must be reconstructed in the next few years. Otherwise resources like phosphorous and fossil fuels decrease more and more, like already mentioned. Because of the facilities to save water and substitute energy it is merely a matter of time to think about the implementation of modern sanitary systems in multi-storey buildings of urban areas. It was found out that those systems are a close alternative to the conventional urban sewer systems. At present nutrients and pollutants are removed in wastewater-treatment-plants. The energy of the wastewater is only used in the digesters at the end of the process. To catch nutrients and energy separating vacuum toilets are established. The separated flows can be treated in a suitable way. By the close range of source and treatment, there are no costs for transport of wastewater. The main idea of those systems is to separate the several flows of human excrements at the source. The yellowwater (urine with or without flush water) can be used as raw material for fertiliser products. The fertiliser can be used for manuring of renewable primary products in order to generate biogas. Especially brownwater (with co-substrate like bio waste) is adapted for biogas production with high calorific value. Separating vacuum toilets collect high-concentrated brown water. With co-fermentation of bio-waste from households and brownwater in a biogas plant it is possible to treat wastewater, save energy and produce energy same way. Bio-waste from allotments and gardens and renewable primary products as co-substrate for fermentation is capable, too. The digested sludge can be used as fertiliser or soil conditioner in agriculture. Biogas can be used for heating, cooking and hot water or in a CHP to generate electricity and heat. A sequenced batch reactor combined with a membrane-plant will treat the greywater to water for domestic use in allotments and for flushing of toilets. The dispensable water will be drained into ground. Advantages of the anaerobic treatment process are the costs of energy decrease because there is no need for aeration. The complete system should be small enough to install in the basement. If this is uneconomical or there is not enough space for the installations in the houses it is possible to use existing pump stations. The practicability regarding legislation and technical feasibility will be checked.
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Matthias Barjenbruch, Alexander Wriege-Bechtold: Energy potentials of wastewater
Figure 2: scenario of alternative wastewater treatment in a multi-storey building
New sanitation systems have a significant development potential, since they apply to different conditions. For a large-scale market introduction however, further development steps are required, in particular in the field of sanitation technology. Generated heat from wastewater In many countries lost heat from discharged air is recaptured and used again. Beside sludge there is another source of energy in wastewater: heat energy. By using special heat pumps it is possible the generate energy for heating of buildings in general. A decreasing of 1 Kelvin temperature of wastewater means a potential of round about 1.5 kWh heat per cubic metre wastewater. The theoretical calculated amount in Germany per day is by: 80,000,000 million inhabitants 0.1 m/d 1.5 kWh/m = 12,000,000 kWh/d The standard heat energy use of a one-family-house is approximately 20,000 kWh per year. According to this 220,000 houses can be powered with heat from this source theoretically. The preconditions for the real use are location, temperature of wastewater in sewer, required place for exchanger Like BURI ET KOBEL (2004) detected additional end conditions which must be kept: dry weather flow more than 15 l/s cities with more than 3,0005,000 inhabitants sewers with a diameter greater than 600800 mm Biological processes in wastewater treatment plants depend on temperature. Therefore it is important to balance advantages of energy use versus disadvantages of decreased water temperature for purification performance. Basically it is possible to use heat energy from waste water on the following locations: sewer sections near wastewater treatment plants close to buildings outflow of wastewater treatment-plants pump stations for wastewater wastewater pressure mains Before planning the measurement of temperature and flow at the place of installation over a longer period is essential. Heat from wastewater is a local and long range renewable energy source. The heat in raw sewage is accepting small fluctuations always available. Heat from wastewater reduces CO2-emission and the systems are state-of-the-art. Mostly heat customers are close to heat sources.
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Potential energy in waste water Water with a geodetic high with more than 0 m over the groundwater or sea level has potential energy. Potential energy can be transformed to electricity by turbines. There are some water power plants using this energy of fresh water like in dams. If the outlet of a municipal sewage plant is some meters above the receiving water level, it is possible to install turbines for power generation. At the wastewater-treatment plant in Emmerich/Germany a turbine with an electrical output of 10 kW is installed in an outlet chamber. The volumetric flow rate is 400 l/s with a head of 4 m. The yearly generated electricity for this example is approximately 40.000 kWh. There are no problems with suspended sediments, ice-formation, refreezing and screenings disposal. There is no worry about disadvantages for flora and fauna in the receiving water. Fossil fuels will be substituted by water power. Conclusions Fossil fuels are running out definitely. Only renewable energies are sustainable substitutes for our energy demand. The further energy market will depend from many small renewable sources, because there is no new energy source in the scale of petroleum or natural gas. The energy potential in wastewater should be one module in the energy mix of the future. The potentials in wastewater are central sludge digestion or semi-central anaerobic wastewater-treatment, heat and water power. To use energy from wastewater makes more independent from price development on the petroleum and gasoline market. Those techniques are environment-friendly and reduce the CO2-emissions. Literature
Barjenbruch, M., Einfache Mglichkeiten zur Energieoptimierung auf Klranlagen, Fachseminar fr Laboranalytik und Prozessmesstechnik der Fa. Hach-Lange Berlin; 11.05.2006 Buri, R.; Kobel, B., Wrmenutzung aus Abwasser, http://www.infrastructures.ch/dokumente/Leitfaden_ara_kanalisationsbetreiber.pdf (28.03.2007) Loll, U., Biogasmengen und -eigenschaften, ATV-Seminar Biogas (1996) zitiert in Dichtl, N., Biogaserzeugung und -verwertung - eine bewhrte Technik mit Zukunft, DWA Biogas- und Energietage, 20.-22.06.2006 in Marburg, Tagungsband DWA, Hennef 2006 Mudrack, K., Vorlesungsmanuskript "Ausgewhlte Kapitel der Wasser- und Abwasserbiologie", Hannover (1977) zitiert in Dichtl, N., Biogaserzeugung und -verwertung - eine bewhrte Technik mit Zukunft, DWA Biogas- und Energietage, 20.-22.06.2006 in Marburg, Tagungsband DWA, Hennef 2006 Pressedienst AGEB, AG Energiebilanzen e.V., Berlin, www.ag-energiebilanzen.de (04.07.2006) Statistisches Bundesamt, Pressemitteilung vom 21. Mrz 2006, http://www.destatis.de/presse/deutsch/pm2006/p1250111.htm
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Evaluation of financial aspects and energy performance indicators of residential real estate in the Netherlands
A.G. Entrop1, A.H.M.E. Reinders2, H.J.H. Brouwers1
1 Department of Construction Management & Engineering and 2 Department of Design, Production & Management, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands A.G.Entrop@ctw.utwente.nl
Abstract The introduction of the concept of sustainable building in the construction industry has led to different measures to reduce the environmental impact of building objects in the past decades. Because the built environment accounts for more than 40% of the total energy consumption in Europe (EC, 2002), energy saving techniques receive much attention. In the Netherlands the overall energy performance of houses can be calculated by three different indicators. In order to compare these Energy Performance Indicators (EPI) seven residential objects are evaluated. This study reflects on the financial efficiency of energy saving measures, techniques or technologies by introducing a new variable for the gains related to the value increase of houses. It is found that the energy performance of houses has gradually improved during the last century. The results of the financial analysis point out that the return on investments is high in Dutch real estate. Introduction This paper focuses on the energy performance of existing real estate in the Dutch residential sector. Especially older existing building stock, consisting of more than six million objects, offers many possibilities to reduce the energy use for example. Houses from before 1945 use on average 31 % more natural gas than houses from the period 2000 to 2004 (SenterNovem, 2006). The increase in price of natural gas the most common fuel for heating real estate in The Netherlands has already led to the application of energy saving measures within the existing building stock. However, little has been written about the possibilities to come to a better energy performance in a financially efficient way. Therefore, in this paper three energy performance indicators and the financial aspects of energy saving will be considered in the framework of a case study. The goal was to develop a methodology that can be used to energetically and financially assess energy saving measures that better expresses the actual developments in the value of residential real estate. Energy performance indicators for residential real estate In the Netherlands three methods are in use to calculate the energy performance of residential real estate: EPC, EIold, and EInew. 1) Since the end of 1995 new residential building stock has to meet the so called Energy Performance Coefficient (EPC). The EPC is the result of an integral energetic assessment of a building and its installations made during the design phase. The EPC for new residential real estate objects is calculated as follows (NNI, 2004):
EPC
Qtotal:EPC 330 Ags ; EPC 65 Ats ; EPC
1 C EPC
In which: Qtotal:EPC = yearly energy use of a house (MJ) 2 Ags;EPC = total ground surface (m ) 2 Ats;EPC = total thermal transmission surface (m ) = correction factor (-) CEPC
(1)
2) The Energy Index (EIold) is part of the Energy Performance Advice (EPA) procedure and calculates the energy performance of existing houses. In the EPA method the EIold is calculated by (Hoiting et al., 2004):
EI old
Qtotal :EI old

2 56 Ats ; EI old
Ats ; EI old
0.13 Ags ; EI old
0.06 Qtotal :EI old
In which: Qtotal;EI old= yearly energy use of a house (MJ) 2 Ags;EI old = total ground surface (m ) 2 Ats;EI old = total thermal transmission surface (m )
(2)
3) The implementation of the European Energy Performance Building Directive (EPBD) in the Netherlands made it necessary to develop a new Energy Index (EInew), which enables the certification of both new and existing buildings.The Dutch method uses this equation to calculate EInew (Blankestijn et al., 2006):
EI new
Qtotal ; EI new 155 Ags ; EI new 106 Ats ; EI new 9560
In which: Qtotal;EI new= yearly energy use of a house (MJ) 2 Ags;EI new = total ground surface (m ) 2 Ats;EI new = total thermal transmission surface (m )
(3)
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Financial performance of energy saving techniques The financial benefits of energy saving techniques can traditionally be calculated on the basis of the electricity price ( /kWh) and the natural gas price ( /m3). Also Return On Investment (ROI) methodologies can be applied. When the externalities, demolition costs and recycling costs of buildings or measures are incorporated in the calculations, one often speaks from Life Cycle Costing (LCC) methods (Gluch & Baumann, 2004).The total gains of a project can be calculated by using the Net Present Value, that corrects the value of the gains in a specific year for the inflation and/or interest rate. A new additional variable for the yearly gains of energy saving measures is presented in the form of the value increase of the real estate object in which the measure is installed in Eq. (4).
Ga
q e ;a
c e;a
q g ;a
c g ;a
Va
cp
ci Va
In which: (4) qe;a = change in electric energy use (kWh/year) ce;a = electric energy price (/kWh) qg;a = change in natural gas consumption (m3/year) cg;a = natural gas price (/m3) Va = change in value of real estate object (/year) cp = initial investment costs of energy saving measure () ci = initial costs of installing energy saving measure () d = total deprecation on energy saving measure () Va = value of house when installing measure ()
The value increase of real estate offers opportunities to assign financial benefits to separate components of the buildings. The yearly financial benefits (Ga) of energy saving techniques will in that case increase from the point of view that the value of the building is the sum of its parts. Results case study on energy performance indicators The cases are chosen in such a way that they represent approximately hundred years of residential real estate development. Cavity walls, double glazing, insulation, and efficient natural gas boilers are some of the most important breakthroughs that were implemented. Table 1 shows data for seven case objects built in the period 1913-1992. The EPC and the EIold computed by two programs (NNI, 2005, SenterNovem, 2003).
Table 1: Theoretical and practical results for the Energy Performance Indicators and the actual energy consumption.
Characteristics Year Energy for heating (MJ) Additional energy (MJ) Heating water (MJ) Energy for fans (MJ) Energy for lighting (MJ) Summer comfort (MJ) Qtotal; EPC (MJ) Qtotal; permitted (MJ) EPC (-) Energy for heating (MJ) Additional energy (MJ) Heating water (MJ) Energy for lighting (MJ) Qtotal; EI old (MJ) EI old (-) Period of time Natural gas consumption (m) Electric energy use (kWh) Qtotal; Actual (MJ) period Qtotal; Actual (MJ) annual Object 1 1913 144,314 2,935 15,759 0 7,051 1,070 171,129 51,583 2.66 129,330 1,138 18,509 2,700 151,677 1.11 4-5-2006 12-4-2006 850 3,285 40,225 124,406 Object 2 1939 69451 4,909 23,843 0 5,796 1,230 105,229 40,829 2.07 69,827 814 16,505 2,221 89,366 0.95 6-10-2004 6-7-2005 1,596 3,713 66,689 67,241 Object 3 1948 118,491 3,397 24,419 0 8,182 1,616 156,105 57,396 2.18 101,566 1,242 15,402 3,132 121,342 0.95 9-22-2004 9-22-2005 2,170 3,351 84,563 84,563 Object 4 1964 105,514 3,489 35,129 0 8,390 4,284 156,806 59,836 2.10 91,777 1,260 13,932 3,215 110,184 0.86 6-1-2004 5-31-2005 2,021 3,761 81,061 81,061 Object 5 1972 67,941 4,098 53,117 0 9,871 1,481 136,508 63,419 1.73 74,504 1,397 12,562 3,776 92,240 0.84 3-15-2005 3-4-2006 1,216 3,301 52,510 53,989 Object 6 1982 38,370 0 12,592 3,245 5,666 1,558 61,431 38,161 1.29 33,176 1,811 19,478 2,167 56,632 0.85 7-6-2005 6-17-2006 672 2,513 31,498 28,317 Object 7 1992 40,485 0 14,663 4,011 7,004 4,745 70,908 49,369 1.15 30,737 2,110 24,289 2,682 59,818 0.62 not known 1,000 1,586 39,120 not known
The EPC values range from 1.15 for the youngest house to 2.66 for the oldest house. Values of the EPC are higher for older objects with exception of case object 2. Thanks to the high performance glazing and a better isolated extension of the building at the rear side, this case object has an EPC of 2.07. The EIold values range from 0.62 for the case study object of 1992 to 1.11 for the case study object of 1913.The values of the EIold do not follow the same sequence in energy performance per object as the values of the EPC. Especially the additional energy use and the energy needed for heating water influence the performance of the last two objects, which are connected to a district heating system. Although there is a signif514
Actual use
Results EPA
Results EPC
A.G. Entrop et al.: Evaluation of financial aspects and energy performance indicators
3.50
3.50
EPC
3.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 0.00 1900
EPC
3.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 0.00 1900
EI old EI new
EI old EI new
EPI Coefficient
1920
1940
1960
1980
2000
EPI Coefficient
1920
1940
1960
1980
2000
Year of construction
Year of construction
Fig. 1: EPI's of the case objects based on theory
Fig. 2: EPI's of the case objects based on user data
icant difference between the EPC of object 4, 5, and 6, their specific EIold of respectively 0.86, 0.84, and 0.85 are almost the same. The energy needed for heating water for house number 6 is estimated by the program to be much higher than for house number 4 and 5, because of the use of district heating. The same aspect can also be noticed for object 2 and 3, where a significant difference in the results of the EPC transforms into equal EIold of 0.95. In this case the different definitions on the thermal surfaces for the EPC and EIold have resulted in other proportional relations. In the nearby future the energy performance of houses will be expressed by Eq. (3). Making the assumption that Qtotal;EI new equals Qtotal:EPC and the calculation of the surfaces of the floor and building shell remains the same as within the EPC-method, then the results on EInew equal the values shown in Figure 1. By using Qtotal;actual (given by Table 1) instead of the calculated values on the primary energy consumption, the actual performance of the house and its inhabitants can be reviewed. Figure 2 shows that the younger the building the better the EIold of the building and inhabitants. Results on financial analyses It may be clear that the financial benefits of energy saving techniques can be calculated more exactly after application than before application. This is the reason for using a set of existing houses in the case study. To gain insights in the fluctuations of the most important variables regarding energy saving investments, data on inflation, interest, house prices, natural gas prices, and electric energy prices of the past twenty years was used of Statistics Netherlands (http://www.cbs.nl) and the national land registry (http://www.kadaster.nl). This makes it possible to reflect on the benefits and costs 12,000.00 of energy saving measures by using two examples. 10,000.00 1) At the beginning of 1996 object 2 was extended by 16.4 m2. Although the main reason was to 8,000.00 gain space for the inhabitants, the improvement of 6,000.00 Initial investment costs thermal comfort was an important side effect. With Total gains (cumulatively) House value gains (annually) exception of the ground floor, the thermal resistance 4,000.00 Energetic gains (cumulatively) was significantly improved. The EPC was reduced 2,000.00 from 2.85 to 2.07. The reduction on natural gas consumption was 482 m3 annually and the increase in 0.00 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 electric energy use was theoretically 522 kWh per Time (year) year. The investment costs of the project were Fig. 3: Financial analyses of the extension of object 2 9,100.- in 1996. At this moment the value of the 12,000.00 house is estimated at 118,000.-. The costs and benefits of this measure are visualised in Figure 3. 10,000.00 Although the extension of the house was not initiat 8,000.00 ed to lower the energy costs, it is shown that the gains of the lower natural gas consumption rose to 6,000.00 Initial investment costs almost 1,500.- in nine years time. The overall benTotal gains (cumulatively) House value gains (annually) 4,000.00 efits surpassed the costs after 2002. Energetic gains (cumulatively) 2) Roof insulation was installed in object 5 at the 2,000.00 end of 1991. This measure focuses mainly on ener 0.00 gy saving. The EPC was lowered from 1.90 to 1.73. 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 The reduction on natural gas consumption is estiTime (year) mated to be 416 m3 per year and the increase in Fig. 4: Financial analyses of roof insulation in object 5
Value (euro)
Value (euro)
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electric energy use in the category 'summer comfort' is 41 kWh per year. The initial investment costs were 1,460.-, compensated by 438.- by a subsidy on thermal insulation of the energy company. The value of the house was at the beginning of 1992 84,900.-. Nowadays, the market value is 324,000.-, but this is only for a small part the result of the installed roof insulation. Figure 4 shows the costs and benefits of the installed roof insulation. In this case the benefits derived from saving energy account for a large part of the total benefits. The gains derived from the increasing value of the house seem to be of less importance than within the case of the extension of object 2. However, as long as house prices are increasing the payback period of energy saving measures will be shortened. From a traditional energetic perspective the insulation had a payback period of ten years. From the new perspective it paid itself back within half the time. Conclusions The energy analysis of the case objects shows that the energy performance of new houses is in general better than the energy performance of old houses. The forecasted energy performance expressed by the EPI's differs more from the actual total energy use of the object when this object is younger. In all cases the actual energy use was lower than the theoretical energy use derived from the calculations. It is possible to make an energetic assessment of the case objects by using the three EPI's. However, it is necessary to reflect on the actual energy use of the object and its owners. The financial formula introduced a new variable on the financial gains of energy saving measures, that assigns the general value increase of houses in the Netherlands partially to the installed measure. When the variable is included, the payback period of energy saving measures or improvements of the energy performance rates can be significantly reduced as long as the value of residential real estate increases. When energy saving is a side effect of the applied measure, the introduced variable on the increasing value of real estate will contribute for a large part to the total gains. The representativeness of the research will be further improved by adding extra case objects and by including more diversity and a larger quantity of energy saving measures to give more insights in the financial and energetic appreciation of energy saving measures. The calculation of the ROI on energy saving measures traditionally involves the direct annual benefits on lowering the electric energy use and natural gas consumption. The indirect benefits derived from the increasing value of real estate can only be obtained by the owner when the house is sold. More insights are necessary in real estate development processes to assign these indirect benefits to stakeholders that bear the investment costs. Acknowledgements The authors like to express their gratitude to the owners of the seven case study objects. Without their cooperation it would have been difficult to present the research. Furthermore, gratitude needs to be expressed to SenterNovem for financing the research. References
Blankestijn, E., Poel, B., Kuijpers-van Gaalen, I., 2006, Energieprestatiecertificaat in Nederland; introductie EPBD, EU richtlijn; rekenmethodiek (In Dutch), (English: Energy performance certificate in the Netherlands; introduction on the EPBD EU-directive - calculation method) presentation on the national Dutch workshop conference on the EPBD on the 14th of December 2006, Bussum, The Netherlands European Council (EC), 2002, Energy Performance Building Directive (EPBD), Directive 2002/91/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2002 on the energy performance of buildings Gluch, P., Baumann, H., 2004, The life cycle costing (LCC) approach: a conceptual discussion of its usefulness for environmental decision-making, Building and Environment 39 (2004) p. 571-580 Hoiting, H., Donze, G.J., Nuiten, P.W.G., 2004, Energieprestatiemethoden: Samen sterk? (In Dutch), (English: Energy performance methods; a powerful combination?) Bouwfysica, vol 17, No 1 p. 24-28 Nederlands Normalisatie Instituut (NNI, English: Netherlands Normalisation Institute), 2004, NEN 5128 Energieprestatie van woonfuncties en woongebouwen - Bepalingsmethode (in Dutch), (English: Energy performance of residential functions and residential buildings - Determination method) ICS 91.120.10 Nederlands Normalisatie Instituut (NNI), 2005, NPR 5129 Energieprestatie van woonfuncties en woongebouwen Rekenprogramma (EPW) met handboek (in Dutch), (English: Energy performance of residential functions and residential buildings - Calculation program with handbook), ICS 91.120.10 SenterNovem, 2003, Handleiding basismethode EPA software versie 4.02 (In Dutch), (In English: Manual basic method Energy Performance Advice software version 4.02) SenterNovem, 2006, Cijfers en Tabellen 2006 (In Dutch), (English: Figures and tables 2006), 2KPGE 06.01
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Closed ecosystem design as a new element in urban infrastructure

Martin Buchholz
Technische Universitt Berlin, Germany martin-buchholz@web.de
1. Introduction A closed greenhouse concept has been developed along the European Union's 5th Framework Programme funded WATERGY project (www.watergy.de) that implements a new method of passive climate control and water treatment (desalination and irrigation water recycling) by only using solar energy. Air in a closed greenhouse is humidified by plants, is rising up into the roof area where it is further humidified by additional evaporation devices. The heated and humidified air is rising up further driven by buoyancy, reaching the upper end of a cooling duct. In the duct, air is cooled down and water vapour condenses after reaching the dew point. The cooled air increases weight and falls back through the duct into the vegetation area at the ground level. The released heat is transported into a thermal storage and is taken back into the greenhouse during night in order to regenerate the cooling capacity of the system. The concept is aimed to use wastewater and saline water as an input while producing portable water, salt and food or non-eatable biomass, while at the same time reducing pollution of water resources. Further approved aspects of the closed greenhouse are redundancy of insecticides (no insects can enter) and a method of horticultural production at increased CO2 levels. Having optimised light, temperature, nutrient, water and CO2 supply, all growth factors of the plants are served and the system is designed to a maximisation of Fig. 1: Scheme of the prototype greenhouse with buoyancy driven air circulation photosynthesis activity and relatand thermal storage for passive cooling with day-night temperature equalisation. ed plant growth. Two prototypes are built in Almeria/ Spain (recovery of 75% of irrigation water / need of below 0,5 litres of water/m*d, zero chemical pesticides needed, plant growth at ~1200 ppm CO2) and in Berlin/Germany (loading of a seasonal thermal heat storage using the solar input into the greenhouse). This paper describes the main framework of applications, that together will form an integrated tool for water and surface management in arid areas, facing rising water demands in food production, households and industry on the consumer side and growing drought, irregular rainfall, dehydration of landscape and related nutrient losses on the supply side. 2. Intensive horticulture with extremely reduced water demand Greenhouse horticulture was passing a period of enormous growth during the last 20 years in many arid areas, as being a very successful method of crop production, mainly based on the combination of mild winter climate and relatively simple and cost effective construction methods, making the process viable. The fact of enhanced water efficiency, caused by higher air humidity and reduced air velocity compared to open field horticulture and effective possibilities of rainwater harvesting from the roof did also contribute to the growth, as available water sources in the arid climate could be exploited relatively effectively. Now, as at many places groundwater basins are more and more overexploited or even fading, the specific possibilities of greenhouses for water saving are getting into the focus of general interest. The attention is now changing from production rates calculated by square meters to those calculated by litres of water. Closing the greenhouse means, that internal cooling and dehumidification processes have to be installed instead of climate control concepts driven by air exchange. A closed greenhouse theoretically does not need any water input as it is cycling within the closed internal atmosphere between evaporation and condensation. In reality, there will always be some remaining losses,
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Fig. 2: Prototype greenhouse in Almeria/Spain
but water efficiency has already been approved at below 0,5 litres/m daily water demand for intensive cultivation. This relates to water autarky intensive crop production at yearly rainfalls under 200 mm/a. 3. Urban wastewater recycling and protected soil/nutrient management Closed greenhouse technology is aimed at recovering water from air humidity and allow to recycle the water evapo-transpirated by the plants. An adapted and secure use of wastewater for greenhouse irrigation will allow to recycle these water sources into drinkable fresh water, using the vegetation's root membranes as the most effective and self-renewing water filter available. Communal wastewater has a high content of plant nutrients but non-adequate uses implement the danger of non-hygiene states that may cause diseases. Therefore, it has to be fed into irrigation systems without contact to above ground parts of the crops. In many cases, urban wastewater is not further treated and by this, not using it already means a high level of hygiene related and general environmental problems for any kind of water body and related fresh water supply. Its use in irrigation also may replace more complicated nitrogen and phosphorus elimination strategies. Biological pre-treatment can already reduce the content of plant nutrients, so a wastewater treatment system integrated into horticultural irrigation can be interpreted as a complete alternative method, only using minor and simple pre-treatment strategies. Grey water is the wastewater of an urban area without the faeces, so just water selected from washing machines, showers, wash bowls etc. The separation of grey water allows a radical reduction of the hygienical or odour problems related to wastewater and also allows further reduction of pre-treatment measures. As its nutrient content is much lower, urine can be re-added after separated collection and simple pre-treatment e.g. in modern automated nutrient supply irrigation systems without hygienical problems. Urine contains more than 70% of the plant nutrients of urban wastewater. Faeces can be re-added after separated collection and pretreatment in composting or biogas devices. 4. Closed greenhouses and related soil systems as CO2 sink A closed greenhouse allows accumulating carbon dioxide to the level of plant optimum. In cases, where other productive factors like water, nutrients, temperature and light are optimised, CO2 supply triggers the growth and optimum rates can be around 1200 ppm (~triple atmospheric level), then allowing growth rates, much higher than in open field agriculture. The higher growth also contributes to a higher production rate per water 518
Martin Buchholz: Closed ecosystem design as a new element in urban infrastructure
used. CO2 can be supplied directly from combustion processes, where in certain cases, emissions have to be pre-cleaned to allow a supply of pure CO2. These technologies are commonly used in greenhouse horticulture, but only a closed greenhouse can keep the gas in the vegetation area where it can be used efficiently and an optimum concentration can be triggered sufficiently accurate. Carbon can be stored in the soil if added as compost or charcoal. The use of non-eatable biomass for used products (wood, fibres, plastic etc.) can result in long term carbon storage. Also energetic use of the non-eatable parts of the plants or other biological waste can result in carbon accumulation, if charcoal is constantly produced as a by product in the combustion process (e.g. pyrolysis) and then stored as a soil enhancer. 5. Seawater desalination In parallel to the plant evapo-transpiration, seawater can be evaporated in the roof zone of the closed greenhouse, where air temperatures are higher than in the vegetation canopy and by this can uptake much more water vapour and related latent heat. In the greenhouse, a continuous air circulation enables energy transport from the vegetation zone through the roof area to the heat exchanger duct that is entered from the rooftop. Increasing the humidity in this zone allows transporting a much higher amount of the total solar energy input at similar air velocities. This process allows storing a larger amount of heat that then can be released through the following night, where it can be further used for desalination. Seawater desalination is a major component of the system, as at certain regions it allows the cultivation system to be established in previously uncultivated, even steppe or desert landscapes where neither rain- or wastewater is sufficiently available. 6. Thermo-chemical energy storage and climate control strategies Instead of desalination of seawater, the roof integrated evaporation devices can also be applied for the regeneration of desiccants in open cooling or heating systems, thus reducing the need for fossil energy for building climate control and related CO2 emissions. For this method, a mixture of water and a solved salt (e.g. MgCl, CaCl, NaNO3) is distributed on the evaporation pads. The water is evaporated and the salt content in the liquid is subsequently increased. The concentrated solution has hygroscopic properties, meaning that it can absorb water vapour from air. In desiccant cooling systems, this process can be used e.g. to dry the air at the ventilation inlet of a building while in a second step, the released latent heat from this process is withdrawn by a heat exchanger and transferred to the air outlet of the building. The resulting dehumidified and moderately cooled air can then be further humidified and by this significantly cooled down. The saline solution is diluted by the water content of the incoming air and can be redirected into the greenhouse for further Fig. 3: A closed greenhouse attached to a building (Watergy regeneration. The process can also be Prototype 2) can be used for the direct recycling of grey water and for used for greenhouse cooling of extremely the concentration of desiccant solutions during summer. The hygrohot areas or for areas, where night tem- scopic concentrated solution can be stored and be used during winter peratures are too high for a passive regen- to absorb water vapour from the greenhouse. The system works as a heat pump, shifting winter greenhouse temperatures to a level, where eration of the cooling load. A further application is the absorption of it can be used for building heat supply. water out of humid air from the environment. In areas with high night time air humidity, the greenhouse is opened during night and the hygroscopic solution can absorb external vapour, that is transformed to usable fresh water by desorption and condensation processes during the following day. 7. Closed ecosystems with productive producer and consumer populations As in a closed greenhouse oxygen is constantly produced by plants and CO2 is constantly needed as a plant nutrient, it is more than evident to go one step beyond in imitating processes of the biosphere by implementing consumer populations that consume oxygen and produce CO2. These can be established by integrating
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productive components of solid-state-fermentation, where biomass is transferred into useful products like protein enriched vegetables, de-lignified fibre products with smoother quality, de-lignified wooden biomass for pulp and paper products or a large numbers of enzymes for use in diverse chemical processes. Solid-state fermentation is the management of fungal growth on the wet surface of the treated biomass. The process includes the constant removal of heat and CO2 and the addition of oxygen by ventilation but also has to guaranty a constant level of humidity that is provided by humid air and possibly further watering of the substrates. This process can be perfectly combined with the climate control of the greenhouse by using the induced internal air circulation and by creating the hot and tropical-like basic climate. Tempe is a food product produced by solid-state fermentation on the base of soy or peanut. The quality of the synthesized proteins is very high and production cycles are much faster compared to meat or fish. It has a high potential as a major protein source in future human nutrition. This is of further importance as resources of sea fish is limited and mass cultivation of animals is related to growing environmental and health problems and is a main source of greenhouse gas emissions. As hemp or linen can be transformed to higher textile qualities, those can replace cotton as an extremely water demanding crop, leading to major environmental problems like soil salinisation. 8. Closed greenhouses for large-scale surface cooling around urban areas and coastal landscapes Evaporative cooling in cities is essential to lower the effect of the urban heat island. For closed greenhouses, the function of surface cooling is working in a different way. Evaporative cooling is again the major driving force, but related condensation is forced to take place within the closed environment. The released sensible heat is transferred to water in a heat exchanger and stored in the soil. Water and heat are kept on the site and are released during night. By lowering the temperature level during daytime, the climatic conditions of the surrounding can be stabilised. The energy balance of the prototype greenhouse shows, that still a major part of the radiated energy is going out through the greenhouse cover but for the cooling of the radiation peak levels during daytime, already a fraction of about more than 50 % of the radiation peak levels during daytime are captured and released during night. Also reflection of the greenhouse cover leads to about 10% of temperature reduction. Anyway, the method of evaporation in the roof zone can be further developed and will enable a further retention of the thermal energy as well as a related higher yield of condensed water.
Fig. 4: Heat flux in the closed greenhouse: While in arid climate, a major part of the solar radiation (fat line) is directly transferred into sensible heat and is warming the surrounding air above the soil, parts of the energy here is first transferred into evaporation of water, condensed on a heat exchanger and then buffered in a storage to be released during night (closed line with dots). The higher water content of the soil does not result in water losses and allow a higher heat transfer into the soil, which contributes to another major heat retention (dark dotted line). Evaporation that normally leads to water losses is limited to minor losses out of the enclosure and can almost be neglected. (light green/grey line)
References
Buchholz, M., Buchholz, R., Jochum, P., Zaragoza, G. and Prez-Parra, J. Temperature and Humidity Control in the Watergy Greenhouse. Acta Horticulturae n 719, Proceedings of the International Symposium on Greenhouse Cooling, Leuven 2006. Buchholz, M., "Climate Control in Greenhouses and Solid State Fermentation Systems as a Source of Water and Energy", Proceedings of the Word Renewable Energy Congress VI, Renewable - The Energy for the 21st Century, Brighton, 1-7/7/2000, Ed: Saying, A.A.M., and Oxford, 2000.
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"Termo de Ajustamento de Conduta" TAC as an Instrument in Solid Waste Management

Maria Jos L. de Araujo Saroldi
Rio de Janeiro General Attorneys Office, Brazil saroldi@mp.rj.gov.br
The efficient management of environmental sanitation is a constitutional duty for everyone, citizens and public power. Solid waste is an alarming issue in Brazil. The present patterns of consumption and solid waste management, according to which most Brazilian cities dispose of their waste directly on the soil, cause a great deal of environmental and public health damage and have among their results the degradation and the exploitation of human misery. Environmental law is being refined as well as the environmental protection's instruments to put it into practice. This work presents the use of the TAC "Termo de Ajustamento de Conduta" (Instrument for Adjustment of Conduct), a Brazilian settlement mechanism, used by the Rio de Janeiro General Attorneys Office as an instrument of environmental management to eradicate irregular solid waste landfills. A recent instrument in the juridical scenery, the TAC needs technical parameters to improve the efficiency of its pursuits. Using the technical activities configuration and time of execution, this work presents a proposal for environmental monitoring indicators for the TAC in relation to solid waste management. Introduction Public environmental management is carried out through the adoption of instruments and mechanisms that aim at controlling the use of natural resources, with the goal of preserving quality of life and the application of the principle of sustainable development. Guided by public environmental management, the issue of management of solid waste covers the application of measures for the reduction of waste generation, its re-use, treatment, adequate final disposal, recuperation of the areas used as rubbish dumps (Dias, 1999), and the social insertion of those who work as recyclable waste collectors as partners in solid waste management systems implemented by city administrations. Environmental problems are generated by the present model of our society, whose nature is fragmental, individualistic, consumerist, wealth-concentrating and exploitative, an attitude that leads only down the path of degradation. For significant changes, the society is required to display reciprocal alterations. In this relationship between the individual and the society, and between the human society and nature, is where individuals are formed as social actors, capable of collectively acting in the search of the new, environmentally sustainable society (Guimares, 2003). Solid Waste Panorama in Brazil and in the State of Rio de Janeiro Considering the per capita waste rate, which varies between 0.5 and 1.0kg/person a day, one can estimate that, in Brazil, approximately 120,000 tons of rubbish are generated every day. To this amount of waste are added 30K to 40K tons of waste collected from city streets and an uncertain volume of industrial waste. According to the Brazilian Survey on Basic Sanitation (PNSB, 2000), 228,413 tons of solid waste are collected every day in Brazil, of which 125,258 tons are domestic waste. The survey also shows that 63.6% of the cities dispose of their waste in landfills, and 32.2% have adequate landfills, of the sanitary kind or controlled type. In relation to quality of life, the existence of 23,340 recyclable waste collectors in those rubbish dumps is a severe social problem. From the analysis, as per region, of the percentage of waste generated in Brazil, Juc (2002) points the SE region as the one that produces around 62% of the solid waste the country generates. The State of Rio de Janeiro, geographic area object of this study, is in SE Brazil, a region with the highest population density and thus with the largest volume of urban waste generation. In the State of Rio de Janeiro, amongst its 92 cities, only three have sanitary landfills licensed to operate by the State Environmental Authority. In 65 cities, with 71% of the total number of cities in the State of Rio de Janeiro, solid urban waste is inadequately disposed of, and without any form of treatment, causing irreparable environmental damage and showing how critical the irregular situation of the cities in relation to the treatment and final disposal of their waste is. Faced with the state panorama regarding the production and disposal of solid urban waste, as well as the severity of the damage caused to the environment and to human health by the irregular disposal of such waste, the State of Rio de Janeiro Public Attorney's Office exercises its constitutional attributes in the defense of the rights of civil society, discussing the public policies cities have, through the application of legal instruments for the guardianship of social rights, diffuse and collective, amongst which the Public Civil Action and
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the "Termo de Ajustamento de Conduta" TAC Instrument for Adjustment of Conduct. According to Rodrigues (2002), the adjustment of conduct represents conciliation, and may allow the solution of an existing conflict or a likely one. Materials and Methods With the objective of increasing efficiency in solving the issue of rubbish dumps, the Public Attorney's Office sought to act in a coordinated way in the whole of the State of Rio de Janeiro with the implementation of the integrated service strategy for the cities of the state. Data was collected from a survey on the Public Prosecutor's Offices for Collective Rights Guardianship of the Public Attorney's Office of the State of Rio de Janeiro MPRJ during years 2003, 2004, and 2005. The first data polls indicate the existence of 125 Civil Enquiries instituted, 21 analysis procedures on Environmental Impact Assessments for licensing purposes, 28 Public Civil Actions filed, and 20 TACs signed with city administration offices. From year 2000 the Public Attorney's Office of the State of Rio de Janeiro has been working in a coordinated action in the whole State, on the Solid Waste Management Programme, organizing institutional and technical actions in the domain of the Institution and proposing an integrated action with Government officers that operate in the area. This coordinated action has the following set goals: eradication of rubbish dumps and environmental recuperation of the degraded area; eradication of child labour and placement of children in schools; implementation of adequate treatment and final destination forms for solid waste; social insertion of the collectors as partners in integrated management programmes for solid waste in the cities. In the sample studied the TAC proved to be the environmental relief instrument that better fits solid waste management as the concept of integrated management enables a movement of articulation between political forces in the city, local and regional Public Prosecutor's Offices, state and federal environmental agencies, and City Administrations since there are common problems stemming from the difficulties to treat and give final destination to solid waste, from the bad quality of the waters, and from the risk it becoming scarce for human supply. Statistically the "Termo de Ajustamento de Conduta" TAC still is used less than the Public Civil Action, although the monitoring of the terms executed by the State Public Attorney's Office has shown more efficiency in the solution of environmental problems. Therefore, the implementation of the instrument of adjustment of conduct as defined by the format of these terms as an object of study is highlighted by the actions of the Public Attorney's Office, which define the format of the terms as an object of study. The preparation of this environmental relief instrument is based on technical and scientific knowledge, through the addition of technical parameters that enable, within the deadlines set, the execution of all the activities or services needed to the adequacy of activities pursuant to the Law. From the goals set in the coordinated action of the MPRJ, the application of the "Termo de Ajustamento de Conduta" in solid waste management should be linked to a Plan of Action, pointing priority actions to be executed, aimed at the end of waste disposal in inadequate locations, associated to the recuperation of the degraded area, to the social inclusion of the population that lives in the dumps, to the implementation of incentive programmes for the reduction, re-use and recycling of waste (3 Rs) and to the presentation of study on technological alternatives for the treatment and final, adequate disposal of solid urban waste. All the activities contained in the terms should always be associated to a physical execution schedule, containing all the stages for the activities to be monitored, their start dates and timeframes for execution. The results obtained in the technical parameter analysis, as contained in the twenty TACs of the sample studied, are provided below. Results From the analysis of the sample studied, it is possible to find that: The idea of integrated solid waste management was incorporated to TACs executed between the Public Attorney's Office of the State of Rio de Janeiro and the City Administrations as one of the results of the coordinated action of the Public Prosecutor's Offices for Collective Rights Guardianship in the area of solid waste. In the preparation of the TACs, the minimum technical requirements, necessary to guarantee an adequate solution and effective monitoring should be linked to the activities related to the integrated management of solid urban waste. The inclusion of these technical parameters as environmental monitoring pointers for the TAC should be carried out after careful analysis of the management capability, technical and economic, of each city. 522
Maria Jos L. de Araujo Saroldi: "Termo de Ajustamento de Conduta" TAC
Integrated solid waste management stages can be indicated through the implementation of the following actions: 1. Solid waste treatment Recyclable waste collection, recycling, ad/or composting; 2. Implementation and operation of sanitary landfill for adequate final disposal; 3. Closure and recuperation of the area degraded by the irregular disposal of solid waste in rubbish dumps; 4. Insertion of recyclable collectors into the city's integrated solid waste management system. The implementation of several activities was needed in order to make these actions effective. Minimal technical parameters have to be included in the activities, to indicate their forms of execution in association with the deadlines, guarantees efficiency in the monitoring of this legal instrument. It should be pointed that these deadlines start counting from the date when the TAC is signed, and should so be defined in the writing of the instrument. Thus, we present below a proposal for environmental monitoring indicators for the TAC "Termo de Ajustamento de Conduta" (Instrument for Adjustment of Conduct) for the management of solid waste: Action 1 Solid Waste Treatment Recyclables Collection, recycling and composting. To present a Proposal for the Implementation or Expansion of Recyclable Waste Collection Programmes, Waste Reduction, Re-use and Recycling (3 Rs) with yearly reports for results achieved during the enforcement of the TAC Deadline: 30 days. To present a market study for recycled products for the city and surrounding areas Deadline: 8 months. To present a study on technological alternatives for the conception of the solid waste treatment station with the purpose of recycling and/or composting, including an opinion on technical and economic feasibility for the maintenance and operation of the station, including the preparation of a conceptual project for the station, should the implementation of the treatment station be recommended. This study should also contain a programme for recyclable waste collection Deadline: 8 months. Comments: The study on technological alternatives is the one that will determine the feasibility of the implementation and the size of the recycling and/or composting unit in the city. Action 2 Implementation and operation of a sanitary landfill for adequate final disposal To present an Executive project for the sanitary landfill pursuant to prevailing environmental Law Deadline: 8 months. To implement an executive project for the sanitary landfill. Deadline: 30 months. To present a project with compensation measures should this be required for the use of natural resources in the implementation of the landfill Deadline: 30 days. Operation To provide machinery and equipment at the landfill, pursuant to the norms that guarantee environmental excellence for the landfill, indispensable to its operation and maintenance. Monitoring To present an Environmental Monitoring Programme Deadline: 90 days. To present a Geotechnical Monitoring Programme Deadline: 60 days. Action 3 Closure and Recuperation of the Area Degraded by the Irregular Disposal of Solid Waste in Rubbish Dumps To present an Executive Project for Environmental Recuperation of the dump with: environmental assessment of the area; Covering of areas subjected to landfill work; stabilization and protection of the slopes; implementation of system for the collection and treatment of leachate; implementation of a system to protect water sources; implementation of a draining system for pluvial waters; closure (permanent cover) and definition of future use of the area, and implementation of a drainage system and gas burning installation Deadline: 90 days. To present a physical schedule for the implementation of the executive recuperation project for the degraded area with an indication of the beginning and the end of each service/activity; To present six-month reports on the monitoring of implementation of the works, covering monthly consolidated data. Action 4 Insertion of recyclable waste collectors in the integrated solid waste management To present a Social Plan for the families of recyclable waste collectors who work in the dump including the registration of recyclable waste collectors who work there Deadline: 30 days; To present school attendance reports for the children that are registered Deadline: end of each school year.
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Conclusions Solid waste management will only produce good results when the management of such waste is made in an integrated way. All the stages should be planned and carried out through partnerships: waste collection programmes, recyclable waste collection, adequate treatment, the search for a market that will purchase the resulting materials after treatment (recycling and/or composting) and, at the end, its final disposal in a sanitary landfill. To develop new technologies for the reduction and use of the waste, extracting energy and financial resources from the rubbish are challenges; the biggest one amongst them, however, is to understand and seek solutions for human poverty. Providing new opportunities and inserting the recyclable waste collector as a partner in this management are challenges for administrators and for every citizen (Saroldi, 2005). The technical parameters that set the form and deadlines for the execution of each action needed for the adequate treatment and disposal solution of the solid waste of the city. Only the inclusion of technical parameters in a clear and careful way allows the monitoring of the "termos de ajustamento de conduta" TACs, as well as the proving of effectiveness of the fulfillment of its clauses. The proposal of environmental monitoring indicators presented in this work should be adopted as a guide to aid in the search of solutions for the problems related to the management of city waste, always keeping in mind the economic and technical capacity each city possesses, and does not represent a closed model to be applied as the sole format for the application of the "termos de ajuste de conduta" for the management of solid waste. Bibliography
DIAS, Marilza do Carmo Oliveira (Coord.), PEREIRA, Mauri Csar Barbosa, DIAS, Pedro Luiz Fuentes, VIRGLIO, Jair Fernandes. Manual de Impactos Ambientais de Atividades Produtivas. Fortaleza: Banco do Nordeste, 1999. 297 p. GUIMARES, Mauro. Sustentabilidade e Educao Ambiental. In: A Questo Ambiental - Diferentes Abordagens. CUNHA, Sandra Baptista da; GUERRA, Antonio Jos Teixeira (Orgs.), pp.. Rio de Janeiro: Bertrand Brasil, 2003. JUC, Jos Fernando Thom. Destinao Final dos Resduos Slidos no Brasil: Situao Atual e Perspectivas. In: Anais do 10 Simpsio Luso-Brasileiro de Engenharia Sanitria e Ambiental. Braga (Portugal): 2002. PESQUISA NACIONAL DE SANEAMENTO BSICO. Resduos Slidos. Rio de Janeiro: IBGE, 2000. RODRIGUES, Geisa de Assis. Ao Civil Pblica e Termo de Ajustamento de Conduta -Teoria e Prtica.Rio de Janeiro: Editora Forense, 2002. 334p. SAROLDI, Maria Jos L. de Araujo. Termo de Ajustamento de Conduta na Gesto de Resduos Slidos. Rio de Janeiro: Editora Lumen Juris, 2005. 187p.
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Changes in the Urban Morphology and Temporary Metereological Series Analyze from Thermal Comfort in the Cities
J. L. de Sousa & M. A. Lombardo
Institution: UNESP I.G.C.E. CEAPLA Center of Analysis and Environmental Planning; Brazil joyls@rc.unesp.br
Abstract In the last fifty years cities have grown very fast. In the whole world there was practically an inversion between the number of agricultural and urban inhabitants. According to the last Brazilian demographic census (2000) 81,25% of population lived in urban centers. The urbanization process in cities brings several alterations to the urban boundary layer that directly or indirectly may lead to the formation of different microclimates in different regions of the city, causing diverse comfort conditions. Urban climate studies have long been concerned about the magnitude of the difference in observed ambient air temperature between cities and their surrounding rural regions, which collectively describe the urban heat island (UHI) effect. The development of bioclimatic analysis regarding urban climate must have as a final goal the establishment of concrete proposals for a climate oriented urban planning and for mitigated the UHI effect. Santa Brbara D'Oeste is a medium size city in Brazil. The city has grown very fast in the last decades; consequently it's necessary to understand the anthropogenic effects into the city. This paper presents, a brief analyzes about the Santa Brbara D'Oeste climate based in urban planning and historical temporary series of meteorology. Data from a fixed metereological station were used to make de measurements. The thermal differences of neighborhoods, urban activity and urban components were compared. The conclusion shows that some evidences of the influence of weekly human activities rhythm on the climate system under anthropic influence. The results are not conclusive, but only suggestive. The most important conclusion that could be brought in the future is that part of the "micro-climate changes" attributed to human activity in urban areas, is reversible in short time (maybe weeks or months). If effective actions are taken to control the heat and pollutant sources, we could assume that the urban environmental quality should improve very fast. Introduction Studies on the urban climate have to a great extent been dealing with the urban heat island which is well documented. It can be observed in air layers adjacent to the ground, in the so-called canopy layer of the town, but is also present as a mesoescala phenomenon in the urban boundary layer above the buildings which is affected by the presence of the city beneath (Oke, 1976, 1981 and 1982; Mattsson & Lindquist, 1985). Ever since Luke Howard discovered that London was warmer than the surrounding countryside, studies of Urban Heat Island (UHI) have tended to emphasize it's climatologically aspects (Landsberg, 1981). Climate can be an indicator for the environmental situation of a city. The variety of different climate divided by the scale in which they occur can be one criterion. This also guarantees a good possible usage if that places, more activities can be done. In order to discuss the connection between climate and the behavior of man as planning toll it is important to evaluate not only the mean values of the metereological parameters, but discuss also case studies and the daily variations. Urbanization process produces many changes in the surface nature and in the properties of the local atmosphere. These processes involve an alteration of the local atmosphere. These processes involve an alteration of the local climate as a result of the transformation in radioactive, thermal, moisture and aerodynamic characteristics of the surface and changes in the turbulent fluxes of momentum, heat and water vapor. Nevertheless, the urban climate at any locality is generally governed by the large-scale weather conditions are dominant and at others the local conditions are prevalent (Landsberg, 1981). Lowry (1977) pointed out the fact that the weather type situation should be considered in conducting statically of the urban effect on temperature. The mainly artificial surface of the city, anthropogenic heat emission and air pollution modify the urban atmosphere. The modification effect of urbanization on local climate is most obvious in the case of temperature (UHI). Its intensity has a distinguished diurnal cycle with a strongest development in the first part of the night, in general 3 - 5 hours after the sunset. Many studies that attempt to produce more detailed pictures of the UHI have been conducted as field experiments for limited time periods (Zois, 1986; Momtvez et al, 2000; Bottyan and Unger, 2003). In such studies data from a relatively small number of resident weather stations are enhanced by finer-scale records obtained from instrumented vehicles performing transects of the region during the period of the field experiment. General conclusions must be based on fortuitous cases. The recent establishment of mesoescala weather networks has made it possible to obtain pictures of the mesoescala metereological aspects of the UHI on a routine basis. In 2000's a mesoescala network of weath-
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er stations in the Greater Metropolitan Area around Campinas (SP - Brazil) was established. In this article the data from this network is used to provide a mesoescala picture of the UHI and around Santa Brbara D'Oeste city (Santa Brbara D'Oeste is one of the cities in Greater Metropolitan Area around Campinas). The present paper accounts for the result of some climatic measurement made by us in the city of Santa Brbara D'Oeste (Brazil) using remote sensing techniques to delimit and characterize an urban heat island and compared this results with the temperature registered in mesoescala weather network. Data Sources and Methodology The primary data source for this study consists of hourly surface weather observation for the six-year period, 2000 - 2006 from a network of four Agronomic Institute of Campinas Weather Service Station (IAC) locate in Santa Brbara D'Oeste, Americana, Nova Odessa and Sumare. Surface metereological data at IAC stations includes weather, pressure, temperature, dew point temperature, wind speed and direction, and precipitation. Stations are some kilometers apart at best, so that only the mesoescala aspect of the Urban Heat Islands are investigate here. The magnitude of UHI's is almost certainly understated because traverses through the urban heat were not included (Oke, 2000) and because mo stations are located in the paved heart of the urban center. For example, station Nova Odessa is located in a far (Zoogenic Institute - IZ), roughly 656,17 ft from the nearest grid of the streets and buildings. But all the stations are according the international standards. Therefore, using international standards to register variations f surface temperatures in and around cities has been recognized as a significant problem (Voog and Oke, 1997 in Gedzelman S. D., Austin S., Cermak R., Stefano N., Partridge S., Quesenberry S., Robinson, D. A., 2004). Given this problem, the remote sensing buy satellites may be a good option for a thermal mapping of a UHI. The technique used in this work is well-documented in the international bibliography o derive urban areas temperature from infra-red image. The temperature obtained by this method will be the estimated surface temperature affected by the air close to the ground. Climatologically analyses included the six-year period, 2000 - 2006. In the climatologically analyses, seasons are defined as three-month periods using the metereological standard that the period, DJA (December, January and February) constituted summer, MAM, fall, JJA, winter and SON represent de spring.
Table 1: Metereological data in Santa Brbara D'Oeste city
Concluding Remarks In this study we have estimated the spatial distribution of the mean UHI intensity with the help of the remote sensing images and climatologically analyze in Santa Brbara D'Oeste area. The following conclusions are reached from the analyses presented: i. The spatial distribution of the UHI intensity patterns has almost concentric shapes and the temperature values decrease from the central urban areas towards the outskirts in study period. On the other hand, there are irregularities caused by the aerial distribution of buildings and water surfaces having different structural and material properties, respectively. The remote sensing images show it very well. ii. On the climatologically analyzes basis, we have proved with statically analyses, that the variability of the temperature on the greater region is lower than 2 C in the maxim temperature and anyone in the minimum temperature. The magnitude of UHI's is almost certainly understated because traverses 526
J. L. de Sousa & M. A. Lombardo: Changes in the Urban Morphology and Temporary Metereological Series Analyze
through the urban heat were not included (Oke, 2000) and because mo stations are located in the paved heart of the urban center. iii. Evidences was obtained from this study of a heterogeneous patchwork of microclimates related to socio-economic land use, as well as an urban to rural decrease in temperature, not associated with an increased density of urban forest cover at the urban fringe as is more typical of urban areas in microclimates. iv. Through this example one can conclude that infrared images can be useful in the definition and characterization of an urban heat island. In general, this findings support the hypothesis that changes in spatial patterns of land use and plant density over time would influence microclimates. Bibliography
Bottyan Z. & Unger J. A multiple Linear statistical model for estimating the mean maximum urban heat island. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 75, 233 - 243. Gedzelman S. D., Austin S., Cermak R., Stefano N., Partridge S., Quesenberry S., Robinson, D. A. (2004) Mesoscale aspects of the Urban Heat Island around New York City. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 75, 29 - 42. Landsberg H (1981) The urban climate. New York: Academic Press, 275 pp. Lowry W (1977) Empirical estimation of urban effects on problems analysis. J Appl Meteor 16: 124 - 135. Mattsson & Lindqvist (1985) Canyon Geometry, street temperatures and urban heat island in Malmo, Sweden. J of Climat, vol. 5: 433 - 444. Montvez et al (2000) A study of the Urban Heat Island of Granada. Int J Climat. , v. 20, 899 - 911. Oke TR (1976) The distinction between canopy and boundary layer urban heat island, Atmosphere, 14, 268. Oke TR (1981) Canyon Geometry and the nocturnal urban heat island: comparison of scale model and field observations. J of Climatol.1, 237. Oke TR (1982) The energetic basis of the urban heat island. Quart J Roy Meteor Soc 108: 1 - 24. Oke TR (2000) Urban-rural Energy Balance Differences CSB Grimmond - European COST, 2000.
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Development of a waste management concept for the Yugra Region, West Siberia
Julia Kaazke and Berndt-Michael Wilke
Technical University of Berlin, Institute of Ecology, Germany jkaazke@gmx.de
Abstract Insufficient waste management and increasing amounts of waste are causing environmental problems in the Yugra Region. The project "Development of a waste management concept for the Yugra Region, West Siberia" of the Technical University of Berlin and Yugra State University in Khanty-Mansiysk aims to reduce the pollution and consumption of natural resources as well as to support sustainable urban and regional development. There are also objectives to introduce international environmental standards and technologies in the region as well as to contribute to the development of national environmental policies and legislation in Russia. In this paper we mainly report the results of first waste analyses which are a crucial prerequisite of waste concepts. Introduction The population of the autonomous region Yugra is 1.4 million, living in an area of 543,300 sq km. The capital is Khanty-Mansiysk. 80% of the population live in the region's 16 cities (Governor of KMAO (1) 2007). The region is located in West Siberia, Russia (see Figure 1). Yugra distinguishes itself through a seemingly inexhaustible abundance of natural resources and raw materials as well as natural landscapes. The region is characterised by rapid economic growth, especially in the industrial sector of natural oil and gas extraction. An increasing amount of refuse is leading to environmental problems in cities and their agglomerations. 36 waste disposal sites are constructed to receive a quantity of 140 kg of waste per capita and year. In fact, 250-350 kg per capita and year were produced in the last years. As a result, waste disposal sites are almost full and illegal disposal occurs. Furthermore, these landfills contain household and industrial wastes. The sites are frequently located in protected water zones and pollute the ground- or surface water (Kisileva 2005). Figure 1: Region Yugra (Governor of KMAO (2) 2007) Excavated holes which are either partly or entirely unsealed are used for deposition of all types of waste, including industrial waste. Research on sites that would be suitable for use as landfills has never been carried out. Sustainable concepts for recycling and removal of household or industrial waste do not exist. Current legislation is insufficiently developed or does not exist at all; international standards of waste treatment are lacking. Additionally, the specific conditions of the Yugra Region such as its severe climatic conditions, vast distances between the cities, rapidly growing industry, extreme differences in urban and suburban lifestyles, and sparsely populated rural areas complicate the development of the waste management concept. All these issues mentioned above increasing amount of waste, incompletely sealed landfills, illegal waste disposal and unplanned land use demonstrate the necessity of developing a sustainable waste management concept. Furthermore, since December 2006 contacts to the local administration have been made. Before that, it was difficult to get necessary information. Now it is possible to access the administration's data and to compare it with the results of the analyses. Knowledge on waste composition is a crucial prerequisite for development of waste concepts. The project mainly focuses on urban areas because most waste is produced in cities. Potential research areas are: Khanty-Mansiysk and Surgut, the most populated cities and business centres of the Region Yugra. The results presented in this paper only refer to waste analyses carried out in 2006/2007 in KhantyMansiysk. 528
Julia Kaazke & Berndt-Michael Wilke: Development of a waste management concept
Methods/Waste analysis The waste analyses were achieved by understanding the type of waste and the quantity of waste being produced in the Yugra Region. The data is analysed and used to estimate changes in quantity of waste. The waste analysis follows the model of the SWA-Tool Analysis (a methodical tool to improve the precision and the comparability of Solid Waste Analysis data), which is a standardised method. According to this method there are several decisive factors for a standard waste analysis such as the sorting catalogue, season, residential structure, waste container size, waste origin (Lorber et al. 2004): For the analyses in Khanty-Mansiysk the primary categories of the SWA-Tool sorting catalogue are used (see Table 1). In addition, these categories were extended by: electronic waste, sanitary waste and shoes. Furthermore, the metals were subdivided into ferrous and non-ferrous metals. The additional categories were chosen to get more detailed information.
Table 1: Waste categories used in the analyses
Categories organic wood paper/cardboard plastic glass textiles non-ferrous metals ferrous metals hazardous household waste complex products inert fines electronics sanitary waste shoes others
Examples vegetables, fruits, fish, meat all kind of wood catalogue, newspaper, cardboard plastic bottles, plastic packages for cakes, bin liners beer and wine bottles trousers, pullovers, jacket non-ferrous tins for beverages or groceries ferrous tins for beverages or groceries batteries, paints, organic solvents packages which can not be separated, for example milk packages made up of cardboard and aluminium foil soil, stones, ceramics filled vacuum cleaner bags, ash TV-set, stereo system, electronic iron toilet paper, sanitary towel, tampons, nappy shoes waste which does not fit in the former categories
Since May 2006 waste analyses have been conducted seasonally in spring, summer, autumn and winter. The analyses need to take certain weather conditions into account. Seasonal analyses are significant because it can be assumed that people change their living behaviours at different times of year depending on the season/weather. Furthermore, the heating period plays an important role because ash can have an impact on the results of the waste analysis. For this reason, temperature was also an important condition and affected the choice of period of the waste analysis. The spring analysis was done in May 2006. The temperature was around 10 degrees Celsius, and it was expected that the population stops heating. The summer analysis was in July 2006 and the temperature was over 20 degrees Celsius. The third analysis was carried out in autumn at the end of September and the beginning of October 2006. The heating period was expected to start and the temperature was again 10 degrees Celsius. In winter, in January 2007, the temperature was around minus 30 degrees. Within the factor residential structure the main focus was on apartment block settlements. Small houses with gardens have not been analysed yet and will be analysed in April 2007. In agreement with the Yugra State University and a waste disposal company in Khanty-Mansiysk a representative district was chosen. This district matches the criteria of the apartment block settlements and the cooperating waste disposal company operFigure 2: Waste containers of a collecting site ates here.
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In the city of Khanty-Mansiysk the waste container size is standardized at 0.5 cubic metres and it does not influence the result of the analyses. Therefore this criterion is negligible. As waste origin solid household waste was chosen as the biggest problems of waste disposal in the city are caused by the extreme population growth. Three collection sites were selected in the above mentioned district where waste was analysed in situ and on working days. A fixed schedule defined the order in which collecting sites would be analysed. Each site was analysed twice to have a control. Thus, each seasonal analysis took 6 days. At every collection site there are four containers.The containers were emptied (see Figure 2) and the waste was sorted into the 16 categories given in Table 1. The separated waste was weighed and disposed. The time lapse between the last emptying of the container by the company and the waste analyses was 24 hours to not only allow for checking the quality, but also the quantity of the waste. The analyses followed the same system in all seasons. In addition, questionnaires were developed and distributed to the local population in order to support the waste analyses. These included questions about living situation, habits regarding waste disposal, satisfaction with waste disposal companies and proposals for future waste disposal. Results and discussion For 10 to 20 years Khanty-Mansiysk has been heavily developed as a centre of the region's administration. As a result, the population increased from 36,000 in 1997 to 75,000 in 2007. In 1999 the only waste disposal site was opened, designed for a use of 18 years. Its whole size is 20 hectares although only 10 hectares are used for waste disposal at present. Approximately 30,000 to 35,000 tons of waste per year are dumped on the landfill. The "Commission for the regulation and correction of standards for the disposal of the household waste in the town "is responsible for the waste area and advises on the development of the waste disposal site at regular intervals of 4 to 5 years. Only since 1999 have statistics on waste amount been recorded, parallel to the commission's meeting, i.e. every 4 to 5 years. There are no daily or monthly surveys (Tomsha 2007). For this reason, a continuous statistic of quality and quantity of waste does not exist. First results of the waste analyses carried out in 2006 and 2007 are given in Table 2. Waste mainly consists of organics (25.1% to 40.8%). Glass and plastic follow with 14.5% to 19.6% and 11.0% to 15.7%. The percentage of paper waste is also high, 9.1% to 14.5%. All other waste categories are around or under 5% and do not represent an important factor at present. The annual average of waste arising is 134.8 kg per person per year.
Table 2: First results of waste analyses (figures in % w/w, n=3)
organic glass plastics paper/cardboard other categories complex products sanitary waste fines inert non-ferrous metals ferrous metals textiles wood shoes hazardous waste electronics Total amount
Spring 34.71.9 17.84.5 14.72.2 9.12.5 6.02.2 4.91.3 3.21.2 2.51.3 0.80.5 1.50.2 1.70.8 1.70.7 0.40.3 0.70.7 0.50.6 0.00.0 100.0
Summer 25.16.8 19.61.7 15.72.7 13.14.1 4.21.2 2.50.5 2.80.7 5.96.0 3.74.4 2.20.7 1.30.3 1.00.2 2.31.0 0.30.4 0.30.3 0.00.0 100.0
Autumn 40.87,8 15.44,0 11.02,0 9.92,0 3.81,0 2.90,3 2.41,7 3.12,2 4.45,8 1.70,6 1.40,5 1.80,3 0.70,5 0.50,6 0.20,3 0.00,0 100.0
Winter 33.65.8 14.51.5 13.00.7 14.51.6 4.21.1 4.50.5 6.22.1 1.01.7 1.10.4 2.80.9 2.10.2 1.01.0 0.30.5 1.01.8 0.20.2 0.00.0 100.0
Annual average 33.6 16.8 13.6 11.7 4.6 3.7 3.7 3.1 2.5 2.1 1.6 1.4 0.9 0.6 0.3 0.0 100.0*
The quantity of glass, plastic and paper/cardboard demonstrate stability, and it can be assumed there are hardly any changes. It also should be mentioned that approximately 90% of waste is disposed in plastic bags and a lot of beverages are sold in plastic bottles. It can be assumed that more and more people will buy their beverages in plastic bottles. The amount of paper, especially in the winter analysis, mainly consists of cardboard from boxes used as packing for electric appliances such as TV-sets, evidence of the changing lifestyle in Russia. It is also important to note that as the first results of the questionnaires show, newspapers are seldom read regularly. 530
Julia Kaazke & Berndt-Michael Wilke: Development of a waste management concept
Furthermore, the analyses show that the percentage of organics is less in summer especially compared to the result of the autumn analysis and the amount of organic waste fluctuates greatly between seasons (see Table 2). It could be assumed that in summer a lot of organic is disposed in private gardens but first results of the questionnaires demonstrate this is not the case. The question why there is so much less organic waste in summer has to be argued in the further working progress. In addition, with such a high proportion of organics, a waste management concept should focus on this point. In conclusion, the seasonal averages do not show a high fluctuation except the waste organic which has to be noticed by developing the concept. The data on annual average of waste produced in Khanty-Mansiysk by Kiseleva, Tomsha and Kaazke/Wilke shows great disparities. Kiseleva (2005) recorded an average of 250-350 kg per person per year in 2004. Tomsha (2007 pers. comm.) explained an average of approximately 433 kg per year in 2006. Although the annual waste arising per capita and year could have increased from 250-350kg to 433 kg within two years (2004 - 2006), the figures given by Kiseleva and Tomsha could not be confirmed by our data (134.6 kg/person year). It can be surmised that this is due to the fact that official data from the administration are only rough estimations which refer to the whole country. Further waste analyses will show which data are more reliable. Sustainable waste management concepts should be based on detailed annual waste measurements. In order to enable comparison on an international level in the fields of waste, the town of Khanty-Mansiysk is compared with Berlin, a highly developed city with a well organised waste disposal and recycling system. Table 3 demonstrates the detailed differences between the two cities regarding the percentages of organic waste, glass, plastic and paper/cardboard. The quantities of organic waste are quite similar in Berlin and Khanty-Mansiysk. The amount of paper/cardboard is higher in Berlin than in Khanty-Mansiyk, but there are great differences between the amounts of disposal. The total amounts of glass and plastic are higher in Khanty-Mansiysk than in Berlin, but there are fewer amounts of disposal in Berlin than in Khanty-Mansiysk. In Berlin waste is not only disposed, it is also recycled. That is the reason for the smaller percentage of plastic, glass and paper in household waste disposal. A second collection system for these types of waste
Table 3: Annual averages in Khanty-Mansiysk and Berlin (figures in % w/w)
organic glass plastic paper/cardboard
Khanty-Mansiysk Berlin (Senatsverwaltung Berlin 2007) Total disposal recycling Total disposal recycling Recycling Proportion amount amount per category (%) 33.6 33.6 0.0 35.8 25.3 10.5 29.3 16.8 16.8 0.0 13.2 8.0 5.2 39.4 13.6 13.6 0.0 9.3 5.3 4.0 43.0 11.7 11.7 0.0 21.5 8.0 13.5 62.8
exists in Berlin. Berlin's second system has an effectiveness of between 29.3% and 62.8% (see Table 3). Although the second collection system works well, glass, plastic and paper are still found in the regular household waste. Nevertheless, the figures of Table 3 demonstrate that it is possible to reduce the amount of household waste to be disposed on the landfill in Khanty-Mansiysk by introducing recycling systems. As concerns the average of the Berlin recycling model, waste amount for disposal could be reduced by about 44% in Khanty-Mansiysk. In contrast to Berlin, recycling systems do not exist in Khanty-Mansiysk yet. As a result of the waste analyses in Khanty-Mansiysk, the annual average of waste amount is 134.8 kg per person in 2006; in Berlin it was 320.5kg per person in 2005, but this figure can be subdivided into amount of disposal of 213.8 kg, and amount of recycling of 106.7 kg per person per year (Senatsverwaltung Berlin 2007). Finally, annual average waste amount also demonstrates people in Khanty-Mansiysk do not produce as much waste as people in a highly industrialised country such as Germany. Nevertheless, the legal waste disposal sites are not nearly filled and illegal landfills exist and the results of the waste analyses in Khanty-Mansiysk show an increase of waste; the concept has to take this factor into account. The four important waste categories, organic, glass, plastic and cardboard, are very suitable for recycling systems. What kind of recycling system should be used and in which way is part of the waste management concept development. Conclusion Results of the waste analyses and questionnaires are only provisional results at present. The waste analyses in Khanty-Masiysk and also in Surgut have to be completed and will be evaluated, and the results of the questionaries will also be analysed.
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Finally, all analysed data of the waste analyses, the social, economic and ecological conditions of the town and the technical possibilities in such a region has merged to a final concept. Furthermore, the concept has to include strategies to reduce waste as well as to implement an environmental awareness to encourage treating the environment with care. Currently, there are extreme cultural and social changes in the Yugra Region, especially in the city of Khanty-Mansiysk. For this reason, any waste management concept needs to be evaluated and to be adjusted to new conditions every five to ten years. Therefore the continuous monitoring of the quality and quantity of waste should be a priority task of the local government in order to guarantee an appropriate waste management as part of sustainable urban development. Sources
ARGUS-Arbeitsgruppe Umweltstatistik e.V. an der TU-Berlin, 1997, Gutachten-Abfallerhebung Berlin 1997, fr Gesellschaft fr Umwelttechniken Governor of the Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug (KMAO) - Yugra (1), 2007, www.hmao.wsnet.ru/english/obsvedE/frame1.htm Governor of the Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug (KMAO) - Yugra (2), 2007, www.hmao.wsnet.ru/english/obsvedE/frame.htm Kisileva, E., Yugra Service Ecology, Preliminary information in the field of solid household waste on the territory of Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug - Yugra, Presentation in February 2005 Lorber, K.E. et al., 2004, DEPOTECH 2004, Abfall- und Deponietechnik, Altlasten, Abfallwirtschaft, Konferenzbericht der 7.DEPOTECH Fachtagung Senatsverwaltung Bereich Umwelt, 2007, http://www.berlin.de/sen/umwelt/abfallwirtschaft/de/siedlungsabfall/index.shtml Tomsha, F.I., Head of Municipal Communal Service, Department for Town Development, Architecture and Communal Service, personal communication in January 2007
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Closing the gap! How local actors respond to climate change processes in urban landscapes
Ina Sumel & Ingo Kowarik
Technical University of Berlin, Institute of Ecology, Germany ina.saeumel@tu-berlin.de
Abstract Climate change is one of the most challenging issues of our time. As cities are key sites for the implementation of policies on climate change, we aimed to discover how local actors in the city of Berlin, Germany, respond to existing scientific information on causes and consequences of changing climate. We used standardised questionnaires and semi-standardised qualitative interviews of local actors (i.e. from administration, science, NGOs) with a focus on the main questions: How do local actors anticipate impacts of climate change on urban environments on different time scales? Which strategies and instruments are perceived as suitable? How efficient are these instruments considered to be when it comes to responding to climate change? The results show that there is a broad basis of scientific knowledge on possible impacts of climate change. However, its consequences still have a low level of importance for actors working in the administrative sector. Therefore, we hypothesised a restricted information access for local actors or an inadequate form of information, causing a gap between local actors and scientists. The main barrier seems to be the down scaling of possible overarching impacts to regional and local scales. Scientists favoured to respond to cli-mate changes by combining adaptations on the levels of strategy, populations, and individuals and to use a novel combination of planning, market-economic, co-operative, and informative instruments. Local administrative actors preferred to apply existing planning instruments. Our results confirmed a strong need for an enforced and well structured exchange of information between local actors from the fields of science and administration on the one hand and a still insufficient integration of climate change issues in local urban planning issues on the other. We propose a agenda to bridge the existing gap between science and urban planning: 1) Direct and planner mediated communication between local actors; 2) Interdisciplinary research to enhance decision resources; 3) Further development of existing instruments; 4) Evaluation of instruments and feed-back loops to methodological approaches. Background and Motivation Mitigation and adaptation to the impacts of anthropogenic climate changes are widely accepted as crucial challenges for humankind (IPCC 2003a). The scientific community accumulated an exponentially increasing knowledge of causes, consequences, and prognoses of climate change processes (IPCC 2003b). Approximately 40% of the 866 peer-reviewed papers concerning climate change aspects, written within the last hundred years and reviewed by Parmesan (2006), were published within the last tree years. We were interested especially in evaluate how this expanded knowledge meets response and perception on a local scale, i.e. in urban planning. In this study, we focus on the attitude of local actors in Berlin as an example for a European urban agglomeration. Urban landscapes aggregate an important number of prominent features to study causes, consequences, and prognoses of climate change and offer excellent opportunities for analysis and strategy discussions (Fig. 1): (I) Cities function as prominent arenas for a broad array of stakeholders including both natural and juridical subjects. (II) Cities highly concentrate anthropogenic activities in production and consumption and thus act exceedingly as drivers of global change processes (e.g. the ecological footprint of Berlin exceeds its administration area 168 fold, Schnauss 2001). (III) Urban climate conditions (e.g. urban heat islands, Arnfield 2003, for Berlin see Hupfer and Chmielewski 1991) provide a natural lab to anticipate and study global warming impacts by application of the space for time approach across urban-rural gradients (Sumel 2007). (IV) Cities are centres of global and local civil societies and environmental governance and (V) provide a wide range of sources and strategies for informed decision making and acting (for detailed discussions on influences and potentials of local authorities see Bulkeley and Betsill 2003). Methodology and scope We used standardised questionnaires and semi-standardised qualitative interviews addressing local actors from the administrative authorities, the scientific community, and NGOs. In order to explore general aspects of actors' attitudes and to orientate actors for the following interviews we firstly used standardised questionnaires, which were then followed by semi-standardised qualitative interviews (i.e. interview guide approach) aimed at individualised outcomes, at the exploration of differences between actors' individual experiences,
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perceptions, and relevance and, finally, at capturing visions and generating new hypotheses for further analysis along a pre-structured guideline. Each interview was conducted by two persons, tape recorded, and then transcribed. The transcripts were edited and condensed in a step by step process of five consecutive editors and finally summarised and discursively validated. In detail, we evaluated the following aspects: How do local actors anticipate impacts of climate change on urban environments on different time scales and within their respective field of expertise? Which strategies and instruments are perceived as suitable and effective to handle climate change impacts?
Fig. 1: Prominent features of urban agglomerations to study causes, consequences and prognoses of climate change processes, and related managing strategies.
Results and Discussions The current perception of climate change impacts on urban environments is still small to medium, but the degree of impacts expected in the future increases markedly within the next decades (Fig. 2A). In contrast to other actors, local authorities and policy makers tend to expect no or low influences of climate change on socio-economic aspects within their field of expertise. In general, climate change is mainly perceived as a problem for the natural resources and landscape with medium to strong impacts (e.g. water > climate > flora and fauna > landscape > soils; Fig. 2B), rather than for socio-economy. Currently, the respondents saw relevance mainly for technical and, to a lesser extent, for economic, juridical, and administrative tools to manage climate change in their respective scopes (Fig. 2C). Interestingly, local authorities reported no actual use of any approaches for climate change management in their particular scopes. Among the actor groups, all respondents validated the proposed levels of adaptation according to Klein and Tol (1997, Fig. 2D). In detail, the high scale levels (strategic and population level) were perceived as more effective than the individual level. Although possible managing instruments exist, especially environmental policy law, planning and market-economic instruments were considered to be more effective than the little use they are currently subjected to would suggest (Fig. 2E F). The interview guide approach provided deeper insights into the climate change risk perceptions and connotative meanings, and especially into uncertainties of local actors, which were manifested in the high percentage of unspecified answers (Fig. 2). The interviews with scientists and addressees from NGOs reflected strongly the broad scientific knowledge on climate change processes and the underlying mechanisms. In contrast, respondents from the local administration do not see any direct link or relevance of climate change issues to their specific practice. In particular, this was accompanied with notable scepticism and doubts as to whether or not climate change impacts are already detectable (e.g., "Climate change doesn't matter at all in my work," "we really don't know if there is a temperature increase and we can not prove it by ourselves."). Environmental planners, in particular, see difficulties to scale down the global problem on a local scale (e.g., "It is difficult to deal with a global topic at a local scale."). Regarding climate change impacts on the human society, actors in general reflected uncertainties and requested more research on this issue. Actors from the local administration expected a greater demand for open and green spaces due to the "Mediterraneanisation of life styles". Scientists focused strongly on socioeconomic impacts and placed emphasise especially on extreme weather events, on water balance, and water uses as well as on health aspects in an ageing society. In addition, scientists considered the presence of cli534
Ina Sumel & Ingo Kowarik: Closing the gap!
mate change impacts as a kind of intuitive knowledge without consequences on the behaviour of indi-vidual citizens. Scientists favoured combining adaptations on the levels of strategy, populations, and individuals and using a novel adaptation and combination of existing planning, market-economic, co-operative and informative instruments. Whereas local administrative actors preferred to apply existing planning instruments (e.g. adaptation and development of landscape programmes, of landscape and land use plans, the instrument of the Biotope Area Factor, new traffic concepts, site adapted plantations) and emphasised that the population and strategic level of action will be more successful (e.g., "That's the way humans are. You have to be a 'fundamentalist' to say, I'll take the train and not the plane."). All actors acknowledged market-economic instruments (e.g. emission trading, subventions to cost-intensive adaptive strategies) and environmental policy law instruments as effective to mitigate climate change (e.g. Federal Immission Control Act (BImSchG), PM10-load policy, Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG)) and informative instruments. Both scientists and respondents from the local authorities strongly emphasised the requirement of adaptive mechanisms, because climate change is unavoidable or "is a global problem on which we have to react locally". In general, the terms mitigation and adaptation were familiar for scientists but not for the local administration. In terms of future challenges, almost all the actors stressed the conflict between ecological and economical interests. The attracted attention due to climate change issues were interpreted differently among actors (e.g. "Climate change resounds throughout the land" versus "Scientists illustrate climate change dramatically to get funding."). Actors estimated better chances to achieve a closer and persisting public interest, as well as a motivation for individual acting, if climate change issues would be correlated to other socio-economic problems "within a concert of all important things". The results demonstrated that, whilst local and regional climate change impacts attained a high degree of awareness with the respondents, they are not of particular interest in their practise. In consistency with other studies (e.g. Leiserowitz 2005), most actors currently believe that the impacts will be moderately for socio-economic aspects and will most likely impact only the non-human nature (Fig. 2B). In addition, the results reflect typical phenomena of "troublesome knowledge" due to the uncertainty and complexity of global change processes (Hall 2006). Actors' responses refer to existing frames of reference and to the common understanding of the policy and decision-making systems. Inadequate or limited knowledge of climate change processes and their consequences minimise the optimal use of existing tools and instruments. Consistent with other studies (e.g. Shackley & Deanwood 2002) our results clarify a restricted accessibility of the codified (scientific) knowledge to local administration actors. Vice versa there are deficits in knowledge of scientists on existing planning instruments and their potentials for adaptation and mitigation strategies.
Fig. 2: Results of the standardised questionnaires addressed at 20 actors from the administrative authorities, the scientific community, and NGOs. A) How strongly will climate change impact on urban landscapes (today, in 20, and in 50 years)? B) Which aspects will be affected by climate change? C) How relevant are the current tools to manage climate change impacts? D) Which are the appropriate levels for adaptation? E) Which managing instruments are being used today to handle climate change? F) How effective are these managing instruments? Given are the percentages of answers to each question on a 5 level scale (black: very high; dark grey: high; grey: medium; light grey: low; white: no) and not specified answers (patterned). All responses refer to the personal sector of the respondents' activities.
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Conclusions and Outlook The expanded knowledge on climate change issues meets a poor response and perception on local scales in urban planning. We have found that the local actors have insufficient access to the relevant information or that the form of the information transmitted is inadequate (in terms of scale, abstractness or level of uncertainty) causing misunderstanding or communication deficiencies. Our study confirmed a strong need for an enforced and well-structured exchange of information between local actors from the fields of science and administration. Climate change issues are still insufficiently integrated into local urban planning. There is a strong need for mainstreaming the adaptations to climate change. This process integrates all policies and measures "to address climate change into ongoing sectoral and development planning and decision-making to ensure the long-term sustainability of investments as well as at reduce the sensitivity of development activities to both today's and tomorrow's climate" (Klein et al. 2003, 8). We propose the following agenda to bridge the existing gap between science and urban planning. (I) Direct and planner-mediated communication among local actors can promote the incorporation of climate change issues into the actual frames of references, decision-making, and practices. (II) As a pre-requisite for stimulating local action, responsibilities, and participation, interdisciplinary approaches should enhance decision resources at regional and local scales by downscaling general information to locally specified data and evaluations. (III) As a main challenge, the evaluation of adaptive potentials and further development of the existing instruments will qualify existing instruments, adjust decision making processes, and train and encourage local actors. (IV) Finally, the evaluation of local instruments with feed-back loops to methodological approaches will help to provide a gradual refinement and an increasing ecological and economical level of administrative management. Acknowledgements The subject of the paper was partially a topic of the study project "Summer in the City Global Change as a challenge for planning" in 2006 at the Technical University of Berlin. We thank our students Grit Bauer, Sophie Buggermann, Dorota Hanaka, Vivien Herrmann, Janine Kahra, Lena Meyer, Jrg Olischlger, Christina Steinl, Agnieszka Swiderska, Verena Ullrich, Frauke Weber, Thomas Weichert, and Jennifer Zelt for their great commitment in the project, especially for processing and discussing the interviews. Also we'd like to thank the interviewed local actors in Berlin for sharing their information and attitudes. References
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The Role of Urban Climate in Land Use Planning in the Republic of Korea focused on Environmental Assessment Instruments of Seoul
J.H. Eum & J. Kppel
Institute for Landscape Architecture and Environmental Planning, Berlin University of Technology, Germany Eumjh@ile.TU-Berlin.DE
Introduction The issue of urban climate is of great importance for the sustainable development of Asian cities, Seoul in the Republic of Korea being one of them. Although the interest in urban climate evolution as part of planning purposes has increased in Korea since the year 2000, it has not been easy to incorporate climate information in spatial planning or assessment processes. Environmental assessment is a process to assess the ecological effects of proposed projects or plans before they are implemented. It ensures proper consideration for environmental protection by incorporating environmental objectives into the decision making process. Environmental assessment is required for plans and programs as well as projects relating to various fields, e.g. spatial planning, land use, transport, energy, waste management, water management and industry in Seoul. The following five instruments of environmental assessment concerning urban land use planning have been implemented in Seoul: Prior Environmental Review System (PERS), Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), Sustainability Evaluation (SE), Reviews on Environmental Aspects in urban management planning (REA) and Land Suitability Assessment (LSA). These different types of assessment instruments are conducted by a range of legislative base. PERS and EIA have their legal basis from environment-related laws, whereas SE, REA and LSA are assessment systems supported by laws relating to spatial planning. In this paper, the environmental assessment systems conducted in Seoul are analyzed to show how they concern the assessment of effects of land use planning on urban climate. Of the five instruments mentioned above, 'sustainability evaluation' and 'land suitability assessment' are excluded in the scope of this paper, which does not concern climate in the assessment process. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a procedure, in which development projects are examined in the planning stage, with respect to their probable environmental impacts. The EIA system was introduced in the Republic of Korea with the enactment of the 'Environmental Conservation Act' in 1977, which was titled 'prior consultations' (MOE and KEI, 2006). However, because of the lack of detailed regulations, the EIA system has been implemented only since 1981, as the 'Regulations on preparing the EIA Report' was legislated. As the 'Framework Act on Environmental Policy (FAEP)' was enacted as a replacement for the 'Environmental Conservation Act' in 1990, it provided the legal basis for the EIA until the 'Environmental Impact Assessment Act (EIA act)' was enacted in 1993 as an independent law. Since 1999, the EIA has been regulated by the 'Impact Assessment Act on Environment, Transportation and Natural Disasters (Integrated IA act)' that was enacted to integrate individual assessment processes on environment, population, transportation and environmental disasters into one process. Based on 'Integrated IA act', environmental impacts of 62 development projects in 17 categories are currently evaluated. Development projects, which are carried out in Seoul and are not included in the 17 categories, should be evaluated by the 'Seoul Metropolitan Government Ordinance on EIA (EIA Ordinance of Seoul)' entered into force on 1st of September 2002. Twenty-six development projects in 11 categories are regulated by this ordinance. According to the integrated IA act, the likely significant effects of development projects should be evaluated on 23 environmental issues from three categories (natural environment, socioeconomic environment and life environment). The effects of projects on the climate, categorized as natural environment should be examined, if changes in physical structures could affect meteorological patterns in the development area and its neighborhood. For instance, meteorological changes, e.g. air temperature, evaporation, sunshine duration, foggy days that could occur due to implementation of projects should be predicted (Choi et al, 2006). While general meteorological characteristics are described and assessed in the EIA process (based on Integrated IA act), the probable environmental impacts relating to climate are investigated in more details by the EIA Ordinance of Seoul. Beside general meteorological patterns, microclimate and green house gases are included in the checklist of Seoul's EIA system. Prior Environmental Review System (PERS) The EIA system has served as an effective program for protecting the environment as well as promoting the
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importance of environmental conservation to the public over the past 30 years (MOE and KEI, 2006). However, the inherent limitations of EIA have been exposed, such as difficulties in establishing alternatives and altering the project boundaries (Song, 2006). These difficulties were caused by the fact that the EIA mostly deals with large-scale development projects during the execution stage, after plans have been already approved and confirmed. In order to overcome the difficulties, Prior Environmental Review System (PERS) that assesses the environmental effects of administrative plans and development projects in an earlier stage of the decision making process was introduced in 1993 in the Republic of Korea. As a non-legally binding instrument, the environmental impacts of the administrative plans, as well as the impact of medium or small scale public development projects in natural conservation areas were evaluated. Further, PERS has been implemented as a legallybinding system, as the 'Framework Act on Environmental Policy (FAEP)' was amended in 1999. However, PERS has still a few remaining problems (Song, 2006). Firstly, PERS was conducted for a very limited number of plans and programs. Secondly, it was hard to reflect the PERS results into the plan, since the PERS was usually conducted almost at the end of planning process. Further, regulation on the implementation of the reviewed results is still lacking. Thirdly, because the PERS procedures do not guarantee the public consultation, the general public cannot participate in the planning process of higher level plans. In order to solve the remaining problems and to implement 'Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA)' in the Republic of Korea by enhancing the objectivity and expertise of PERS, the 'framework act on environmental policy' was amended in 2004. FAEP was put into effect in June 2006, to evaluate the environmental impact of the policy, plans and programs which affect the initiation of development projects. Some distinctive characters of the revised PERS are as follows (Song, 2006). Firstly, the revised assessment system is applied to the 132 administrative and development plans and programs that are related to the 63 types of development projects, which are subject to EIA. Secondly, in terms of adjusting the timing of PERS execution, a PERS report is set up during the preparation of the plan or program and before its adoption or submission to the legislative procedure. Thirdly, it ensures that the public/stackholders are given effective opportunities to express their opinion on the PERS report. Finally, in additions to the mandatory list of information that should be included in the PERS report, the revised PERS requires to include alternatives, scoping and consultation results. As EIA deals with the general meteorological situation, the PERS process also handles general information on meteorological data and its changes. Especially, meteorological data, e.g. wind speed and direction, are primarily used insofar as they affect the dispersion of air and odor pollution occurred at the objective areas as well as their neighboring areas. Reviews on Environmental Aspects in urban management plan (REA) Since the 1960s the areas within the national territory of the Republic of Korea have been managed under three laws 'Act on Comprehensive plans for Construction in the National Land (CCNL)', 'Act on the Utilization and Management of the National Land (UMNL)' and 'Urban Planning Act (UPA)' (Choi et. al., 2002). As 'Framework Act on the National Land (FANL)' and 'National Land Planning and Utilization Act (NLPU)' were set up in February 2002, the former three laws were abrogated and replaced by these two new laws. The CCNL was abrogated and its legal instruments were enhanced by FANL (Lee, 2004). Further, the legal instruments of abrogated UMNL and UPA were enhanced and integrated into NLPU (Choi et al., 2002). The 'framework act on the national land' and the 'national land planning and utilization act' that came into force in January 2003, concern the development and management of the national land, each having different characteristics. While FANL provides general principles of developing and managing, NLPU provides the guidance for implementing of the general principles, providing for necessary matters of the formulation and implementation of plans to utilize, develop and preserve the national land. As both laws concerning land use have different characteristics, land use plans supported by them also have different functions. While land use plans based on FANL are abstract plans that offer long-term strategies for national areas, the plans with NLPU as their legal basis are zoning plans, concerning urban areas, namely urban land use plans. The urban land use plans consist of a set of plans: urban comprehensive plan, urban master plan and urban management plan. The urban comprehensive plan is the long-term development plan for more than two adjacent cities. Further, the urban master plan proposes the basic land use structures for the urban management plan. Finally, the urban management plan includes a zoning plan and a district unit plan, etc. Of three urban land use plans, environmental aspects of all kinds of urban management plans should be reviewed according to land planning and utilization act. The purpose of this review system is, to ensure that environmental paradigms of environmental-friendly and sustainable development, are reflected in various kinds of urban management plans (Kim and Jeong, 2006). Hence, it aims to examine environmental pollution, climate change and ecological systems in the process of urban management plans. Based on the NLPU, 538
J.H. Eum & J. Kppel: The Role of Urban Climate in Land Use Planning in the Republic of Korea
Seoul metropolitan government has established a guideline for reviewing environmental aspects in urban management plans, which has been conducted in Seoul since 2003. All 13 assessment items for the review of environmental aspects of management plans, which include the meteorological or climatic situation, are suggested by the ministry of construction. The meteorological or climatic situation, meteorological disasters, barrier against ventilation and the possibility of air stagnation are checked. Hence, it should be qualitatively assessed, if positive wind/sunlight conditions of planed areas are modified by new developments, or if the ventilation path that can mitigate urban heat island and urban air stagnation is analyzed and taken into account in the process of selecting the objective area. These assessment criteria, however, are specified in more detail in the guideline of Seoul. Instead of the item 'meteorology/climate', environmental aspects of sunshine and wind are reviewed in detail. These are closely related in the life environment. For example, the change of sunshine duration and the amount of sunlight within the objective area and in the neighborhood area should be reviewed. Relating to the item 'wind', the change of seasonal wind direction patterns, as well as patterns of wind direction and speed (e.g. influenced by mountains or rivers) and the change of environmental impacts of huge structures on wind, especially wind hazard should be measured and assessed. Furthermore, the ventilation paths relating to mitigating urban heat island and urban air stagnation, caused by weak urban air ventilation, should be taken into account. In the case that measurement and prediction are not possible, an indirect index can be applied for prognosis. For example, the change of floor area ratio (FAR) and building floors can be employed for assessing how sunshine would be affected by a new construction. The changes of FAR, location and directions of buildings, direction of roads and establishment of green spaces, which influence the environmental impact on the wind situation, can be applied for wind.
Table 1 Environmental assessment Instruments in Seoul
EIA Legal basis
1)
PERS
1)
REA
1)
- Impact Assessment Act on Environment, Transportation and Natural Disasters (Integrated IA act) - Seoul Metropolitan Government Ordinance on EIA (EIA Ordinance of Seoul)
- Framework Act on Environmental Policy (FAEP)
- National Land Planning and Utilization Act (NLPU)
Execution
- Ministry of Environment - Seoul Metropolitan Government
- Ministry of Environment
- Seoul Metropolitan Government
Assessment items Assessment items and criteria concerning urban climate
23 items Meteorological characteristics (microclimate, inclusive) - Prediction of meteorological changes, e.g. air temperature, evaporation, sunshine duration, foggy days due to implementation of projects, and countermeasures against the changes - Prediction of effects of projects on local meteorology, and countermeasures against the impacts
13 items Meteorological characteristics - Meteorology data, e.g. wind speed and direction, insofar as it affects dispersion of air and odor pollutions - Effects of air and odor pollutions from the neighboring areas on the objective area - Meteorological changes caused by projects, e.g. dam constructions
14 items Sunshine - Change of sunshine duration and the amount of sunlight within the objective area and in the neighbourhood area Wind - Change of seasonal wind direction patterns as well as patterns of wind direction and speed from mountains or rivers - Establishment of ventilation path to mitigate urban heat island and urban air stagnation caused by weak urban air ventilation problems. - Change of the environmental impacts of huge building structures on wind (gust, canyon wind back) should be reviewed, in the case of expectation of wind hazard.
1)
EIA: Environmental Impact Assessment; PERS: Prior Environmental Review System; SE: Sustainability Evaluation; REA: Reviews on Environmental Aspects in urban management planning
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Conclusions In this study, three main environmental assessment instruments in Seoul were examined, especially in terms of impact assessment on urban climate. Table 1 shows the three assessment tools accordingly in detail. Although urban climate is referred in the process of various assessment tools in Seoul, it is not efficiently considered as an assessment item. The reasons are as follows. Firstly, the evaluation criteria on climate are not specified in detail for the purposes of land use planning. For this reason, climate or meteorological data from weather stations are generally applied for assessing the environmental impacts. Secondly, the indirect index for predicting changes in urban climate, e.g. changes of building floors and directions of buildings are mostly applied due to the lack of direct index. Thirdly, for the direct index, the analysis methods for planningrelated climate items are missing. The ventilation path is applied as a direct index, but it is not suggested how to analyse the ventilation path in the urban area. In this context, the analysis methods for planning-related climate items should be established. Based on these methods, spatially-distributed tools, such as climate analysis maps including the analyzed and evaluated climate information or maps with planning recommendations relating to urban climate, should be prepared. These tools will enable planners and policy makers to consider urban climate in the planning and environmental assessment processes. References
Choi, Y., Lee. B., Oh, S., Kim, T., Mun, C., Wende, W., Ohlenburg, H., Briffett, C., Eum, J., Kwon, Y., Choi, J. Lee, Y., Park, H. (2006): Spatial development and environmental degradation; Contermeasures focusing on planning process and institutionalization. Project Nr.: KRIHS 2006-21. Anyang: Korea Research Institute for Human Settlements. 220p. Choi, Y.K., Lee, S.B., Park, I.K., Kim, H.S., Byun, B.S. (2002): A Study on linkage of Spatial Planning and Environmental Planning System toward Sustainable Development. Project Nr.: KRIHS 2002-7. Anyang: Korea Research Institute for Human Settlements. 332p. Kim, W.S., Jeong. S.Y. (2006): Practicable reviews on environmental aspects in urban management planning in Seoul. Project Nr.: SDI 2006-R-08. Seoul: Seoul Development Institute. 229p. Lee, C.W., Kin, M.H. (2004): A study on the linkage between urban planning and environmental planning of Seoul. Project Nr.: SDI 2004-R-14. Seoul: Seoul Development Institute. 118p. Lee, Y.H. (2004): Wege zur nachhaltigen Entwicklung in der Republik Korea. Berlin: Universitaetsverlag der TU Berlin. 283p. Ministry of Environment (MOE) and Korea Environment Institute (KEI) (Eds.) (2006): Environmental assessment system in Korea. Ministry of Environment, Republic of Korea. 31p. Song, Y.I. (2006): Development and implementation of strategic environmental assessment in Korea. In: Strategic environment assessment and future-oriented policy. Proceedings of an International symposium on the 13th Anniversary of Korea Environment Institute on 26-27 Jan. 2006, Seoul, Republic of Korea, 247-257pp.
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Heavy Metals and Black Carbon in Paved Urban Soils The Importance of Open Soil Surfaces in Urban Areas
T. Nehls1, S. Brodowski2 and G. Wessolek1
Dept. of Soil Protection, Institute of Ecology, Technical University of Berlin, Germany Dept. of Soil Science, Institute of Agronomy, University Bonn, Germany thomas.nehls@tu-berlin.de
1 2
Introduction Fine dust is a serious problem for European cities. Open soil surfaces in cities can act as sources and sinks for fine dust. Different to complete sealing, pervious pavements preserve open spaces, the seams, in which a special soil horizon developed from depositions of all kinds of urban dust. Because of its special characteristics, the first horizon is called seam material (Nehls et al., 2006). Perviously paved soils account for great portions of the surfaces in the city. Their ecological function as a sink for fine dust particles, which contain carbon and contaminants like heavy metals (HM) was not assessed so far. Streets and highways inside urban areas are important sources of fine dust. Open soil surfaces near roads may play a crucial role for the immobilization and prevention of re-dispersion of fine dust. Consequently, the motivation of this study was to quantify the stored amounts of HM as total amounts and organic and black carbon (Corg and BC) in the seam material. The term black carbon, was de?ned as "combustion produced black particulate carbon, having a graphitic microstructure" by (Novakov, 1984). It summarizes pyrogenic carbon, which is formed as a byproduct of incomplete combustion of biomass or fossil fuels (Goldberg, 1985) and therefore includes elemental carbon, char and charcoal but also condensates like soot. Different to Corg, it is hardly decomposable. It was hypothesized, that traffic is the major source for soil BC, as it is known that at least the atmospheric BC in urban areas is traffic derived. BC is mainly emitted by heavy duty vehicles (HDV), which use diesel fuel (Bhugwant et al., 2000; Kirchstetter et al., 1999; Polissar et al., 2001). Therefore, the dependence of BC amounts from HDV traffic density was tested. Additionally, total and available amounts of HM were investigated by adsorption isotherms. Thereby, especially the function of BC as an adsorbent for HM was investigated. Finally the stored amounts of BC in the seam substrate were approximated in order to assess the sink function of perviously paved urban soils.
Table 1: Location of sampling sites, sampling depths, traffic densities for all vehicles, light duty vehicles (LDV), heavy duty vehicles (HDV) and total, organic and black carbon contents from samples of seam material of paved urban soils in Berlin, Warsaw and Paris. BC contents labeled with the same letter are not significantly different (p<0.05).
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Materials and Methods Different paved sites in Berlin, Warsaw and Paris (Table 1) have been sampled. All samples derived from paved soils near roads with known traffic densities. The 0-1cm and the 1-5cm layer were separately sampled. The second layer represents the original construction material, mainly sand, while the first layer contains all airborne deposits. Basic soil properties like Corg and pH were analysed following ISO guidelines. Surface parameters were analysed by water desorption isotherms (Nehls et al., 2006). BC was analysed using benzenecarboxylic acids as markers (Glaser et al., 1998). Total HM amounts and availability were determined by adsorption isotherms, which were obtained for the two most relevant, toxic heavy metals with different mobility: OM affected, immobile Pb and mobile Cd. Five HM solute concentrations were added, starting with distilled water and rising up to the doubled solid concentration. Therefore, the resulting adsorption isotherms include a de-sorption step and span over a wide range of concentrations. Total HM amounts were extracted by nitric acid under pressure. The adsorption isotherms could be parameterised according to Freundlich's model. The obtained Freundlich parameters were used for calculation of retardation factors (R) (Table 2). The BC amounts stored in the first 5cm of a paved urban soils in Berlin were approximated using dust deposition data (Senstadt-Berlin, 2001) and following assumptions: 30% of the paved area are open soil surfaces and the soil bulk density is around 1600kgm-3, the area based soil weight is 80kgm-2. This value is multiplied by the area and by the concentration of BC to calculate total masses. The same concept is used for the approximation of BC amounts stored in traffic purpose paved soils on the global scale except for the following specifications: the cumulative global urban area was approximated to be 280412km2(Centre, 2003), 15% of this area is used for traffic purposes of which 30% was assumed to be open soil surfaces in which BC can be stored.
Table 2: Surface characteristics and heavy metal adsorption parameters of seam material from Berlin and Warsaw. SSA = specific surface area determined from water desorption isotherms, SCD=surface charge density, Ea=adsorption Energy (Nehls et al., 2006).
Results and Discussion BC The darker soil colour of the 0-1cm layer compared to the 1-5cm layer can be explained by a significant higher amount of Corg and BC (Table 1). The analysis of the pore structure and grain size distribution in the seam material clearly showed, that carbon has a particulate character and originates from urban dust (Nehls et al., 2006). The hypothesized dependency of soil BC amounts from total traffic or HDV traffic could not be proven (Figure 1). The weak correlation coefficient of 0.61 was only achieved after well founded exclusion of samples 542
T. Nehls et al.: Heavy Metals and Black Carbon in Paved Urban Soils
7 and is an effect of only two samples in the y = 0.0001x + 3.17 higher traffic range. The samples from Paris R2 = 0.61 were taken in a transect stretching from 0 to 6 Berlin 4m from the driving lane in which the drastic decrease of total BC and Corg is remarkable 5 (Figure 2) while the ratio BC/Corg is constant Warsaw * around 8%. This suggests a combined deposition of Corg and BC. Thereby, BC/Corg is 4 * Paris decreased in the soil (7% - 28%) compared to atmospheric values. The ratio between BC 3 and total carbon (TC) in the atmosphere is far from street * around 69% (Laschober et al., 2004) which * corresponds to engine test stand studies * 2 * (Williams et al., 1989a; Williams et al., 1989b). That means, BC -as much as other contami* 1 nants- was diluted by soil material. It might ** * have also been specifically depleted after 1 to 5 cm * 0 deposition. More likewise, a re-dispersed mixture of already deposited BC and Corg was 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 deposited. That means, deposited amounts are stronger influenced by local climatic cirHeavy duty traffic [vehicles day-1] cumstances than of emitted amounts near the Figure 1: Relation between BC content in seam materials of parsite (for further details watch out for (Nehls et tially sealed urban soils and traffic densities at different sites in al., 2007)). Site B2 is almost not used by HDV Berlin, Paris and Warsaw. Samples marked by an asterisk were but shows a comparable high BC amount. The excluded from the linear regression, some were sampled far from site is situated at the bank of the river Spree the street edge (circle), while others derived from the 1-5cm layer and is strongly influenced by around 15700 (ellipse). diesel powered sightseeing tour boats and barges per year. Using the regression between BC and traffic from figure 1, keeping in mind all the uncertainties, 40 boats per day lead to similar BC amounts like 13000 HDV per day elsewhere. From this point of view, it is time to revise the emission guidelines for ships at least in fine dust burdened urban areas. The storage capacity of the pavement seams for BC has been approximated. In Berlin, in 1991, the measured dust deposition rate near the Site B10 was 25gm2a-1 (Senstadt-Berlin, 2001). If all the dust, which has only fallen directly on the seams (seam portion 33%) accumulated for 60 years a layer of 3.5x10-4m dust with the seam bulk density would have established in an empty seam. In this period a BC amount of around 100gm-2 would have accumulated if the amount of BC in dust of 7%, reported by (Viidanoja et al., 2002) is assumed. If this rate is assumed from 1945 on, this would have resulted in a BC concentration of 80 8 around 9gkg-1. Compared to that, the measured BC 70 7 amount at the site B10 of 3.7gkg-1 seems to be reaOrganic Carbon sonable. The drastic decrease of the BC contents in 60 6 Black Carbon the second layer suggests that BC is not travelling substantially into greater depths. That means the 50 5 missing BC, up to 60%, might have been washed or 40 4 blown away. If the seams cannot store the material, which was deposited directly on the seams, the 30 3 pavement seams can neither store all the dust collected from the whole pavement. In this case a BC 20 2 content of 29gkg-1 would have been expected. 10 1 However, if the all the soil BC is assumed to be traffic derived, the seams at the site B10 store the 0 0 whole emission history of diesel powered cars in this street for over 40 years. If the global amount of 0 1 2 3 4 BC stored in pavements near streets is approximatDistance from the driving lane [m] ed, one gets 2x1012g. That means a tenth of the annual BC emission caused by fossil fuel burning is Figure 2: BC and Corg amounts on a transect at a sidewalk stored in only the upper 5cm of soil of 5% of the at the site Place Charles de Gaulle in Paris (Arc de global urban area (Kuhlbusch, 1998). Triomphe), France.
Corg [g kg-1]
BC [g kg ]
-1
Black Carbon [g kg-1]
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HM In general, the total HM amounts found in paved urban soils are comparable low, only some are above the treshold values. Sewage farm land for instance is a much more serious problem. Especially because adsorption isotherms indicate strong adsorption. The Freundlich Kf for Pb is higher for Warsaw than for Berlin. In Berlin, Kf values for Pb are higher in the 0-1cm layer than in the 1-5cm layer indicating a higher adsorption. Total amounts are higher in the upper layer too (Table 2). Retardation factors, support these findings. This corresponds to the higher Corg contents in the upper layer. The great relevance of OM for the adsorption of Pb in Berlin seam materials is expressed by the correlation of Kf and Corg (Kf =43.6 Corg +581.3;r =0.84) and can be explained by the contribution of OM to the SSA (Kf =83.1 SSA +273.7;r =0.81). In general, total Pb contents correlate very well with Corg indicating same sources, e.g. combustion processes or strong adsorption of Pb at Corg. BC also acts as an adsorber as this is indicated by a correlation between Kf and BC (Kf [mg1-mlmkg-1] = 593 BC [gkg-1] + 593, r=0.61). One can say, deposited dirt immobilises other deposited contaminations. As expected, Cd is more mobile as indicated by smaller retardation factors. The accumulation of Corg is not improving the adsorption capacity of the seam material for Cd. Other adsorbers are more important. The total amounts do not indicate a higher sorption capacity in the upper layer compared to the underlying material. Higher amounts in the seam material may be caused by physically trapped particles which contain Cd. Conclusion Partially sealed urban soils can store enormous amounts of deposited BC. However, BC/Corg signatures in soils show, that erosion and re-dispersion of formerly deposited atmospheric contaminants occur regularly. The re-dispersion of ?ne dust by traffic induced turbulences seriously contributes to the high dust concentrations in surface near urban air, especially near streets. The storage capacity of urban soils can only be increased by opening of soils. If rainwater runoff, which contains several dust amounts, eventually collected from great sealed surfaces, can ?nally in?ltrate into biologically active soils, particles can be incorporated in the soil structure. This, apart from groundwater recharge arguments is an positive effect of re-opening sealed soils in urban areas and should be a new goal in the discussion about de-sealing. References
Bhugwant, C., Cachier, H., Bessafi, M., & Leveau, J. (2000) Impact of traffic on black carbon aerosol concentration at la Reunion Island (Southern Indian Ocean). Atmospheric Environment, 34, 3463-3473. Centre, E.C.J.R. (2003) The Global Land Cover Map for the Year 2000. Glaser, B., Haumaier, L., Guggenberger, G., & Zech, W. (1998) Black carbon in soils: the use of benzenecarboxylic acids as specific markers. Organic Geochemistry, 29, 811-819. Goldberg, E.D. (1985) Black Carbon in the Environment Wiley, New York. Kirchstetter, T.W., Harley, R.A., Kreisberg, N.M., Stolzenburg, M.R., & Hering, S.V. (1999) On-road measurement of fine particle and nitrogen oxide emissions from light- and heavy-duty motor vehicles. Atmospheric Environment, 33, 2955-2968. Kuhlbusch, T. (1998) Black Carbon and the Carbon Cycle. Science, 280, 1903-1904. Laschober, C., Limbeck, A., Rendl, J., & Puxbaum, H. (2004) Particulate emissions from on-road vehicles in the Kaisermhlen-tunnel (Vienna, Austria). Atmospheric Environment, 38, 2187-2195. Nehls, T., Brodowski, S., Amelung, W., & Zech, W. (2007) Black Carbon in Paved Urban Soils. submitted. Nehls, T., Jozefaciuk, G., Sokolowska, Z., Hajnos, M., & Wessolek, G. (2006) Pore-system characteristics of pavement seam materials of urban sites. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, 169, 16-24. Novakov, T. (1984) The role of soot and primary oxidants in atmospheric chemistry. The science of the total environment, 36, 1-10. Polissar, A.V., Hopke, P.K., & Poirot, R.L. (2001) Atmospheric aerosol over Vermont: Chemical composition and sources. Environmental Science & Technology, 35, 4604-4621. Senstadt-Berlin (2001). Umweltatlas Berlin. Senatsverwaltung fr Stadtentwicklung und Umweltschutz, Berlin. Viidanoja, J., Sillanp, M., Kaakia, J., Kerminen, V.-M., Hillamo, R., Arnio, P., & Koskentalo, T. (2002) Organic and black carbon in PM 2.5 and PM 10:1 year of data from an urban site in Helsinki, Finland. Atmospheric Environment, 36, 3183-3193. Williams, D.J., Milne, J.W., Quigley, S.M., & Roberts, D.B. (1989a) Particulate-Emissions from in-Use Motor Vehicles .2. Diesel Vehicles. Atmospheric Environment, 23, 2647-2661. Williams, D.J., Milne, J.W., Roberts, D.B., & Kimberlee, M.C. (1989b) Particulate-Emissions from in-Use Motor Vehicles .1. Spark-Ignition Vehicles. Atmospheric Environment, 23, 2639-2645.
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Air quality in urban centres of South America: Montevideo, Uruguay

Erna M. Frins
Instituto de Fsica, Facultad de Ingeniera, Montevideo, Uruguay efrins@fing.edu.uy
Abstract Air quality and emissions monitoring are very desirable objectives in great urban centres. In developing countries, air monitoring networks are very rare and if they exist, they have many deficiencies. We give a general view of the situation in Montevideo. Additionally, we present the use of other versatile and handling instruments to solve present challenges. Introduction It is usually said that Montevideo, which extends throughout the cost of the Rio de la Plata, enjoys a very good air quality due to prosperous winds and the lack of topographic accidents. These facts contribute indeed to a good dispersion of the contaminants present in the air. Nevertheless there were some episodes in areas of Montevideo which call the attention of the authorities or citizens. The local authorities of Montevideo are working on a Monitoring Network as a tool for controlling and monitoring the air quality of the city. There are no national Norms for this control, but since 1993 there is a local "Resolution" concerning immission parameters that follows the guidelines of the World Health Organization (WHO). After the last public report (2005) [1], a technical proposal of standards was submitted again to the new authorities, but it is still under study. Besides the Monitoring Network there is a National Inventory of Net Emission of Greenhouse Gases (1998) [2], which was funded by United Nations Development Programme (UNDP, Project URU/00/G31). Considering the different monitoring scenarios that appear on field, such as geographic location and extension, polluting agents, as well as emission sources, there is a need of low cost and versatile systems for monitoring the atmosphere. In this work we present in a summarized form the existing information about the air quality in Montevideo. In addition, we describe the use of other versatile and handling instruments to overcome present problems. Site Description Uruguay is located in the southeast of South America. It is bordered by Brazil on the northwest and Argentina in the east. The country is divided into 19 Departments. Montevideo City is situated in the department of Montevideo which is located between the 34.4 and 35 degrees of south latitude and 55.7 and 56.3 of west longitude. Along with the bordering departments, they built-up the so-called "Metropolitan Area", the zone of greater urbanization of the country: More than half of the Uruguayan population lives in this Area generating an intense traffic transport flux that contributes to the emission of gas and particulate matter.
300 Max. Concentration in 24 hours exposure Yearly m ean concentration
Sulphur dioxide g/m3
250
200 150
100
50
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Fig. 1: Sulphur Dioxide measured at the Old City Station. This picture was taken from the 2005 public report (www.montevideo.gub.uy/ambiente/documentos/aire05.pdf)
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Montevideo south border is the 30 km long coast of the Rio de la Plata. The "Old City" or historical City is on the Bay of the same name, where the most important harbour of the country is located. Uruguay, as well as Montevideo, enjoys a moderate climate. The average temperature in spring is of 17C; in summer of 25C; in autumn of 18C and winter of 12C. By exception, extreme temperatures are reached, in summer 40 and winter 2 or 3 below cero. Throughout the year is counted on numerous sunny days although the variable changes in the weather conditions are frequent. The winds that predominate are those from the North, humid and warm and those from the South, dry colds. The relative average humidity along the year is 74%, being 68% in the period December February. Concerning the main gas contaminant sources, there is traffic emission and many stacks distributed in the residential neighbourhoods of Montevideo. Very important are the stacks of the power station, which generates electricity burning fuel-oil. This plant is located near the harbour and not far away from the parliament building. Another important source of atmospheric contamination comes from the Refinery located in the Montevideo Bay. This plant has to be considering as a diffuse source since its emission comes from the different sectors of the site (storage sector, process area, pools, etc). Many small industries (eventually not declared industries), private and public hospitals are situated almost near the centre of the city. Their stacks do not posses any monitoring system. Additionally along residential areas heating stacks are distributed. The home heaters usually work with different fuels of different qualities. Some householders have additionally firewood heaters. Current available information about the air quality at Montevideo At Montevideo, the maximum admissible values of the monitored parameters are: Total Suspended Matter (TSP) 150 g/m3 maximum in 24 hours (annual arithmetic average 90 g/m3), sulphur dioxide (SO2) 150 g/m3 maximum in 24 hours (annual arithmetic average 60 g/m3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 400 g/m3 maximum in 1 hour (150 g/m3 maximum in 24 hours), carbon monoxide (CO) 30 mg/m3 maximum in 1 hour (10 g/m3 maximum in 8 hours), particulate matter smaller than 10 m (PM10) 150 g/m3 maximum in 24 hours (50 annual arithmetic average) and is 150 g/m3 maximum in 24 hours for black smock (BS) (annual arithmetic average 60 g/m3) [1]. The parameters monitored in the urban area of Montevideo are: Carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) at two points of the city (Old City and Prado), black smock (BS) at the Old City, sulphur dioxide (SO2) at two stations, particulate matter smaller than 10 m (PM10) is monitored in the centre of the city, particulate matter suspended (PMS) and corrosion index (CI) at five points. Most of the present instrumentation is based on sample-extraction methods. After the Annual Report 2005 the concentration of CO was many days greater than the maximum admissible concentration for 1 hour average at two stations (8 days May 2005). Also the concentration of NO2 was many days greater than the reference value for hour average (13 days in November 2005). Apparently the SO2 concentration never exceeded the limit. The Meteorological Stations were still not installed at the time of the present report. Currently instruments in the stacks of the main power station (Central Battle) were installed to monitor CO, O2 and NOx. Information concerning dispersion comes from modelling. Complementary method for air quality monitoring In some cases, remote sensing represents the only feasible technique for monitoring source emissions and its dispersion. An important application of remote sensing is in the area of surveillance to check compliance with source emissions regulation, but there are many others. Many types of remote monitoring instruments are now available commercially such as LIDARs (acronym for LIght Detection And Ranging), DOAS-Systems (Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy) [3], Imaging Spectrometers, etc. A relative new development to achieve remote air pollution measurements on field is the so-called MultiAxis-Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy (MAX-DOAS) [4]. It combines the measurement principles of the zenith-scattered light DOAS and the long-path DOAS. The MAX-DOAS usually works in the near UV and VIS spectral range. It is able to measure the surface near concentration of NO2 as well as trace gases including HCHO, SO2, H2O, Glyoxal, BrO and others simultaneously. Another new experimental procedure called Topographic Target Light scattering-DOAS (TOTAL-DOAS) [5] provides a well define absorption path to measure the near surface distribution of trace gases in the boundary layer. The instrument is basically a MAXDOAS with a reduced field of view. Its applicability ranges from air quality control, measurement of gas emissions, polluted air near a main road, to topographic measurements, etc. It is a transportable, low-cost instrument. Theory and some field tests have been carried out in the city of Montevideo and Heidelberg. For example, correlations between traffic and the concentration of SO2 and NO2 have been observed.
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Erna M. Frins: Air quality in urban centres of South America: Montevideo, Uruguay
Discussion and conclusions In developing countries, air monitoring networks have many deficiencies. For example, the local authorities of Montevideo are monitoring the air quality of the city using only immission measuring devices. These devices are not flexible enough to detect and measure localized gas emissions. This leads, for example, to a certain disagreement between the local experimental data [1] of SO2 and the increment of fuel-oil and gas-oil (with 1000 ppm of SO2) consume [6] in the whole Montevideo city, as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The lack of reliable information about emissions could be avoided using more flexible methods as described above.
Consumption of Gas-oil and Fuel-oil

8500
Conumption of Petroleum Products (ktep)
8000 7500 7000 6500 6000 5500 5000 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
Gas-oil Fuel-oil
YEAR
Fig. 2: Consumption of Petroleum Products containing SO2 during the period 1995-2005 (Source: www.ine.gub.uy)
References
[1] Technical Report: "Calidad de Aire de Montevideo", Informe 2005, Laboratorio de Calidad Ambiental, Departamento de Desarrollo Ambiental, Intendencia Municipal de Montevideo; www.montevideo.gub.uy/ambiente/documentos/ [2] Inventario Nacional de Emisiones Netas de Gases de Efecto Invernadero: 1998, www.cambioclimatico.gub.uy. [3] Platt, U., "Differential optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS), in Air Monitoring by Spectroscopic Techniques," M. W. Sigrist (Ed.), Chemical Analysis Series 127 (J. Wiley, New York, 1994). [4] Perner, D. and U. Platt, "Detection of nitrous acid in the atmosphere by differential optical absorption," Geophys. Res. Lett. 7, 1053-1056 (1979). . [5] E. Frins, N. Bobrowski, U. Platt, T. Wagner, "Tomographic MAX-DOAS observations of sun-illuminated targets: a new technique providing well-defined absorption paths in the boundary layer", Applied Optics, 45(24) 6227-6240 (2006). [6] Public information from the Instituto Nacional de Estadstica, Montevideo, Uruguay, www.ine.gub.uy
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Waste-Pickers in Anpolis Citys Dump A Case Study

C. A. C. Brant
Secretaria Estadual de Meio Ambiente e Recursos Hdricos do Estado de Gois, Brazil cacbrant@yahoo.com.br
Summary This text attempts to present the conjugation among the problem of the urban solid residues and social situation of waste-pickers in dumps, struggling to survive from this activity. We tried to show the government's real motivation in treating the residues in Anpolis City Center-West of Brazil demonstrating that priority subject isn't the adjustment of the human condition of the Waste-Pickers. Soon, We drew those individuals profile and approached their usual way of work, verifying that in this activity, exploration of man by man is intense. Based in studies made in this municipal district, We produced a parallel between way of work at the begin and after application of the practical work with individuals in training regime to transform of such reality and their results. Closing the article, We present conclusions and indications. Introduction Subjects related to solid residues in Brazil have been receiving inadequate and superficial treatment. Blended to several others problems, We focused on, those relative to the increasing number of waste-pickers in our country while sequence of inconvenient results. Advantageously requested by the industry, for the substantial reduction of production costs, the return of recyclable materials to the productive industry is stimulated. Allied to Brazilian social exclusion due to the serious unemployment rate, leads every day a great number of poor families to this dangerous activity, exposing them to risks. Shy modification of perspectives is being drawn in Brazil, stimulated by Federal investiments Lulas Govern historically negligent, which indeed depends on other factors. Hydric Crisis: The Motivating Element Brazilian Constitution treats in an incipient way the subjects related to the disposition and treatment of residues of urban centers. It imputes, in a shallow way, the solution to the municipal administrations, disregarding the verified differences, under the most several aspects, in this nation of continental dimension. It does not consider the perception of the problem by city unprepared administrators, that don't have the necessary understanding to workers in Dumps generating a give priority to investments in viable solutions. Constituted powers limit to hand over the responsibilities that at the end, falls heavily on the population which generates such residues, ironically shocked by the ending results. Without any regulations and ignoring environmental legislations, dumps are spreading through the nation causing a great number of problems. National Environment Program PNMA II Integrated Administration Component of Environment Actives, to be applied in national scale for brazilian Ministery of Environment, which objectives in the State of Gois foresees and prioritizes, the "Environmental Conservation and Protection of the 'Meia Ponte' River basin above Goinia city", unfolding itself in the search of the appropriate treatment of the solid residues generated in the municipal districts within its basin. Anpolis city is in this context. Focusing protection of water such important environmental asset it prepares adaptation of problems involving "Joo Leite" river basin, tributary of "Meia-Ponte", responsible for provisioning the Capital of Gois. "Joo Leite" river will be intercepted by construction of accumulation dam, with a budget of 100 million of brazilian Reals (SEPLAN), which useful volume will be of 117 hm in strategic paper to human satiation. Itll overlay demand up to 2025 year, when Goianias population will reach 2.3 million inhabitants. (SANEAGO). Of the Profile of the Waste-pickers and their Way of Work Persistent migration of whole families from the North and Northeast of Brazil in the search for improvements of better perspectives is a thoroughly known fact. Located in the Center-west, the State of Gois is one of the passages for the Brazilian southeast, final destine of a great number of those that decide for migration. Anpolis city, offering a better quality of life, is where numerous families ends their journey and decides to settle down. Many image facilities, ending up hostages of their own needs in strange land. It is this way that they end up involved in this available activity that doesn't require any special ability presenting as savior of their lacking situation: the picking of discarded materials. With such workforce, this activity grows every day in every possible way. The loss of the dignity already doesn't shake the humans beings in better situation. Such form of life became so usual. Regarding the several individuals that survive from the picking of discarded materials, it can be noticed them in two different groups according to each process: the ones dispersed in the urban district and those 548
C. A. C. Brant: Waste-Pickers in Anpolis Citys Dump Cases Study
devoted to what is disposed by municipal urban residues collectors companies in the local Dump. The first ones, aiming the residues from business establishments and residences, picking these materials without any form of systematization, can be seen conducting coaches and carriages of animal traction, but the great majority with their pushcarts and others carrying their daily picked load without the aid of any means of transportation. The second ones are individuals that revolve the solid residues piled up by city collecting companies, as soon as they are transported to dumping areas. Such place, mistakenly nominated as landfill by the municipal power, is in fact an open sky hazardous ambient. Destine for all types of residues, collected without any selection, including hospital wastes and pollutants. It doesn't have any elementary control. The modus operandi of those dump workers is absurd. The work is executed individually or by family. The competition is vigorous and everyone is usually exalted. The presence of minors of all ages is a registered fact by local guardianship officers. It can be read in the public document: "the fiscal auditorship of the work... questioned the inertia of the municipal and state public authorities of the environment in relation the protection of infancy..." (see Civil Inquiry/2006 - pag. 114). They wait anxiously, under sun or rain, during day, night or dawn, for the dump trucks to unload the compressed and deformed mass, with all kinds of residues. Such moment is known among them as "empurrao" (fig. 1). In the Fig 1: Waste Pickers in Anpolis dump moment of the "empurrao" the truck disposes its load on the soil, followed laterally by a great number of people beginning the search ritual. Soon afterwards, the caterpillar tractor disperses the material, covering it with earth, in attempt to follow standards established by the technique. No rare, accidents happen. After the search process, they accumulate the material in a contiguous nude area, for which they pay individually R$ 40.00 (Forty Reais) as monthly rent. There, they wait for the buyers. It was in this place, in this way, that the Environment and Water Resources Secretary of the State of Gois SEMARH-GO, found such individuals, inviting them to begin a training process, aiming the modification of that reality. According to existent numbers in Anpolis City's Municipal reports and SEMARH's reports, the number of registered waste-pickers is balanced as for the factor gender. The age group is variable, and there individuals from 8 to 71 years of age in that activity. The education is minimal and most can be framed as illiterate, or functional illiterate. The Installed Exploration Processes In the country, recycling moved 5.2 million tons in 2004 (CEMPRE/2006), however, the poverty situation that permeates the life of each one of those that sustains it in the base, in the whole country is striking. By influence of private interests, of individuals and groups, the subjects related to the garbage in Brazil bring a connotation of doubts. Along these last years, the cases of linked corruption to the garbage collection in large Brazilian cities, exposed by the media, show that something strange is happening. If we analyze the means to recruit companies that deals with urban cleaning, from the opening of the public announcements to the signing of the contracts, we will notice that a wide variety of suspicious factors to the presented results. Never reliable, such results hinder a real vision of the subject, retarding the conscience of the population as for the real business possibilities kept in the garbage. In Goinia, where the company Qualix, acted for 17 years, the case "Neyde Aparecida/Comurg" motivated about a dozen law suits in the State Public Prosecution Office. (Popular/2006). In relation to the municipal district of Anpolis, there is an annual destination of 48 millions to the company. On the other hand, there is a widespread exploration in the commercialization of discarded materials by installed companies of varied loads, forming an extensive intermediate chain among those that put all of the efforts in the gathering these materials, the waste-pickers and the processing industries. The situation of veiled slavery that the individuals of the base are maintained happens, by complete domain of the market for a few, organized in cartels, obstructing any form of alternative business. The middlemen pay insignificant prices for the products. They represent established companies spread through out the country, of strong economical means, making use of equipments of doubtful weighting methods. They offer what they want in reason of the low bargaining power of the sellers.
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Usually, the street pushcarts belong to buyers business and in the case of the waste-pickers of the dump, the domain is established by the incentive to individualism, lack of organization and absence of means to transport the material, besides the immediate nutritional needs. PGIRSU: The Recyclables and the Social Organization of the Waste-Pickers The PGIRSU was the first developed in the State of Gois, citing the waste-pickers and requiring them a municipal organization action for their activity, with a minimum technical base to encourage their social integration, allied to environmental benefits. (IBAM, 2004). After the analysis of collected data, it was deduced that the generated volume with reutilization potential in the district was of 15%, approximately. The integrated action to adapt municipal districts to elementary sanitation principles is recent in the country. In spite of resources destined in the past to such matter, it is known that its attendance and execution is problematic and ineffective. The National Health Foundation FUNASA, organ of the Federal Government made available 10 years ago, to several Brazilian municipal districts, budget for the construction and installation of sanitary landfills and selection residues centers, seeking the implantation of selective collection. However, there is no register of any successful experience after such investment. For the lack of matured projects and technical investments, where the works were executed, these landfills became dumps and the machinery abandoned, or used for other purposes. In Anpolis the imposed difficulties by the municipal government were enormous. Commitments only in part happened and with interference of the Federal Public Prosecution Office. "Fragile point is related with low acceptance of the Municipal Secretary of Environment in assuming the project" (Estrela's Technical Report n1, pag. 9). In fact, residues became a public calamity, allied to other factors, as to the growing organization of wastepickers, due to the National Movement MNCR and the performance of the Federal and State Public Prosecution Offices, that can intervene in municipal matters, which has been the touchstone making possible the slow transformation of the perspectives. MNCR is a movement of anarchist base, aiming the establishment of self-management and the control of the productive chain of recyclables in Brazil and Latin America. In spite of its legitimacy, the MNCR had questionable performance in Anpolis, mainly for the attempt of establishing the domain of the works developed by the State. In fact, all the process was harmed by the irreducibility of another group of waste-pickers against those in training. Member's of the anarchist movement no waste-pickers that began the conflict, looked for to reach members of the group that believed in the qualifying process. For the fact of being in the beginning to structure a political movement, the MNCR tried to credit the construction of the central of selection to its fight, but, in fact, such integrant only established their bases in the municipal district starting from the announcement of construction of the central. Not a single previous registration of intervention of the entity in favor those suffering difficulties in the dump, can be found. Such fact denotes the manipulation of the mass for the benefit of several other causes, which is historical in the country. In this case, it was extremely harmful for the process. Bases of the Implantation of the Practical Work Reached Results The present article was created together with the proposal of business plan to Association of Managers for Selective Collection in Anpolis AGECOSA, composed by ex-pickers of the dump, during the training process. In the practical training, the waste-pickers consolidated its theoretical base supplied by technicians and consultants of the SEMARH-GO, in classroom and along 10 months. This way, each one of them was raised to the condition of Manager of the Selective Collection, prepared to impress new supporters. The focus left the garbage and went to the generator assuming responsibility for the waste which turned a common sense. The selection and collection of materials during the week became a differential for which no coin is good besides the one with effective participation for the promotion of a better quality of life. Eventual contamination of wastes by organic and pollutants became a condemned matter to them. Such concepts were assimilated by the Associates gathered around an associative body, with Statute and own Internal regulation, formalized along the process. Of the 66 capable individuals to receive training, 48 organized themselves forming the Association of Managers for Selective Collection of Anpolis AGECOSA. The "Maracanzinho" quarter was chosen to test the implantation and irradiation of the new culture. There was the starting point to transform the local reality, alerting house generators to assume their quota of responsibility for the wastes. The choice of such a neighborhood happened for its centralized location and its good visibility in function of the proximity of a high education institution. Besides this, the intermediate socioeconomic level was relevant factor in the analysis.The data numbers of the 13th collection test (fig. 2) served as base for the projection/possibilities of residues reutilization in the municipal district (fig. 3). The work used as 550
C. A. C. Brant: Waste-Pickers in Anpolis Citys Dump Cases Study
Fig. 2: Discarded materials by type/percentua
base for its development, the pilot project residential "Sonho Verde" of weakly seletive collection, tested in Goinia in 347 houses. Procedures, as previous consultation, delivery of permanent wrappings, sound alert call and weekly collection were conquered through the applied experience of the company COOPREC, winner of the prize SEMARH/FIEG/SEBRAE that were confirmed in Anpolis by the success of its large application. (Prize Gois of Environmental Management/ 2005). For having an interlacement of actions with the agents of the health department, the reflex for the prevention of the "Dengue" is another factor worthy of note. If we analyze only such factor, we will see that the application of resources in basic sanitation indeed saves expenses in public health. The developed activities sought the transfer to the Associates, the differentiated knowledge in the search Fig. 3: Projection to Anpolis city colletion for the establishment of partnerships among the production lines, consume and re-consume, making possible the change of the point of view of everyone involved in the production of wastes and their reutilization possibilities, contemplating directly the environment, the social and health improvement, individual and public. The search for the commercialization directly with the industry was the main discussed subject and experienced in practice. (fig. 4) In previous interview 1.5% of residences of the neighborhood were selected, far apart and in a random way. As result, 100% of the interviewees agreed to effective participation, if the program of selective collection was installed. On Mai 29, 2006, it was accomplished the 1st environmental collection of discarded materials in Anpolis. After two months of work, adhesion reached 92.6%. The city possesses 80.423 residences and a population of 313.412 inhabitants, able to hold at least four more associations of the same load (SEPLAN/2005) and while we concluded this article, three months after the 1st collection, AGECOSA reached the adhesion of eight others neighborhoods with about 5.000 residences and 19.000 inhabitants, meaning 33% of its goal, providing an economy of 6% for the municipal disFig 4: Examples of price recovery in the direct negotiation trict expenses. (Municipal city hall) with industries
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Conclusion The awakening of a new trade, through the training of the waste-pickers for assimilation of a new posture towards the society, was possible. The establishment of a pact between the residues generating society and organized entrepreneurs working in selective collection was positive and viable. The reflex of such action for a substantial improvement of the quality of life, equal rights among genders, alimentary safety and economy in health expenses dengue epidemy was demonstrated. The interference of private interests, through public level decision was shown harmful to the establishment of the process. The lack of legal outline and guidelines to impute responsibilities and penalties to the municipal managers was a significant obstacle. Transference of Investments to the transitory phase of training, to guarantee the participation of candidates to the adaptation in a new reality, is primordial. Of whole the process, we concluded that the constituted powers are still distant of the real perception of the problems and solutions involving the subject. The bureaucrats need to go down the reality of the cities, idealizing feasible projects based in individual realities of each place. The resources are applied with very little commitment and it is indispensable to seek for municipal districts where the work is suitable starting from the posture of its major. Constitutional bases need to be reviewed being necessary modifications contemplating the compulsory nature of differentiated actions. In synthesis, conjugating social needs and the generated residues of urban areas, in a correct and supported way, can reach social, environmental and public health benefits reflecting and improving the local economy. Bibliography
Brant, C., COOPERATIVA DE RECICLAGEM DE LIXO - Relatrio Final de Estgio, 2. Edition, Goinia: CEFETGO/ITCO, 2005; Casolli, S./ Capacle, C./ Dantas, G./ Silva, H./ Lujan, J./ Laplaine, V. e Leite, W., PROJETO COLETA SELETIVA SOLIDRIA - TEMA II: RESDUOS SLIDOS - DAAE - Araraquara: Departamento Autnomo de gua e Esgotos, 2005; CONTRATO CELEBRADO ENTRE PREFEITURA MUNICIPAL E CONSRICO GC AMBIENTAL, Processo n 20045446, Anpolis, 2004; Adecon - Junior Consultoria da UEM Plano de Negcios, CooperMaring - Universidade Estadual - Ncleo Local da Unitrabalho, Maring, 2004; IBAM - Plano de Gerenciamento Integrado de Resduos Slidos Urbanos - Anpolis, 2004;
Bibliografical References
Estrela, I. (2006), Relatrio Tcnico 1, Goinia: SEMARH-GO, 2006, 9; Rodrigues, A. (2006), Inqurito Civil n 194/2006, Ministrio Pblico do Trabalho, Goinia, 2006, 112-116; Zuben, F. V., Reciclagem de Embalagens LONGA VIDA-TETRA-PAK- Desenvolvimento Ambiental, 1996, 1; http://www.cempre.org.br/2006-0102_inter.php ,s 23:04 de 08.09.2006. http://www.semarh.goias.gov.br/informativos/informativo_2911a.htm - pg. 3. - Prmio Gois de Gesto Ambiental Goinia: FIEG/SEBRAE/SEMARH-GO, edio 2005; http://www.saneago.com.br/novasan/?id=programas4&tit=programas - 14:30h de 24.08.2006; http://www.seplan.go.gov.br/RevEsp/cap07.pdf#search=%22custo%20da%20barragem%20do%20joao%20leite%22 , s 14:46 de 24.08.2006; http://www.movimentodoscatadores.org.br/o_que_e_o_movimento.aspx, s 16:20 de 07.09.2006;
________________________________________________ 1 empurrao: handling form using mat tractors in the scattering of the garbage on the ground, preparing to cover with soil
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The "topological index" as a parameter for monitoring the environmental capacity of urban ways
Jorge Antnio Martins and Milena Bodmer
Mobile Research Group / CNPq / Universidade Federal of the Rio of Janeiro UFRJ, Brazil jamartins@mp.rj.gov.br
Abstract Research was carried out at UFRJ whose aim was to verify, in the micro-scale of the urban environment (on the urban way) the participation of the surface of this environment and of the composition of the traffic flow in the process of concentration for atmospheric polluting agents. The concentration of carbon monoxide was measured for different topological characteristics of urban ways. The empirical model to estimate CO concentrations achieved a satisfactory success margin, explaining 81% of the variance and can be adopted for different objectives: Traffic allocation in relation to the limit of environmental capacity; and assessment of impacts from building projects on air quality, both for generating traffic as for altering the topological features of the urban way and then its environmental capacity. Presentation of the research on the concentration of carbon monoxide in the micro-scale of the urban environment (on the way) Field research work was undertaken at UFRJ Federal University of Rio de Janeiro UFRJ with the goal of proving that in a micro-scale, that is, on the urban way environment, the surface of this environment, the volume and composition of traffic are the most important variables to explain the concentration of atmospheric pollutants. The research conducted aimed at measuring carbon monoxide concentrations for different topological characteristics of the ways in sections of up to 120 meters. The sample consisted of 400 cases, studied for 26 urban way typologies. Thus, the observation of each typology was obtained in the way, for a period of one hour and a half, with a record made at every 5 minutes for the reading made by each one of the instruments (thermometer, barometer, humidity meter, anemometer, carbon monoxide meter, chronometer and traffic counters). For data collection the equipment as mounted on a mobile unit (car) which was always placed at the central point of the 20m section of the way, at the right hand kerb with the direction of traffic, in the case of one way roads and between the two tracks in two-way roads. The data was collected always at a minimum distance of 50 meters from the corner, so that an average situation could be detected, as at the ends (intersections) the phenomenon of turbulence tends to be more intense, and carbon monoxide concentrations tend to reach higher values as traffic flows are interrupted. The anemometer was mounted at 3.00m from the ground and, apart from it, all the remaining equipment was kept out of the direct sunlight. A sample of the local lair was aspirated at every 30 seconds, at 1.60m from the ground and at 1.00m from the kerb, on the pavement. Thus, in a 5-minute period 10 readings were made (5 when the traffic flow was interrupted by the traffic lights and the other 5 with the vehicles moving). This way, at every 5 minutes was obtained the average carbon monoxide concentration for different vehicle operation modes that took place in that period. In relation to the average speed of vehicles in the section under study, two readings were made at every 5 minutes: one with the flow at a standstill and another with the vehicles moving. when the vehicles passed by the start of the section, a chronometer was started, to be stopped only when the vehicles crossed the line for the end of the section, without considering if they had been stopped during the period. In relation to the surface of the road, it was decided a simple calculation of an index that could describe it: the topological index. The "topological index" as an explaining variable for urban micro-scale pollution. The topological index adopted is produced by the ratio between the weighted average for building heights and the weighted average for street width (from one building to another). The formula for the calculation of the topological index is: =H/L (1) where: : is the topological index; H: is the weighted average for the height of the buildings (in meters); L: weighted average of the width of the street (from building to building, in meters) The following procedures were executed for the calculation of H and L:
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1) For the calculation of H: 1st step: we considered the heights of the buildings on each side of the road (H'1 and H'2), weighing in relation to their respective widths. 2nd step: (conversion of the measurement for "height of buildings" from number of floors for meters in the research the value of 3.00m was adopted as the conversion unit)1 H = H' x 3.00m 2) For the calculation of L: we considered the front clearance for the buildings on each side of the road (H'1 and H'2), weighing in relation to their respective widths. The example below shows the application of this procedure for the calculation of the topological index. Where front clearances of the buildings are (shown with by Greek alphabet letters): : 4.00m; : 3.00m; : 9.20m; : 4.50m; : > 15.00m; : 4.30m; : 3.50m; : 12.00m and : 3.80m and the heights of the buildings are (shown with Latin alphabet letters): A: 1 floor, B: 2 floors, C: 4 floors, D: 8 floors, E: 15 floors, and F: 25 floors. Thus, for the example given, the topological index is equal to 0.67.
Figure 1: Example for the calculation of the topological index
The number of equivalent vehicles in relation to carbon monoxide emissions (NVECO) Traffic engineering has for some time adopted the concept of equivalent vehicles to determine the physical capacity of the ways. What was used in the research (and which produced positive reflexes for the explanation of carbon monoxide concentrations in the urban environment) is a methodology identical to that used to determine environmental capacity. As a consequence of the emission figures for the Brazilian vehicle fleet, equivalences were determined between vehicles (and their respective technologies) in relation to pollutant emission (in the case, carbon monoxide). The equivalences adopted in the research are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Carbon Monoxide Emission and Equivalence between Vehicles
Vehicle Type Ethanol-powered car, motorcycle, Diesel engine bus Petrol powered car Truck
Average Emission (g/min) 9.9 21.3 29.5
Equivalence 1.00 2.15 2.98
Results obtained. Some logarithmic models were adopted whose results for the explanation of the variance were no more satisfactory that those obtained with the linear regression model. As regards the exponential models in regression analyses, the maximum result attained was of 47% for variance explanation. Finally we also tested the discontinuous piecewise linear regression model, via the least squares method. This regression model is mathematically expressed by: y = (b01 + b11*x1 + ... + bm1*xm)*(y <= bn) + (b02 + b12*x1 + ... + bm2*xm)*(y > bn), (2) where logical expressions (y <= bn) and (y > bn) assume "0" values when the conditions expressed are not accepted and "1", when they are accepted. Estimated breakpoint was of 2.845876 (approximately 17 ppm). In estimating statistical parameters some values were experimented with, above and below the breakpoint with the observation of the explanation for 554
Jorge Antnio Martins and Milena Bodmer: The "topological index
maximum variance to the order of 80.6 % for the 2.8 breakpoint, with the mathematical model being expressed by the following equations: CO Concentration Log = (1.23694 - 0.00003x1+ 0.090903x2 + 0.385561x3+ 0.047554x4 + 2.223648x5) * (y <= 2.845876) + (4.15348 - 0.00005x1 - 0.12539x2 + 0.098198x3 + 0.029445x4 + 0.735548x5) * (y > 2.845876) Statistical parameters for variables x1 and x2, in the first equation, are not significant for levels of significance of up to 20% for bilateral test; the same happens in the second equation for variable x4. The other parameters when compared to the t-distribution with 260 degrees of freedom are all significant at a level of significance of at least 3% (for bilateral test). With the model above, the concentration of carbon monoxide was estimated for each topological index, and the remaining variables were maintained at the mean values found in the cases observed, which represent a scenario of calm winds (average velocity of 1m/s) and, most of the time, diagonal to the road; normal relative air humidity (62.6%) and average traffic flow speed of 40km/h. It is observed, for all topological indices a mean variation of 14% in carbon monoxide concentration in the pedestrian breathable air layer, when the relative air humidity changes in quality from "dry" to "normal" and from "normal" to "humid". In dry weather (air humidity under 30%) is where the largest concentrations of carbon monoxide take place. It is also observed that the variation for the concentration of carbon monoxide is of 11% when the load on the road goes from 500 vehicles/hour to 1,200 vehicles/hour, rising to 26%, when the load goes to 2,400 vehicles/hour. It was also possible to see an average 6% reduction for the concentration of carbon monoxide when the traffic speed goes from 40km/h to 20km/h and from 60km/h to 40km/h. It is also observed that, as the load increases on the road, there are discontinuities for the proportional values expected for all of the topological indices, with no abrupt discontinuities between classes. For example: when the road load reaches 3,000 vehicles/hour, all the topological indices undergo variations for the expected concentration that are inversely proportional. In other words, the higher the topological index, the smaller will the impact be, that an increase in traffic volume (between 500 to 3,000 vehicles/hour) may cause. After all, from 3,000 vehicles/hour, the equation that tends to explain the concentration of carbon monoxide is the second, as the values at play are above those for the breakpoint estimated in the model (17ppm) for all the indices. For very high topological indices (1.8 and 2.0), or canyon streets, not much variation in the concentration of carbon monoxide is found when one moves from the first to the second equation, that is: as one moves above 3,000 vehicles/hour the impact on the concentration of carbon monoxide is quite clearly shown for low topological indices, whereas for high topological indices it is shown as discrete. Because dispersion conditions are so much more difficult on roads with high topological indices, so, low traffic volumes induce a high concentration of carbon monoxide (which reinforces the need of adopting technical and scientific criteria for the definition of urban development parameters, something usually done by political criteria, according to the pressure of one agent or another on the competent government authority). The simulation for carbon monoxide concentration for different road loads was then carried out, and the other variables were maintained fixed, according to the characterization of the scenario established. In reproducing the results in graphs it was possible to obtain a set of isocurves for carbon monoxide concentration for different loads and topological indices of roads. These isocurves allowed the graphical development of the concentration model so to become an useful instrument for impact evaluation, given its operating ease, which does not require professional training, and can be used not only by technical teams from city councils, which are not always technologically up-to-date, but also by the community itself, or by representatives of the State Attorney's Office in civil enquiries into the impacts caused by constructions. Conclusions and recommendations. The graphical model to predict trends for carbon monoxide concentration in urban ways can be used for different purposes: Traffic allocation As the model defines the environmental capacity of urban ways, whose widths vary from 10m to 30m (2 to 6 traffic lanes), it becomes useful to estimate air quality in existing situations and in possible proposed situations, which makes it a support instrument for decision-making in traffic allocation; Use and occupation of the soil Provided one knows the number of motorized trips attracted by different typologies in the use and occupation of soil, one can estimate the impact a building (existing or planned) will produce on the quality of air, as one building acts indirectly on the pollutant emission where: x1 = (Relative Air Humidity)2 x2 = Log (Traffic Speed)2 x3 = (Topological Index)2 x4 = Wind Velocity x5 = NVECO
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process (produced by the vehicles attracted by it) and directly on the pollutant dispersion process (topological index function). A recommendation is made for the use of the model to evaluate the impact a planned building may cause on air quality, both for generating traffic, and for changing the topological index of the urban way it will be located on. It is also recommended that research should continue on the following subjects: To expand research to other geographical latitudes (Northern hemisphere and polar regions) and altitudes (very high above sea level); To enlarge the database for the verification of seasonal series (summer and winter); To verify the influence of the topological index on the wind at the breathable air height for the pedestrian to relate it to official weather data (when the meteorological service informs wind speed and wind direction at a height that is much above that of street level, what happens there when one interacts with constructed spaces?); To extend the research to other polluting agents; and To adapt the use of the topological index for sound pollution in urban ways. References:
- FEEMA (1995) - Qualidade do Ar na Regio Metropolitana do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro. - Kuhler et all (1990) in Transportation Research A, vol. 26-A, No. 2. - Martins, J. A. (1996) - Transporte, Uso do Solo e Auto-sustentabilidade. Teoria e prtica para a previso de impactos sobre a qualidade do ar. D.Sc Thesis. COPPE/UFRJ. - Martins, J. A. (1995) - Revisitando Buchanan in Transportes, Volume 3, Number 1, Rio de Janeiro: ANPET, May , pp. 7 to 48.
________________________________________________ 1 In the case of old buildings, with a ceiling height over 3.00m the conversion unit was adapted as per case. Similarly, floor fractions were noted, such as uneven conformations or half-buried basements.
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Sustainable Design in Brazil: Creation methodology, implementation and development of projects with industrial wastes
Maria Norma Menezes & Celso Pereira Guimares
Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro UFRJ, Brazil norma@puridesign.com.br
Abstract The present study has the objective of applying concepts of sustainable design to the development of methodologies for product projects made from non-recyclable industrial refuse and leftovers from small and mediumsized industries (MPEs) in the State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The goal is to develop a mind-set of sustainable production in the intellectual training and qualifying of specialized labor, in promoting economic prospects in Brazilian industrial sectors, and consequently, reducing the environmental impacts at city and industrial dumping areas. Introduction We live in an epoch where making an industry competitive and lucrative is a great challenge. In developing countries there are already methodological mechanisms and consulting for sustainable business that enable large companies to exercise a definite roll in the sustainability tripod, inextricably binding economic, environmental and social values. (Engel, 2006). However, in the Cone-Sul countries such as Brazil, small and medium-sized companies (MPEs) have not, for the most part, adhered to sustainable business management policies. This happens for various reasons, two of which we consider relevant in the present study: lack of regulation and laws for applying ISO14000 for Sustainable Business Management and ISO9000 for Quality Control, and the mind-set of Brazilian industrialists who have not yet perceived the value of "the good business of sustainability". (Almeida, 2002). It is well-known to the public (City Council Wastes Company COMLURB, 2007) that every week small and medium-sized furniture manufacturers in the Sate of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil approximately 3.000 industries discharge a volume of 35m in standard-sized cuttings of every kind of non-recyclable material (hardboard, plywood, foams, cloth cuttings, amongst other things). It is also estimated that from the furniture and similar industries alone in the State of Rio de Janeiro, 150 tons of industrial refuse are discarded monthly, causing high costs and losses to the industries and saturating the city dumps with unusable industrial refuse (COMLURB, 2007). The methodology studied here has the objective of minimizing this material discarded by at least 75% Factor 4 of the Wienzacker Scale. (Kazazian, 2005), making use of standard-sized cuttings in every kind of material in the production of new goods for consumption. Based mainly on the fractal instrument: social equity ecology economy (Baungart & Mc Donough, 2002), sustainability basis for a production process, we enable that old industrial processes can revise their means of production. Although we are not developing industrial products with materials with low environmental impacts that would classify them as sustainable, (see Almeida, 2002 p.160-166), i.e., those that have an closed loop, we are exercising conceptual and methodological bases for producing sustainable products, dismantling, de-materialization, minimization as also reducing the emission of non-recyclable wastes to the environment, as well as: 1st. In the academic field, enabling professional in the areas of design and creation to exercise their concepts and creativity under the sustainable parameters; 2nd. On the social level, there is creation of demand for labor in the low-income population, through learning a new trade, generating profits and improving living standards; and 3rd. In the industrial area, suppliers of wastes exert their portion of social responsibility and add value to the intangibles in their production (Engel, 2006). Its relevant characteristic is that this work is with materials with industrial metabolisms (if they were biological they could serve as nutrients to the soil), they do not have a closed cycle for their reuse in the case of foams, cloth, hardboard, plywood, amongst other things which makes it especially difficult for these companies to be sustainable (Almeida, 2005). As a methodology for introducing these processes to small and medium industries in Brazil, a re-adaptation was made of the graphs of 02 France (Kazazian, 2005) for the stages involves specifically in the case study for furniture industry leftovers. The result, as was found with all the material under experiment during the Eco Design course administered in the Design Course of the Fine Arts School EBA / UFRJ, between 2005 and 2006, showed that they had great value in use and building of small pieces of furniture and domestic accessories, such as for example: clothes, hangers, supports, shelves, office utensils, fashion accessories (jewelry and apparel), children's toys, etc.
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Justification In the Municipality of Rio de Janeiro, where recycling of wastes corresponds to a tiny 3% (COMLURB estimate, 2007) of all refuse collected monthly, there is a need to increase the volume of recycling, and diminish the quantity of refuse discarded, where its metabolism does not favor recycling. Increasing the useful life of materials used by industry in general as well as diminishing the quantity of material used furthers the goal of sustainable development. However, in reality, Brazilian industry does not have sufficient technology to allow products to complete their "cradle to cradle" cycle, especially for those industries Figure 1: The fractal tripod used by Mc Donough and where the manufacturing process does not have a Braungart (2005) as measuring instruments for surveying closed cycle. These industries, especially furniture data and balancing the direct / indirect factors involved in a and related goods, use materials such as cloths, ply- productive process. wood and foams amongst others, that is, materials that cannot complete their cycle and return to industry as raw material, as it is not possible to separate their components. But the challenge of applying our research is to reduce the quantity of garbage or refuse generated from these industries, re-manufacturing and re-utilizing this refuse as new products and consumer goods. Thus, we justify the relevance of the present project as a sustainable link for these industries that cannot yet make use of materials with metabolisms that are not yet separated. (Mc Donough, Baungart, 2005). Fundamental Concept What to do if the material produced industrially cannot become compost or return to industry due to their containing different products such as glue, resins, paint, plywood where the biological and industrial metabolisms, if mixed, can have no destination but the trash? While we cannot separate them, we should reuse them. This would mean a substantial reduction in refuse produced. Reviewing our attitude in projects from cradle-to-grave to cradle-to-cradle (McDonough, Baungart, 2005), constitutes one of the conceptual bases of this study, returning to the concept of economy in its literal sense: proper use of scarce resources (Holanda, 2002). Another fundamental concept is Corporate Social Responsibility(CSRs). Any company that wishes to become acceptable from the social economic environmental point of view should always attempt to base production on this tripod. (Mc.Donough & Baungart, 2005) Objectives Promote and study the development of projects in design for products made of alternative materials, in this case industrial refuse. Train professionals in commerce and industry in conception, design, and production of these products. Train labor in lower income groups in order to improve their quality of life. Publicize and amplify the concepts of sustainability with a view to promoting effective changes in the medium term to the present stage of productive processes at the MPAs. Diminish the quantity of non-recyclable refuse, prolonging the use of materials involved in industrial processes. Promote the commercial bases of the parties involved (stakeholders) as a whole, based on the tripod of equity economy ecology and add value to intangibles in the productive processes of small and medium Brazilian industries (Almeida, 2005). We gave examples of the fractal of equities proposed by Mc Donough and Braungart (2005) and we find the direct and indirect beneficiaries in the present study.
Figure 2: Eco-efficient products and solutions have the following benefits and beneficiaries (stakeholders).
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Maria Norma Menezes & Celso Pereira Guimares: Sustainable Design in Brazil
Social Equity Access to instruction, training and qualification for the low-income population in courses to be given in education centers and/or in the industries themselves. Para-institutional organs will promote an expansion of the project to other industries that wish to become lucrative through social-environmental responsibility; providing incentives and challenge to design professionals, both active and in training in the main teaching and research centers in the state, becoming an example of effective social con- Figure 3: Eco-Efficient products and solutions that have the above benefits and beneficiaries involved (stakeholders). tribution. Economy The project benefits society as a whole, valorizing the labor market, economizing raw materials, and improving the economies of the industries involved. This methodological strategy generates positive marketing for the companies and promotes the organs involved, as well as adding intangible value to the company. Ecology The greatest benefit to the environment, especially in urban areas, is the diminution of non-recyclable wastes discharged to dumps, as well as the reduction in use of raw materials extracted from nature. Having in mind the almost total use of the materials used in industry, applying the values of Scale 4/10 of Wiezscker (Kazazian, 2005), will lead gradually to a change in behavior and attitude in projects on the part of industry and the professionals it employs. Development of the methodology The problem Analysis of the materials used by furniture and similar industries:
Figure 4: Reformulation of the wheel of eco-conception proposed by O2 France (Kazazian, 2005) showing the stages considered in the present project.
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Items 1 and 2 are not considered in the first phase of this project. From item 3 we propose a re-reading of the means of production. In item 4 of the wheel of eco-conception we apply the check list below: Select for the type Classify for the type and quantity Separate quantitatively and by occurrence and frequency. Prepare the material according to the demand of possibilities. Experiment structures, resistance, malleability. Simulate simulation for a production. Project according to the possibilities listed in the separation and experiment. Execute the prototypes and qualify the production. Authors' note: The other items (from 5 to 8) are then automatically governed by the previous ones until the entire Wheel of eco-conception is used. Conclusion The results of the methodology studied and to be put into effect generate specific action of a epistemic nature and are relevant to the continuity of development, and are motivational in respect to its application in the social-economic-industrial universe, diminishing or attenuating problems in managing the quantities of refuse produced by the industries installed in the State of Rio de Janeiro/Brazil. We can consider as incisive action: 1st. Training, through holding specific lectures on sustainability, product life cycles and separation of materials, exploiting the creative side. Study groups for de-materialization, mono-materiality, minimization of use of additional finishing materials (max 20%) and use of up to 80% of selected refuse. Materialization of Project Workshops with application of Factor 4 de Wienzsacker (Marlet, 2005). 2nd. Consulting and Technical Evaluation for each Micro and Small Company (MPE), that will be attended by the Specialized Entrepreneurial Consulting to the MPEs; Accompaniment of consulting of designers in industries; For evaluation of the impact of results; Evaluation of the efficacy of the methods and procedures used and the socio-economic transformations generated by the activities, with the purpose of establishing new goals with the possibility of widening the coverage in other states or industrial production centers in Brazil. 3rd Creation of Professional training courses in partnership with previously identified institutions that attend the lower income population. For further info consult: www.puridesign.com.br; norma@puridesign.com.br; celsopg@ufrj.br
Figure 5:-Results expected from the readaptation of the production wheel O2 France (Kazazian, 2005) for the reality of the Project and the expected results.
Bibliography _ ALMEIDA, Fernando. O Bom Negcio da Sustentabilidade. Rio de Janeiro, Editora Nova Fronteira, 2002. _ HAWKEN, Paul, LOVINS, Amory & L. Hunter. Natural Capitalism: creating the next industrial revolution. New York: Back Bay Books, 2000. _The Ecology of Commerce. New York: Harpen Publishers, 1994. _ HOLANDA, Aurlio B. Dicionrio Brasileiro da Lngua Portuguesa. Rio de Janeiro: Editora Nova Fronteira, 2000.
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The management waste in Brazilian cities

Luciana Ziglio
Master in Geography University So Paulo,Brazil lucianaziglio@yahoo.com.br
Abstract Urbanization is one of the main social phenomena in human evolution. On one hand, urbanization and economic development have led to the emergence of environmental changes that have ended up intervening with the public health in cities. We can see in urban centers, inadequate conditions of life identified by the lack of adequate infrastructure in housing, sanitation, water and food. This deficiency causes an environmental impact and alterations in human life more so in its psyche; both biological and social structures. The advances of industrialization and its repercussions world wide lead to gradual positive growth that being unevenly distributed. The phenomenon of industrialization is today overwhelming, mainly in countries of the so called 'third world'. Urban population of developing countries has multiplied by six. Specifically, Brazil, this figure has multiplied by five in the last thirty five years. The increase of big cities is surprising in poor countries. Out of twenty six cities world-wide, in 1990 sixteen were in developing countries. (1) Environmental Problems of Industry Industry is generally concentrated in urban centers bringing environment problems. The types of industrial impacts are the following: petrochemical, chemical, refineries and metallurgy. Pesticides, acid, industrial cadmium, synthetic, sewers and many more are produced by these companies. Prolonged toxic exposure to infectious agents and contamination lead to the emergence of illnesses such as intestinal clutter, coetaneous irritations for example. Respiratory illnesses are also a frequent consequence of the air quality in poor urban centers. The main causes of death are degenerative chronic illnesses often due to diet or the adopted way of life. Some food producing industries do not provide the efficient health to the individual, during production, transportation and to storage, do not respect public health regulations which in turn leads to exposure to various illnesses. Furthermore in the production of any merchandise, the production cycle generates in many industries, industrial residue, gas emissions and effluent liquids. In this context Brazilian cities like Cubato have suffered huge problems with public health. We see children being born without properly formed brains in the 1980's. We see this situation when the State limits its economic intervention, the result is that other levels of the social life such as health, leisure and more are organized by way of the market, something that's under speculation. Therefore public awareness of the absence of chemical security is made clear when the Industrial Waste, Brazil Management is notified of an environmental accident.(2) The Management of the Industrial Residues in Brazil reaches the 21st century with a population estimated at 170 million, whose population growth tax is generated in turn around 1,4 % a year, that will take the Country to a number of 211 million inhabitants by the year of 2020. Ahead of these estimates, it becomes necessary to think about the solid residues in our territory and its management. According to data from the IBGE Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics out of 6000 5,506 Brazilian cities, only 551 4.841 have a collection destination for 5000 industrial residues (3) Dangerous residues in Brazil constitute an environmental rea- 4000 son of concern for the authorities and agencies. Either by way of 3000 the amounts being generated, mainly as a result of the in- 2000 creased industrial concentration in some regions of the country, 1000 551 as due to the lack of installations 83 and places made for the treat0 ment and final destination of Control No Control No Declaration these residues. The quantities of dangerous residues in Brazil Graphic 1: Brazilian Municipality and Waste Industrial Management generated are only estimated IBGE- Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatstica ,Pesquisa Nacional de and not used effectively. Ac- Saneamento Bsico,2000.
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cording to the Brazilian Association of Companies of Treatment of Residues (Abetre), established 1998, and observed in the previous table, 71% of the industrial residues go to landfills, 4% are incinerated, 19% are coprocessed they become combustible by cement industry ovens -, 3% receive treatments physicistchemistries and only 3% of the residues are generated in the health service (as in the hospitals, emergencies serives, medical doctor's offices) are dealt with in an adequate way. As much as the residues deposited in landfills, much of this could be used to help other, for example, recycling inside of a proper generating source. Many academics agree that it is possible for the industries to take care of this issue. The second use mentioned in the table is the residues bound for incineration, still at a high cost in Brazil, restricting it therefore, to few companies. The biggest problem in extending the treatment of industrial residues, dangerous or not, is the lack of information in the Country. Therefore, the OEMAS are forced to comply with the CONAMA Resolution National Advice of Environment 1998 that stimulates the elaboration of inventories of residues. (4) In the last ten years, despite the increase of the number of companies who deal with the industrial residues produced in factories adequately, the group of integrated management does not reach the Brazilian industrial sector all. In the state of Rio De Janeiro, for example, at least 10% of the Carioca industries still disagree with the environmental laws, launching or storing incorrectly the remaining portions of its production. The Program of Management of Industrial Residues of the State Foundation of Engineering of the Environment FEEMA generates a monthly indication for companies in the state of Rio de Janeiro, which produce more than 500 a thousand tons of industrial residues of which 24 thousand dangerous products known as Class I. This material does not reach its correct destination, putting the population at risk. (5) Or even, the case of four companies of Polo Industries of Manaus Showa of Brazil, Yamaha, Philips and Samsung All waiting for the destination of 300 tons of dangerous residues Class I. all of the residues generated in Zona Franca of Manaus have the address of, Brazilian Company Bauxite hosted in Par, that currently is under embargo of the federal agencies, amongst them the IBAMA of Par. In order to prevent the co-responsibility crime, such companies ceased sending its waste to the CBB. Such residues, since 2001, are stored in the companies waiting for their final destination. Beyond searching for the best disposal, these companies must see to the correct transportation with environmentally licensed companies in the country. (6) In relation to the environmental liabilities, the Brazilian legislation is extremely rigid and establishes independent responsibility of blame (7). Beyond the environmental responsibility, it is inserted blame for damages to public health identified the indemnity for civil responsibility. In the 1980's and the beginning of the last decade formed acquisitions of problematic companies for multinationals. The market of incineration in Brazil is incipient, but very promising. According to data Abetre, Brazilian Association of Companies of Treatment of Residues, this sector puts into motion about 50 million Reals, burning currently only 10% a year of dangerous residues generated in Brazil. However, we cannot forget that they're toxic, releasing emissions from the most modern incinerators, formed of three types of dangerous pollutants for the environment and the health: the metals weighed, the products of incomplete combustion which formed new chemical substances during the incineration process. Pollution control Equipment can remove some of these metals from the emissions. The co-processing of dangerous residues in cement ovens is practiced in varous states of the federacy, member of the local licensing, becoming an alternative in the management of residues. In the Brazilian market, each ton of dangerous industrial waste burnt in co-processing, costs on average Us$ 100 per ton. The price in the international market is bigger, between US$ 200 and US$ 250. The price in Brazil is well lower due to lack of culture of the companies in giving this destination to its residues. Predominantly organic residues such as, oils, resins and inks are found in the system of the final destination and adjusted management. Other residues such as the PCBs, lead, residues of tanneries, metals weighed, mercury and used lubricate oil, and too be found in this adequate alternative of management in Brazil. (8) Beyond the incineration and co-processing, Brazilian companies use the system of the Stock market of Residues to reach the adequate management of its waste. Spread around Country, for intermediary of the representative entities the enterprise sector. They search to promote the free negotiation between the industries and its residues. However, the systems of industrial representation are not authorized for law to supervise the commerce of exchange, purchasing or selling the residues of these data bases. The environment agencies of the Union, States and Cities possess this permission. This form, this system needs to be researched further to certify its effectiveness in the movement of residues so that it does not cause problems the health or environmental impacts in the national territory. Moreover, to remember (Leff, 2000), technologies such as recycling and co-processing serve as an instrument in maintaining an ecological order. On the other hand, the economic control on diverse resources, productive sectors and markets diminish, in some cases, the compulsion for the super exploration of the Nature, 562
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at the same time that a process of technological change. It looks to reduce its ecological impact through the process to make it more environmentally efficient, like the industry of the recycling. Notes (1) Santos, M. Metamorfoses do espao habitado. Hucitec. 5 edio, So Paulo,1997,124pg. (2) Comegna , A e Ziglio , L. Segurana Qumica no Brasil : As Convenes de Roterd e Estocolmo. In: Revista de Estudos Geogrficos. Universidade Estadual Paulista, So Paulo, 2004. (3) Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatstica, IBGE. Pesquisa Nacional de Saneamento Bsico. So Paulo. 2000. (4) Associao Brasileira de Empresas de Tratamento de Resduos, ABETRE . Inventrio do Paran deve estar pronto em um ms. www.abetre.com.br . So Paulo. Internet,12/11/2002. (5) Saneamento Bsico na Internet . RJ: Resduos Industriais so largados. http://www.abetre.com.br/ . So Paulo. Internet, 17/11/2002. (6) Saneamento Bsico na Internet . Lixo Txico preocupa empresas da ZFM. http://www.abetre.com.br/ . So Paulo. Internet, 29/10/2002. (7) Saneamento Bsico na Internet . Lixo e Meio Ambiente. http://www.abetre.com.br/ . So Paulo. Internet, 11/11/2002. (8) PCBs ou bi-fenilos policlorados : has been forbidden in Brazil since, 1981 for trade. Bibliografy
ASSOCIAO BRASILEIRA DE TRATAMENTO DE RESDUOS INDUSTRIAIS. Internet: http://www.abetre.com.br/ CENTRE DE RECHERCHES POUR LE DEVELOPPMENT INTERNATIONAL. Ressources Mondiales: un guide por l environnement mondial. Ontrio, 1997. EUROPEAN FORENDATION FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF LIVING AND WORKING CONDITIONS - Visions and actions for medium sized cities . 1994. IBGE. Pesquisa Nacional de Saneamento Bsico . Braslia: 2002. LEFF, H. Ecologia, Capital E Cultura. Blumenau: Furb. 2000. Proceedings of a european workshop the hague. Cities and the global environment. 1990. ZIGLIO, L. A Conveno de Basilia e o Destino dos Resduos Industriais no Brasil. Brasil,USP,2005.
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Workinggroup 7 Urban green governance
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New Governance Approach to Sustainable Urban Development

U. Weiland
Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research UFZ, Germany Ulrike.weiland@ufz.de
Introduction The current political, economic, social, and institutional transformations on all scales and the challenges of sustainable urban development push cities all over the world to find new appropriate ways of urban governance. Several attempts to urban development have been elaborated inde-pendently from each other, a.o. the 'New Steering Model' and management models towards sustainable urban development. Despite their differing objectives short term efficiency of the local administration versus long-term sustainability of the local community a comparison of both approaches unfolds a number or similarities, especially a) strategic planning using objectives and b) monitoring respectively controlling with indicators or reference numbers. Combining core elements of these attempts seems to be promising for a new governance approach towards sustainable urban development. New Approaches to Urban Development With the aims of improving the efficacy, efficiency, and legitimacy of administrative actions, the organization of numerous local administrations has been modified according to the 'New Public Management' (NPM) model e.g. in the USA and Great Britain (Schedler/Proeller 2003, Budus et al. 1998), and according to the 'New Steering Model' (NSM) in Germany (Wei 2002, Naschold 1997, KGSt 1996 u. 1993). Core elements of both models are decentralized management structures within the local administrations, output-orientation and activation of the administrative bodies by competition, and customer orientation. On the one hand, the single administrative bodies gain more autonomy and self-responsibility in fulfilling their tasks but this calls for a controlling with target agreements and reference numbers on the other hand. The NSM prioritizes economic rationalities not as radical as the NPM. Especially after a disillusion about the use of the NSM mostly for austerity measures, citizen's or customer's participation has gained more importance under the catchword 'citizen's municipality' (Banner 1998). Sustainable urban development activities have been carried out parallel to the modernization of the local administrations. Sustainable urban development is understood as the integrative handling of ecological, economic, social, and cultural aspects in long-term perspective on local level while considering regional up to global interrelations. It requires the co-operation of a plurality of authorities and stakeholders. Considering the global variety of urban circumstances and trends, it becomes obvious that the general sustainability model has to be adapted to the particular local situation. In order to steer urban development towards the intended direction, sustainability objectives, an adequate information base, priority setting and steering measures are indispensable. Since Agenda 21 has demanded for developing adequate management tools, e.g. sustainability indicators, international institutions as well as Local Agenda 21 initiatives have elaborated indicator sets (see e.g. Agenda-Transfer 2003, Heiland et al. 2003, IISD 2006, OECD 1997, UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs 2006, UN Habitat 2006, Weiland 1999 and 2006). Sustainability indicators usually are utilized for understanding, comparing and communicating urban development. Only in some cases, the indicator sets are applied for urban development; the city of Heidelberg e.g. uses them for the evaluation of their comprehensive urban development plans. Integrating diverse interests and goals in long-term perspective on various levels while considering uncertain knowledge on future develop-ments pose serious challenges to urban decision makers and trigger the search for further adequate governance modes and tools. Governance is understood as the plurality of the numerous ways, how individuals, public and private institutions manage their concerns, within and beyond governmental regulations (Beaumont/Musterd 2005, Jessop 2002, Kearns/Paddison 2000). 'New urban governance' stands for "the collective and institutionally anchored regulation of urban development processes, from the micro-level of a project area to the whole urban and city-regional level, by different players () who are involved in informal and formal, flexible and enduring networks with horizontal as well as hierarchical structures and specific power balances." (Hohn/Neuer 2006, 293) In the sustainability context governance is often understood as "good urban governance" or "public governance", comprising a.o. subsidiarity, equity, efficiency, transparency, civic engagement, security, and sustainability. Except for their dissimilar objectives and their different rating of economic rationalities, the NSM and management approaches towards sustainable urban development have several aspects in common. Both approaches try to transform new conclusions from the governance discourse, and both try to implement a strategic planning and controlling: the NSM implements agreements on objectives and criteria in order to
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assess the efficacy and efficiency of the administrative work, whereas Local Agenda 21 initiatives elaborate sustainability objectives and indicators (Gehrlein 2004, Pamme 2000). Management Cycle for a Sustainable Urban Development Combining core elements of both approaches while considering recent findings of the governance research and implementing this approach into urban decision making shall contribute to the realisation of sustainable urban development. This implies an advancement of linear planning models towards a cyclic management (Weiland 2001) with the following elements (see fig. 1): Participatory elaboration of sustainability objectives: Sustainable urban development requires strategic long-term objectives, and if possible: quantitative targets accepted by the majority of stakeholders. They bring about orientation, co-ordination, reflection, innovation, and activation in decision making (Knieling 2006). The objectives should put into concrete terms the aims of national and regional sustainability strategies, e.g. reduction of land consumption and emissions, and they should correspond with the other elements of the management cycle, especially the indicators. A basic consensus on core elements of sustainability (see e.g. Grunwald/Kopfmller 2006) fosters decision making considerably, while the elaboration Figure 1: Management Cycle for Sustainable Urban Development process of the objectives offers the opportunity to discuss diverging interests. But because the essential requirements for progress towards sustainability can be set out in countless different ways, because conflicting interests occur nearly in every decision case, and because decision making on future options is always incomplete, only a broad set of general objectives can be set in advance that have to be adapted to the specific context in every single deci-sion. These difficulties and interest conflicts are the reasons why only a few local communities have agreed upon establishing a comprehensive set of sustainability objectives to date. Formal and informal planning, strategies and action plans help to implement the a.m. objectives and set the framework for measures and projects. For example German Regional and Local Land use plans shall contribute to a sustainable spatial development according to the German Planning and Building Law. To what extent the broad variety of spatial and environmental plans contributes to sustainable urban development in fact is subject to sustainability assessments and cannot be discussed here in-depth. Measures and Projects: Concrete measures and projects serve for realizing objectives, strategies, and action plans. The measures shall comprise economic, planning as well as informational issues; they shall be effective and efficient, and they shall contrive a just distribution of advantages and loads. Because many different measures are influencing or steering urban development processes already (e.g. taxes, fees and incentives as economic measures, as well as spatial, environmental, and infrastructure planning), in many cases the modification and completion of existing measures, and the elimination of existing obstacles (e. g. counterproductive incentives) is necessary. Here the federal structures of the respective countries and the responsibilities of the local administrations have to be considered; steering on local level towards sustainability requires a multi-level governance approach. Monitoring: Analyses of current urban development processes based on sustainability indicators are prerequisites for an effective steering towards sustainability. They shall cover crucial aspects of urban economic, social, environmental and institutional circumstances. Because they will be carried out in iterative steps, they should be rationalised by an urban monitoring programme. In order to serve as steering instruments, the indicator use has to be incorporated into urban decision making, and their application shall impinge measures and projects. There are a number of proposals and examples referring to this (e.g. Hartmuth et al. 2006, Keiner 2005, Keiner et al. 2005, Birkmann 2004, Gehrlein 2004, Werheit 2002) that have been partly applied in practice, e.g. for the monitoring of several German and Swiss regional plans. Further initiatives could raise the importance of monitoring as prerequisite for decision making. For example the German Lower House of Parliament considers monitoring of urban development results necessary for sustainable urban development (Deutscher Bundestag 2004). Several local administrations plan to adjust their monitoring approaches to the vague requirements of the European Directive on Strategic Environmental Assessment, and a number of regional and local administrations are conceptualizing a land management based on land-use monitoring in order to avoid further urban sprawl and costly technical infrastructure. Sustainability assessments or sustainability appraisals in terms of distance-to-target-considerations shall allow for evaluating, in how far the current urban development processes coincide with the sustainabili566
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ty objectives. They are prerequisites for identifying the most pressing problems and management deficits or priorities, and they help to derive new guidelines and objectives, to redefine strategies and planning instruments, and to modify urban development projects. In Great Britain, sustainability appraisals are used for the evaluation of regional spatial strategies and local development documents. They are considered as assessment of activities, projects, programs, plans and/or policies which applies social and economic sustainability criteria as well as environmental ones and considers the integration and reconciliation of different criteria (Office of the Deputy Prime Minister 2005). The management cycle is depicted on local level, but its transferability to other levels is to assume; the assumption of multi-level governance implies its applicability on different levels. The elements of the cycle can be passed in the depicted order, but in practice shortenings of the cycle are feasible, e.g. the realization of measures without alternating the objectives, or the modification of objectives according to new monitoring results. Conclusions Despite the ambivalent rank of sustainable urban development in the public opinion, the biased advancement of single purposes while producing trade-offs in other realms can become expensive and unacceptable in the future. Therefore, sustainable urban development is as necessary as before, and its realisation requires adequate governance approaches. A management cycle including the elements depicted above can help to steer towards sustainability. The many existing attempts on different levels and of different actors demonstrate the interest in optimizing local decision making towards sustainability; overcoming enduring obstacles remains a challenging task. But "there is good reason to be tentative in assertions about what is necessary for sustainability, to suggest rather than impose general rules, to emphasize sensitivity to particular circumstances, and to treat it all as work in progress." (Gibson et al. 2005, 91) References
Agenda-Transfer (2003): Gemeinsam empfohlene Indikatoren zur kommunalen Nachhaltigkeit, Bonn. http://www.indikatoren-portal.net/ (3.4.2007) Banner, G. (1998): Von der Ordnungskommune zur Dienstleistungs- und Brgerkommune. In: Der Brger im Staat, 4, pp. 179 - 186. Beaumont, J.; Musterd, S. (2005): Dossier on Governance and Urban Development Programmes in Europe. In: Tijdschrift voor Economische en Social Geografie, Vol. 96, nr. 4, pp. 358-362. Birkmann, J. (2004): Monitoring und Controlling einer nachhaltigen Raumentwicklung. Indikatoren als Werkzeuge im Planungsprozess. Dortmund. Budus, D.; Conrad, P.; Schreygg, G. (eds.) (1998): New Public management. Berlin, New York. Bunzel, A.; Jekel, G. (2006): Monitoring in der Bauleitplanung. Difu-Beitrge zur Stadtforschung 46. Berlin. Cools, M.; Frst, D.; Gnest, H. (2003): Parametrische Steuerung. Operationalisierte Zielvorgaben als neuer Steuerungsmodus in der Raumplanung, Frankfurt/Main. Deutscher Bundestag (2004): Stdtebaulicher Bericht der Bundesregierung 2004: Nachhaltige Stadt-entwicklung - ein Gemeinschaftswerk. BT-Drucksache 15/4610, 30.12.2004. Gehrlein, U. (2004): Nachhaltigkeitsindikatoren zur Steuerung kommunaler Entwicklung. Wiesbaden. Gibson, R.; Hassan, S.; Holtz, S.; Tansey, J.; Whitelaw, G. (2005): Sustainability Assessment - Criteria and Process, London. Grunwald, A.; Kopfmller, J. (2006): Nachhaltigkeit. Campus, Frankfurt/New York. Hartmuth, G.; Rink, D.; Huber, K. (2006): Kommunales Nachhaltigkeitsmonitoring. Das intranet-basierte, georeferenzierte Nachhaltigkeits-Informationssystem IGNIS. UFZ-Bericht 03/2006. Leipzig. Heiland, S.; Tischer, M.; Dring, T.; Pahl, T.; Jessel, B. (2003): Indikatoren zur Zielkonkretisierung und Erfolgskontrolle im Rahmen der Lokalen Agenda 21. UBA-Texte 67/03. Berlin. Hohn, U.; Neuer, B. (2006): New Urban Governance: Institutional Change and Consequences for Urban Development. In: European Planning Studies, Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 291-298. IISD (International Institute for Sustainable Development) (2006): Measurement and Assessment. http://www.iisd.org/measure/compendium/searchinitiatives.aspx Jessop, B. (2002): Governance and Metagovernance: On Reflexity, Requisite Variety, and Requisite Irony. In: Heinelt H. et al. (eds.): Participatory Governance in Multi-Level Context: Concepts and Experience. Opladen, pp. 33-58. Kearns, A.; Paddison, R. (2000): New Challenges for Urban Governance. In: Urban Studies, Vol 37, No. 5-6, pp. 845850. Keiner, M. (2005): Planungsinstrumente einer nachhaltigen Raumentwicklung. Indikatorenbasiertes Monitoring und Controlling in der Schweiz, sterreich und Deutschland. Innsbrucker Geographische Studien 35. Innsbruck.
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Keiner, M.; Koll-Schretzenmayr, M.; Schmid, W. (2005): Managing Urban Futures. Sustainability and Urban Growth in Developing Countries. Ashgate, Aldershot. KGSt (Kommunale Gemeinschaftsstelle fr Verwaltungsvereinfachung) (ed.) (1996): Das Verhltnis von Politik und Verwaltung im Neuen Steuerungsmodell. KGSt-Bericht 10/1996, Kln. KGSt (ed.) (1993): Das neue Steuerungsmodell. Begrndung, Konturen, Umsetzung. KGSt-Bericht 5/1993, Kln. Knieling, J. (2006): Leitbilder und strategische Raumentwicklung. In: RuR 6/2006, pp. 473-485. Naschold, F. (1997): Binnenmodernisierung, Wettbewerb, Haushaltskonsolidierung. Internationale Erfahrungen zur Verwaltungsreform. In: Heinelt, H.; Mayer, M. (eds.): Modernisierung der Kommunalpolitik - Neue Wege zur Ressourcenmobilisierung. Opladen, pp. 89 - 117. OECD (1997): Better Understanding Our Cities. The Role of Urban Indicators. Paris Cedex. Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (2005): Sustainability Appraisal of Regional Spatial Strategies and Local Development Documents. London. http://www.communities.gov.uk/pub/346/Sustainability AppraisalofRegionalSpatialStrategiesandLocalDevelopmentDocuments_id1161346.pdf Pamme, H. (2000): Global denken, lokal handeln' im Dienstleistungsunternehmen Stadt'? Lokale Agenda 21 und Neues Steuerungsmodell - Chancen und Widersprche. In: Heinelt, H.; Mh-lich, E. (eds.): Lokale Agenda 21-Prozesse. Erklrungsanstze, Konzepte, Ergebnisse, Opla-den, pp. 119 - 140. Schedler, K.; Proeller, I. (2003): New Public Management. Stuttgart. UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Division for Sustainable Development (ed.) (2006): Indicators on Sustainable Development. http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/natlinfo/indicators/isd.htm (3.4.2007) UN Habitat, United Nations Human Settlements Programme (2006): GUO Urban Indicators Database. http://www.unhabitat.org/programmes/guo/guo_indicators.asp (3.4.2007). Weiland, U. (1999): Indikatoren einer nachhaltigen Entwicklung - vom Monitoring zur politischen Steu-erung? In: Weiland, U. (Hg.): Perspektiven der Raum- und Umweltplanung angesichts Globali-sierung, Europischer Integration und Nachhaltiger Entwicklung, Berlin, S. 245-262. Weiland, U. (2001): Planungszyklus fr eine zukunftsfhige Entwicklung von Stadtregionen. In: Raum-forschung und Raumordnung, 59. Jg., Heft 5-6/2001, S. 392-401. Weiland, U. (2006): Sustainability Indicators and Sustainable Development. In: Wuyi, W., Krafft, T., Kraas, F.: Global Change, Urbanization and Health. China Meteorological Press, Beijing, pp. 241-250. Wei, K. (2002): Das neue Steuerungsmodell - Chance fr die Kommunalpolitik? Opladen. Werheit, M. (2002): Monitoring einer nachhaltigen Siedlungsentwicklung. Dortmunder Beitrge zur Raumplanung 113. Dortmund.
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Productive local structures and the challange of sustainable urban strategies: The case of Limeira, State of So Paulo, Brazil
Volia Regina Costa Kato, Anglica A. Tanus Benatti Alvim, Gilda Collet Bruna
Presbyterian University Mackenzie, Brazil vrkato@uol.com.br
Acknowledment The authors would like to gratefully acknowledge the financial support of Mackpesquisa Research Fund. Abstract The spatial productive activities' new structures and the work transformation in the world also arrived in Brazil and are mobilizing the urban studies' interest, because of its implications in the cities' environmental quality of life. This article objective is to add elements into this discussion, analyzing the results of the research entitled Productive Local Structures of Jewels And Knicks-Knack in the Municipality of Limeira, hinterland of the State of So Paulo, Brazil, developed at the Presbyterian University Mackenzie between 2005 and 2006. The data and informations surveyed show that during the 1970's the intermediate-sized city of Limeira began to receive the metropolitan region industrial deconcentration. Industries were searching to adapt themselves to face the new global market conditions. Some of them assumed a flexible productive model, and came to transform the land use and occupation pattern. Thus the new possibilities of development started to be linked to the establishment of cooperation and synergy among enterprises of the public and the private sectors. The data analysis showed that the urban centers like Limeira were achieving significant socioeconomic development on one side, but on the other side these urban areas gained problems similar to those of the large metropolitan realities. Besides, they didn't count on special urban planning regulations to organize the city. In Limeira the increase in the number of small and median enterprises impacted the city as they located sprawled in the urban tissue, bringing work to the people living there, but also pollution from the production process they use. This situation will be focused in this article, trying to detach the possibilities of the territory organization according to sustainable urban strategies. Introduction During the last decades, there was a process of remodeling the productive activities worldly and even in Brazil, forming industrial clusters with economic power. In terms of urban experiences there are some international examples that indicate the relevance of researches focused on such local realities. In Brazil, since the 1990 decade, this theme is being discussed in the universities and also being dealt by the federal and state governmental agencies that search to stimulate the formation of industrial clusters as local and regional strategic development factors, and these clusters are being called Productive Local Arrangements. The Brazilian peculiarities of this process can be seen on its growing social concerns, and on the need to include the participation of the population in the public policies' decisions. Also population should be aware of the need of environment preservation so that sustainability would become a goal associated to the urban and regional development. In this context this article discusses the potential of the new productive activities and their interrelations with sustainable urban development in the municipality of Limeira at the hinterland of the State of So Paulo.1 Local Productive Groups and Urban Regional Development During the 20th century last decades, the industrial transformations had undergone deep alterations and so had stimulated many modifications in the productive processes, which had had impacts in towns, with reflexes on the socioeconomic activities and on the physical-territorial occupation. New technologies of automation and information stimulated a reduction of the formal work and the foundation of many small and intermediate enterprises, changing the work relations and the location of the productive units. The industries became more flexible and more interdependent and receive the worldwide influences in their local spaces. In this context, small and median enterprises had been concentrating in some places and regions, establishing new social relations based on the interdependency and on cooperation. In some cases, there are strategies of development with the local government support, based on the stimulus to the formation and strengthen of local industrial clusters. Their characteristic was that of the agglomeration of enterprises of the same sector in a territorial area where they developed processes of specific technological innovations, in the respective chain of production, or complementary productive chains. According to the Brazilian Federal Agency SEBRAE (2004), the industrial cluster is considered a geographical area that shows signs of collective identity and convergence of capability in terms of development
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expectations realized through the establishment of partnerships and compromises to keep and specialize the investments in their own territory, and to promote or receive an economical and social integration at the local and regional spheres. The specialized literature presents various definitions about these new productive configurations. In developed countries they are called clusters, although it is difficult to adopt a clear and precise definition (Marques, 2005). In general the assumption is that these productive structures present relationships among enterprises and so they generate synergy in terms of cooperation and competition, counting for that on universities and research centers that help with training, financing and management, acting as an inductor factor to these production and knowledge processes. That way they stimulate the formation of an innovative environment with the quality needed to an entrepreneurial flexible action (id. ibid.). According to the authors studied, it is important to understand the dynamic of the economy on the territory where these enterprises are located, in terms of work generation, and potentiality for a diversified growth. In this sense the notion of territory is considered fundamental so that one can understand the structuring of the local industrial clusters. The territory can also be seen as a network of social relations organized in a physical-geographic area, with its political-administrative and cultural system. The industrial cluster has an economic dimension that structures the continuity of the urban territory (BRUNA et al, 2006). Within this scenery the existence of a productive chain is a necessary condition, but not sufficient to assure the industrial cluster development; therefore it should be focused by the urban planning. The analysis of the territory is important because growth and innovation stimulating each other happen on it, thus the town has a detached role in this development. The local development and the urban planning sphere: some considerations about the Brazilian case In Brazil, the institutional reform, established by the1988 Federal Constitution is leading to the introduction of new development and local management patterns. The City Statement "gave the municipality larger autonomy, as it recognized it as an entity of the Federation, increased its participation in the tributary revenues, but also increased its incumbencies, involving more competencies" (CAMPAGNONE, 1999, p. 26). Relating to Urban Policy, more specifically, the 182 and 183 Constitution articles are important guidelines that should be implemented by the municipality urban development, through Master Plan, which is mandatory to towns with more than 20,000 inhabitants. The Master Plans became a duty to the municipalities, according to Law n 10,257 of July 2001 (also called the Town Statement), which regulates the referred Constitution articles, so that the municipalities must elaborate their urban development policy. The Town Statement is considered an important legislation for the Urban Policy in Brazil. It stresses the role of the municipality in the national, states and federal district context, and their commitment in relation to the sustainable urban development, as well as their involvement with the local civil society in the urban planning process. Thus the municipality public power had acquired a fundamental role in the local development, managing its effects; also they should re-democratize their decisions stimulating the population participation in the town planning decisions. In this context, the municipality's challenges are very complex, as it faces the effects of globalization, and of the technological advances. Also they need to change from a bureaucratic and slow public machine, to a new urban and environmental management that knows how to deal with the increasing unemployment and informal work. By its turn, the urban expansion continued uncontrolled bringing conflicts to the physical territory and degrading the built environment. This associated with the State incapacity to implement quickly programs of sanitation and transportation infrastructure makes worst the situation, requiring solutions considering new local economic development alternatives. The municipalities with a significant productive concentration can offer development opportunities in some sectors, and the incentive to industrial clusters can be an important strategy of economic growth. If adequately steered, the industrial clusters can be strong urban-regional development inductors. Therefore the urban planning has an important role as a social instrument to the urban and environment control. Considering these transformations that happened in towns, the industrial clusters' role is that of an important axle of economic development. Their study should collaborate to recognize the benefits their implementation brings in terms of urban space and socioeconomic view point, as well as concerning their entrepreneurs actions through the local and regional urban policies (ALVIM, KATO, BRUNA, 2005). The Local Productive Groups of Jewelry And Knick-Knacks and the Local Debvelopment Policies The analysis of the jewelry and knick-knacks clusters in Limeira emphasizes the multiple aspects appointed above, specifically the formation and composition of the existing productive chain, the disposition on the urban
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structure, the institutional network of relations and links with the urban public policy. Therefore this analysis can forecast trends that should be considered in the process of re-making a new master plan. Limeira as many other intermediate-sized towns of the State of So Paulo was a target to the metropolitan region industrial deconcentration process that happened since the end of the 1970's. Facing the recent dynamic of global competition, the industries came to adopt flexible productive models, influencing the change in land use and occupation patterns. Therefore Limeira productive area was fortified in the regional and national urban network. Besides it attracts population and other productive activities. The municipality of Limeira is located 154 km from So Paulo, bordering the Anhanguera and Bandeirantes State roads, with a population of about 248,632 inhabitants according to the 2000 census. It is located on a privileged position at road-rail merging and near the Viracopos International Airport in Campinas, which constitutes an important factor of support for an industrial park economy dynamic and diversified. The jewelry and knick-knacks origins are from the 1940's end. And in this industrial production context there is an intense concentration and attraction of new entrepreneurs, in special since the 1980's, when the production became predominant. Today, practically all the productive chain is located at the municipality of Limeira and counts on the production of brute units, machines and facilities, sector's services, modeling, weld, milling house, chemical inputs for the galvanic bathes, besides trade channels for the national and international market (SAMPAIO, 2002). The Cetesb agency (Basic Sanitation State Company) list of firms show that today there are about 300 enterprises, (an under estimative according to the association of the Industry of Jewelry, Golden Objects, Knick-Knacks and Gems of the State of So Paulo- SINDIJIAS). Nevertheless, this important employers association points out that there are 450 enterprises legally constituted responsible for about 9,000 direct jobs and over 50,000 indirect ones. The survey analysis showed that the cooperation efforts among local enterprises is restrict to: selling improvement; decreasing costs; common strategic matters; infrastructure sharing; and the diffusion of the local productive system, like the creation of a trust to exportation and a shopping of brute units and knickknacks; and the organization of fairs and catalogues held in 2002 the first international fair: ALJIAS-2002. Despite all these cooperation efforts, there is a high resistance concerning the sharing of responsibility for strategic issues like the impacts on the urban-environment. The characteristics of composition of the Local Industrial Clusters are full of problematic repercussions in terms of urban environment, mainly because their enterprises are spread in the urban tissue, demanding planning and management. These are small enterprises, some home made ones, that work with pollutant material and deliver their waste directly into the sewer network or directly on the ground, at the sidewalk's curb. The analysis done shows that the enterprises are scattered in the urban area following three fundamental factors: 1) the spin off process, when personnel of pioneer enterprise leave it and open new businesses, near the main firm they left; 2) the low cost of land at the moment they bought it (today they are very expensive); 3) the legislation allowing location and construction in the town's central area. In Limeira there is a conflict between urban policy that proposes industrial districts and the reality of the Local Industries Clusters: The industrial districts had been proposed to attract enterprises, including those scattered throughout the town as they offered advantages like privileged location near the State roads; specialized labor force; health services with hospital; educational services; information services (digital inclusion); firms' incubators (for agribusinesses and diversified industries); and retail and service areas (PID, 2004). This strategy of creating industrial districts failed, nevertheless, because they still remain practically unoccupied. The industrial district policy although, was considered an instrument of the Limeira Master Plan (Complementary law n 199 of 1998) and zoning was the major norm of land use and occupation defining the control of specific zones in the peripheral areas of the town. Thus the urban plan had to adapt its land use norms so that the industrial estates could accept the proposals in negotiation. In other words, there is a disarticulation among the enterprises location policy, the planning process and the land use regulation, and the urban management processes. These divergences and conflicts among the different actors of the society had to be solved through social pacts (ALVIM, KATO, BRUNA, 2005). Since 2006 the land use adjustments still continue being done, as the municipality of Limeira was reformulating its master plan to fulfill the demands of the Town Statement. Therefore the presence of those productive activities contributing to the local economic development, give optimistic perspectives in terms of urban policies and socioeconomic impacts on the territory. So, from a moment of total absence of organization and negligence of the public power, the Local Productive Arrangements (industrial clusters) are gaining partners and attracting the attention of the local authorities about their potential of development, and also about the discussion with the population to fulfill a social pact.
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Final considerations The analysis of the survey done in Limeira shows that the Local Productive Arrangements are located scattered into the urban area, but at the same time they are key-forces inserted into the economy and market of today. Competitively they are molding their regional and local urban development. The synergy they had built because of their adjacent location one another as enterprises' partners enables them to generate work, productive innovation, and new forms of management of this process of production. This is being reflected by the excellent results at the domestic market, as well as at the external one. The consolidation of the Local Productive Arrangements of Jewelry and Knick-Knack based on the sustainable development however is still incipient. They have to face strong challenges to solve their pollution issues to be fully incorporated by the regional and urban policies. This research verified above all that the Limeira urban planning actions didn't forecast special conditions for the development of these activities on the territory, as the pollution issue is significant, especially that one affecting the environment. The absence of a regional planning policy is being strongly felt because it could stimulate the formation of a network of towns with Local Productive Arrangements, so that they could capture the benefits of their increasing synergy during medium and long time. In the today context, the redefinition of the Brazilian urban legislations had built new perspectives of interrelationship with the economic potentialities of the Local Productive Arrangements, both at the regional and local development. They depend on the convergence and confirmation of the urban public policies, as well as of the capability of articulation of the political and social actors. Bibliographical references
ALVIM, A. A. T. B.; KATO, V. R. C.; BRUNA, G. C.. A Influncia dos princpios Modernos nos Planos Urbansticos Recentes: o caso de Limeira no estado de So Paulo. Anais do III Seminrio Docomomo Estado de So Paulo. So Paulo, 2005. BEYNON, How. Globalizao, neoliberalismo e direitos dos trabalhadores no Reino Unido. In: OLIVEIRA,F; PAOLI, M.C. Os sentidos da democracia: polticas do dissenso e hegemonia global. 2 ed. Petrpolis: Vozes; Braslia: NEDIC, 1999. BRUNA, Gilda Collet. et. al. ESTRUTURAO URBANA E ARRANJOS PRODUTIVOS LOCAIS: Identificao e anlise das relaes entre processos sociais, efeitos espaciais e polticas urbanas atravs de estudo dos casos das cidades de Franca e Limeira, no Estado de So Paulo. So Paulo: Fundao Mackenzie de Pesquisa, relatrio de pesquisa (cd-rom), 2006. BRUNA, G. C.; ALVIM, . A. T. B.; KATO, V. R.da Costa; CASTRO; L. G. R. de.; RIGHI, R. Arranjos Produtivos Locais no Estado de So Paulo e sua Articulao com o Desenvolvimento Urbano e Regional Urbano: identificao e caracterizao. Anais do XXI Congresso CLEFA. Loja, Equador, 2005. CAMPAGNONE, M. C. Gerente municipal: um profissional da gesto local. P. 25 - 38. In CEPAM. O Municpio no Sculo XXI: Cenrios e Perspectivas. So Paulo: Cepam, 1999. LIMEIRA (Prefeitura Municipal). 1998. "Plano Diretor: Municpio Limeira. Diagnstico". Limeira, cd-rom. PID. Programa de Incentivo ao Desenvolvimento. Prefeitura Municipal de Limeira, SP. Secretaria Executiva de Governo e Desenvolvimento. 2004. Mover as Peas com Sucesso nos Negcios Escolher um Local Adequado para sua Instalao. Limeira. SP: Prefeitura. PLIS, Instituto. 2002. Estatuto da Cidade: guia para implementao pelos municpios e pelos cidados. So Paulo: Polis; Braslia: Cmara dos Deputados, Centro de Documentao e Informao. SAMPAIO, S. E. K. 2002.Sistemas locais de produo: estudo de caso da industria de jias e bijuterias de Limeira (SP). Trabalho de Iniciao Cientfica. Universidade Estadual de Campinas - Instituto de Economia. SEBRAE. 2004. Metodologia de Desenvolvimento de Arranjos Produtivos Locais. Projeto Promos /Sebrae /BID Verso 2.0. Disponvel em www. sebrae.com.br. Acesso em 06 mai de 2004.
________________________________________________ 1 The complete research title is Urban Structure and Local Industrial Clusters: identification and analysis of the relations among the social processes, spatial effects and urban policies through the study cases of the towns of Franca and Limeira in the State of So Paulo; of Ph.D. Professor Gilda Collet Bruna; team: Anglica Alvim, Volia R Kato, Roberto Righi, Luiz Guilherme R Castro, Paulo Jorge Vendramini, Juliana Marques, Wendie Requena and Juliana Dalbello; it was developed from February 2005 to January 2006 at the School of Architecture and Urban Planning of the Presbyterian University Mackenzie, with financial support of the Mackpesquisa Research Fund.
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The city of Freiburg as an example for the city of Florianpolis

Adriana Gondran Carvalho da Silva
Bauhaus-University of Weimar, Germany adriana.silva@archit.uni-weimar.de
Abstract The city of Florianpolis is located in southern Brazil; part of it is located in the mainland, and in the island of Santa Catarina. Since 1950, the economical basis of the city has been the tourism activity, completely disregarded to the fragility of their ecosystems. Due to this strong tourism exploitation and the image of "the capital with the best quality of life in Brazil", this city has attracted thousands of new inhabitants every year, resulting basically in a lack of basic infrastructure and illegal occupations of natural protected areas. In this context, the question of this research is: So, the question of this paper is: How to solve the environmental problems of Florianpolis? The hypothesis is: The environmental problems of Florianpolis may be solved by the establishment of an intercultural urban dialogue, with the city of Freiburg, which could be defined as the exchange of knowledge between a source city and a receiver one, based on the concept of reflexive urbanism. In other words, the objective of this research is to adapt the technology and experience of the city of Freiburg, in Germany, in order to improve the efficiency of the infrastructure of Florianpolis and enhance its image as a sustainable city, and therefore to attract attention, tourists and investments. The reasons for choosing this city as a source of goods practices for Florianpolis are: its environmental policies, its image of a very high life quality and tourist city; and its very well known technologies institutes, especially concerning to solar energy. The method of this research is a comparative study, which includes literature review, quantitative and qualitative analysis and synthesis. The features for the comparison are the basic sanitation (water supply, pluvial drainage, sanitary sewer, and solid residues) and energy supply. On the other hand, this research also aims in a larger scale at the establishment of this intercultural urban dialogue as a theoretical proposal and as a practical tool for the Brazilian urban planning. Introduction Florianpolis is the capital of the State of Santa Catarina and has a population of approximately 400.000 inhabitants. The city is located in southern Brazil (27 Latitude); part of it in the mainland, and part in the Island of Santa Catarina, and comprehends an area of almost 436.5 km2. In fact, because of the insular situation of Florianpolis, there are important and fragile ecosystems, such as: beaches with calm and warm water and beaches with open sea; coasts and promontories; bays and mangroves; lagoons; sandbanks and dunes; and the Atlantic Forest. But, the urban occupation modified almost completely the environment of the continental part and has caused serious negative impacts on the environment of the Island. Thus, the tourism of Florianpolis is based mostly on the natural resources of the Island of Santa Catarina. The "Island of Magic" and the "Capital of Ecotourism" are the slogans of the city. However, in reality, this touristy activity happens completely disregarded to the fragility of its ecosystems, denying this image of paradise. So, the question of this paper is: How to solve the environmental problems of Florianpolis? The hypothesis is that the environmental problems of Florianpolis may be solved by the establishment of an intercultural urban dialogue with the city of Freiburg, which could be defined as the exchange of knowledge between a source city and a receiver one, based on the concept of reflexive urbanism. In other words, the objective of this research is to adapt the technology and experience of the city of Freiburg, in Germany, in order to improve the efficiency of the infrastructure of Florianpolis, to enhance its image as a sustainable city and consequently to attract attention, tourists and investments. The reasons for choosing the city of Freiburg i.B. as an example of goods practices are: its image of a very high life quality and tourist city; its very well known technologies institutes, especially concerning to solar energy and informatics; and its worldwide famous environmental policies. Those practices seem to be appropriate to help solving the problems of Florianpolis. Besides that, both cities have similar sizes, national images and roles: they are considered green cities and known by the beauty of its nature and water and technology. These similarities are not formal, but functional. Then, the method of this paper is a comparative study, which includes literature review, quantitative and qualitative analysis and synthesis. The chosen features for this comparison are the basic sanitation (water supply, pluvial drainage, sanitary sewer, and solid residues) and energy supply. All of them are part of the infrastructure of the city, understood as directly related to the protection of the environment of the Island and its ecosystems, as well of its tourist image.
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Reflexive Urbanism The reflexive urbanism is defined, according to Hassenpflug (2006), as the reconciliation between modern urban planning, urban design and place making with the urban wisdom, experience and knowledge of the old world, i.e. tradition, aiming at the adaptation of the space production to the expectations and needs of an emerging post industrial society. In this context, the term "reflexivity" characterizes a socio-cultural project aiming at this reconciliation of modernity and tradition. All dimensions of the present society, the social, economical, political, cultural and spatial dimensions should be affected by this new paradigm (HASSENPFLUG, 2006). However, it is important to say that the reflexive modernization by reconciliation with tradition is still at its very beginning, and that the definitions of intercultural urban dialogues can be a helpful tool to spread this idea. Intercultural Urban Dialogue The intercultural urban dialogue is based on the concept of reflexive urbanism. Nevertheless, there are other important elements for the complete understanding of this idea. The first one is consideration that the term "reflection" means either thinking, meditation, or as the optic phenomenon. In the first case, the term refers to the adaptation of one city's solutions by another one. In the second case, it really means the possibility of one city to be considered as a reflex of another one. The reflexivity is one of the most basic ways of doing architecture in the daily life. People use ideas of friends, magazines or expositions to build their houses. Architects use this method as well: before any project, it is necessary to have a certain amount of knowledge about the subject, i.e. to know other projects. As in the field Architecture, in the urban planning, this reflexivity could be used in order to adopt and adapt the good practices, experiences and know-how of certain cities to solve their own problems. These are examples of some questions which can help to understand better the main idea of the Intercultural Urban Dialogue: What is the problem of the City A? How can this problem be solved? Has another city a successful solution for this issue? What has the City B done? How was the whole process? And how can the City A adapt this experience to solve its problem? Other consideration about this dialogue is that it is not (or should not) be closed, i.e. it does not establish an ideal city or an ideal urban design. It identifies problems and viable solutions, which differ from case to case. Thus, its main characteristics are: the flexibility and the capacity of adaptation. The cities are free to seek for the best practices and experiences to solve their problems, and it includes the search for solutions not only of one specific city, but of several. Problems of Florianpolis Due to the strong tourism exploitation and the image of "the capital with the best quality of life in Brazil", Florianpolis has attracted thousands of new inhabitants every year (from 342.315 in 2000, to 369.102 in 2003 and 396.778 inhabitants in 2005) (IBGE, 2007), resulting basically in the following problems, according to the AGENDA 21 of the Municipality (2000): A great demographic growth and consequently growth of slums and gated communities, as well of the situation of social exclusion; A lack of urban public spaces and policies concerning to the accessibility of these spaces; A lack of basic services or infra-structure; An excess of private cars, traffic and a deficient system of public transportation; Disrespect for the urban and heritage and historical buildings; Illegal occupation of natural protected areas; A lack of policies and practices to promote the real public participation; And a disorganized tourist activity. This paper, as mentioned before, is concentrated on the problems related to the infrastructure of the city, because it has direct effects on the environment of the Island and on its tourist image. The City of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau is located in southwest Germany, between the Black Forest, Switzerland, and Alsace. It is also the largest and sunniest city in the region, attracting a significant number of tourists and international students which creates a certain multicultural environment (FREIBURG, 2007). Freiburg i.B. is known as the ecological capital and the "solar-city" of Germany and of the world. To be surrounded by nature has been the objective of their citizens, who believe that by protecting the environment, can guarantee their future. Thus, the goals of the city's environmental policy correspond to this attitude and are the basis for its efficient and persistent development (FREIBURG, 2007).
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Adriana Gondran Carvalho da Silva: The city of Freiburg as an example for the city of Florianpolis
Conclusion Comparing with other Brazilian cities, one can say that Florianpolis has really good indicators of life quality. However, it does not mean that its urban performance can be also considered good. If compared, the indicators of development and life quality of Florianpolis and Freiburg, then one can see how distant they are. Some of the data of the table below are estimate, because of the incompatibility between the indicators. For instance, there are no statistics about the percent of drinking water supply in the city of Freiburg, since there is no possibility for a household not to have water, fact that in the Brazilian cities is common, especially because of the clandestine occupations.
Table: Infrastructure Indicators of Florianpolis and Freiburg
Indicator Percent of drinking water supply Percent of sewerage system Percent of sewers treatment Percent of trash collecting Percent of selective trash collecting Cars (per one thousand inhabitants) Households with drinking water Household with sewerage Households with electricity
Sources: PMF, 2007 & Freiburg, 2007
Year 2001 2001 2001 2000 2002 2001 2001 2000 2000
Florianpolis/SC 83,47% 32,79% 40,53% 99,00% 2,18% 439 90,29% 32,79% 96, 4%
Year 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2006 2004 2004 2004
Freiburg i.B. 99,90% 99,90% 99,90% 99,90% 99,16% 427 99,90% 99,90% 99,90%
Concerning to the infrastructure and to more specifically to the comparison features of this paper, the AGENDA 21 of this Municipality (2000) recommends for each feature: Water Supply System: to supply the whole population with treated water; Pluvial Drainage System: there must be a global planning, whose punctual solutions must obey to adequate technical criteria and to the hydrographical basis; and to inspect the clandestine sewers. Sanitary Sewer System: to build a net of collecting and to treat the sewers of all communities of the city. Solid Residues System: besides the expansion of the collection for the whole city, there must be the recycling and the reuse of the waste, by the creation of shops of diverse materials and furniture, in order to create jobs and a further financial return for the low-income families. Energy Supply System: to upgrade and to extend the system for the whole city and to provide projects of solar energy use for companies and private residences, aiming at spreading an economically and clean production of energy. To sum up, in the case of the water supply, pluvial drainage, sanitary sewer and solid residues systems, the city of Florianpolis should, first of all, extend them, so that the whole city can have the access and the right of use them. Secondly, the city should improve its entire infrastructure, and in this case, the city of Freiburg is confirmed as the most appropriate source of knowledge and experience, because of its efficient policies and clean technologies. For example, in Freiburg, the solar energy has set off sustainable regional development, contributing to both economic success and environmental benefit (SOLAR REGION, 2007). There, the solar energy is sustained with a wide range of policy measures: Own solar projects by the city or related corporations; Subsidies for solar projects, pilot and demonstration projects; Letting roof surfaces to solar power plant operators; Subsidy programs by the city or related corporations; Favourable property conditions to attract innovative businesses; Pro-active research and economic development support; Coordination of numerous initiatives and new cooperation models; Public relation campaigns for solar energy and for Freiburg as a centre of expertise (SOLAR REGION, 2007). Especially in the case of the energy supply system, Freiburg has acquired a leading position in solar energy application and is renowned as a centre of expertise, which demonstrates again the fact that Florianpolis should really follow this example.
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Then, to put it briefly, the main intention of this paper is the enhancement of the image of sustainability of the city of Florianpolis, by the improvement of its infrastructure, based on the experience of the city of Freiburg. On the other hand, this research also aims in a larger scale at the establishment of this intercultural urban dialogue as a theoretical proposal and as a practical tool for the Brazilian urban planning. References
IBGE, Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatstica. Available at <http://www.ibge.gov.br> Accessed on 10/01/2007. Freiburg im Breisgau. Available at <http://www.freiburg.de> Accessed on 10/01/2007. FRUM AGENDA 21 LOCAL DO MUNICPIO DE FLORIANPOLIS. Agenda 21 Local do Municpio de Florianpolis: meio ambiente, quem faz a gente. Florianpolis: PMF, 2000. HASSENPFLUG, Dieter. Reflexive Urbanistik - Reden und Aufstze zur europischen Stadt, Weimar (Verlag der Bauhaus-Universitt Weimar) 2006. PMF, Prefeitura Municipal de Florianpolis. Available at <http://www.pmf.sc.gov.br> Accessed on 10/01/2007. SOL, Secretaria de Estado da Cultura, Turismo e Esporte. Available at <http://www.sol.sc.gov.br/santur> Accessed on 21/12/2006. Solar Region. Available at <http://www.solarregion.freiburg.de/solarregion/freiburg.php> Accessed on 21/03/2007.
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Governance in Urban Protected Areas in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

R. Medeiros, J. T. de Andrade, D. Viana, R. Bateman
Environmental Management Laboratory, Environmental Science Dept, UFRRJ, Brazil e-mail: medeiros@ufrrj.br
Abstract Protected areas are territorially demarcated spaces. The main function of which is the conservation and/or preservation of natural resources and their associated sociocultural practices. These areas are created in densely populated urban zones, and are especially important for recreational activities and environmental education, reflecting the need for spaces where people can develop more effective bonds with nature. The city of Rio de Janeiro, located in southeastern Brazil, has more than 6 million inhabitants and is Brazils second most populous state capital. Originally covered by the Atlantic Rain Forest at the time of the European settlement, nowadays the green areas are limited to the remaining forest fragments, which are largely legally protected. The governance of these areas has been legally guaranteed since 2000 through management councils. Especially in the case of the city of Rio de Janeiro, one of the greatest challenges for the protection of these areas is the involvement of the local population in the management process. The present study discusses the process of participative management in protected areas in Rio de Janeiro. The first step was to identify the formally established protected areas. Next, information about the distribution and extent of consolidation of the management councils was collected and analyzed. The city of Rio de Janeiro contains 44 protected areas: one under federal administration, one under state administration, and 42 under city administration. However, only six areas (one federal, one state, and four local) presently have formal management councils established and functioning. The small number of established councils reflects in part the weak capacity of management in these areas, especially by the local administration, which has not yet developed management plans. The environmental agencies also point to the weak mobilization of the stakeholders as a factor limiting the full functioning of the councils. Only after 2000 did the councils begin to be established, and the governance of these areas is still in the initial phase of consolidation. Introduction Protected areas are territorially demarcated spaces with the function of conservation and/or preservation of natural resources and their associated sociocultural practices (Medeiros et al., 2004). In Brazil, one of the main types is termed "Conservation Units" (CUs) (Medeiros, 2006; IUCN, 1994). The governance in the management process of these areas constitute a goal for all the members of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD, 1992), and is recognized as a key factor in protected areas effectiveness by the Action Plan resulting from the Vth World Parks Congress in Durban in 2003 (WCPA 2003). The Program of Work on Protected Areas of the CBD, approved in 2004, established as one of its objectives to intensify and to guar- Figure 1: Location of the city of Rio de Janeiro. antee the participation of indigenous and local communities and relevant stakeholders in the process of governance, participation, equity and distribution of the benefits in protected areas, having as a goal the complete and effective participation, by 2008, of local and indigenous communities in the management of existing protected areas and those to be implemented in the future (CBD, 2004). As defined by Dearden et al (2005 p89), "governance refers to the interactions among structures, processes, and traditions that determine direction, how that power is exercised, and how the views of citizens or stakeholders are considered by those making decisions". In Brazil, the governance process in the creation and management of the Conservation Units is mandated by Law 9985/2000, which established the National System of Conservation Units (SNUC). This participation can be effected in two ways: through public consultation for the creation of new CUs, and through the institution of Management Councils. These councils can be an "advisory council" or a "deliberative council", depending on the category of CU (BRAZIL, 2000). Especially for urban areas, which are usually densely inhabited, the functioning of these councils has special importance in the mediation of the relationships between the communities living within or near the CUs, and the governmental agencies responsible for managing the CUs.
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The city of Rio de Janeiro was founded in 1565 by Estcio de S. It is located in southeastern Brazil (Figure 1). It is the second-largest city in the country, with a population estimated as 6,136,652 inhabitants, an area of 182,296 Km2 and a demographic density of 5.2 hab/Km2 (IBGE, 2005). Located entirely within the Atlantic Rain Forest biome, Rio de Janeiro is distinguished by its extensive network of Conservation Units that protect its last forest fragments, including the two largest urban forests in the world: the Pedra Branca State Park and Tijuca National Park. The present study discusses the process of participative management in protected areas in Rio de Janeiro City. Methodology The present study was carried out by Environmental Management Laboratory/UFRRJ team and all data were collected between june/06 and january/2007. All the Conservation Units located in Rio de Janeiro were identified. This identification was done by direct consultation with the agencies responsible for the management of these areas, accessing also their databases when available. Once the CUs were identified, information relative to the existence of management councils and their level of implementation was obtained. This information was obtained from the agencies and by direct consultation with the managers of the units. In this study, a council was considered as formally instituted only when a Conservation Unit possesses a legal instrument confirming its existence. Then, the results were analyzed to determine the degree of diffusion and consolidation of participative management in the CUs of different governmental levels (local, state and federal) as well as between different categories of CUs (parks, reserves, etc.). Results and Discussion The first Conservation Unit in the city of Rio de Janeiro was created in 1961. Since then, 43 additional areas have been established: one under federal administration, one under state administration, and 42 under the city (local) administration. However, only six areas possess management councils that are established and functioning: one federal, one state, and four local (Figure 2). All the councils were established after the year 2000, i.e., were creat45 42 ed in response to the legal mandate. 40 Both the federal and state areas 35 have instituted councils. This pattern 30 observed for the federal and state 25 areas, which were created long ago CUs total and have better-established man20 Council agement processes, is repeated in 15 other localities, as described by 10 Mussi (2006). However, the more 4 5 numerous locally managed areas 1 1 1 1 0 have very few functioning councils. federal state local This is due, mostly, to the recency of n the local CUs, which were mostly established after the 1990s and Figure 2: Total number of Conservation Units and Management Councils in which still have not developed conRio de Janeiro (jan/2007). crete management procedures. The lack of management plans, a mandatory and essential document for the management of CUs in Brazil, together with financial constraints and lack of technical support and human resources, are some of the problems that limit the integral management of these areas. The Environmental Protection Area (EPA), a less-restrictive category which aims to make human occupation compatible with conservation, is the most numerous type of CU (21). The Parks, which in Brazil are a more restrictive category where no type of direct use or soil occupation is permitted, include a total of 20 areas. Only two Areas of Relevant Ecological Interest (AREI) and one Biological Reserve, this last category also with limited use, destined for the preservation of unique species and landscapes, were identified. The creation of EPAs and Parks in the city of Rio de Janeiro has been the main instrument of local policies for protected areas, with two objectives: a) to reconcile urban growth and land use in areas that possess significant natural and/or cultural attributes, in the case of EPAs; b) to preserve existing, uniquely valuable areas in the city, such as mountain areas, coastal zones, mangroves, etc., in the case of the Parks. Normally, these two strategies have been implemented together, through the creation of parks as core zones surrounded by EPAs. 578
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The category with the highest number of instituted councils was Park, with five CUs (Figure 3). The prevalence of councils in this category is directly related to the fact that the state and federal parks are better structured and are well advanced in the process of establishing management councils. The local areas, in contrast, are still in an initial phase of mobilization for forming councils. The only two municipal parks with councils are state parks that had their management transferred to the municipal government by the state government, in February of this year, and already had councils previously established. The EPAs, although they are populated areas, and where, therefore, the 25 governance process must function, a 21 priori, have not yet had councils imple20 20 mented. This indicates that, in addition to the low institutionalization of these areas by the local public authorities, 15 the local communities are also poorly CUs total mobilized. Council This lack of action is due, as 10 MMA/DAP (2004) indicated, to recent history and lack of experience with plu5 ralistic participation in the control and 5 support for the administration of public 2 1 1 goods in Brazil. It is understandable 0 0 0 that representatives of society and EPA Park AREI BR management agencies are still in a process of learning, sensu lato, and functional structuring of this type of Figure 3: Categories of Conservation Units with existing councils (EPA Protected Environmental Area; AREI - Area of Important Ecological participation. Interest; BR - Biological Reserve. Jan/2007) As a consequence, the mobilization of social agents for participation in the governance process is still closely dependent on the public agencies responsible for the management of Conservation Units. This, unfortunately, generates a perverse centralization in the figure of the manager of the area, who is the central element in the mobilization process and organization of the actions toward the participative construction of the council. A low level of commitment of the managers certainly can lead to the demobilization of stakeholders, and consequently to weak institutionalization of the council. This dilemma can be partially solved by the development of a formal strategy by the official agencies, which can effectively create conditions for the establishment and functioning of the councils, if these are understood as a sphere for the exercise of citizenship. The use of environmental education as an auxiliary tool for this process is now being tested successfully in some protected areas in Brazil by the federal management agency (Mussi, 2006). Conclusion The weak social mobilization and/or the lack of sufficient funds has been pointed by several authors (e.g., Lise, 2000; Agrawal & Grupta, 2005) as the main problem for governance effectiveness in different parts of the globe. However, the governance has increase significantly in the past decade (Dearden et al, 2005). In the specific case of Rio de Janeiro, the small number of established councils clearly reflects the low capacity for management in these areas, especially by the local administration, which has not yet developed management plans or a defined strategy for governance. The environmental agencies also describe the weak mobilization of the stakeholders as a factor limiting the full functioning of the councils. Only after the year 2000 did the councils begin to be established. The governance of these areas is still in the initial phase of consolidation, a process that will require more time and study for its understanding. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank all the agencies that collaborated with the research - IBAMA, IEF, FEEMA, SMAC - and the UC managers who kindly responded to the survey. References cited
AGRAWAL, A. & GRUPTA, K. 2005. Decentralization and participation : the governance of common pool resources in Nepal's Terai. World Development, vol 33, no. 7, pp1101-1114 BRASIL. 2000. Lei 9985/00 que Institui o Sistema Nacional de Unidade de Conservao da Natureza. (in Portuguese)
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BASTOS, E. Conselhos de Unidades de Conservao: entre o consultivismo e o deliberalismo na gesto participativa de reas naturais protegidas. 2005. Dissertao (Mestrado em Cincias Sociais e Jurdicas) - UFF - Instituto de Cincias Humanas e Filosofia. Niteri, 228p. (in Portuguese) CBD. 1992. Convention on Biological Diversity. CBD. 2004. Report of the Seventh Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity. VII/28 Protected Areas (articles 8a to e). Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 26p. DEARDEN, P.; BENNETT, M.; JOHNSTON, J. 2005. Trends in global protected area governance, 1992-2002. Environmental Management, vol 36, no.1, pp89-100. INSTITUTO BRASILEIRO DE GEOGRAFIA E ESTATSTICA (IBGE). 2005. Estimativa populacional (in Portuguese) IUCN. 1994. Guidelines for protected Area Management Categories. Gland: IUCN. LISE, W. 2000. Factors influencing people's participation in forest management in India. Ecological Economics, 34, pp379-392. MEDEIROS, R.; Irving, M.; Garay, I. 2004. A proteo da natureza no Brasil: evoluo e conflitos de um modelo em construo. Revista de Desenvolvimento Econmico, ano Vi, n9, 83-92. (in Portuguese) MEDEIROS, R. 2006. Evoluo das tipologias e categorias de reas protegidas no Brasil. Revista Ambiente e Sociedade, vol IX, no1, jan/jun2006, p.41-64. (in Portuguese) MMA/DAP. 2004. Gesto Participativa do SNUC. Srie rea Protegidas do Brasil vol 2. Braslia: MMA. 206p. (in Portuguese) MUSSI, S. M; LOUREIRO, C.F.B. 2006. Gesto Participativa em conselhos de Unidades de Conservao do Rio de Janeiro: A Educao Ambiental como instrumento de mediao. Anais do CADMA (in Portuguese) WORLD COMMISSION ON PROTECTED AREAS (WCPA). 2003. Durban Action Plan. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
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The Chilean free market and the lack of governance of urban green areas
Hugo Romero and Alexis Vasquez
Departamento de Geografa, Universidad de Chile hromero@uchile.cl
Abstract Chile has maintained and improved a set of neoliberal premises in its economic development process during the last thirty years. In the case of urban areas, such premises mean a reduction of the role of the State and poor public regulations in terms of zoning and decision making. The privatization of land resources and urban management, and the commodification of environmental components have characterized the recent urbanization process in Chile. As a result, urban sprawl explains at least 100% increase of urbanized areas, the increase of social segregation and increasing environmental degradation, especially in terms of air, water and soil pollution. At metropolitan and local scales, the capital city of Santiago illustrates not only such natural and social environmental degradation but also the weakness of public governance in terms of controlling land use/cover changes, social integration and environmental justice. Socio-environmental segregation has accompanied urban sprawl: Higher density urbanization of middle and lower income group has occupied thousand hectares of productive agricultural lands located in the Western and Southern parts of the city, while upper social classes have settled at natural vegetation covers and natural conservation areas located mainly in the Eastern Andean piedmont. Using remote sensing observations and GIS analysis (1975 -2004), it is possible to conclude that lower income groups have further degraded environmental quality, while upper income group, conversely, have substantially improved their environmental components, especially in terms of the installation and maintenance of private and public gardens and urban parks. Reduced participation of the government in the creation and development of green areas, has resulted in vegetation cover in Santiago city, that depends almost exclusively on family income, and, as a consequence, replicates classical and increasing socioeconomic differentiation and socio-spatial segregation. Introduction Chile has applied strictly neoliberal premises during the last thirty years to the management of urban areas. Land and environmental components have been privatized and commoditized, and State control and public regulation instruments have been reduced to facilitate private sector involvement in the building and administration of cities. As a result, increasing environmental degradation and social segregation is threatening urban sustainability goals and definitions. Specifically, the spatial concentration of environmental goods and services, provided by green areas, in the wealthier parts of the city generally exclude the majority of the urban population. Significant environmental injustice is evident not only in the spatial distribution of green areas, but also in the geographical transference of negative externalities (air and water pollution, high consumption levels of water and land, and the unlimited production of solid and liquid wastes) from the upper income areas, located in the eastern Andean piedmont, towards the western lower income, in the floodplain areas. Like most Latin American large cities, environmental management and planning is not evident. This paper classifies the Santiago patterns of urban sprawl and land uses and cover changes from a socioeconomic point of view. It presents their environmental effects, as observed in time series satellite images and air photographs. Almost 35% of the national population and the largest number of industries and services are concentrated in Santiago of Chile. Urban sprawl has reached around 2000 ha./annum, and it is expected to continue in the future due to polycentrism, suburbanization, private transportation systems and the marked preference for low density single family homes. A high prevalence of respiratory and infectious diseases, criminality and flooding can be directly related with the uncontrolled and vertiginous growth of urban areas. Additionally, a social and environmental segregation process (Arrigada and Rodrguez, 2003; Sabatini et al., 2001) means that environmental services offered by green areas are also socially distributed (Romero and Vsquez, 2005). Natural vegetation, public and private parks and gardens are mostly concentrated in the upper lands of the wealthy areas or the city (Pedloski et al., 2002; De la Maza et al., 2002; Escobedo et al., 2006). In the poorer, high density sectors pollution, limited urban facilities, and the disposal of aerial, solid and liquid wastes (from the wealthy areas), together, whit a lack of vegetation has to be taken into account. Pedloski et al. (2002), have related tree density and diversity, located within the urban fringe, with land values and socioeconomic levels of people living in Brazilian cities. Escobedo et al. (2006) and De la Maza et al. (2002), have demonstrated that in Santiago de Chile, urban forests structure and density are also socioeconomically dependent. Some private gardens occupy larger surfaces than public parks in the wealthier sectors
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of the city. The availability of green space and the quality of their environmental services are spatially concentrated and highly correlated with the distribution of familiar income. As a result, the majority of the city, in which areas poor people predominates, do not have partially or completely, these environmental services and urban amenities. In the case of Santiago de Chile, the spatial patterns of residential densities of the urban inhabitants are highly correlated with the socioeconomic status of the social groups. Lower residential density areas corresponds to upper and upper-middle class groups that live in segregated zones and gated villages located on the eastern side of the city. Dense residential areas corresponds to middle and lower classes properly, and are located mainly in the center of the city, and increasingly at the northern, western and southern urban peripheries. According to Borsdorf at al. (2006), Latin American cities are currently living a process of spatial reconfiguration and functional restructuration. Fragmented emerging cities present new forms of social and spatial segregation and increasing ranges of natural and socioeconomic environmental differentiation. It is necessary to define this socio environmental exclusion as a matter of socio environmental segregation and injustice. Results Observed spatial patterns of urban sprawl from 1975 to 2004, show that comparatively lower income groups have increasingly occupied high density residential neighborhoods in the the land belonging to Maip, La Florida, Pudahuel, Cerrillos and Puente Alto municipalities (in Chile these are called "Communes"). These lands were previously agriculturally productive due to their slope, soil depth and permeability. Upper income classes, on the other hand, have occupied areas previously covered with natural vegetation and dedicate to the conservation of soil, water and landscapes, located in the Andean piedmont municipalities: Lo Barnechea, Las Condes, La Reina, and Pealoln. Areas used for residential purposes at higher density rates occupy about 60% of vegetated land, especially between 1975-1989 and 1998-2004. From 1975 to 1989 the loss of vegetation occurred in an isolated manner, in previously rural municipalities. From 1998 to 2004, the urbanization process generally occurred over the entire previously vegetated area, due to the conurbation of previous isolated municipalities such as Pudahuel, Cerrillos and Maip, located in the western part of the city. Conversely, between 60 and 80% of the areas occupied by upper income group, have maintained the previous vegetation cover, and between 5 and 15% have increased the area of vegetated cover. A relevant life-cycle could be observed in the vegetation cover evolution related with urbanization in Santiago de Chile. Between 1975 and 1989, a generalized substitution of areas covered by vegetation in the whole city could be observed as a consequence of the intense removal of soils and land bulldozing for construction purposes. However, since 1989 the areas occupied by upper classes have experienced a recovery of, and even an improvement in vegetation cover. Urban consolidation of municipalities such as Las Condes and La Dehesa (the areas where most of the wealthy people lives), implies a relevant private and public investment in green areas and consequently, in quality of living. At present, it is possible to observe an increasing gap in green areas and environmental services availability between poor and wealthy areas of Santiago city. Eastern wealthy areas show a growing diversified mosaic of sport fields, private gardens, swimming pools, forested streets, public and private parks, and natural vegetation covers. Andean piedmont rivers and streams are acting as effective green ways, articulating natural and built environments of the floodplains and the Andean piedmonts. On the contrary, bare soils and brown fields predominate in lower class residential areas, demonstrating the lack of public and private environmental investments. The State and the private economy agents are not concerned about the destruction of green areas in most of the city and fail to recognize that this is one of the main causes of environmental degradation of Santiago city. Furthermore, in terms of environmental justice, it is clear that the lower income city inhabitants are suffering disproportionate negative effects in terms of air, water and land pollution. They are not going to be able to install and maintain green areas by themselves, and are expecting a collective public action that has not taken place. Given the fact that lower income inhabitants living in the poorer urban areas are suffering most of the environmental negative externalities and effects of urban sprawl, it seems to be a matter of environmental justice to develop public mechanisms and procedure to compensate their current situation. References
ARRIAGADA, C. Y RODRGUEZ, J. (2003). Segregacin residencial en reas metropolitanas de Amrica Latina: magnitud, caractersticas, evolucin e implicaciones de poltica. CEPAL-SERIE poblacin y desarrollo N47. 73p. BORSDORF, A., HIDALGO, R. Y SANCHEZ, R. (2006). Los mega diseos residenciales vallados en las periferias de las metropolis latinoamericanas y el advenimiento de un nuevo concepto de ciudad. Alcances en base al caso de
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Santiago de Chile. En: CAPEL, H. Y HIDALGO, R. Construyendo la ciudad del siglo XXI. Retos y perspectivas urbanas en Espaa y Chile. Santiago: Serie GEOlibros N6. 323 - 335p. DE LA MAZA, C., HERNNDEZ, J., BOWN, H., RODRIGUEZ, M., ESCOBEDO, F. (2002). Vegetation diversity in the Santiago de Chile urban ecosystem. Arboriculture Journal 26: 347-357p ESCOBEDO, F., NOWAK, D., WAGNER, J., DE LA MAZA, C., RODRIGUEZ, M., CRANE, D. AND HERNANDEZ, J. (2006). The socioeconomics and management of Santiago de Chile's public urban forests. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 4: 105 - 114 p. PEDLOWSKI, M., CORABI, J. AND HEYNEN, N. (2002). Urban forest and environmental inequality in Campos dos Goytacazes, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Urban Ecosystems, 6: 9-20 p. ROMERO H. y VASQUEZ A. (2005). La Comodificacin de los espacios urbanizables y la degradacin ambiental en Chile. Scripta Nova, Revista Electrnica de Geografa y Ciencias Sociales, Universidad de Barcelona, Vol. IX, Nm 194, 1 agosto 2005. SABATINI, F., CACERES, G. Y CERDA, J. (2001). Segregacin residencial en las principales ciudades chilenas: tendencias de las tres ltimas dcadas y posibles cursos de accin. Revista EURE Volumen 27 N82. Santiago, Chile. 21 - 42p.
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Implementing and evaluating participatory methods which encourage children activism in urban planning and environmental care
Irida Tsevreni
National Technical University of Athens, Greece iridatsevreni@hotmail.com
Abstract This article includes the methodology of involving children in urban planning and environmental care through a critical approach of educational research and practice. It involves the evaluation of an alternative Environmental Education programme which was implemented in a primary school in Athens. The basic goal of the project was to encourage children's activism and action against their spatial and social marginalization in the urban environment. Children's participation Children are invisible in social life and decision-making procedures in the city. Unlike other marginalized groups, children do not have the opportunity to enter into a dialogue with adults about their community and environment. Matthews (2001) writes that children cannot challenge the conventions of dominant ideology and the practices and processes that lead to their socio-spatial marginalization. "When children are excluded from public life, not only are they denied their rights of citizenship in the present but their marginality as civic actors during childhood compromises their ability to acquire the self-perceptions and competencies of adult citizenship" (Sutton and Kemp, 2002). Placemaking has benefits for children, as it helps them develop creative thinking, the ability to make aesthetic judgments, critical awareness of social inequities, communication and interpersonal skills, the ability to plan and bring about change (Sutton and Kemp, 2002). Through community research and action, children are able to "develop a sense of shared responsibility and skills that will enable them to continue to participate as adults and to recognize the importance of their participation in local, national, and even global environmental decisions. This fundamental democratization of children is the most important aspect of their participation in the environment of their communities, more than the particular impact of their projects" (Hart, 1977). There is a scientific imperialism which has imposed only the scientific approach of the aspects of public life (Jensen, 2004) and has excluded people's ability to participate in decision making procedures. Children have needs that should be fairly taken in account alongside those of other community groups. They have the ability to visualize the future and to articulate their ideas. They have much to contribute to the political process that shapes the urban environment (Cunningham, 2003). Children's participation can be part of a wider participation in the city. Urban planning and environmental care are social and political issues. All citizens, regardless their age, gender, race, class, education and profession are able to decide by themselves about their lives, without representatives. Methodology Hart (1995) writes that "we need now a more radical social science research with children in which children themselves learn to reflect upon their own conditions, so that they can gradually begin to take greater responsibility in creating communities different from the ones they inherited". The aim of this research is to engage children in urban planning and environmental care encouraging their activism and emancipation through a critical approach of education. It involves an innovative, qualitative research which includes the planning, the application and the evaluation of an alternative Environmental Education programme which focuses on action. The educational programme was implemented in a primary school of Athens, involving 60 children from 9 to 12 years old. The theoretical context of the Environmental Education programme was inspired by Freire's liberatory education where the oppressed are helped to act and reflect towards their empowerment. As children face the problems concerning their relationships in the world and with the world they feel more responsible to give solutions Freire (1972). It was also based on Habermas' ideas (Habermas, 1972, 1974) concerning the procedures with which social groups reach the awareness of their situation aiming at their emancipation. The action plan which was implemented was based on the expression and communication of children's experiences, perceptions and feelings about the urban environment. The goal of this procedure was children's reflection and activation as the only way to overstep marginalization by children themselves. The methods which this educational programme proposes is a combination of action research with participatory planning methods - storytelling, photography and environmental drama. Action research was chosen as it connects education with emancipatory ideals (Kemmis, 2006). It aims to understand reality in order to 584
Irida Tsevreni: Implementing and evaluating participatory methods which encourage children activism
transform it, and to transform reality in order to understand it (Kemmis & McTaggart, 2001). Storytelling is a method which is based on creative writing and has been implemented by Cunningham (2003). Photography has been successfully implemented in relevant educational programmes such as the one by Cosco and ?oore (2001). Educational drama helps in exploration of issues, in development of communication and decision-making skills and in increasing children's sensitivity to others (McNaughton, 2004). Children decide to act Significant conclusions emerged about the way children perceive their environment. Through the applied methods children were able to express their disappointment about the alienation of the human-nature relationship, their favourite places in their neighborhood and in the city, their disapproval about the urban environment, their pessimism about the future of the city, their visions about the future of the city, their agony about the collective problems of the city, their spatial and social marginalization, the loneliness that they experience, the lack of community identity and place attachment (Figures 1, 2, 3). The expression and communication of children's ideas about the urban environment led children to understand better their opinions, to develop self-confidence about their right to participate in the dialogue about urban environment and to act against their marginalization. Children, after experiencing the whole procedure of exploring, expressing and sharing their feelings and perceptions about the urban environment, decided to act. They created a book which was sent to the Municipality of Athens and they prepared a school performance for pupils, teachers and parents. Evaluation The applied methods were sensitive to record children's experiences and perceptions. Children responded with enthusiasm to the educational programme and to the participatory planning methods. Using art as a tool for social action gave children the opportunity to express freely their needs and visions about the city. Children reported that, through the alternative Environmental Education programme, were able to use their imagination and critical thought, to work collectively and with solidarity, to gain their lost self-confidence and the ability to claim their right to participate. Children's own efforts for breaking marginalization and participating in urban planning and environmental care was the most important aspect of this programme. Children developed a new context of knowledge, concerning action and empowerment. Concluding thoughts Citizens' participation, and especially participation of the minorities, is an essential condition for a democratic urban planning and effective environmental care. Children should be encouraged to express their ideas and to act against their marginalization. There is a need for radical methodology to engage children in urban planning and environmental care. Environmental Education programmes which encourage children to explore the aspects of their community and environment and to act in order to overstep their marginalization enable them to experience a democratic procedure and to practice as active citizens. By experiencing an educational programme, such as the one described above, children are able to develop participatory skills, to gain their lost self-confidence and to be prepared to take the responsibility of the future societies. Children's participation is a great benefit for the present and future society. References
Cosco, N. and Moore, R. (2001). Our neighborhood is like that! In L. Chawla (ed), Growing up in an Urbanizing World. Paris/London: Unesco/ Earthscan Publications. Cunningham, C. J., Jones, M. A. and Dillon, R. (2003). Children and Urban Regional Planning: Participation in the Public Consultation Process through Story Writing. Children' s Geographies, 1 (2), 201-221. Freire, P. (1972). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. London: Penguin Books. Habermas, J. (1972). Knoweledge and Human Interests. Transl. J.J. Shapiro. London:Heinemann. Habermas, J. (1974). Theory and Practice. Transl. J.Viertel. London:Heinemann. Hart, R. A. (1997). Children's Participation: the Theory and Practice of Involving Young Citizens in Community Development and Environmental care. London: Unicef. Jensen, B. B. and ?arsten, S. (2004). Environmental and health education viewed from an action-oriented perspective: a case from Denmark. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 36(4), 405-425. Hart, R. (1995). Children as the makers of a new Geography. http://weg.gc.cuny.edu/che/cerg/publications/ papers_and_monographs/papersmono-env_learning_index.htm.
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Kemmis, St. (2006). Participatory action research and the public sphere. Educational Action Research, 14(4), 459-476. Kemmis, St. & McTaggart, R. (2001). Participatory action resarch, in:N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds) The Handbook of qualitative research. CA: Thousand Oaks. McNaughton, M. J. (2004). Educational drama in the teaching of education for sustainability. Environmental Education Research, 10(2), 139-155. Matthews, H. (2001). Children and community regeneration. Creating better neighbourhoods. London:Save the children. Sutton, and Kemp, S. P. (2002). Children as partners in neighborhood placemaking: lessons from intergenerational design charrettes. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 22, 171-189.
Figure 1: Expressing disapproval of the urban environment and pessimism about the future through storytelling
Figure 2: Expressing spatial marginalization through photography
Figure 3: Expressing disappointment about the alienation of the human-nature relationship through environment drama
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Shielding agriculture bequest against expanded villages with desert planning strategy: the Case of Menia Governorate, Egypt
Amal Abdou1 & Ashraf Elmokadem2
Helwan University, Cairo, Egypt, Suez Canal University, Egypt Molly_abdou@hotmail.com
The Problem of Expanding Villages The population explosion in the urban settlements in Egypt began in the middle of the twentieth Century. The country's annual fiscal budgets were concentrated either on military purchases or urban development of major cities. But, long-term social and economic development for village communities and rural areas was almost totally neglected. This state of decay contributed to the emergence of underdeveloped regions and cities, which, in turn, led to increasing environmental degradation and emergence of social and economic problems. More alarming is the status of the agricultural land. Aimed at preserving Egypt's scarce arable agriculture land, the subsequent governments issued many laws and decrees to control the urbanization pattern. For example, undertaking any new construction or expansion of existing structures on agricultural land has been forbidden by law. Moreover, urban boundaries for villages have been marked in a 1985 governmental decree. While the government rightly wanted to stop the urbanization over agricultural land, it did not present a plausible housing solution for the exponentially expanding population. On the other hand, the people of the villages, also, rightly wanted to expand their existing housing stock to accommodate their population increase--particularly in proximity to existing infrastructural, necessary social, cultural and health services. With the absence of any government enforcing agency, the village dwellers have ignored the official urban boundaries of their villages and expanded over much valuable lands. To give a hint of the magnitude of this epidemic problem, more than five thousand underdeveloped, unplanned, overpopulated villages along the Nile River have in many cases quadrupled in size since the 1985 decree. Aims and Goals It is only recently that a long-term urban planning for rural Egypt began to shape. In doing so, the Egyptian planning authorities have divided strategically the urban and rural areas of Egypt to three focus areas: regional, city, and village planning. The aim of the village planning was mainly to protect the agriculture bequest, fulfil the housing demands, supply the necessary services, and most importantly addressing the dilemma between urban expanding and Shielding agriculture bequest. The decision making process and citizen's participation in the planning and re-planning of the countryside was a very important strategic way to reach these goals. With the help of United Nations Human Development Settlements programs (UN-HABITAT), GOPP prepared a four-year schedule, from January 2005 until the end of 2008, to develop strategic plans for all villages in Egypt to be completed in four phases. Today, the urban development plans are in their third phase. Methodology for preparing Strategic Plans for the Menia Villages This planning methodology is divided to five phases: project preparation, stocktaking, decision making, master plan preparation and reporting and execution phase. The village dwellers were mostly distrustful in the beginning of these phases. Reservations and distrust were often due to insufficient information and lack of transparency as well as an embedded assumption that the planning could work against their social and economic interests. Before beginning of the investigations, planning analysis, and of course the execution of the planning an exact information concerning the users will improve cooperation and, hence, mutual trust. In addition, coordination among the parties involved is essential for accomplishing any planning phase. Regarding the individual phases of the preparation and realization of the planning project, the information concerning the citizens has many phases and specific contents and goals. In all phases, village dwellers and active participants, or community representatives, must be fully informed about the projects and the planning activities. In a constant advisory manner, participants can evaluate the various suggestions and prioritize the decisions concerning implementation. Needless to say, in so doing, their active cooperation at the various planning phases can be achieved. Because community participation is indispensable for any future action, the various planning proposals of villages submitted in 2002 without active community participation were repeated again. According to the individual phases of the preparation and realization of the planning the information of and from the citizens has many Phases. In all phases it applies for area activity to inform the users and citizens concretely about the planning. The contributions of the press, broadcast, television, seminars, citizen assemblies, citizen consultation are relevant: they instigate the initiatives of the users. By carrying out this public relation campaign visually and acoustically-with working media, like films, information in broadcast and television, exhibitions, mod-
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els to planning project etc.-a direct connection is established, particularly with a considerable number of illiterates. On the one hand, the costs of media production and, on the other hand, the intended influence of the target group, determine by and large the scale of the public relation budget. From another perspective, the improvement of living conditions in poor rural areas, particularly on the economic and social spheres, will prevent the prevailing migration patterns toward the urban areas. One important issue is to highlight the investment opportunities, which will, in turn, improve the local economic dynamics. Documentation of existing conditions as well as the creation of profiles that reveal the situation from all sides will facilitate the following phases of the planning. Moreover, public pparticipation as an objective improves the democratization and transparency of the process. Preparing Strategic Thus in making urban plans for villages required full participation of stakeholders in the different stages of planning and decision making process. As a first step, questionnaires were handed to people, which proved to be the main Indicators in recognizing the main problems that face the villages. This phase was successfully concluded by analyzing the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT analysis). This analysis Identified the main concerns/issues and objectives and helped Classifying priorities and preparing a strategic vision. The Strategic Planning Map of a village consisted of the following different items: Existing land use, Land budget data, new urban (boundary) cordon and its coordinates, locations of priority projects, regulations for the road network, existing and proposed services, construction and building regulations, and the future extension visions and possibilities. 1. Formulation of Participatory Strategic Plans for the Villages (SPV) It is important to mention that before the formulation of Participatory Strategic Plans, local stakeholders and community representatives had to be selected. The key persons in villages are those who have gained respect and whose opinions are listened to from the community. During the planning workshops, decisions and points of views were shared among different groups of stakeholders to achieve consensus on development strategies. Those groups include: (1) Private sector (owners of large plots of lands, or owners of main industrial warehouses); (2) experts (planers, society development organization); (3) community representatives, (4) other local family representatives; (5) members of the local public council and local government such as the village mayor as well as employees from different departments of the local government; (6) NGOs and CBOs; and finally, (7) local trusted persons. 2. Localizing Questions and Issues Several related questionnaire forms were prepared to discuss issues such as urban shelters, urban management, local economy, environmental issues and their impact on the village. These questionnaires led in the twenty-two villages that we have participated in planning to great social and political discussions. 3. Making Use of Today's Technology An early decision was made to use GIS-based tasks for a Village Strategic Planning to obtain a clear and comprehensive picture of each village's condition so that community organizations, stakeholders, and decision makers fully understand the implications, scale, and interconnectedness of their problems. Creating a cadastral geo-database that is necessary for the process of regularizing land-use and land management tasks. This was done by making use of data from satellite images, aerial photographs, and land surveys and linking them through their main coordinates in a compatible and synergetic way. By appending maps and geo-databases and integrating different levels of analysis at different scales, we achieved a multilevel vision of the village and its wider environment the territorial or general context and the village context. 4. Formulating an Easy Way to Illustrate Priorities, Objectives, and Issues Making an easy presentation and plans was very important for all participating parties to understand-there were mainly not highly educated-issues like environment and migration to the desert areas. 5. Geo-information Needs Geo-information Needs were taken for (1) Conserving existing cultivated lands, (2) enhancing local economic development, (3) enhancing infrastructure cost recovery, (4) enhancing information management by creating up-to-date maps and a database, (5) identifying suitable areas for future expansion of the village till 2022 and delineating the new village boundaries, and finally, (6) identifying priority projects to resolve pending issues. 6. Preparing Regional Profiles Updating the urban survey became essential. Identifying local stakeholders and key persons, localizing issues of study, adding the regional vision to develop the village strategy, and the relevance of the vision to the local authorities are the main aspects of localization that will be shown. 7. Formulating a Participatory Strategy Workshops were held for the prioritization of projects and objectives. Discussions among different groups of stakeholders helped identify their contribution to the agreed-upon projects. Workshops were undertaken 588
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to negotiate the allocation of projects and define the limits of urban expansion with landowners. The objective was to identify contributions from landowners who were to profit from the inclusion of their land within the new urban limits. Competing to donate part of their land or providing finance for agreed development projects raised needed revenue. The discussion among stakeholders regarding objections, additions, or the deletion of any presented data/information and comments has been recorded. 8. Agreement on the Village Boundary In general, geo-information to realize these objectives was needed for effective urban management and future planning activities in the village. The use of the GIS has greatly improved the quality of such information (and therefore of the strategic planning process) and the capacity to establish links among different analytical levels. Case Study "Menia" governorate Once again, the main objective was to use participation as instrument, to encourage people's commitment to improve their environment. As a first step, it was necessary to analyze the social and economic structure and the distribution of the population in the area, with the purpose of adjusting these politics to this specific zone. The process shows the importance of other types of participation (political, social, economical) to the implementation of sustainable development. The local authority in "Menia" is well advanced in partnerships and has succeeded in attracting donor funding for the various projects around the Governorate. Many NGOs are implementing projects in Menia. The governorate was the first to establish a department of Women's affairs and a department for International cooperation. Menia governorate is considered rural governorates where 82% of its population lives in villages; the total population is 6.54 million in 1996 according to (Ministry of Local Development). There are 30 informal areas on the governmental level, where 49% of the total of urban population live. This resulted in Menia governorate being classified among the top ten governorates with informal areas. The Urban Environmental Issues Efforts for rural development so far have lead to providing rural areas with infrastructure: electricity, water, roads and other urban services. From the planning point of view, this is regarded as a disadvantage. The urban strategy of providing rural areas with basic services and facilities was to reduce urban to rural migration which opposes the new physical strategy of reducing population pressures on both urban and rural areas. It is estimated that building high-rise houses on agricultural land is eating up about six thousand feddans yearly. In addition to the national loss of valuable lands, this encroachment has resulted in the loss of identity of rural areas and increased population pressure to build over arable land. The ultimate solution to this trend was to develop new communities in the desert. The main issues at Menia Governorate level: as most urban communities across the Nile, particularly in Upper Egypt, the villages of Menia are located on a narrow strap along the agricultural land. The cultivated agricultural lands on the eastern side of the River Nile are about 4 km wide. It is worth mentioning that Menia is the most Governorate currently exerting efforts to address cultivated land problem in order to plan all urban extensions by the end of year 2008 in the desert area. Those areas were before the High Dam was constructed in the mid 1960's the harbor for the Farmers during the Nile flood period. The completion of such project will decrease losing more cultivated Land and will decrease pollution rates and consequently decrease the spread of diseases by protecting the narrow Nile strip side. Water contamination is mostly a result of direct disposal of sewage, agricultural waste. There is a Lack of sewage disposal service in five big urban communities (Samaloot, Beni-Mazar, Matay, Magaga, Malawi). Sewage projects in the five areas are currently under construction by Menia governorate. And the treated water can be reused by cultivating the new desert regions. These villages either drain directly to underground water. In many cases, the drinking water is pumped up from underground water reservoirs, therefore, mixing with sewage water, which in turn represent a serious health threat. Thus we find high rates of diseases spread due to pollution, especially liver and kidney diseases The summary of finding of studies and research work indicate that old agricultural regions have to be up graded to be basically an agricultural region in the first place and freed from any other activity not related directly to rural development. Since regional cities are located in the middle of agricultural areas they are, therefore, subject to the strategy which is contrary to that which has already taken place in these regions in form of universities, factories, and other physical development. However, the new physical development strategy, which attempts at developing areas beyond cultivated land, has to relate between activities in communities where population had been detracted from and newly developed areas whether urban or rural. In that context, rural development of new communities within the framework of physical strategy cannot be separated from old rural areas, where the required link between residents of old and new rural areas needs a continuous movement, which, in turn, requires a certain layout of traffic and transportation networks. This implies that
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rural development in new or old areas has to be integrated together within the framework of the physical strategy to include old and new rural and urban areas. Attempting to induce the largest number of urban development activity, the regional planning has to be done in relation with the requirements of the other regions in a comprehensive manner. This joint interaction between planning regions has to take place within the framework of the planning process on the vertical and horizontal level. According to this approach, the organization of the planning is to be considered as the basis of any planning work, where it has to be continuously reviewed by the planning machineries at the various levels simultaneously. Local Development Dynamics and Experience All government agencies should publish a list of their real-estate assets (including land) along with their present and future land-use proposals. NGOs, citizens groups, neighbourhood associations and professional institutions should be encouraged to prevent misuse of these real-estate assets. The citizens' groups, supported by the real-estate land use listings, should also lobby for a law that prevents land use changes without public hearings. In the housing sector, rules and regulations for supporting and regulating the functioning of the informal sector and its actors should be developed and implemented, and should be seen as a part of a larger plan. Space for the development and growth of a transport and cargo-related infrastructure should be given priority, along with space for the functions of the sector. Inner village rehabilitation and conservation should be seen as an intrinsic part of this process. A steering committee of the representatives of the various interest groups should receive all plans at the conceptual stage and supervise their implementation. This process will promote appropriate planning and introduce much needed transparency and accountability in planning and implementation. Bylaws related to build new houses should be revised so as to make it difficult to build housing complexes that are not conducive to creating a suitable physical and social environment. It is also necessary to institutionalize the relationship between apartment owners'/purchasers' associations and developers to ensure that building regulations are not violated and that the complexes are fully completed. What is being asked for in the above agenda is to understand, support and/or regulate what is already happening and what experience tells us cannot be replaced. It also calls for the creation of a 'space' for interaction between politicians, planners and people (communities, interest groups representing the formal and informal sectors). Once it is created, this space will have to be nurtured over many years and finally institutionalized. The creation of this space cannot be achieved simply by enacting a law, but adopting the above agenda can make a beginning. In the initiation of this process, the architectural profession has a very important role to play. It alone can give design and technical advice to informal sector processes; relate urban infrastructure projects to social, aesthetic, and conservation issues; develop relevant by-laws and regulations (and lobby for their implementation) to produce environmentally friendly, developer-built housing; and create a link between its own work and that of other actors in the built environment drama. How the profession can do all this is a subject that needs to be discussed and debated. Conclusion and Recommendations: As a matter of fact the villages should not expand on the agricultural lands: 1. We must choose a desert area, which is close to existing villages and other urban areas and connect them with good roads and transport networks. Moreover, basic services must be supplied such as infrastructure, schools, hospital, etc. 2. Planning new economic-generating facilities to attract rural communities to the desert. These economic related projects must have a link to agricultural demands, which supports the local rural economy. 3. Planting new agricultural areas in the desert with new water system technologies. This endeavour will multiply the agricultural area in the district and give new residents an economic base for rooting them in the new place. 4. Connecting the district with a parallel regional road to expand the project with the north and south district, to give them more possibility to develop themselves.
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Green governance in agribusiness dependent towns

Eveline de Castro Lzaro & Sueli Corra de Faria
Post-Graduate Program on Environmental Planning and Management, Catholic University of Braslia, Brazil evelinelazaro@brturbo.com.br
A Brazilian experience-based perspective Plate 1 The discussion about the viability of green governance in agribusiness dependent towns is strongly influenced by the definition of the territory and the forces that actually converge to its sustainable development. For the purpose of this article, two cases were brought to discussion. The framework for the analysis takes space as the element where organizations interact, and sustainability as the key factor to ensure that the social, economic, environmental and political-institutional dimensions contribute, to the same degree, to raising quality of life. Case-study 1 focused the west of the state of Bahia, whose agribusiness-oriented productive process influenced by Barreiras municipality, has shown significant economic growth potential based in soybean and cotton plantation. Casestudy 2 focused a sugar cane agro-industrial export-oriented plant, in Goiansia, central state of Gois, where farming is also intense in soybean (Plate 1). These two cases offer distinct green governance commitment, being local players involved with social responsibility in different ways. Case-study 1 Barreiras, as a traditional agrarian concentration area, has become the economic driving pole to the other nineteen surrounding municipalities. Those twenty counties in the west of Bahia have indeed proved fast economic growth in large basis. The result is a strong urbanization expansion pressure on Barreiras city. Its growing process has followed typical patterns, where capital accumulation in the hands of a few strengthens the small wealthy group, with little reflection on marginal society's economic performance. The west of Bahia economic performance has been the protagonist of regional and national integration, whose reflection has gone beyond state boundaries (Plate 2-3).
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One can easily see a two-world socio-economic scenario region. After decades of heavy investments on irrigation techniques conducted by the So Francisco River Bank Economic Development Coordination CODEVASF, cotton has exceeded soy production and attracted immigration to this land of golden opportunity. First came the southern farmers from Paran and Rio Grande do Sul states, then there were the Americans, French, Portuguese and Japanese striving for a chance to apply their planting skills. Barreiras can offer to the foreign investors what they do not have in their mother countries: flat, plenty of water cheap land and mild weather. The result is measured by the twenty-two cotton manufacturing industries already installed, allied to a shortage of well skilled workers. Meanwhile, native residents keep their slow pace unaware of the opportunities provided by industrial development, but dependent on public administration jobs, still the greatest employer of local workers, consolidating two distinct economic worlds. The empirical research in case-study 1 has found some important missing-links. The strong urbanization expansion process of the west Bahia and Barreiras, in particular, have been demanding qualified and diversified working skills. One can notice the lack of shared actions between public and private sectors in the building of well integrated development policies. That would mean stronger influence and control over the territory, here understood as valuable property empowered by strong alliances among local leaderships, actors and institutions. A territory acknowledged for its opportunities, weaknesses and demands, which has become competitive due to the extraordinary agribusiness advances. Such local dynamics virtue is to be accompanied by intense interaction with research and technology institutions. Barreiras university center as a strong pole, should be acting together with the agribusiness sector, which would profit with cleaner productive processes, besides infra-structure technologies for services to strengthen the region within its agribusiness specialization. The privileged geopolitical location of Barreiras counts on a substantial logistics asset. In the east there is the so called national integration river, named So Francisco; in the west two main arteries provide infra-structure of transport that are: the axis provided by the Araguaia and Tocantins rivers, which leads to the Amazon river, and the North-South railway which connects to Carajs railway that goes straight to Itaqui grain terminal port in the state of Maranho. In this context, the west of Bahia can easily diffuse better quality of services, technology, innovation and logistics, considering its strategic geographical importance and intermodal transport facilities. Green governance in case-study 1 still depends on a social pact based on cooperation, mobilization of local knowledge and skills, and public and private interaction to aggregate social forces. There is still a lot to advance in the development agenda so that local communities can bring forth to effective representation (DALL'ACQUA, 2005). Case 2 Goiansia (Plate 4-5). This case analyses a sugar-cane agro-industrial plant operating in exportbased production. The company's ISO 14001 Certification came in 2004, among other awards and initiatives. In 1994 the industry's green governance program created the Internal Commission for the Environment. The Commission aim was to propose measures and projects to adjust and neutralize negative impacts on the environment. For full accomplishment, educational programs were designed to involve local public and private schools, whose actions included the river banks reforestation program. Carbon credits became available with the co-generation of electrical energy from biomass, as diesel was substituted by electricity in the irrigation
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Eveline de Castro Lzaro & Sueli Corra de Faria: Green governance in agribusiness dependent towns
equipment. The industry's laboratories developed organic fertilizer from sugar-cane juice, which is used on its 3,800 hectares of sugar cane organic production. Mechanized harvest, besides preventing burning has contributed to the reduction of smoke emissions, and the cane straw cover protects the soil from rain-derived erosion. Work safety programs were installed, such as Internal Week of Work Accident Prevention, Safe use of Equipment for Individual Protection and Work in Restricted Areas, besides the complete Medical Control of Occupational Health Program. The company investment in raising awareness campaigns and medical care has been consistent, being accounted 2% of gross revenue of alcohol production and 1% of the revenue from sugar production invested in social area. The program also covers transportation, restaurant (over 100 thousand annual meals), life insurance, entertainment and recreation and finally, school to all collaborators' children, shareholders and services suppliers of the co-linked companies, as well as the community's children, when vacancies are available. The Company's green governance indicators are: 17 thousand hectares of environmental reserves; 8 thousand tons of organic sugar; 2 million 5 hundred thousand sacks of sugar; estimates sugar-cane harvest of 2 million 3 hundred thousand tons for next crop; 3 thousand 8 hundred hectares of organic sugar-cane and soybean; 31 thousand cultivated hectares; 60 thousand cubic meters of carburant alcohol and derived products; 1 million 5 hundred thousand rubber trees (Hevea brasiliensis); 150 thousand boxes of domi-sanitary products; 40 MW of electricity from sugar-cane bagasse; 2 thousand 4 hundred direct collaborators and 10 thousand indirect collaborators, according to field research collected information. Such figures convey to the inevitable question about the kind of converging forces that lead to green governance results. The business as a whole is clearly controlled by one family oligarchy, in full control of market driving forces, aware of international markets demands of salable goods, certified green-sealed products, entirely export-based production, independent of central government funds, installed in relatively small town, with expanded business in the state capital, with political influence in the state government cabinet, that is to say, totally independent. According to DALL'ACQUA (2003) the challenge to balance economic performance, social responsibility and environmental minimum impact remains in deepening and enrooting trust relationship among public and private players for a successful management decision making process. Her Prefeitura Inteligente brand concerns with regional development, political-institutional, social, economic and environmental sustainability. The idea would conceive a systemic interaction of knowledge generation, skills improvement, and integration policies, being the output an emergent stronger territory. The static demonstration of public management (Plate 6) locates in Quadrant 1 the interaction among State and Market players. Quadrant 2 is where central and local governments are, with maximum control and influ-
Plate 6
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Plate 7
ence, promoting development programs, managing national and international funds, intense decision-making process and political articulation. Quadrant 3, with less influence and no control, is where the marginal player appears. In general they are family-run business with no social and economic representation, but multiple actors and multiple interests, where institutional arrangements are of their own shape. Quadrant 4 embraces the strong oligarchies, the market influence and power over the territory, economic efficiency and opportunities, state dependent structure and corporative solidarity. (DALL'ACQUA, 2005) The dynamic interpretation of public management (Plate 7) brings the forces into action, converging ascendant movement towards Quadrant 1. It is where equity and opportunities are aligned with learning and trust, in strong relationship and development-based initiatives, with solidarity and interdependence among essential partnerships and agents (DALL'ACQUA, 2005). There is a lot to be built yet, too many steps forward in social rights equity and authentic green governance enterprises towards nature preservation for future comers. We all want to be able to break up with old myths and overcome strong prejudices. References:
DALL'ACQUA, Clarisse T.B. Competitividade e Participao. Cadeias produtivas e a definio dos espaos geoeconmico, global e local. So Paulo: Annablume, 2003. (Competitiveness and Participation. Productive chains and the definition of geo-economic global and local space). _______________________, O Territrio do Desenvolvimento Local - Prticas de Planejamento e Gesto Territorial. Apresentao de Trabalho Tcnico-Cientfico no I Seminrio Internacional "O Desenvolvimento Local na Integrao: Estratgias, Instituies e Polticas", Instituto de Geocincias e Cincias Exatas, UNESP, Campus Rio Claro, 2004.("Local Territory Development - Planning and Management Territorial Practices". Presentation of Technical Scientific Work at the First International Seminar on Integration in Local Development:Strategies, Institutions and Policies, Institute of Geosciences and Exact Sciences, UNESP, Campus Rio Claro,2004) _______________________, Prefeitura Inteligente: articulao de polticas pblicas e interesses privados no desenvolvimento local. Exame de Qualificao para o Doutorado apresentado ao Programa de Ps-Graduao em Geografia Humana, FFLCH/USP, So Paulo, 2005. (Intelligent Hall: public policies interaction and private interests in local development. Doctorate Qualification Exam presented at Human Geography Post-Graduation Program,University of So Paulo,2005) _______________________, Seminrio EXPO Brasil DL 2004 - Uma Proposta de Capacitao de Agentes para a Gesto Compartilhada, Fortaleza, 2005 (A proposal for training agents in shared management - EXPO Brazil DL 2004 Seminar).
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Landscape governance in urban agglomerations The case of regional parks in Germany

L. Gailing
Leibniz-Institute for Regional Development and Structural Planning (IRS), Germany gailing@irs-net.de
Introduction: The loss of open space Urban agglomerations all over Europe are growing at the expense of the surrounding landscapes. Given the enormous growth of built-up land for settlement and transport use within recent decades landscape and open space policy in urban regions is an emerging core issue and action field for targeted sustainable spatial development. For European urban regions governance strategies and instruments to secure and improve open spaces play an important role because quality of life, the image of the region as well as international competitive capacity are tightly linked with the existence of valuable open space structures. The ecological, social and also economic problems of the loss of open space and their negative effects on sustainable development are well-known. Diverse high-level monitoring systems for observing spatial or ecological processes, and models with sophisticated indicators describing land-use change in urban agglomerations exist. Wide-ranging planning systems and well-defined legal regulations concerning various aspects of open space protection have been established in many European countries. But in reality there is a considerable difference between the high level of knowledge and regulations, and the contradictory, often unsustainable changes in the urban landscape. Although Germany, for instance, has a comparatively well-developed system of landscape planning, nature protection and inclusion of landscape issues in the political instruments of town and regional planning, every day more than 100 ha of open space is transformed into sealed land. The idea behind regional parks In the face of European-wide processes of accelerated land-use change, landscape is currently being rediscovered as a key issue of regional development. International conventions therefore aim less to implement classical instruments of landscape protection following a command-and-control approach, but focus on integrative management strategies: the European Union's European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP) calls for the "creative management of cultural landscapes" and the "enhancement of the values of cultural landscapes within the framework of integrated spatial development strategies" (European Commission 1999). The Council of Europe's European Landscape Convention (ELC) commits the signatory states "to recognise landscapes in law as an essential component of people's surroundings, an expression of the diversity of their shared cultural and natural heritage, and a foundation of their identity", to "establish and implement landscape policies aimed at landscape protection, management and planning" and to "establish procedures for the participation of the general public, local and regional authorities" (Council of Europe 2000). Landscape understood as the product of human activity and societal developments can only be the subject of active attempts at regional management if the institutional framework shaping its use and development is understood and taken into strategic consideration. For that purpose new forms of governance and institutional arrangements specifically designed to meet the requirements of landscape and to involve regional and local stakeholders in these processes are necessary to deal with typical institutional problems in agglomerations and also to comply with the requirements of ESDP and ELC. In Germany in addition to formal methods of regional and landscape planning new governance structures to enhance regional landscape policy have arisen in the last few years: e.g. regional initiatives concerning cultural landscapes in biosphere reserves or collaborative landscape planning (Khn 1999). These new governance structures do not present themselves as a substitute for classical formal planning instruments, but supplement them in their efficacy by models of stakeholder participation or their project orientation. Regional parks are a particularly successful example of integrative and active management strategies. Given the fact that other formal nature conservation categories such as nature parks or biosphere reserves are not in use in urban agglomerations due to the urban and suburban landscape complexity, regional parks are being implemented solely in urban agglomerations. Spatial trends like urban expansion and urban sprawl, the fragmentation of open space by the construction of infrastructure networks and the consequent ecological problems and degradation of landscape aesthetics shape urban agglomerations and their surrounding landscapes. Due to the competition and overlapping in the use of land in urban and suburban areas, landscape policy and open space protection in urban agglomerations has to deal with aggravated problems of institutional interplay. For this reason in some urban regions protagonists involved in landscape policy have recognised that the metropolitan open space depends not only on the top-down approach of public landscape protection, but also
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on bottom-up activities. They have established regional parks in order to produce value for the open spaces by means of project-oriented regional management (Gailing 2005). Problems of spatial fit between regional open spaces and action spaces basing themselves on local administrative areas are solved by interlocal collaboration. Regional stakeholders resolve institutional problems of scale by the implementation of new action arenas and actors such as regional park authorities or subregional park development societies. Improving living conditions and mobilising urban landscape is to be achieved by the collaborative implementation of landscape projects and by overcoming problems of institutional interplay between sectoral fields such as local recreation, sustainable agriculture, nature protection, the protection of cultural heritage and landscape architecture. Regional parks improve the accessibility and increase the aesthetic attractiveness of open spaces by providing networks of footpaths and cycle trails, developing recreation and sports facilities and allowing room for art, cultural heritage or "urban wildernesses". Open space is gaining in importance for regional economic and spatial development in urban agglomerations as a "soft" location factor and an emerging core issue and action field for targeted sustainable landscape development. In the sense of multifunctional landscape management, individual open space interests are integrated and the status of open space is strengthened in a holistic approach. Former "residual space" can thus acquire a lobby in formal planning processes. The following list recapitulates the potentials of the regional park approach to solutions to selected institutional problems (cf. Young 2002) concerning urban landscapes and the protection of open spaces. Problems of interplay between sectoral institutions: Regional parks serve as an intersectoral management strategy for urban and suburban landscapes integrating socio-economic, ecological and aesthetic aspects. Problems of interplay between formal and informal institutions: Regional park development enables an improved consideration of informal institutions such as regional and local identities or aesthetic values in formal planning processes. Problems of spatial fit: Regional open space takes on the character of an action space by means of the collaboration of local municipalities and stakeholders. Problems of scale: Activities on the different scales of a regional park, its partial areas and their local projects are each carried out within specific institutional arrangements. Regional parks new forms of landscape governance in Germany The case studies of the "Emscher Landschaftspark", the "Regionalpark RheinMain" and the "BerlinBrandenburger Regionalparks" introduced below (cf. Gailing 2005 & 2006) demonstrate that regional parks are an innovative form of regional governance and landscape management in agglomerations and urban surroundings. For decades the Emscher, a small river in the north of the heavily industrialised Ruhr region, was misused as a drain for sewage and waste water. Today the river and its ecological recovery project ("New Emscher Valley") is the linking element in the "Emscher Landschaftspark" regional park concept. The IBA International Building Exhibition Emscher Park 1989-1999 marked the starting signal for the development of seven regional greenways in a north-south axis and a new greenway (east-west) along the Emscher from Dortmund to Duisburg. Many local and regional projects such as cycle trails, "industrial" parks, and art on former coal tips aim to improve the quality of life and location conditions and strengthen the image of an industrial-cultural landscape. The IBA promoted by the State of North Rhine-Westphalia and its main project "Emscher Landschaftspark" have received international recognition for their approach to preserving industrial heritage and addressing post-industrial decline as well as population shrinkage. The "Emscher Landschaftspark" is integrating aesthetic and ecological landscape functions in an exemplary manner by landscape architectural and artistically revalued open space recovery projects, nature-orientated water management and valorisation of the industrial cultural landscape. As a result of a lack of collaboration with open space users (in particular cultivators) socio-economic aspects have, however, been neglected. By means of the creation of new organisational and cooperational structures at the level of the regional park and its interlocally arranged greenways, the reactivation of metropolitan landscape policy has succeeded in the implementation of successful and well-known local projects. The "Projekt Ruhr GmbH" provided for the continued development of the regional park by working out a "Masterplan Emscher Landschaftspark 2010" together with the twenty cities and local municipalities of the Ruhr region (Projekt Ruhr GmbH 2005). The "Regionalpark RheinMain" aims to join up and enhance open spaces, which are often reduced to remnants between settlements and infrastructures in the towns and cities of the booming Frankfurt area. The Park's main element is a corridor, a path accompanied by green structures. Apart from this linear feature the park developers (Frankfurt/Rhine-Main Conglomeration Planning Association, Regional park parent company and subregional publicly owned companies) are implementing projects with a more spatial character such as
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playing grounds, pocket-parks and orchards, and smaller elements such as wells, monuments or lookout towers. Starting from a pilot area a regional network will develop. The idea behind it is that people who come to appreciate these open spaces will protect them against urban pressure. The park responds to a strong need for local recreation. Together with a biodiversity network the park presents itself as a guideline for ecological compensation in line with nature protection legislation. Thus ecological and aesthetic aspects of urban landscape development are well integrated in an implementationoriented regional planning approach initiating locally differentiated management solutions in collaboration with local authorities. Only at the regional level, where a combination with socio-economic aspects tends to be successful, is the "Regionalpark RheinMain" considered a planning tool in the process of metropolitan identity building and as a main regional asset to increase its international competitive capacity, whereas local landusers and their economic interests were underestimated in the process of regional park development. Based on a Joint State Development Programme for Berlin and Brandenburg in the 1990s a chain of regional parks was planned to develop and maintain a green belt around Berlin including the relevant parts of the Berlin municipal area. This concept of creating eight regional parks around Berlin was no more than an offer by the states of Berlin and Brandenburg to the local communities, to the people living and working in the affected regions and also to the open space users. In the absence of legal instruments, administrative structures or funding, the successful development of the regional parks depends essentially on local decision-makers and on the stakeholders and land users who preserve the open spaces in the individual regional parks. The originators relied primarily on the self-organising ability of voluntary actors and the cogency of their idea. In several areas in which regional parks should have been developed (for example, the Flutgrabenaue meadows near the new Berlin-Brandenburg International airport), it has not been possible to establish any cooperation structures at all. An institutional void, which becomes manifest in a lack of financial resources, a lack of collaboration between Berlin and its surroundings and a lack of efficient management structures, results in only a small number of projects being realised, but offers good prospects for actions integrating the motives of land-users and for civil society based associations. Thus, landscape policy opens up perspectives for sustainable development following the principle "ecological protection by sustainable socio-economic use". In spite of the serious difficulties encountered in realising the regional parks around the German capital, the Joint Spatial Planning Department for Berlin and Brandenburg regards them as a successful cooperation project. The citizens' and inter-municipal organisational and funding structures must be highlighted in particular. The strategy of delegating responsibility to local actors, which must be criticised from the point of view of efficiency, has also had positive effects. Cooperation has been encouraged in areas in which the willingness to cooperate was previously non-existent and especially in the case of the Barnimer Feldmark Regional Park to the north-east of Berlin existing networks of active, involved citizens have been strengthened. Farmers, conservationists and the tourist trade have all become involved in regional development. It has been possible to persuade municipal actors, civil society and even economic actors to become involved in spite of the poor incentive structures. Even so many projects have been realised in the regional parks. They include, for example, the marketing of regional products, landscape conservation measures, signposting networks of cycle and hiking paths, projects to restructure villages and biotopes or setting up tourist information centres. Summary and conclusion Despite inherent or possible problems like the underestimation of agricultural land use, dependence on public finances or the preferential treatment of symbolic interventions and of aesthetisations of landscape policy, regional parks can be identified as efficient tools for strengthening the status of landscape and open space in urban and regional policies. By bridging the gap between conception and implementation they are complementary to existing formal planning processes. Due to the fact that landscape is a multifunctional by-product of human activities landscape development demands intersectoral and citizen-based planning and policy approaches. Therefore landscape development is a regional task of public policy appropriate to respond to the requirements of the principle of sustainability. Given that landscape development is driven by formal and informal institutions landscape problems can be seen as, in essence, institutional problems: problems of interplay between sectoral institutional arrangements and between formal and informal institutions, and institutional problems of fit and scale. Because of the lack of comprehensive institutional regimes, landscape is essentially influenced by informal institutions, e.g. social and individual values, traditions, customs or regional identity. New forms of management and institutional arrangements specifically designed to meet the requirements of landscape can contribute to dealing with the institutional problems of landscape. Regional parks in urban agglomerations, characterised by project orientation and collaborative arrangements, can be seen as new flexible governance structures in this sense. Their project activities aimed at solving problems of institutional
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interplay and problems of spatial fit and scale also involve informal institutions (especially identity, regional image and aesthetic aspects). In the sense of multifunctional landscape management individual open space interests are integrated and the status of open space is strengthened in a holistic approach. Former "residual space" can thus acquire a lobby in formal planning processes. Case studies of the "Berlin-Brandenburger Regionalparks", the "Regionalpark RheinMain" and the "Emscher Landschaftspark" demonstrate that Regional parks are an innovative form of regional governance in agglomerations and urban surroundings. The implementation of these new governance structures can, however, also lead to diverse problems: the risk of reduction solely to a marketing instrument, the dependence on public finance, the level of acceptance on the part of the administration, the politicians and the population of the region, and the lack of legal regulations to impose measures. Especially because of the latter it is necessary to understand new governance structures not as a replacement for, but as an addition to administrative authorities and legal rules and regulations regarding regional and landscape planning. According to this understanding the idea of regional parks can be important for the creation of new governance structures in urban agglomerations. Managing the change and preservation of landscapes in urban agglomerations as a regional common good (cf. Rhring/Gailing 2006) in a better, more sustainable way is a challenge which can be mastered only if the institutional and actor-related driving forces of landscape change are understood and the opportunities to influence these processes are recognised. References
Council of Europe, 2000. European Landscape Convention, http://www.coe.int. European Commission (Ed.), 1999. European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP). Luxemburg. Gailing, L., 2005. Regionalparks - Grundlagen und Instrumente der Freiraumpolitik in Verdichtungsrumen. Dortmunder Beitrge zur Raumplanung, Bd. 121. Dortmund. Gailing, L., 2006. Qualifizierung von Stadtlandschaften: Kooperationsplattform Regionalpark. Ministerium fr Umwelt des Saarlandes ; Akademie fr Raumforschung und Landesplanung, LAG Hessen/Rheinland-Pfalz-Saarland (Ed.): Kooperation als Erfolgsfaktor fr Regionen im Wandel. Saarbrcken, 2006, S. 28-31. Khn, M., 1999. Kulturlandschaften zwischen Schutz und Nutzung. Modellhafte Planungsanstze einer nachhaltigen Freiraum- und Landschaftsentwicklung, REGIO Beitrge des IRS, Nr. 14. Erkner. Projekt Ruhr GmbH (Ed.), 2005. Masterplan Emscher Landschaftspark 2010. Essen Rhring, A.; Gailing, L., 2006. Cultural landscapes as a potential force for regional development - theoretical approaches and case studies in East German suburban and rural regions. In: Komornicki, T.; Czapiewski, K. (Ed.). Regional Periphery in Central and Eastern Europe, EUROPA XXI, 15, PAS. Warszawa, pp. 13-28. Young, O., 2002. The Institutional Dimensions of Environmental Change. Fit, Interplay, and Scale. Cambridge (MA) / London
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Community Engagement, Innovation and Green Networks in the Suburbs

Tavis Potts1, Cristina Martinez-Fernandez2, Kim Leevers3
1
Scottish Association for Marine Science, 2Urban Research Centre University of Western Sydney, 3University of Western Sydney. Tavis.Potts@sams.ac.uk
Introduction New debates are emerging about what constitutes effective regional planning and its integration with sustainable development. As environmental pressures place limits on regional expansion, successful planning strategies must address impacts, restore natural systems, and provide innovative models for business activities. This paper explores a broader 'triple bottom line' view of the innovation process and a case study approach centred on the south-western region of Sydney, Australia. Pressures from urban growth, distribution and allocation of water resources, energy resources, the impacts of climate change and land degradation are placing significant costs and pressures on regional communities and their development potential (Beer et al 2000). Successful regional planning strategies must address environmental impacts, restore natural systems, provide the support and trajectory for social innovations, culture and communities and provide innovative models for business activities and knowledge creation. Federal and state governments are increasingly focusing on the region as a unit of innovation and an appropriate scale to resolve key socio-economic and environmental issues (Bellamy et al 2003). Changes to regions have advanced rapidly in the last decade, with knowledge-based industries such as IT, biotechnology and environmental management contributing to the regional and national economy, while traditional resourcebased and manufacturing sectors are seeking to further align themselves with the 'knowledge economy' (Martinez and Potts, 2005). Innovation, as the means of introducing new ideas, processes and products that have significant quality of life outcomes, is recognised as a driver of growth and hence one of the main contributors to a prosperous region. Industry growth, job creation, and new technology applications all have roots in entrepreneurial and innovative practices. Innovation plays a significant role in delivering solutions for regional development and as a means and process of addressing sustainability issues that are predominant in regional debates (Foster and Green 2000). Sustainability refers to a system where economic growth and improvements to quality of life are complimentary to, and restore, natural systems (Krehbiel et al 1999). Resource conservation, ecosystem restoration, governance and knowledge are becoming synonymous with competitive and strong economies in regional development. Agenda 21 highlighted that many environmental, social and economic problems can be linked to activities and impacts at the local level. Local authorities have a key role to play in designing, implementing and reviewing local initiatives and a key role to play in making sustainable development happen. It is local action, from communities, business and local government that is the missing link in moving towards mainstream acceptance of sustainability in the national psyche. Local action and education is critical for influencing the values of individuals and communities towards sustainable lifestyles it is cumulative actions from individuals that lead to major environmental issues such as transport and car use, waste, housing design, biodiversity loss, and energy and water consumption. Affecting change at this level is primarily the role of local government through local democratic processes. This must include open and accountable local governance, community participation in decision making, and developing and implementing strategies with wide community support (Armstrong & Stratford 2004). Sustainability Partnerships in local regions Partnerships are tools that promote dialogue, cooperation and education across different community sectors. Gibson and Cameron (2001) identify partnerships as a unifying or mobilising device to regulate interactions between formal government and individuals in communities or places of interest. As voluntary multi-stakeholder initiatives, partnerships at the local and regional scale can compliment and implement national and international policies. An example is the emergence of Local Action 21 initiatives across local governments to implement the mandate of Agenda 21 and the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation. Partnerships can improve the quality of participation and implementation by involving the stakeholders whose activities have direct impact on sustainable development. Successful partnerships can act as a source of cross fertilisation of ideas and knowledge from different sectors of society and instil a sense of common purpose. Actions that specify a local sustainability partnership would potentially include: Involvement of community, business and government actors; Focus on a local or regional sustainability issue and generate a positive improvement; Explore the issue across the triple bottom line; Encourage mutual sustainability learning and dialogue across differing perspectives;
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Be open, accountable and innovative; Encourage participatory action, involvement, ongoing commitment and review Although the concept of partnerships has been explored over several years in the literature and was a focus of the World Summit, widespread uptake and practice has been limited at the Australian local government scale. However, as the concept takes hold, more collaborative and cross-sectoral partnerships are being initiated and trialled. A key milestone was the 2005 Baton Forum conference, Beyond Declarations: Partnerships for Sustainability. The Baton Forum is a national coalition of local sustainability practitioners and the first Baton conference focused on the creation, implementation and management of partnerships in local government and communities throughout Australia. The conference was an important milestone for the recognition of the importance of broad community, business and government support for partnerships for sustainability and raised the profile of many recent partnership initiatives. It is important that the utility of partnerships and community engagement be recognised by policy makers and successful case studies and 'works in progress' be communicated to decision makers. Green Networks The Role of Universities and Business The literature on partnerships often discusses the emerging and critical links between local government and communities (Armstrong & Stratford 2004; Potts 2004; Frame and Taylor 2005). Public agencies, especially local government, are moving towards considering citizens as 'partners' rather than 'clients' or 'customers' (Vigoda 2002). This evolving nature of partnerships is extending toward collaboration with other sectors such as the private sector or academia (Vigoda 2002). While local government partnerships with community are certainly not anything new, collaborative arrangements between government, community, business, and academia focused on sustainability is a more recent phenomenon (Marintez-Fernandez and Potts 2005). One explanation for an increasing focus on collaboration is the frustration incurred from policy 'gridlock'. Conflict between varied stakeholders with differing values, viewpoints and interests can cause an entrenched dispute with ongoing social, legal, regulatory and financial implications for parties involved. While conflict and political risk can be an important driver of change (Newman 2004) it can also prevent the formation of mutually beneficial partnerships. It is yet to be assessed if Australian sustainability partnerships are collections of 'competing interests' or collaborative ventures producing new knowledge and new process for addressing sustainability. The practice to date suggests that local sustainability partnerships are seeking greater participation from business and university groups in addition to traditional community organisations. Business groups are increasingly recognising the need to consider the triple bottom line and corporate social responsibility and view partnerships as a tool to achieve this goal. Spectacular public corporate crashes have eroded public confidence and led to measures of greater accountability. Although corporate citizenship practice is not embedded in Australia (Birch and Baton 2001) preliminary data suggests that attitudes toward partnerships at regional scales are changing, especially in the context of environmental innovation and ecological modernisation (Martinez-Fernandez and Potts 2005). Case Study: The MacArthur Regional Environmental Innovation Network The role of 'knowledge providers' such as regional universities can provide impetus for local partnership initiatives. Universities can provide a ready source of information, analysis and scholarship that addresses significant local and regional problems and provide an important mediation and facilitation role between disparate societal groups and sectors. The 'Innovation at the Edges' initiative was funded through the regional partnership grants of the University of Western Sydney in collaboration with regional government organisations. It aimed to partner with local businesses in the Macarthur region of South West Sydney and assist them to identify the challenges embedded in sustainable regional development. 'Innovation at the Edges' took a broader approach to traditional innovation studies, highlighting the critical, but often overlooked role of environmental and social influences in the innovation process (Martinez-Fernandez et al 2005). It developed and explored a concept called the innovation ecosystem. The innovation ecosystem approach argues that three different critical systems for regional development can coexist within a space: knowledge intensity and networks, environmental drivers, and the creative social climate. The three systems come together under the banner of 'sustainable innovation' and provide a framework that assists regions to explore the process of unlocking their innovative potential. The study found that the Macarthur region contained significant drivers that contribute to an innovative and sustainable region. These included a regionally focused university, a strong regional and community identity, sustainability awareness amongst firms and the support of regional business and government to develop new programs and activities. Areas of regional limitation included a lack of business networking, minimal use of knowledge intensive services, a lack of opportunities to progress environmental innovation discussion and 600
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incubation and a lack of partnerships between public, private and community organisations. The notion of partnerships driving regional innovation and sustainability was a recommendation of the research. As a result, in late 2005 the Regional Environmental Innovation Network (REIN) was launched. Facilitated by the University of Western Sydney, REIN aims to generate regional dialogue between community groups, the university, local business and government over environmental innovation. A community based sustainability organisaiton, The Macarthur Centre for Sustainable Living, will host the 'shopfront' for REIN and provide a venue and contact point. The network will provide a service to facilitate information sharing between partners on the 'how to' questions that surround environmental innovation, a critical issue identified in the study. REIN will provide linkages between researchers, business and the community to develop applied research programs on relevant regional sustainability issues, provide a means of information dissemination across private and public organisations, and provide a focal point for action on regional environmental innovation. To date REIN has held five network meetings on a range of topics including water, biodiversity, energy and climate change, green buildings, urban design and planning and established a community-university-business -government steering group. The workshops invite policy makers, community and business to discuss ideas for moving towards a regional approach to sustainability, discuss resources available to assist organisations, and to see innovative technologies in practice at the Macarthur Centre for Sustainable Living. Despite the partnership being relatively young, it is promising to observe emerging synergies between partners and momentum being built towards addressing important regional sustainability issues. The workshops that have been held to date have been popular with all stakeholders. A recent workshop on energy attracted over 80 participants from local business and the community. The workshop was a mix of practical and ideas based seminars, with an emphasis on the 'how to do' aspects of energy efficiency and renewable energy in homes. The dissemination of recent research, best practice, stories and policy development delivers a practical message about environmental innovation practice. In particular it link researchers, students, businesses and local communities together to discuss future partnerships and collaborative work. Importantly it is a public forum that allows differing groups to disseminate their experiences and link to a growing network. Essentially REIN could be considered as a 'partnerships and ideas incubator' that will likely grow over time. The information sessions have also attracted key national and international speakers on sustainability. Despite being a relatively young initiative, REIN is a promising start to improving regional business and civic engagement over environmental innovation and sustainable development. References
Armstrong, D & Stratford, E 2004. Partnerships for Local Sustainability and local Governance. Local Environment (9), p541-561 Beer, A.., Maude, A., & Pritchard, B. 2003. Green Regions, in: A. Beer., A. Maude & B. Pritchard (Eds) Developing Australia's Regions: Theory and Practice, pp 218-245, Sydney, UNSW Press. Bellamy, J., Meppem, T., Goddard, R & Dawson, S. (2003) 'The Changing Face of Regional Governance for Economic Development: Implications for Local Government'. Sustaining Regions. 2 (3): 7-17. Birch, D., and Batten, J. 2001. Corporate Citizenship in Australia: A survey of Corporate Australia. Corporate Citizenship Research Unit, Deakin University, Burwood. Foster, C and Green, K. 2000. Greening the innovation process. Business Strategy and the Environment, 9, pp. 287303. Frame, B and Taylor, R 2005 Partnerships for Sustainability. Local Environment (10) 3: pp275-299 Gibson, K. & Cameron, J. (2001) Transforming communities: towards a research agenda, Urban Policy and Research, 19(1), pp. 7-24. Krehbiel, T., Gorman, R., Erekson, O., Loucks, O. & Johnson, P. 1999. Advancing ecology and economics through a business-science synthesis, Ecological Economics, 28, pp.183-196. Krockenberger, M., Kinrade, P., & Thorman, R. 2000l Natural Advantage: A Blueprint for Sustainable Australia, pp.85 Melbourne, Australian Conservation Foundation. Martinez-Fernandez, C., Potts, T., Receretnam, M., Bjorkli, M.. 2005. Innovation at the Edges: The Role of Innovation Drivers in South West Sydney. University of Western Sydney: Sydney. Available: http://aegis.uws.edu.au/innovationedges/main.html. ISBN 174108 094 0 Newman, P. 2004. On climbing trees: an Australian perspective on sustainability and political risk. Local Environment, (9) 6, pp611-621. Potts, T 2004 Triple Bottom Line Reporting - A Tool for Measuring and Reporting Change in Local Communities. In: Cheney, Katz and Soloman (eds) Sustainability and Social Science Roundtable. Institute of Sustainable Futures and CSIRO Minerals. Available: http://www.minerals.csiro.au/sd/pubs/ Vigoda, E. 2002. From Responsiveness to Collaboration: Governance, Citizens, and the next generation of Public Administration. Public Administration Review, 62 (5): pp527-540.
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The status of natural environment of Seoul, Korea, and its metropolitan management plan toward sustainable development
Soojeong Myeong1, Inju Song2
1
Sejong University, Korea, 2Seoul Development Institute, Korea sjmyeong@yahoo.com
Abstract Seoul has gone through great urban development due to rapid population increase for past 30 years, thereby, the green space and the wetland of the city have decreased and been destroyed dramatically. The quality of air and the water have been polluted greatly, and the ecosystem has been severely damaged. High density development led to increase of impervious surface which now occupies about 47% of the urban area. The green spaces became fragmented and, due to the intensive use of these green spaces by human beings, wild animals and plants can hardly find spaces to inhabit. Since the late 1990s, the City of Seoul has generated and updated the biotope map every 5 years in order to consider the ecological characteristics for urban planning. The city also focusing its efforts on the restoration of the ecospace and the expansion of the green space in the city, like the restoration of the Cheonggyecheon Creek and the creation of the Seoul Forest. The current population of the city is around 10,000,000; the intensive urban land use is likely to continue in the future. Therefore, for a sustainable urban development, it is necessary to adopt and operate a comprehensive, environment-friendly urban management model that aims at a harmony between development and conservation by focusing on preserving the existing natural environment, on restoring the damaged natural environment, and on generating new natural environments. Introduction Seoul has been the capital city of Korea for 600 years. It has a temperate climate with the annual average temperature 12.9 C and the annual precipitation of 1562mm (10 years average of 1995 - 2004) providing a habitat for diverse biota (City of Seoul a, 2005). However, Seoul has been going through highly intensive land usage due to the development oriented policy since the 1960s. Consequently, its population and the number of cars increased drastically. Seoul's total population is 10 million, and it covers 604km2. The population density is 16,978 people/km2 and total number of registered cars is 2,856,857 (as the end of 2006). The increase in population accelerated dense land usage, increasing the portion of impervious land surface and decreasing the green space. This study aimed to present a comprehensive, environment-friendly urban management model toward the sustainable city of Seoul after analyzing Seoul's natural environment and its effort and accomplishment to improve the environment. The Status of Natural Environment and its Management of Seoul Seoul has many scattered drumlins and hilly forests making the city geomorphically hilly. The Han River flows from east to west through the city. Overall, Seoul has a harmonized natural environment with green spaces and water bodies (Figure 1). The forested areas cover about 26 % of the city; grass and water cover 9%; agricultural land covers 5%; and man-made forest area cover 3% (City of Seoul, 2005 b). With the area of natural forests and grass land occupying a very small portion of the city, Seoul shows the typical characteristics of a large metropolitan city. As many of urban streams have been either covered on top or uniformly cemented with concrete at the bottom and on the banks for the convenience of water control, their biological life-supporting function and people-friendly function have been deteriorated drastically. Of the 24 legally designated streams of Seoul, 15 are covered on top (City of Seoul, 2005 a). According to a biodiversity database of Seoul, a total of 4,015 species inhabit in Seoul: 1,794 species of plants, 31 species of mammals, 28 species of amphibians and reptiles, 63 species of fish, and 1,895 species of insects (City of Seoul. 2006 a; City of Seoul, 2006 d). Figure 1: The distribution of green space and water in Seoul 602
Soojeong Myeong, Inju Song: The status of natural environment of Seoul
The Management of the Natural Environment and the Restoration The representative ecosystem restoration projects of Seoul are restoration of streams and landfills and creation of small green spaces in the middle of the densely urbanized area. These restoration projects since the 1960s have accomplished their goals. Recently, the restoration of the Cheonggyecheon Creek received international attention. The biota of Cheonggyecheon Creek increased as many as 278 species in terms of fish, birds, plants, etc. after the restoration and is in an increasing trend (City of Seoul, 2006 e). Also, Nanjido, the representative landfill of Seoul, was transformed into an eco-park after completion of the landfill operation (City of Seoul. 2006 a). Creation of urban green spaces Seoul has been to creating green spaces in diverse ways. For example, it made the Seoul Forest, planted 10 million life-supporting trees, planted understories below tall street trees. It also planted trees around public buildings and schools, etc. Also, Seoul is pursuing to change small abandoned urban land patch into community green space, what we call, Ma-ul-ma-dang. This project can be a sustainable and efficient model of providing green space for highly dense city like Seoul. Figure 2 is the number of Ma-ul-ma-dang and the total size for each district in Seoul. Establishing the Green Network and an Ecological Information Database Seoul has been trying to create green spaces and eco-spaces in diverse ways. However, they are still fragmented and scattered throughout the city. Therefore, Seoul is deploying a networking project to connect the fragmented green spaces and eco-spaces and to take care of them. It made the biotope map and is updating it every five years for efficient and ecological urban planning and management (City of Seoul, 2006 b; City of Seoul, 2006 c). Legal and Administrative Supports Seoul provides some jurisdictional laws such as the Environmental Conservation Bylaw of Seoul and the Bylaw of Urban Planning, which apply stricter standards than national government's laws, and the Bylaw for the natural environmental management. The city also has two evaluation systems: (1) the sustainability evaluation system that assesses the economic effects, social balance and environmental conservation for the city's major administrative plans and development projects, and (2) the environmental impact evaluation system that assesses the impacts of various development projects on the environment. It also operates the Citizen Committee of Green Seoul, a partnership institution for citizens, industries, and the government of Seoul. Metropolitan Management Model Towards Sustainable Development Environmental improvement through establishing the Green, Blue, and White Networks It was found that the restoration of the Cheonggyecheon Creek and the establishment of the Green Network contributed for the quality of urban environment greatly (City of Seoul, 2006d, City of Seoul, 2006e. The city should continue to improve the overall quality of the urban environment through the establishment of (1) the Green Network by securing more green spaces, (2) the Blue Network by continuing the restoration work of various creeks, and (3) the White Network by properly channeling the winds blowing through and over the urban buildings. Improvement of the natural environmental management system, proenvironmental administration and citizen participation Designing the restoration plans of the damaged urban environments, constructing, managing and monitoring the environment require participation of three concerned parties: proenvironmental administration professionals, experienced technicians, and the general public, i.e., citizens. Therefore, appropriate laws and regulations need to be made in order to make it easy for the citizens to actively participate in those systems and processes. Sustainable urban development can be ensured only when proenvironmental administration and active citizen participation are guaranteed, along with the establishment of the physical Green, Blue, and White networks (Figure 3). Conclusion To build a city proenvironmentally and to pursue a sustainable development, it is necessary to restore natural environments and make a comprehensive maintenance model. For this, a legal basis for proenvironmental administration and active citizen participation should be made, as well as the establishment of Green, Blue, and White Networks. Reference
City of Seoul. 2006 a. Environment white book of Seoul. City of Seoul. 2006 b. Environmental conservation plan of Seoul 2006 - 2015. City of Seoul. 2006 c. Maintenance of urban ecological status.
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City of Seoul, 2006 d. The detailed plan of wildlife conservation, Seoul. City of Seoul, 2006 e Cheonggyecheon white book. City of Seoul. a. 2005 a. Study on validity examination of stream restoration, Seoul. City of Seoul. 2005 b. The status of parks in Seoul. Ministry of Environment. 2006. Study on wildlife conservation plan
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Local Urban and Socioeconomic Pressures from Expanding Tourism and Oil and Gas Industry in an Environmentally Sensitive Area a case for improving local green governance in Mara, Brazil
C. R. C. Cardoso1 & S. Favero2
1Universidade de So Paulo, USP, Brazil; 2Universidade Federal da Bahia, UFBA, Brazil silneiton.favero@terra.com.br
Abstract The peninsula of Mara in Brazil is both a Special Tourism Interest Area and an Environmental Protection Area. The exploration of oil and gas along the seashore has been seen as an opportunity to leverage development by investing the corresponding royalties in infrastructure projects. Tourism has boomed since the 1990's combined with the decline of traditional economic activities and the absence of adequate municipal public services. A crosscutting legislation at federal, province and municipal levels is set in place on urban planning and environmental preservation, whereas tourism and oil and gas are important regional economic development drivers. The lack of institutional capacity constrains the effective implementation of public policies, and threatens the adequate management of financial resources from prospective economic activities, significantly reducing the opportunities that would otherwise translate the natural assets into a sustainable contributor to local development. Policy instruments for social participation are established just at the formal level, as increased governance must be sought so that urban planning is consonant to local processes that both constrain and depend upon the achievement of socioeconomic development. Key words: Environmental planning and management; local governance; urban development. Introduction Mara is located in Bahia province in the northeast region of Brazil, bordering the Atlantic Ocean, at 180 km southwards the capital city, Salvador. Its 774 km2 encompasses a population of 18,911 inhabitants (IBGE, 2005) and a municipal GDP per capita of USD 703.00 (SEI, 2006). The local Human Development Index was ranked 0,594 in 2000, 0,492 in 1991, and 0,375 in 1980 (UNDP, 2005). Illiteracy rate is 49% (IBGE, 2005). Since 32% of its entire area is environmentally protected (APA-Mara, 2000), all economic activities within the municipality are legally obliged to comply with the protected area's Environmental Zoning (CONAMA, 1988). However, the local government has been unable to enforce the legislation and use policy instruments in a context characterized by the decline of the region's traditional productive activities (SUINVEST, 2004) and the emergence of new economies, i.e. tourism and the oil and gas exploration O&G. The peninsula districts turned into recognized tourism destinations (MINTUR, 2006) with very modest infrastructural and social support (SUINVEST, 2004). The combination of such developments favored the proliferation of informal settlements. Concurrently enough, the new socioeconomic challenges could not be adequately addressed in view of the lacking governance levels. This paper is based on a more extended review of Brazilian public policies at national, province and municipal levels as well as the processes regarding tourism and O&G as Mara's main socioeconomic drivers. A socioeconomic assessment and a perceptive set towards the population's needs and expectations regarding local development via tourism and the emergent O&G economy could be appraised through an on-site survey and a series of interviews with members of local population1. Governance and institutional capacity in general, and green governance in particular, remain as unsolved issues, such that urban development in Mara is closely related to environmental management constraints. The paper thus explores an analysis on the impacts of tourism to the extent of its connection with the environmental and territory issues under specific economic development pressures, being the latter affected by O&G economy. Legal and institutional aspects The so-called Estatuto das Cidades (EC, 2001), or the Cities Act, is the main legal framework concerning Mara as a protected area and a special tourism destination. The Act is a consistent set of regulations aiming at the sustainable urban development. It is applicable to municipalities larger than 20,000 inhabitants, and to the smallest ones provided that they are officially recognized as special tourism interest area and/or are entirely or partly located in environmental areas. It obliges any given municipality to develop and enforce a set of regulations regarding comprehensive aspects of urban development. Such rules are consolidated in the Urban Development Plan (PDU), which, in turn, extends the public regulating power to construction in urban and nonurban areas according to dependable building standards. The environmental legislation complements and crosscuts with the Cities Act, since the Environmental Zoning is to be fully translated into such framework. It
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is simply a legally binding requirement that the PDU is developed under a participatory approach so that urban expansion zones are regulated in line with local demographic and socioeconomic priorities as they are perceived by the local civil society. This prerequisite actually represents a severe demand on the municipal government, for it implies a managerial background that traditionally has not been present in any of the government branches. In this regard, the adequate response of the municipal government to the most pressing local socioeconomic challenges relies upon the government's own institutional capacity i.e. technical skills, public investments and an enabling context so that governance is just part of policy making; and decision making turns into tangible results by means of policy instruments enforcement. Insofar as its development facilitator role is involved, the public investment component in Mara is, in practical terms, nonexistent; let alone the fact that that the government's policy making capacity and the ability to develop policy instruments and to promote the public good heavily depends on the fulfillment of such requirement. Public revenue is not as significant enough as to meet the needs for basic public services, which is hampered by a vulnerable economic context and low income generation. Furthermore, tax evasion overtly goes in tandem with flawed internal revenue control services. Breaking down the accounts showed that public revenues depend upon federal allocations under constitutional funds, as well as from national programmes concerning health care, basic education and eradication of child labor; primary activities would respond to only a small amount of the overall revenue (IBGE, 2005). Private economic relationships are considerably informal, as the government does not have databases nor has any intelligent information system that might support public administration and further managerial engagements. Therefore, the fundamentals for a governancefriendly context are not in place in Mara. A second factor is present. The mentioned setbacks actually inhibit any coordination effort with the private sector in the matters concerning tourism as a would-be important regional economic driver. As a matter of fact, Mara's revenue trends over the last decade were found to be below the expenditures trends during the same period (SEI, 2006). Coincidentally, that was the decade in which tourism boomed. The fact may be explained by the quality of management through the consecutive municipal administrations. Transparency and accountability are two relevant variables that should be thoroughly examined in that regard. These considerations ultimately mean that the broad context in Mara has not contributed to local socioeconomic development. At the public managerial level because the governments have been unable to build an efficient public administration scheme; at the results level because governance has been absent, and thus local development has been detrimental to Mara's natural and human assets. It is worth mentioning that local management tools and urban policy instruments are essential eligibility criteria under important nationwide development programmes, such as the Tourism Development Programme (Programa de Desenvolvimento do Turismo do Nordeste Prodetur NE II), which focuses on infrastructure and public services improvement as subsidiary to tourism development. Moreover, it must be emphasized that a specific legislation requires the royalties from O&G to be utterly committed to infrastructure projects. Since Mara has already launched its participatory councils and put its PDU into force, part of the eligibility criteria is formally met, yet the PDU is a necessary but insufficient prerequisite. Full eligibility is recognized when all policy instruments are in effect and under actual implementation. Municipal environmental management schemes and participatory instances are imperative in that regard. Infrastructure projects favor tourism in the long term because they provide basic public services that might otherwise be missing, such as sanitation, public health care, transport and communications, public facilities, and environment protection which could concurrently address urban development bottlenecks. Social, economic and environmental implications Tourism as the main economic activity of a given locality usually brings negative ecologic, social and cultural outcomes that are often difficult to deal with (Ferreti, 2002). The relationship between natural environment and tourism in Mara tends to be essentially conflicting. Explanatory factor for that assumption is precisely the unregulated tourism and its rapid growth. As usual, it requires intensive use of resources available in order to meet the services demand, and soon the new services requirements are over-supplied, hence stressing the natural environment beyond resilience, to the point of eliminating all natural features of the destination that made the case for tourism itself (SUINVEST, 2004). Land use, housing, environment and socioeconomic patterns existing since the origins of Mara during Portuguese colonization in the 17th century started to change in mid-1990's with the tourism boom. The localities with special tourism appeal experienced a considerable demographic growth as a result of a twofold phenomenon. Firstly, people coming from regions of declining economic importance were attracted by the lure of tourism-related jobs (SUINVEST, 2004). Secondly, people from typical urban areas in Brazil and other countries, mainly European countries, became owners of small and middle businesses (hotels, restaurants, bars and pubs, entertainment businesses in general) adopted Mara as their second residence. The first move606
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ment resulted in widespread informal settlements because tourism could not employ all coming man power due to economic constraints (mainly seasonality), low educational background and insufficient professional skills of the incumbents. Lima (2006) states that land use in regional contexts may reproduce social exclusion patterns similar to those of larger urban centers. The second brought forth a new services demand and supply balance. Both have a critical stake at public regulation, for the municipal government was and has been clearly unable to cope with this new plethora of socioeconomic requirements vis--vis its legal obligations to preserve the environment, promote social equality, deliver public services and improve local development under the Environment Zoning, urban planning directives and the Cities Act. Tourism became the desired sponsor of a socioeconomic inclusion that never holds any bound with reality because the weak economy simply cannot afford the costs of employing the poorer population groups. This is consistent with Oliveira's (2004) previous analysis on marginalization in tourism areas. The livelihood profile in the informal settlements throughout Mara is the main visible consequence of informal employment in the tourism economy, as the field research clearly demonstrated. These explanatory factors find their roots in the level of public policy achievement in terms of providing enough infrastructure and services, regulating land use and managing local pressures towards economic expansion. An enabling context that allows the economy to grow according to local needs, expectations, resilience of the natural environment and sociologic balance are just prerequisites for a local governance perspective. Tourism-related economic activities in Mara lack a regional planning perspective. The qualitative analysis suggested that the economic results could be environment-friendly and achieved to the benefit of the socioeconomic context, as to improve current development standards, mainly those associated with sustainable livelihoods. This is a quite relevant limiting factor to development, as much as it reports the absence of institutional support for local socioeconomic growth in association with land use issues, which are largely stressed by tourism. Albeit, contradictory enough, tourism as an economic driver remains of minor significance in terms of its internal revenue for the municipality, and income generation for the population (IBGE, 2005). The fact of the matter is that private activities in Mara, to a large extent, continue to evolve under informal economy and void of public regulation. The administrations have not been able to promote local development and to facilitate the economic activities in view of their financial, technical and institutional setbacks. At the same token, civil society participation is not significant, despite two participatory instances, i.e. environment and tourism councils, are formally established. The exploration of O&G is seen by the population as harmful for the region's natural assets, as informed during the field research. The lack of public managerial capacity to manage the coming royalties under transparency and accountability standards was informed as detrimental to the future realization of the municipality's prospective economic opportunities. In Mara, tourism sector bottlenecks and public inefficiency seem to be closely correlated. Indeed, this scenario precedes O&G exploration, although the latter is assessed as a stressor as far as sustainable tourism is aimed. The two activities would complement one another if the use of royalties were subject to the attainment of progressive levels of governance mainly improvement of basic public services, managerial skills, accountability and social participation in policy making instead of being automatically allocated to host municipalities. Social participation is established in the Cities Act, and, as recommended by Agenda 21 and Agenda Habitat, can be a tool for social inclusion and public action oversight (IBAM, 2003). This approach would provide room for mitigating tourism negative outcomes by improving basic public services, thus transforming its economy into a contributor to socioeconomic future. Strengthening both public and private capacities to develop tourism on regulated and environmentally positive basis is, of course, an imperative. O&G businesses could serve as a source of partnerships focusing on changing institutional capacity along the hot spots. Shortly said, they should be additional to royalties' generation. However, the basic assumption is exactly an advanced institutional capacity as well as civil society awareness, both unverified so far, which has been translated into low local governance levels. All pressing social issues in Mara have a stake at the need for public services that addresses the regional socioeconomic development. Conclusion Social participation levels in Mara explain the poor governance in a particular socioeconomic context built upon the natural assets affected by the new O&G economy. The negative impacts of both economies must be addressed so that they act as complementary socioeconomic drivers for the entire region. Therefore, sponsoring capacity building is a plausible policy as to achieve increased managerial expertise accountability and effectiveness in investing royalties in those areas that, once tackled, would help solving some of the tourism negative externalities. Given the relevance of tourism as both an economic growth factor and a demographic constraint, a key measure is to promote and consolidate the institutional participation mechanisms that are currently established only at the formal level. These are necessary conditions for a governance system, yet the whole legal framework in force is only part of the answer.
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Municipal government should lead this process by actually coordinating the concurrent parties within civil society and private sector in the effort to define local development priorities, formulate policies and set up enough policy instruments to achieve them. Institutional development and governance promotion at municipal level are sine qua non in tackling such an unfavorable baseline in Mara. Since economic stressors have important stake at the ecosystem in a recognized environmentally sensitive area, institutional development ought to sufficiently encompass green governance so that urban development meets the legally binding goals of social equality in a balanced ecosystem despite the existence of two potentially harmful economic activities. Achieving increased levels of public efficacy combined with social awareness and ownership, environmental preservation and facilitation of economic growth is the most pressing challenge in Mara if governance for a sustainable development is to be seriously sought, as they form the very basis of such a governance system. References
CONAMA, Conselho Nacional do Meio Ambiente: Resoluo No. 10/88, Artigo 1 (National Environment Council, Resolution Nr. 10/88, article 1), Braslia, 1988. EC, Estatuto das Cidades: Lei n. 10.257, de 10 de julho de 2001 (Cities Act, law nr. 10257 dated July 10, 2001). IBAM, Instituto Brasileiro de Administrao Municipal (Brazilian Institute for Municipal Administration): Agenda Habitat para Municpios, preparado para a Caixa Econmica Federal em conjunto com as Naes Unidas, Rio de Janeiro, 2003. Available at http://www.ibam.org.br/publique/cgi/cgilua.exe/sys/start.htm?sid=96&infoid=458 (11/Sep./2006) FERRETI, E. R., Turismo e meio ambiente: Uma abordagem integrada, editora Roca, So Paulo, 2002. IBGE, Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatstica (Brazilian Geography and Statistics Institute): Censo 2000. Rio de Janeiro: IBGE (2000). IBGE, Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatstica, Diretoria de Pesquisas/Coordenao de Contas Nacionais: Malha municipal digital do Brasil: situao em 2001. Rio de Janeiro: IBGE (2005). LIMA, M. A. S., Segregao scio-espacial e desenho urbano em assentamentos espontneos: o caso do bairro So Jos em Joo Pessoa PB, Vitruvius Portal de Arquitetura, Universo Paralelo de Arquitetura e Urbanismo, Texto Especial 368, maio de 2006 <http://www.vitruvius.com.br/arquitextos/arquitextos.asp> (11/Sep./2006). MINTUR, Ministrio do Turismo. <http://institucional.turismo.gov.br/> (11/Sep./2006) OLIVEIRA, A. C., Turismo e Populao nos Destinos Tursticos: um estudo de caso de desenvolvimento e planejamento turstico na Vila de Trindade, Paraty, Caderno Virtual de Turismo da UFPRJ/COPPE no. 14, dezembro de 2004. APA-Mara, rea de Proteo Ambiental de Mara: Relatrio Final do Zoneamento Ambiental e Diagnstico da rea de Proteo Ambiental (APA) de Mara na Bahia (Final Report on Environment Zoning and Assessment on the Environmental Protection Area), CD-ROM, 2000. SEIA, Sistema Estadual de Informaes Ambientais da Bahia (Bahia Province Environmental Information System), 2006. SEI, Superintendncia de Estudos Econmicos e Sociais da Bahia: ndices de Desenvolvimento Municipal (Municipal Development Indexes). <http://www.sei.ba.gov.br/indicadores/index_ind_ideidspib.php> (11/Sep./2006). SUINVEST, Superintendncia de Investimentos em Plos Tursticos: Plano de Desenvolvimento Integrado do Turismo Sustentvel - PDITS, 2004. UNDP, United Nations Development Programme: Brazil Human Development Report, 2005.
________________________________________________ 1 The field research was carried out in August 2006 and comprised a concise socioeconomic survey, a series of interviews and local exchange with selected member of the population.
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Best Practices in Brazil: Successful Experience in Increasing Urban Environmental Governance

D. Bernardes1, K.C.X. Alves1, R.F. Walter1 & S.C. Faria2
1 Caixa Econmica Federal. 2 Universidade Catlica de Braslia; Brazil darlan.bernardes@caixa.gov.br
Abstract For many decades economists have been discussing the relative virtue of a liberal market in opposition to one of state intervention. This debate inevitably will remain unfinished, without either convincing the other. The government essential functions claim for new solutions that describe a social desirable intervention. The contemporary proposals related to Public Management, to governance, and the strategies to create public value, show new challenges to the public institutions that sustain the public policies. In this sense, governments have their direct and indirect administration. In Brazil, Caixa Econmica Federal CAIXA, the largest public policy agent of Federal Government, which has a 145 years history, develops many programs acting as an agent of Brazil's indirect administration. Among them is "Best Practices in Local Management Programme" based on "Best Practices and Local Leadership Programme", UN, Habitat". The purpose of the program is to produce and to disseminate knowledge and information as an integral and crucial part of the actions to governance and sustainable development. In this context, the program stimulates individual and institutional learning, contributing to the strengthening of the approaches related to the organizational learning. It is a practice that brings a strong impact in innovation of organizational process. CAIXA's "Best Practice Program" PCMP, is an example of a volunteer public modernization policy. The challenge of the program is to incorporate within urban development projects, elements such as: impact; sustainability; partnership; leadership, community strengthening, gender equality and social inclusion, and innovation in local context. In this article it is presented "Intermunicipal Consortium of Urban Solid Waste in South Region CIRSURES", awarded in CAIXA's Best Practice 2003/2004 edition. CIRSURES objective was to minimize environmental impacts caused by inadequate disposal of solid waste of six municipalities in the State of Santa Catarina, Brazil. By means of Integrated Plan and Solid Waste Participation Management of CIRSURES, it is an analyzed the productive construction of the relation between the stakeholders of the different sectors from the perspective of the strategic criteria of PCMP. Introduction First of all, development can be approached as a matter of human and economic values, objectives and criteria defined by society to determine what are tolerated costs to be accepted in the process of change. Development is a traumatic process and full of contradiction, conflict and tension between the choices of goods, for whom they will be delivered, and how to obtain them. It is evident that in this process we have not reached equity: the disparities are getting bigger and because of the economic growth, a new kid of poverty has been produced instead of a new wealth. (GOULET, 2002). Concerned with the expectation of the increase of poverty in cities, governments, private companies, and non-governmental organizations are willing to identify better how and why it occurs, and are searching for solutions. Urban poverty is affected by a series of facts that produces a great variety of vulnerabilities. Therefore, there are good reasons to pay special attention to the urban environment, mainly in the developing countries that are already urbanized or in process of urbanization. Working fostering regional and national development, by activities related to trade, services, and urban industrialization, the cities are damaged with adverse consequences to the production and the quality of life, affecting mainly the low income population. Environmental and poverty problems in big cities are impressive, and understand them is a big challenge. (OLPADWALA e GOLDSMITH, 1992). Challenges to Incorporate Sustainability and Governance in Public Institutions So far, in the business environment, big part of the efforts searching for solutions, due to the model of development, is driven to the construction of public policies instruments applied "from outside to inside the companies". This fact reflects the economic assumption that companies' behavior is supposedly efficient and, therefore reduces the interest for more detailed studies of their behavior. Nevertheless, not just a few authors believe in the potentialities of changes in an environmental approach focusing its efforts on the companies and on the individuals. (WALTER, 2004). In the institutional approach, proposed by Gonzles and Garcia (2001), for example, companies are considered important because they generate, make feasible or influence technologic innovations, the work
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process, macroeconomic policies, competitive standards, and other essential criteria to the articulation of the growing, and economic development, supposedly in a lasting, and sustainable way. As stated by Robinson (2003), even looking to the gaps yet existing referring to the incorporation of sustainable concepts in the new practices of development, it is possible to consolidate some knowledge acquired from different environmental approaches, such as: a. From the concept to the action even tough it is still necessary the development of concepts, theories and methodologies related to sustainability, it is important and essential to develop a new way of social knowledge that enables sustainable approach to spread in diverse social, political, and environmental circumstances. The concept of sustainability will be able to be continually refined; however the crucial point originates while it is implemented in the real life. b. Involving the community a specific aspect of human dimension of sustainability is the need to develop deliberation and decision making methods where the community is actively involved. The kind of future that people desire to experience or create, before all, is a question of human values and attitudes, objectives auto defined by the society, and criteria to determine what are tolerate costs to be accepted, and for who in the process of changing. Reach the sustainable development economic, social and environmental is a challenge that will be overcome once principles of sustainable development are internalized in public policies, and in the behavior of economic agents. In this sense, volunteer actions focused on the business environment can offer creative solutions for a larger integration between competitiveness, quality of services, and social environmental responsibility. (WALTER, 2004). In the last decade the concerns with the quality of the institutions that support governmental practices are as important as the public policies itselves As a result of the faster social and economic development, public management has presented needs for changes, not just in its roles and functions, but also in its values. Contemporary proposals related to public management, governance, and strategies to create public value present new challenges related to management responsibility of the State. (MOTA and BANDEIRA, 2003). In the perspective of public management, public organization tends to incorporate practices and values of private management, even in services of public nature. (MOTA E BANDEIRA, 2003). The knowledge management is one of the institutional adjust lines that after being used by private companies has stimulate studies to evaluate in which way the organizational changes related to the implementation of management strategies of knowledge management affect public service. (OECD, 2001). CAIXA's Best Practice Programme Considering an organizational change by a strategic knowledge management, as "lesson learned" or "best practices", may have great impact in public service, reducing inefficiencies incorporating environmental and social sustainability in public policy. The appreciation of the Programme CAIXA's Best Practices in Local Leadership PCMP and the analysis of the project Inter Municipal Consortium of Urban Solid Wastes of the South Region CIRSURES -, award in the 2003-2004 edition of PCMP, can collaborate to the comprehension of these questions. In this sense, CAIXA started in 1999 PCMP, with the aim to identify, document, evaluate, award, and divulgate the best practices in local leadership, resulted from actions and projects in which CAIXA has participated. By doing that, CAIXA intends to give incentives to the development. PCMP is configured as the model established by BLP Program of UN-HABITAT and translates the collaboration of CAIXA, as a public company in the implementation of the Habitat Agenda, international compromise assumed by Brazil in the Second Human Settlement Conference of United Nations HABITAT II -, in Istambul,1996 (CAIXA, 2005). Among the main objectives of the programme are: i) identify, evaluate, select, and award the best projects in local management, in which CAIXA has acted as a partner, financing, transferring sources, and/or giving technical support; ii) disseminate the best practices, with the aim of stimulate its replication in other places, giving incentives to the incorporation of the criteria that contributes to make the project a best practice; iii) contribute for technical training to the improvement of public policies to forge actions of social inclusion. (CAIXA, 2001). In the evaluation and selection of the subscribed projects the criteria internationally recognized as relevant for a successful project are: impact, sustainability, partnership, leadership, community straighten, gender equality and social inclusion, innovation in local context and its transferability. (UN-HABITAT, 2005) (CAIXA, 2001). The criteria for the evaluation of the projects subscribed in PCMP can be one of the key points of the programme. With an adequate process of management of the knowledge these criteria are incorporated step by step to the intellectual capital of the company, renewing its technology, contributing to the innovation of public policies, reducing some important governmental failures and straightening governance. 610
D. Bernardes et al.: Best Practices in Brazil: Successful Experience in Increasing Urban Environmental Governance
The utilization of the criteria partnership, gender equality and social inclusion and community straighten contribute to flatten community participation, the constitution of a participation process with the formation of partnership and the recognition of the social, cultural, gender, age and income differences. It represents an immense investment in human and social capital. The application of these criteria represents the practical exercise of the implementation of sustainability concept in its social, economical, environmental, and cultural dimensions. This exercise represents knowledge and abilities development to manage the complex dimensions of sustainability. It also contributes to the decrease of bureaucracy failures, by the reduction of technical inefficiencies due to the lack of competence (knowledge, abilities, and attitudes) to the development and implementation of social environmental projects. (WALTER, 2004). Inter Municipal Consortium of Urban Solid Waste of the South Region Project- CIRSURES The objective of CIRSURES was to minimize environmental impacts caused by the inadequate final disposal of solid waste of Santa Catarina's municipalities: Cocal do Sul, Lauro Mller, Morro da Fumaa, Orleans, Treviso, and.Urussanga. Before the implementation of the project none of the six municipalities had appropriated place for the final urban solid wastes; some waste dumps were in degraded areas because of coal exploration and others were in Permanent Protected Areas close to water streams. The situation of the waste dumps put in risk public health and environmental quality of the six municipalities population. This project was elaborated with leaders participation of the six municipalities. The main reached results were: i) elaboration of an integrated and participatory plan of solid waste management project; ii) construction of a sanitary landfill and a selected shed; iii) recuperation of recent waste dumps; and iv) plan for waste dump divers inclusion. The project was conceived and realized with CAIXA's technical and management assistance and the integrated partnership between the local population, municipal administration, business and dweller's associations, teaching and research institutions. CIRSURES' project obtained the following PCMP criteria evaluations: increased of community participation in local issues, environmental awareness, straightening of civic capacity with popular participation in the decision making process, made feasible the appearance of leaders, contributed to serve the citizens expectations better, and motivated public power to support all the actions related to the project. In CIRSURES program it is possible to observe the inclusion of some elements required by PCMP. So, the project presents fundamental characteristics to increase its possibility of success in the local context, reducing failures of the government and straightening its relation with the citizens. It is also important to improve the process of implementation of public policies and in important element of the good governance. It is a big challenge to put together the required elements of environmental sustainability and governance as the basis of the projects executed by CAIXA's. It is frequent that those elements are not used in the daily basis because of the non-sustainable paradigm. Thus, CAIXA's staff is involved directly or indirectly in the process of the design and the execution of PCMP projects, they practice the challenge work to create knowledge to aggregate value in the projects and also make business, contributing to increase technical capacity and public policies. The product of this knowledge can assume different ways, such as: i) the interpretation of failed and successful past experiences; ii) inferences about cause connections between the actions and results and its implications for future actions; iii) analysis of the limits and potentialities of the strategies, technical structures and information systems and alternated incentives; iv) make evident visions and conflicted interest that appear in the organizations, for example: the trade off between economical, social and environmental interests; v) idealize futures realizations and realize ways to make them feasible; and vi) description and analysis of the organization experiences (WALTER, 2004). Conclusion Even recognizing the contributions presented by PCMP for the increase of governance it is necessary to emphasize the need of an extra effort to incorporate the successful experiences of Best Practices in hundreds of projects developed by CAIXA every year. As a consequence, it would be possible to increase the benefits gained by CAIXA's urban development programs. The program must not be restricted just to the exhibition of some projects, being susceptible to inappropriate use of public attention. Similar situation is described by Robinson (2003), when he relates inadequate use of the term sustainability for companies that promote the "cosmectic environmentalism", motivated by public attention to environmental issues. Bibliographic References:
CAIXA. Melhores Prticas. Superintendncia Nacional de Parcerias e Apoio ao Desenvolvimento Urbano. Braslia, 2001. 213p. relatrio. _____. Melhores Prticas em Gesto Local. Disponvel em: <http://melhorespraticas.caixa.gov.br> Acesso em: 20 jan
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2005. GONZLEZ, Eduardo; GARCA, Ana Crcaba. A Resource-Based Interpretation of Technical Efficiency Indexes. Universidad de Oviedo - Departamento de Economa. Efficiency Series Paper 3/2001. Disponvel em: http://www19.uniovi.es/econo/DocumentosTrabajo/2001/d232_01.pdf. Acessado em : 13.03.2005. GOULET, Denis. A Natureza Evolutiva do Desenvolvimento Luz da Globalizao. In: Caderno de Estudos Sociais. Fundao Joaquim Nabuco - Universidade de Pernambuco. Vol 18, n 2, 2002. OECD - Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. Knowledge Management: Learning-by-Comparing Experiences from Private and Public Organizations. Centre for Educational Research and Innovation. fev/2001. Disponvel em: http://www1.oecd.org/puma/. 2001. OLPADWALA, Porus; GOLDSMITH, William. The Sustainability of Privilege: Reflections on the Environment, the Third World City, and Poverty. In: World Development, vol.20, n 40, 1992, p. 627-640. ROBINSON, John. Squaring the Circle? Some Thoughts on the Idea of Sustainable Development. Ecological Economics n 48, 2003, pp. 369- 384. MOTTA, Paulo Roberto; BANDEIRA, Mariana. Responsabilidade Pblica: os reflexos da responsabilidade tica na gesto pblica. In: VIII Congresso Internacional Del CLAD sobre la Reforma del Estado y de la Administracin Pblica. Panam. 2003. UN-HABITAT. Best Practices & Local Leadership Programme - Database. Disponvel em: <http://www.bestpractices.org/> Acesso em: 27 jan 2005. WALTER, Ronald Faria. Reduo da ineficincia-X por meio de projetos melhores prticas: o desafio do desenvolvimento sustentvel. 2004, 103 p. Dissertao (Mestrado em Gesto Econmica do Meio Ambiente). Universidade de Braslia. Braslia, 2004.
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Land-use guidelines towards sustainable urban development Brazil

P. F. de Carvalho & C. Barbosa
Universidade Estadual Paulista -Unesp, Brazil pompeufc@rc.unesp.br
Historical, social and spatial context brief notes First of all, production of space is conditioned by social formation and in this case, also conditioned by its peripheral role in the world capitalist system whereas economic growth is made viable by not only super exploitation of labor but also by environmental one. Te state supposed to regulate the conflicts and mainly to guard major social interests, at the local level, is very pressed by economic power. Social inequalities are also reinforced by unequal access to good and healthy environment. Important features of the social process can be outlined as follows: a) Traditional urbanization based on the European models and standards are inadequate in tropical world where high rain precipitations are concentrated and unequal distributed in different seasons featuring long rainy and drought periods in a year. b) Low rate of investment in urban infrastructure and services foment urban vertical and horizontal densification, occupying even inadequate land to urban development or building new and modern structures without upgrading the old urban tissue. c) Lack of financial resources caused by inefficient fiscal policies for acquire land to its needs is solved bypassing the problem occupying also inadequate land such as wetlands, riverbanks, meadows to build roads, public facilities and buildings. d) Poor inhabitants, mainly the poorest, area unable to acquire adequate land to build their houses and solve their problems occupying illegally protected land such as wetlands, riverbanks, meadows as well. e) Very high social segments of society also occupy remarkable protected land to build their mansions or second homes. All these factors unveils a very fragile democratic society whereas prevails economic power interests, made viable by populist maneuvers, unequal access to education and informational and in last resort feasible not only by a lumping proletariat but also by a lumping bourgeoisie. This process is perverse because the benefits are privatized and the costs area socialized in first moment, but foments an unsustainable society not only in economic terms but also in social one with increasing social unrests. Urban development towards sustainability and social justice constraints and opportunities, principles In the last three decades, sustainable urban development has been discussed in various countries taking different names such as low impact development, stormwater management, sustainable urban drainage and urban waters management (Gesto de guas urbanas, in Brazil). Pioneers and classical works on uran design with ecological basis are those written by Ian L. McHarg (1992/1969) and by Michael Hough (1984), 'Design with nature' and 'City form and natural process: towards a new urban vernacular', respectively. Such approach in Brazil is relevant because the traditional urbanization disregarding environmental impacts burdens mainly the poorest social groups. The lesson from McHarg (1992) is that the ecological studies and urban planning were taken not only as separated things but the first one did not considered the man, meanwhile the second one disregard nature. Furthermore, In one hand the site for ecological studies were sanctuary in which man are excluded; in the other, cities ere places where nature could be destroyed. The world is a social and environmental place with increasing interactions between both ones. Analysing that social and environmental place, understanding it as a network of river basin, he says: We have become accustomed to think of single-function land use and the concept of zoning has done much to confirm this () If we examine a forest, we know that there are many species-and, thus, that many cooperative coexist. In the forest there are likely to be dominant tree species, subdominants and a hierarchy of species descending to the final soil micro organisms. The same concept can apply to the management of resources-that there be dominant or codominant land uses, coexisting with subordinate, but compatible ones. I takes only a moment of reflection to realize that a single area of forest may be managed either for timber or pulp; it may be simultaneously managed for water, flood, drought, erosion control, wildlife and recreation; it may also absorb villages and hamlets, recreational communities and second homes. Now we have a program; we seek to find the highest and best uses of all land in the basin, but in every case we will try to identify the maximum conjunction of these. This, then, is the image of nature as an interacting and living storehouse a value system. (McHARG, 1992:128)
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In Brazil, a country with large and unacceptable degree of social inequality, the relation of dominance and subdominance in the social sphere stress the unbalanced nature-man interactions which arose the consciousness that social inequality is perverse not only to the poorest groups but reinforce environmental impacts. Focusing city form and process, McHarg (1992) remind us the concept of 'genius loci'. The word 'genius' means the great ability, mainly in producing works of art. Genius also implies the meaning of the spirit guarding a place and, genius loci, is about the typical character of a place, as shown by the feelings it produces in one. Thus, the city should be seen as an exploitation of peculiar site whereas the cultural artefacts were designed to preserving and enhancing its basic qualities, enhancing themselves-Rio de Janeiro is an example. Those that are successful and have endured are taken s values and those that fall down are taken as errors. Sometimes the intrinsic values of a site are so strong that even a series of unsuccessful adaptations survive and Rio de Janeiro is, contradictorily, an example. Hough (1984) follows the same approach of McHarg (1992) with a strong criticism of modern urbanization in advance countries where city is provided by abundant resource, mainly cheap energy, for adapting nature without considering site features and dynamics. The principle of architecture assumed also by urbanism was 'form follows functions' but other values since old times (for instance, the Hippodamus of Miletus Greek city model) disregard the site genius loci as this author put forward: (1) Attitudes and perceptions of the environment expressed in town since the Renaissance have, with some exceptions, been more concerned with Utopian ideals than with natural process as determinants do urban form. () (2) Traditional storm drainage systems, the conventional method of solving the problem of keeping the city's paved surfaces free of water, have until recently been unquestioned. () (3) Sewage disposal systems are seen as an engineering rather than a biological solution to the ultimate larger problem of eutrophication of major water bodies and wasted resources. () (HOUGH, 1984:9) The consequence of such approach in building cities is worse in poorer countries where energy is not so cheap, financial resources (mainly public funds) are short and nature is more sensitive to human interventions, that is, process is more dynamic. Although Hough (1984) analyses the cities by climate, plants, wildlife, city farming, it is through water that it is possible to see the overall connections impacted by man-nature relationships and as he state: Urbanization creates a new hydrological environmental (Table 1). Asphalt and concrete replace the soil, buildings replace trees and the catchbasin and storm sewer have replaced the streams of natural watershed. The amount of water run-off is governed by the filtration characteristics of the land and is related to slope, soil type and vegetation. It is directly related to the percentage of impervious surfaces. In forested land, run-off is generally absent, as a glance at the undisturbed litter of the forest floor, even on sloping ground, will show. It has been estimated that run-off from urban areas that are completely paved or roofed might constitute 85 per cent of the precipitation. Fifteen percent is intercepted by streets, buildings, roofs and walls and other paved and soft surfaces. Piped drainage, designed to carry excess water away from urban surfaces, has two major effects, particularly in those climates that suffer from storms. (HOUG, 1984:71)
Table 1: Impact of conventional urbanization on hydrological cycle (adapted from Maryland, 1999)
Site development Non-urbanized Low urbanization Moderate urbanization Intensive urbanization Evapotranspiration 40% 38% 35% 30% Runoff 10% 20% 30% 55% Shallow infiltration 25% 21% 20 10% Deep infiltration 25% 21 15 5
Organization: CARVALHO & BARBOSA, 2007.
He points out two consequences of conventional urbanization: a) flooding and erosion and; b) water quality degradation with implications on aquatic life. In tropical environments, the consequences are even worse because of higher and more concentrated precipitation (THOMAS, 1994), lack of urban infra-structure and inefficient public control of land use. Hough (1984), corroborating Harg (1992) points out that we should understand and handle with the connections between cultural landscape and natural one. Thus, natural open space resources along the waterstreams are fundamental to minimizing and re-establishing previous hydrological cycle. Furthermore, to counteract the inevitable impacts caused by most of urbanization processes there are a set of devices (Table 2) for 614
P. F. de Carvalho & C. Barbosa: Land-use guidelines towards sustainable urban development Brazil
Table 2 - Hydrological functions of LID integrated management pratices (IMPs)
Hydrolgic Functions Interception Depresion Storage Infiltration G. W. Recharge Runoff Volume Peak Discharge Runoff Frequency Water Quality Base Flow Stream Quality
H = High M = Moderate
Bio Ret H H H H H M H H H H
L = Low
Dry Well N N H H H L M H H H
IMP Filter/ Buffer H H M M M L M H H H
Swale Grass M H M M M M M L M N
Rain Barrel N N N N L M M L M N
Cistern N N N N M M M L N L
Infilt. Trench N M H H H M M H L H
N = None. Source: MARYLAND, 1999:4-6.
water retention and improve its quality. In Brazil, scientific meetings promoted by the ABHR (Water Resources Brazilian Association) are leading the issue involving different professional staffs and academic researchers. The contribution of this paper is to contribute providing land-use guidelines based on geomorphic features of hillslopes sections, through a very simplified model, to adopt urban development taking into account riverbasins since water is the focal point of studies of slope processes (SELBY, 1982). Besides the enormous degree of variations of the geometry of slopes, studies are necessary, taking into consideration an assessment of the genetic relationships of soils/pedology and landforms/geomorphology (GERRARD, 1995). The following table was conceived, besides theoretical readings, from our experience with geographers in assessing environmental impacts in Rio Claro, a medium sized town in the state of So Paulo, Brazil.
Table 3 - Zoning schedule: suggested land use towards sustainable cities
LAND USE, OBJECTIVES AND COMPENSATION MEASURES
HILLSLOPE SECTIONS
PERMITTED
TOLERATED
COMPENSATION AND FURTHER MEASURES Preserve and increase rainwater infiltration with pervious surface, infiltration trenches and wells, ponds for retention. Rainwater infiltration and/or retention devices according to soil features or lower coverage of the facing lots. Adoption of rainwater by infiltration and/or retention devices designed to the not only to the additional water but that related to the size of lot.
Tophill
Large/tabular
Main road with central green band (median).
Short/shed
Main road.
Bike lane pedestrian paths in the median green lane with pervious pavement and low coverage. Blocks with infiltration devices surrounded by a road binary as a main one. Commercial (and light industries and services) and institutional use with higher lot coverage related compensation.
High Slope
Boundary Medium
a) Facing the main road: mixed land use with high buildings, that is, high floor area ratio compensated with low lot coverage; b) Facing arterial roads downhill: multiresidential and neighborhood commerce and services with low lot coverage. Arterial road with large side-walks very intensive tree rows. Residential and multi-residential with moderate floor area and moderate lot coverage.
Narrower side-walks with related compensation. Neighborhood commercial and services with higher lot coverage with related compensation. Arterial or main road with related compensation. Residential use.
Boundary Low
Tertiary (collector) road. a) Institutional, communitarian and recreation (open spaces) public facilities with low floor area ratio and with very low lot coverage; b) Private recreation facilities with very low floor. Local road with very pervious pavement and green side-walks. Green buffer zone enlarging preserved woodland, forced by Brazilian law. Preserved by Brazilian Law Preserved by Brazilian Law
Adoption of pervious pavement, rainwater infiltration and retention devices. Adoption of rainwater by infiltration and/or retention devices designed to the not only to the additional water but that related to the size of lot. Lanes separated by green median and rainwater infiltration and detention devices. The same lot coverage.
Boundary
Tertiary road.
Terrace River valley Flood plains River
Sanitary band for sewer and storm collectors and equipments. Understood as temporary river channel, nothing is permitted or tolerated. Transposition of roads and public equipment services, sewer, drainage and water pipelines.
Lane and sidewalks with very pervious macadam and other rainwater retention devices. Adoption of rainwater infiltration and retention devices. Wetlands regeneration and artificial impondment Compensation enforced by law, reforestation upstream.
Authors: Carvalho, Pompeu Figueiredo de & Barbosa, Camila - 2007.
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References
GERRARD, John. Soil geomorphology: an integration of pedology and geomorphology. London, Chapman & Hall, 1995. HOUGH, Michael. City form and natural process: towards a new urban vernacular. London & Sidney, Croom Helm Ltd, 1984. MARYLAND (Prince Georges's County). Low-impact development design strategies: an integrated design approach. Largo, Department of Environmental Resources, Programs and Planning Division, 1999. McHARG, Ian. Design with nature. New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1992. PARKINSON, Jonathan, MILOGRANA, Jussan, CAMPOS, Luiza Cintra and CAMPOS, Raquel. Relatrio do Workshop em Goinia - Drenagem urbana sustentvel no Brasil. Goinia, Universidade Federal de Gois and Loughborough University, 2003. SELBY, Michael John. Hillslope materials and processes. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1982. THOMAS, Michael Frederic. Geomorphology in the tropics: a study of weathering and denudation in low latitudes.
Acknowledgement to CNPq, the Brazilian agency of foment to scientific research.
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The role of great events in the post industrial urban planning: the EXPO'98 of Lisbon
Adriana Gondran Carvalho da Silva
Bauhaus-University of Weimar, Germany adriana.silva@archit.uni-weimar.de
Abstract Since 1992 we have lived the post modernity and one of the signs of this period is that the cities have become enterprises or political actors in order to attract investments and tourists. In this context, the great events are considered as instruments of the competition among the cities, of the urban development and of the urban policy. Thus the great events are defined as urban means for reaching major benefits, such as new infra-structure and the establishment of the identity and the Image of the city. Their main function is to make advertisement about the cities, i.e. to make them famous or more visible for their special characteristics or conditions, for example: a good life quality and green spaces, good professional opportunities and an intense cultural life. The case study of this essay is the International Exposition from Lisbon the EXPO' 98. The reasons for choosing this great event are: the fact that it is considered by the BIE (Bureau International des Expositions) as the best International Exposition until today and that the Parque das Naes is a good example of successful heritage and environmental preservation and renewal of the urban space. Then, we present the numbers of the exposition, the process of application of the city of Lisbon, the situation of the chosen area, the principles of the project and the most important buildings of the Parque das Naes. After that, we ask the question: "What is the theoretical relationship between the reflexive urbanism and the EXPO' 98 from Lisbon?" Therefore reflexive urbanism is defined as a reconciliation between modern urban planning, urban design and place making with the urban wisdom, experience and knowledge of the old world, aiming at the adaptation of the space production to the expectations and needs of an emerging post industrial society. The conclusion is that in the EXPO' 98, it is possible to understand the polarity between the Portuguese History and the post industrial urban planning, and consequently the pair of terms tradition and modernity. Introduction In the contemporary period, called by Harvey (1992) as Post-modernity, one can observe, since the decade of 1970, a change in the cultural, economical and political practices tied to the emergency of new dominant ways by which the time and the space are experienced. The main evidences of these transformations, regarding to the cities, are: the change of the role of the local government from subsidiary to entrepreneur, the decentralization and the interurban competition, in contraposition to the national centralization. Other important features of this period are: the flexibility of the work organisation, the growing research investments, the aestheticism and the valuation of the History, and that means, that the contemporary society is now experience oriented, and not work oriented anymore. The Motto is, therefore, "Form follows Emotion" and not "Form follows Function" (HASSENPFLUG, 2006). Examining this perspective, Borja & Castells (1996) present as a trend the transformation of the cities in political actors, assuming responsibilities and articulating the interests of the civil society, of the private initiative and of the State. In this way, the cities have competed between themselves in searching for financial investments, with the promotion of great urban transformations, with the tourism and with the spreading of great events. In this context, the great events should make the singularities and specialities of the cities visible, i.e. to sell the cities, or make advertisement about them. Thus, the great events are means of the concurrence among the cities, of the urban development and the urban politics. To put it more simply, one can consider them as means of subvention (HU?ERMANN &SIEBEL, 1993). Moreover, it is important to say, that great events are a spatially, temporally and thematically concentration of the politics at one certain point. According to Hu?ermann und Siebel (1993) they are also a political reaction to the structural change of the cities. Nevertheless, they are an opportunity of entertainment, because they mixture City, Public Space and Stage. Even more important is the fact that they, when successful, enhance not only the image of the cities, but also of the responsible politicians. In this paper, we will discuss about the great events, which are high integrated and that influence the urban planning, for instance, the Olympic Games, the Football World Championships, the Cultural Capitals of Europe and the International Expositions.
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The Concept of Great Events The great events are frequently not the objectives, but a means to other goals, for example, the improvement of the cities, of the transport systems, the renovation of the city centres, the creation of new jobs and more taxes. Thus, they are also a possibility of making the urban development effective, by a project and the media. Besides that, they should strength the identification between city and citizens, and therefore, enhance its identity and image. For the cities, the great events work almost as time machines and accelerate their development. They are an innovative strategy of the public administration, whose goal is the enthusiasm of the population. And that means nothing but the festivalisation of the politics. Festivalisation (HU?ERMANN & SIEBEL, 1993) is an expression of and a response to the changed conditions of the urban politics in the era of Globalization. Reflexive Urbanism The reflexive urbanism can be defined, according to Hassenpflug (2006), as a reconciliation between modern urban planning, urban design and place making with the urban wisdom, experience and knowledge of the old world, i.e. tradition, aiming at the adaptation of the space production to the expectations and needs of an emerging post industrial society. In this context, the term "reflexivity" characterizes a socio-cultural project aiming at the reconciliation of modernity and tradition. All dimensions of the present society, the social, economical, political, cultural and spatial dimensions should be affected by this new paradigm (HASSENPFLUG, 2006). Case a) Study: The EXPO'98 of Lisbon Data and Facts: Theme: "Os oceanos: um patrimnio para Futuro" [The Oceans: a Patrimony for the Future]; Place: Lisbon, Portugal; Datum: from Mai 22nd to September 30th 1998; More than 11 Million Visitors; More than 5000 cultural offers; Considered as the best International Exposition ever (BIE Bureau International des Expositions) (SCHERER, 2006); The Parque das Naes [Park of Nations] is a sample of successful conservation and renovation of urban spaces. These are the reasons for choosing this Exposition as a case study in this paper. Nowadays, the Parque das Naes is a new city centre and quarter, with about 15.000 inhabitants. The contemporary architecture, the public spaces and the whole urban project brought, in accordance to Scherer (2006), a new dynamic for the city of Lisbon. b) The Area: The main reason for choosing the area was its strategic localization: on the city ring and along the Tejo River. Thus, the identity and the theme "Water" were fortified. Besides that, there were almost 200 hectare of public soil and an easy access to the airport. The area presented also the possibility to restore a polluted place (SCHERER, 2006). In relation to the city, the project became a third door to the Tejo River and a new Centre. Before there was only transport system buildings along it. Thus, because this area was separated from the city by the rail, new transport infrastructure was built. c) The Project: The insertion of the project happened in two phases: the first beginning in 1991 with Carlos Duarte and Jos Lamas, and the second one starting in 1993, with Nuno Portas, Manuel G. Dias and Egas J. Vieira. The place had about 70 hectare (and 2 Kilometers along the Tejo River) and was divided in 6 Zones. Then, there were 6 Pormenor Plans (PP) [detailed Plans], each one for an architect and his work group: " A Zona Central [The Central Zone]: Morphology of the region of Lisbon. Architect Tomz Vieira Estao do Oriente. " A Zona Sul [The South Zone]: Singular Local Morphology. Architect Troufa Real. " A Zona Norte [The North Zone]: Valuation of the Public Spaces. Architects Cabral de Mello und Manuel de Almeida Vasco da Gama Bridge. " A Zona Sacavm [The Sacavm Zone]: Between the Vasco da Gama Bridge and the Tranco River. Architects Manuel Cruz und Ricardo Parrinha.
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Adriana Gondran Carvalho da Silva: The role of great events in the post industrial urban planning
Parque do Tejo e do Tranco [the Park of Tejo und Tranco Rivers]: Green Places, Leisure and Sports. Architects Hargreaves e Joo Nunes. Recinto EXPO'98 [the EXPO'98 Hall]: ephemeral versus permanent. Visible Identity. Architects Muramatsu e Manuel Salgado. The result is a mixture of various forms in the area. Different plans for different situations, flexibility and high integration, buildings with different sizes and heights. The disadvantage is that, sometimes, one can not perceive the area as a whole. Moreover, the place was essentially planned for the pedestrians, for an easy memorization of the visitors and for a strong reference to the theme of the Exposition. Therefore, there are two axes: the North South and the West East, which should connect the variety of architectures in a coherent net Pot-Pourri Architecture. So, the final situation is a great place on the River, designed by the path along the border, the Island of gastronomy, the public spaces and the buildings. The water, the main element of the exhibition, is omnipresent, by the water fonts and lakes in the gardens. One can also say that the image of Parque das Naes is therefore compatible with the theme of the Exposition. The urban contributions of the project are its clear identity and easy understanding, and the originality and real architecture in opposition to the normal and ephemeral Buildings of the International Expositions. It means that the thematic buildings are urban equipments over the public spaces. Besides that, it is important to mention, about the contributions of a great amount of Portuguese and European artists above the public spaces. The common contributions of the EXPO'98 are the renewal of the Portuguese capital by new infrastructure, a new valuation of the relationship between City and River, the revitalization of the Environment and the Landscape: green spaces, the internationalization of Lisbon and the mixture of Functions over one place. The Environmental Aspects The stretch of land between the railroad and the River was in 1992 a decayed industrial wasteland, hosting a broad range of activities, from petrochemical industry to container yards, military depots, garbage and sewage treatment plants, building materials depots, some downgraded housing, etc. These activities were carried on in old or obsolete installations, with poor functional and often low economical performance, generally associated with severe environmental problems (CAMPOS, 2005). Urban and environmental renewal for EXPO '98, as a large-scale undertaking, was a unique opportunity to apply innovative concepts in building tomorrow's cities, with the accent on respecting the environment. The choices made, and how they become a reality, were part of an integrated environmental plan for Parque das Naes aimed at restoring an area which had become environmentally dysfunctional reclaiming the land, making it attractive to the city and its people once again (PARQUE DAS NAES, 2006). The recovery of the degraded quarter of the Chiado and others, the transference of the heavy industrial activities for the harbour of Setbal, the multiplication of the train lines, the prolongation of the subway, the creation of a new entrance for the metropolitan area of Lisbon, through the Vasco of Gama Bridge, the remodelling of the nets of water treatment, the implantation of the net of natural gas and a central incinerator office of residues solids simply indicate deeper transformations than of what occurred in the enclosure of the exposition (SCHERER, 2006). The image after the closing the exposition reveals highly positive for Portugal and Lisbon. Portugal demonstrated to the European Community, as well to the other countries, that had capacity to shelter an international exposition and even to promote an operation urban of great spread. Being an example to be studied and to be followed, Lisbon gained with this intervention with the creation and the improvement of a great number of infrastructures and equipment, besides the implantation of an ecologically correct extensive green area (SCHERER, 2006). Final Considerations Now, one may ask the question: "What is theoretical relationship between Reflexive Urbanism and the EXPO'98? First, it is important to understand that the project of Parque das Naes may be analysed in various scales. In the urban scale, it is a new and third centrality, and makes the connection between the city and the River. But, on the other hand, the park is independent and almost closed. This independency is geographic but also functional, which is notable by the mixture of uses and the multiple projects and contributions of architects and artists. This multiplicity may be denominate as zoning, but at the same time, understood as a denial to the modern city.
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Second, the technology is found in the ecologically correct buildings, and in the protection of the environment of the region ad the area. The system of water supply was renewed, and also a new system of natural gas built, as well the central station of waste incineration. Finally, the memory, the originality and the identity is notable from the guidelines of the project, its axes and the theme itself: "The Oceans: a Patrimony for the Future", which is really the symbol of Portugal and its History. The EXPO'98 is, therefore, an example of the polarity between the Portuguese History and the post industrial urban planning, where the concepts of Tradition and Modernity is visible. References
BORJA, Jordi e CASTELLS, Manuel. As cidades como atores polticos. In: Novos Estudos. CEBRAP: Julho/1996, n45, pp. 152-166. Translation: Omar Ribeiro Thomaz. CAMPOS, Vitor. Parque das Naes in Lisbon: from industrial wasteland to a new city district. In: REVITA Project, Working paper 3, March 2005. LAMAS, Jos M. Ressano Garcia. Morfologia Urbana e Desenho da Cidade. Lisboa: Fundao Calouste Gulbekian, 2004. HARVEY, David. Condio Ps-moderna: uma pesquisa sobre as origens da mudana cultural. So Paulo: Loyola, 1992. HASSENPFLUG, Dieter. Die Arena in der Arena - Weimar Kulturstadt Europas 1999 (AidA), Analysen und Daten zur Politik des Events; Bauhaus-Universitt Weimar, Weimar 2000. HASSENPFLUG, Dieter. Reflexive Urbanistik - Reden und Aufstze zur europischen Stadt, Weimar (Verlag der Bauhaus-Universitt Weimar) 2006. HU?ERMANN, Hartmut & SIEBEL, Walter. Die Politik der Festivalisierung und die Festivalisierung der Politik. Gro?e Ereignisse in der Stadtpolitik. In: HU?ERMANN, Hartmut & SIEBEL, Walter (Hrsg.) Festivalisierung der Stadt Politik: Stadtentwicklung durch gro?e Projekte. Leviathan: Zeitschrift fr Sozialwissenschaft. Sonderheft 13/1993. Deutschland: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1993. PARQUE DAS NAES. Available at <http://www.parquedasnacoes.pt> Accessed on 26/05/2006. SCHERER, Fabiano de Vargas. Aspectos Urbansticos da Exposio Internacional de Lisboa 1998. Available at <http://www.vitruvius.com.br/aqruitextos/arq038/arq038_02.asp> Accessed on 26/05/2006.
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Privatisation and commercialisation as a challenge for green urban governance. A cross-sectoral analysis in the field of energy and water infrastructures in Berlin
Jochen Monstadt
Faculty of Spatial Planning at University of Dortmund (D) / The City Institute at York University, Toronto (CDN) jochen@yorku.ca
Introduction Utility networks provide fundamental conduits through which modern cities and regions operate and occupy a key role in the performance of urban and regional economies. Aside from their role as critical infrastructures and regional location factor utility systems - particularly energy, water and wastewater systems - are the "material mediators between nature and the city" (Kaika/ Swyngedouw, 2000: 120) by structuring a major part of the urban material metabolism. By expanding these urban infrastructures, the transformation of fossil and nuclear resources, the extraction of groundwater and the production of sewerage have been intensified. The expansion has thus not only allowed for the development of modern cities but has multiplied the intrinsic socio-ecological risks to society at the same time. Among these risks are an increasing scarcity of water re-sources in many regions and limited stocks of fossil energy resources. Moreover, energy and water systems are responsible for air, water and soil pollution and nuclear risks, and energy systems are the largest emit-ters of greenhouse gases. Besides those direct environmental impacts, the water and energy sectors "infra-structure" and drive the technological development and industrial metabolism in many other domains. They therefore represent key sectors for the ecological modernisation and sustainable development of cities. Owing to their critical public services and because energy and water systems were considered to be natural monopolies, they were - and the German water sector still is for the most part - organised in specific govern-ance arrangements. They were shielded from competition and had on the whole been highly regulated and subject to direct state intervention. In Germany energy systems were and water and wastewater are still run within local or regional boundaries as public monopolies or publicly licensed and controlled private monopo-lies. In this arrangement environmental protection was predominantly organised by end-of-pipe institutions and technologies of clean air and water policies controlling the emissions, whereas an ecological manage-ment of the whole material flows was traditionally not part of the core tasks of environmental regulation. During the last two decades the socio-technological structures of utility systems has been changing radically. There are four co-evolving trends that are dramatically altering their regional and urban governance: Firstly, the provision of utility services by the state (or in close association with the state) and the organisation of utility systems in regional monopolies are no longer regarded as indispensable. Due to the poor performance of public monopolies and driven by the influence of neoliberal ideas, the European Commission has been initiating the competitive restructuring of the utility markets. Whereas the liberalisation of energy markets is in an (comparatively) advanced stage the water and wastewater markets have been exempted so far from the European single market project. However, first elements of competition are also being introduced in the water and wastewater sectors by an institutionalised comparison of performance between the utilities ("benchmarking") and by competing for concessions for the supply of a municipality or for the acquisition of privatised utilities. Moreover, the German Federal state and the Bundeslnder (the regional state authorities) have sold their shares in energy and water utilities and numerous municipal utilities have been privatised (see Monstadt, 2004). The liberalisation and privatisation have altered the capacity of the Bundeslnder and municipalities in the regulation of prices, investments and corporate policies of the utilities. Secondly, the end-of-pipe regime of environmental protection has increasingly been supplemented by an ecological management of material flows, e.g by supporting energy efficiency, water saving, renewable energies, or source control of sewerage. In addition to public instituions of preventative environmental policy the process of ecological modernisation is increasingly driven by innovative enterprises in the environmental industry. Those "ecopreneurs" have become crucial promotors of industrial transformation and build up a pressure group policy supporting environmental policy. Thirdly, technological innovations are further drivers in the transformation of urban infrastructures. Decentral-ised systems of heat and power generation, network supply and energy storage are increasingly supplement-ing the existing centralised energy supply structures. In water and wastewater systems, too, technological system alternatives become competitive through progress in membrane technology and decentralised sys-tems for the treatment of drinking water and of sewerage, grey water and rainwater. Despite their significance for urban and regional sustainability the utility sectors have attracted little attention in the debate on green urban governance in Germany and elsewhere. There has been little research on
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the impacts of utility restructuring on urban or regional environmental governance. Instead, most social science studies have focused on regulatory issues and on efficient environmental policy instruments and institutions at a national, European or global level. This is particularly surprising considering the German situation, where the municipalities and Bundeslnder have traditionally played a key role in the environmental regulation of utility services and in the promotion of environmental innovations. The objective of this paper is thus to analyse this transformation process at an urban scale and to assess the evolving forms of green urban governance. The question is: which are the impacts of utility restructuring at an urban scale? In what ways can local and regional authorities still affect the patterns of infrastructure service provision and consumption in a sustainable way? These questions are addressed in an empirical case study of energy, water and wastewater management in Berlin. During the last decade Berlin has become a pioneer in privatisation policies in Germany. Furthermore, the liberalisation of energy markets, the takeover of the utilities by to large transnational companies, and the emergence of new market participants accelerated the commercialisation of urban infrastructures. As a consequence of these restructuring processes and a dramatic fiscal crisis of the city the institutional framework and the priorities of environmental policy have radically changed and green urban governance increasingly orients towards new policy approaches. Urban energy and water systems in Berlin until the middle of the 1990's Until the beginning of the 1990s, energy, water and wastewater networks in Berlin were shaped by the particular geographical and political situation of the divided city. The electricity, gas, district heating, water and wastewater networks were split at the end of the 1940s and the city's electricity utility Bewag, the gas utility GASAG and the water and wastewater utility BWB were each spatially divided into independent utilities. In East Berlin the energy system was one of the most polluting worldwide and also the water and soil pollution from the wastewater sector was extremely high. On the contrary to this, systematic clean air and water policies have been institutionalised since the 1970s in West Berlin. However, until the 1990s the activities of environmental policy remained largely limited to the implementation of the emission standards. The Senate environmental department could thus hardly influence the efficiency and sustainability of energy, water and wastewater management, except by financial support programmes and subsidies promoting decentralised combined heat and power (CHP) and sewage treatment plants, renewable energy technologies, energy efficiency and water saving. It was primarily in the responsibility of the Senate Department for the Economy to supervise the corporate policies of the Bewag, GASAG and BWB by ownership supervision over the public utilities and by its regulatory authorities for the control of infrastructure investments and prices. However, the environmental benefit derived from these regulatory and ownership competencies should not be overestimated and in most cases the utilities defied political initiatives to promote demand-side management, decentralised water and energy technologies etc. In 1989 an ecological restructuring of the utility systems was announced, when a red-green city government was installed. Consequently, the competencies of environmental policy in the energy and water sector were significantly extended and new institutions in environmental policy were set up (e.g. an energy task force, an energy agency and an energy act for climate protection, an authority for ecological economy). However, the political priorities for ecological modernisation were increasingly swamped by new requirements due to the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the subsequent reunification of the divided city. Thus, prerequisites had to be created to reunite the two institutionally and technically completely divided utility systems of the city. The technical assets in East Berlin, especially the power and sewage treatment plants and leaking gas, water and wastewater networks had to be renovated or replaced and the re-integration of the utilities had to be organised. For East Berlin the challenge was to introduce private economy structures, environmental regulations, new tariff and account systems and western reliability and safety standards. Although a strict regulatory control of investments and of corporate policies in the utility sectors in line with environmental policy issues was announced several times by the Senate it was never, in fact, put into practice. Instead, environmental policy was based essentially on two main pillars: first, a close ownership relationship and corporative arrangements between the city government and the urban monopolists; and, second, generous public subsidies for the ecological modernisation of energy and water infrastructures. The restructuring of energy and water systems since the mid 1990's A radical transition of the utility sectors started from the mid 1990s for the following reasons: Firstly, the city government launched an extensive privatisation initiative which coincided with the liberalisation of energy markets. Secondly, the city government delegated more and more public tasks in environmental and infra-structure management to the private sector Thirdly, improved market conditions opened up new possibilities for innovative small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) in the water and particularly in the energy sector:
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Jochen Monstadt: Privatisation and commercialisation as a challenge for green urban governance
The privatisation and commercialisation of the utility companies At the beginning of the 1990s, urban and infrastructure planning was based on the assumption of stable economic and demographic growth and steady inland revenue for the city-state. However, the euphoria of the post-wall-fall era soon had to give way to broad disillusionment. From 1991 to 2001, a tremendous loss of jobs in Berlin's traditional industries caused a dramatic decrease in inland revenue, which coincided with a radical cutback in the Berlin-specific subsidies from the Federal government. Consequently, from the mid-1990s onwards, it became one of the dominant policy objectives to reduce the spending and the economic activities of the city-state and to sell off the most profitable public assets. This policy shift started with the sale of public shareholding in Bewag in 1997 and in GASAG in 1994 and 1998 to transnational energy concerns. In 1999 the public water utility BWB was partially privatised, whereas the city-state remained the majority shareholder. Even though it was very controversial to use the entire privatisation revenues of 3.8 bn. for debt services and budget consolidation, the advocates of a public innovation and environmental fund were not successful. Only 22 m. of the privatisation revenues were reinvested in a regional innovation fund. In order to provide for public interests the purchasers of Bewag, GASAG and BWB were bound to contractual agreements stipulating regional investments and standards of public services and environmental protection. For example, they committed themselves to keep the utilities' headquarters in Berlin, to guarantee a certain level of employment and to invest in ventures in Berlin. Furthermore, they agreed to finance projects in the field of renewable energies and the efficient use of energy or to build up an international centre for water and sanitation management. However, the Senate has never evaluated the performance of the privatisation contracts systematically and the promises of regional investments, job creation and the promotion of environmental projects have only partially been fulfilled (cf. Monstadt, 2004: 328-36; Monstadt/ Schlippenbach 2005). Following the takeover of the urban utilities by the transnational infrastructure companies Vattenfall Europe, Gaz de France, Veolia and RWE the urban utilities redefined their business priorities and practices. Especially the Bewag, which had to give up its autonomy by its full integration into Vattenfall Europe completely reorganised its corporate structure and policy. In the power and - to a minor degree - in the gas sector utility restructuring was accelerated considerably due to the liberalisation of the European energy markets since the end of the 1990's. Due to their integration into transnational companies and to the liberalised energy markets the utilities redefined their business priorities and practices: the three utility companies have been encouraged to increase the profitability of their business activities (for details see Monstadt/ Schlippenbach 2005: 33-44). Efficiency potentials were above all envisaged in staff cuts: between 1996 and 2004 the Bewag's workforce was cut by 56%, that of GASAG by more than 70% and that of the BWB by 30% (cf. fig. 1). Additionally, the utilities dramatically reduced their regional investments in technical assets, in regionally based R&D facilities and in environmental protection (cf. fig. 2). Furthermore, utility restructuring was characterised by new spatial contexts of the business activities: The former urban utilities are nowadays all operating beyond the territorial boundaries of the city-state. Whereas the Bewag has by its integration into Vattenfall Europe extended its business activities towards whole northeastern Germany, the GASAG and the BWB have tapped new markets in the broader urban region by purchasing shares in neighbouring utilities.
Figure 1: Employment rates of the utilities 1991-2004 Monstadt/Schlippenbach 2005
Figure 2: Investment rates of the utilities 1995-2004
The delegation of public services to the private sector The shift in fiscal policy increasingly affected the public funding of projects in environmental protection and technological innovation. Wherever it seemed possible, administrative activities were delegated to the private sector and public funding was reduced in favour of an activation of private investments. As an example, a
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cooperation contract between Bewag and the Senate pledged the initiation of a regional support programme for green electricity by the utility with private investments. Moreover, voluntary agreements between the Senate and the housing industry guaranteed financial and institutional support for solar thermal energy and for the efficient use of energy. However, the success of these voluntary agreements was controversial as they failed to achieve the quantitative contractual targets for the promotion of solar technologies and energy efficiency. Another element was the abandonment of an administrative energy-saving system, which was intended to overcome typical barriers to profitable energy efficiency management in public buildings. Instead, a largescale energy-performance-contracting project, the 'Berlin Energy Efficiency Partnership', was initiated. Between 1995 and 2005 the energy management of about 500 public buildings was assigned to private contractors. It is their responsibility to provide technical know-how, to ensure that adequate investments are made in the buildings and thus to guarantee the energy savings. The remuneration of the energy service companies is directly tied to the energy savings achieved. As a result of this private initiative, 40.4 m. had already been invested in energy-saving measures by the year 2004 and the guaranteed cost savings to the Land of Berlin amounted to approx. 2.4 m. per annum (cf. www.berliner-e-agentur.de). Another example is the outsourcing of public research funding and of R&D activities in the water sector. Fol-lowing the privatisation contracts the purchasers of the BWB have built up an international centre of compe-tence for water and sanitation management in Berlin, the Berlin Centre of Competence for Water (KWB), which is funded by Veolia with 5.1 million /a for water research. The objective of the KWB is to identify focal points for research, to establish innovation networks between utilities, research, administration and water technology companies and other businesses and to support SME's in the regional water sector. New market participants and new forms of private self-organisation One of the main characteristics of the urban utility market had long been the monopoly of Bewag, GASAG and BWB in their whole respective business area. Thus, the success of environmental policies in the energy and water sector was primarily dependent on their compliance and intrinsic motivation. The problem was that they showed considerable inertia in opening up new markets for energy and water efficiency technologies, for decentralised energy, water and wastewater technologies, and for environmental services. Due to the innovational lethargy of the urban utilities, environmental policy has increasingly focused on the promotion of innovative SMEs specialising in the production and use of environmental technologies and in the provision of environmental services. These "ecopreneurs" have become indispensable promoters of industrial transformation and an ambitious environmental policy. Initially, the public promotion of green energy, water and wastewater markets consisted of public R&D programmes, loan/funding schemes and job creation schemes. In the course of the budget crisis this public funding was drastically cut down. However, thanks not only to the climate policy reforms at the national and European level (esp. the German Renewable Energy Act) and the increasing demand for, and competitiveness of, innovative environmental technologies and services, but also to the professionalisation of the ecopreneurs, the latter have succeeded in tapping new markets and increasing their turnovers and employment levels significantly. In the energy sector various new market participants have settled in Berlin. Apart from energy traders, independent power producers and new service providers exploiting the new opportunities of liberalised energy markets, ecopreneurship in Berlin is concentrated above all on the CHP, solar and energy services industry (cf. Monstadt, 2004: 363-90). On the contrary to that, the regional water market is still dominated by the BWB in all business areas. Numerous SME's that have developed innovative small-scale projects in the fields of water saving technologies and new sanitation concepts until the middle of the 1990s, could not survive, when the public subsidies were significantly shortened in the course of the fiscal crisis of the city state. Shifting frameworks for green urban governance The privatisation and commercialisation in the energy and water sectors but also the emergence of new market participants have significantly altered the conditions for green urban governance. Although the traditional environmental policy institutions for the control of emission and quality standards remain unaffected, the scope for traditional forms environmental governance is circumscribed. The reasons for this are threefold. Firstly, the former regulatory functions of the city state in the control of infrastructure investments and prices in the energy sector have been abolished or at least diminished due to the liberalisation of energy markets. Secondly, the operational functions of the city government in the provision of utility services are declining and the close ownership relationships between public authorities and the utilities are eroding. Due to the privatisation of the utilities and the outsourcing activities the provision of infrastructure services and of many public services in the promotion of technological and institutional innovation has been delegated to the private sector. Owing to the takeover of the urban utilities by transnationals decisions on the corporate policy and the investments of the utilities are increasingly taken beyond the territorial power of the Berlin Senate. Thirdly, due to the fiscal crisis 624
Jochen Monstadt: Privatisation and commercialisation as a challenge for green urban governance
the city government can no longer accomplish extensive financing functions for the ecological modernisation of utility systems or for the promotion of innovative technologies Despite the decline of the traditional regulatory regime, the current transition does not invalidate reflection on green urban governance of utility systems. The argument is that within the multi-level system of environmental policy making the urban level still has an indispensable function. Instead, cities play a key role in environmental governance, as they are "the loci and foci of technological, economic, and social innovations that sustain the initial development of networks" (Coutard et a. 2005: 10). Their task is to compensate for gaps in national and supranational regulation, to facilitate compliance with regulations and to take adequate account of local specificities, problems and endogenous innovation potentials as well as to combine solutions to environmental problems with economic benefits (cf. Monstadt, 2004). The case study indicates three main issues of green urban governance that might also be relevant for other city regions: Firstly, even in a commercialised and privatised environment the established urban utility companies continue to play a crucial strategic role for the sustainable development of city regions. They have privileged power, financial resources, information, knowledge and skills to influence socio-technical innovation and ecological modernisation. In the case of Berlin, these influences have not yet been widely exploited and are poorly linked to public debates about the future of green urban governance. In contrast to these developments Marvin et al. (1999: 154) point out that "local policy makers and planners must open up negotiations with utilities and their regulators to untangle the specific social, economic and environmental implications of competitive service provision... Policy makers and planners must learn how, in collaboration with utility companies, they can mutually shape and reinforce particular network management strategies which are likely to capture benefits for the region". In order to appreciate the importance of the utilities to sustainable urban development, the organisation of policy dialogues and negotiations with the utilities on urban investment and the initiation of public-private projects are increasingly important issues for environmental governance in Berlin. A second challenge for green urban governance relates to the delegation of public tasks to the private sector. The Berlin case shows that voluntary and contractual agreements, by means of tendering procedures or via different forms of public-private partnerships, are partially misunderstood as a discharge of public duties. In contrast to this, the shift from public to private service provision brings about new regulatory tasks for a professional contractual management and for the public supervision of private sector performance. The problem in Berlin is, that the performance of voluntary agreements, outsourcing strategies and public-private partnerships has never been evaluated systematically and renewed according to new regional demands. Instead, the objectives and quality standards of private sector performance have to be defined more exactly and be legally binding, the achievements have to be monitored and evaluated more systematically and - if the private initiatives fail - regulatory countermeasures or penalties have to be taken more reliably. Thirdly, a key task for urban policy-makers is to facilitate private self-organisation in environmental protection by the promotion of new market participants in the field of environmental technologies and services. The opening up of these markets is not only gaining in importance for successful environmental policy, but also for the quality of infrastructure services and as a factor in interregional competition. Even though ecopreneurs have thus far only been able to tap niche markets, their contribution to environmental innovation and their growing turnovers and employment levels demonstrate considerable potential. In Berlin, the environmental department has been attempting to improve the locational factors for ecopreneurs by establishing economic support infrastructures, promoting regional innovation networks and by supplying information, training and marketing. However, government support for the opening up of environmental markets in Berlin is still perceived to be solely the responsibility of environmental policy. So far, their promotion has been little integrated into economic and structural policies and into other policy fields. Moreover, energy, technology and structural policies are still barely coordinated between the Senate of Berlin and the government of the surrounding Bundesland Brandenburg. In contrast to this, the improvement of locational factors for ecopreneurs requires an integrated regional strategy overarching policy sectors and territorial borders. Conclusions Public authorities in Berlin and in many German cities and regions are confronted with new tasks in the environmental governance of utility systems. Due to the erosion of their regulatory power and their operational and financial functions, the scope for traditional forms of intervention, public service provision and subsidis-ing is circumscribed. In order to meet the environmental goals of cities in a privatised and commercialised environment, public authorities have to probe new forms of governance. Their challenge is to shape private infrastructure provision through increased cooperative, contractual and market-oriented forms of governance. Structural policies for the promotion of innovation and business development and of improved regional locational factors for ecopreneurs play a role here, as does the supervision of the outcomes of private-sector participation, the negotiation of voluntary agreements with the utilities and the warranty of compliance with them.
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However, although substantial recasting of urban green governance is already underway in Berlin, energy, water and wastewater management are challenged by new problems of interpolicy coordination and regional cooperation, entrepreneurial and contractual governance, which have so far at best been met partially. The more urban green governance moves away from the traditional regulatory and public ownership model, in which environmental planning took place almost bilaterally between supervisory authorities and the regional monopolists, and the more shifts take place towards tackling environmental problems in an integrated manner across different policy fields and territorial boundaries and in cooperation with numerous private actors, the more traditional institutions of urban environmental policy-making have to be reformed. Moreover, as a consequence of privatisation, commercialisation and liberalisation in the utility sectors crucial regulatory functions have shifted to the national or European policy level. The environmental performance of utilities on liberalised markets, the promotion of ecopreneurs and the development of green niche markets thus vitally depend on efficient national and international political institutions and on adequate market incentives. References
Coutard, O., R. E. Hanley, R. Zimmerman (2005) Networks systems revisited: the confounding nature of universal systems. In O. Coutard, R. E. Hanley, R. Zimmerman (eds.) Sustaining Urban Networks: The Social Diffusion of Large Technical Systems, Routledge, London and New York. Marvin, S., S. Graham, S. Guy (1999) Cities, regions and privatised utilities. Progress in Planning 51.2, 91-165. Monstadt, J. (2004) Die Modernisierung der Stromversorgung. Regionale Energie- und Klimapolitik im Liberalisierungsund Privatisierungsprozess. Verlag fr Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden. Monstadt, J., U. von Schlippenbach (2005) Privatisierung und Kommerzialisierung als Herausforderung regionaler Infrastrukturpolitik. Eine Untersuchung am Beispiel der Berliner Strom-, Gas- und Wasserversorgung sowie Abwasserentsorgung. German Institute of Urban Affairs, Berlin. Monstadt, J. (2007) Urban governance and the transition of energy systems: institutional change and shifting energy and climate policies in Berlin. International Journal for Urban and Regional Research 31.2. Offner, J.-M. (2000) 'Territorial deregulation': local authorities at risk from technical networks. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 24. 1, 165-82.
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The Environment & Militants Restiveness in Nigeria's Niger Delta Region

Ojochide Okunnu Atojoko
Presleys Solicitors, Wuse II Abuja Nigeria, chidatojoko@yahoo.com
Abstract One of the most significant movements in the later half of this century is that which champions the need to preserve and maintain the purity of the environment. This is because mankind has been inundated with warnings about the calamity that would follow if necessary steps are not taken to stop or reduce pollution and other unwholesome practices which seriously threatens the purity and healthy state of the environment. The world over, crude oil exploration has become the greatest source of foreign exchange and this does not come without a price; which is the degradation of the areas where crude oil is explored. Governments and multi-national oil firms have basically done little or nothing to alleviate the plight of the inhabitants of these areas and this has resulted to restiveness in the guise of terrorism and hostage taking which is readily the only available tool through which inhabitants display their grievances. Nigeria is an oil producing state with the Niger delta region responsible for more than 80% of her oil. This region has over the years not benefited from the largesse that comes from the oil; instead their farmlands and water has become an environmental mess leaving them with no means of eking out a means of survival. This socio-economic imbalance brought about by these explorations has resulted in a high degree of restiveness in the Niger delta where an army of youth are now involved in unending cases of terrorism and the kidnapping of foreigners. As is to be expected, government intervention is inevitable if measures designed to protect the environment is to be effective. In contributing to this discourse, this paper aims to analyze the legal aspect of the problem of protecting the environment in Nigeria. The paper is divided into five sections. Section one; will focus on the examination of the meaning, nature, scope of the environment and environmental law as well as issues and instances of environmental degradation in Nigeria. A critical appraisal of the relevant international and national laws preserving the environment with emphasis on the Kyoto protocol will also be undertaken. Section two will look at the militants uprising in the Niger Delta with the aim of locating the raison d'etre, and how it affects the economy of the nation. This section will also take a look at making exploration companies responsible to areas they operate from as a measure to curb environmental degradation. The last section will amongst other things push for more stringent rules as well as recommending possible ways to enforce the resulting punishment on erring nations as well as re-affirming the need for environmental ethics in order to ensure the survival of humans. Meaning, Nature & Scope Of Environmental Law In Nigeria The strategic significance of Nigeria is incontestable. Three of every Ten Africans are Nigerians. It is the world's seventh largest producer of petroleum. Three quarters of government's revenues and almost all export earnings flow from the Blackgold (Petroleum). Nigeria is a longtime member of Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). It is hardly necessary for one to chronicle the glaring evidence of the growing threat to our environment and hence to the quality of life of the people of our great nation. Nigeria's environmental problems are legion and diverse and not a single one of us is unfamiliar with the ugly manifestations all around us. These problems have arisen from both the conditions of poverty and under development; more so with the recent processes of rapid economic development, Mineral exploration and exploitation has contributed in no small way to these environmental problems. To this must be added the problem of desert encroachment, deforestation, industrial pollution arising from water pollution in oil producing areas of the country. We owe it to ourselves and for posterity sake to bend our every effort towards the arrest of environmental decline and the preservation of environmental sanctity and natural resources for a more sanitized environment for the future generation of Nigerians and the World in general. As far back as 1988, very little had taken place at National or State levels, for promulgating and enhancing administrative and legal frameworks to promote National policy on environmental protection. This inaction on the problem of the environment in Nigeria has accounted for the dearth of law and policy on the environment in the country. It was the discovery of hazardous waste surreptitiously dumped in parts of the country (koko Town in Delta State) that awakened the Nigeria public and the country's leadership from environment inactivity to what has now become a sustained environmental consciousness in the country. The impression is often wrongly created and canvassed that environmental degradation is a problem of the developed world, associated with their higher level of industrialization, implying that a non-industrialized coun-
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try like Nigeria has nothing to fear. As a result of this mindset, irreparable damage has been done to the Nigerian nation. Of greater concern to humanity is the slowly emerging global effect of several decades of environmental abuse exhibited in unpredictable world climates, coastal flooding etc. These are all phenomena that will have untold harmful effects on the survival of humanity if they are not checked promptly. What then is the subject matter of environmental law? It should be obvious that preservation of natural systems is important . Other themes include resource use, the resolution of conflicts among user groups and heath and safety. But the question of how and where to draw the line between maintenance and degradation of the natural environments are nevertheless always present in some form; Environmental laws are greatly influenced by policy choices and ideas drawn from other disciplines. The subject matter of environmental laws in Nigeria encompasses some of the following problems; - Land use and soil conservation - Water management - Marine resources and coastal areas Environmental law thus; is projected from the multi-vintage of the law as an instrument of both social and economic engineering. The laws and policies, which regulate the foregoing stated areas of social and economic concerns, provide the framework of our environmental law. It is generally understood that environmental law addresses the impact of human activity on the complex web of natural factors and systems, which constitute the planetary environment It is often regarded as essential to survival or the enrichment of an individual or a group to use resources in such a way as to realize immediate gains. Such activities however may impair the future productivity of an area of land, exterminate specie or destroy the usefulness of a site for any other purpose. In such a situation the short term private view conflicts with the long term public view. Though many would argue that the public view should be more conservation oriented and emphasizing proper safeguards to prevent the deterioration of the environment, there are nevertheless times when governments take the short term view to face the real or imagined economic or political crisis. A further area of conflict lies in attitude towards resources that are held in common. The Niger-Delta region of Nigeria lies on the coast of the continent and are blessed collectively with the black gold which over time has been taken over by the government for the nation. In line with global trends, emphasis has shifted beyond mere development to sustainable development which entails National policies and development plans that look beyond the welfare of the present generation to that of future generations by ensuring the utilization of the land, water, forest etc . Law and policy has made significant input towards this wholistic objective of nature conservation and sustainable development. Laws The land use Act 1978 was promulgated to curb the excesses of the freehold access to land and its use; the Government adopted a trusteeship policy of land tenure for the country. Thus, all lands in the State with the exception of Federal lands are vested in the State Governors. Some aspects of the land use policies are aimed at conservation and protectionist policies and anyone who violates the provisions are punished accordingly. The Nigerian Criminal Code, which prohibits the fouling of water and prescribes a punishment of six months imprisonment for any offender, The oil in Navigable Waters Decree 1968 prohibits the discharge of oil into designated sea areas and prescribes penalties for specified offences. This decree gives municipal effect to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil 1954, which Nigeria acceded to on April 22, 1968. The petroleum Act 1969 allows for the prevention of pollution of watercourses. Section 25 of the Petroleum (Drilling and Production) Regulation 1969 provides practicable precautions should be taken to avoid fouling of waters. The Harmful Waste (Special Command Provision) Decree 1988 was enacted in a swift reaction to the dumping of hazardous wastes from abroad in certain parts of the country. Nigeria is also a State party to The Convention on the Continental Shelf 1958 which recognizes, defines and places certain limitations on the rights of the state to explore and exploit natural resources. The Federal Environmental Protection Agency Act 1988 is to establish good water quality standards. Other legislations passed to aid the environment are the United Nations Human Rights, The Kyoto Protocol to curb the level of gas emissions, The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria etc. The salient question then is, how well have these laws been followed? How have deterrents been dealt with? What about the needs to modify these Acts and laws to meet the 21st century? The 1999 Constitution which ushered in the present civilian administration stipulates that the oil producing states should be entitled to at least 13% Derivation Funds from the Federation Account. This has given many Niger-Delta States an edge over other regions.
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Ojochide Okunnu Atojoko: The Environment & Militants Restiveness in Nigeria's Niger Delta Region
Instances of Environmental Degradation: Causes & Effects. From the emergence of serious commercial oil exploration and exploitation in 1958 to the period spanning through Nigeria's Independence journey through nationhood, Niger-Delta has known no peace as the environment suffers avalanche of assault, degradation and outright violation of its ecosystem by the activities of the multinational oil companies operating in the area. The Niger-Delta region represents the paradox of the Nigerian nation. It needs not be over emphasized that it is the proverbial goose that lays the golden egg owing to the un-quantifiable endowment of mineral deposits found in the area. At the same time, underdevelopment and deprivation stare most of the people in the face. The rate of poverty, unemployment and general disillusionment is high. The attendant consequences include crime, violence and social upheavals. Analysts posits that since oil was first struck in commercial quantity in Oloibiri, (present Bayelsa State) in 1957, the region has not benefited much from the proceeds accruing from oil revenues. After years of agitations and representations made to draw attention to the varied and various problems of the Niger-Delta, the issue of pollution control and environmental remediation remain a major challenge. But because the Niger-Delta struggle is widely misunderstood, sufficient attention has not been paid to the intricacies of the outcry of the people against perceived environmental injustice. Consequently, this may not be divorced from the waves of agitation by some communities and youth groups for a better deal in Nigeria nation pointing out neglect and marginalization in the socio-political and economic spheres of life. Not since 1958 has there been genuine effort to provide sustainable livelihood for the local populace. Over the years, owing to persistent gas flaring, oil spillage and production activities, the ecology, marine life and environmental conditions have worsened. The problem of poverty in these regions have been a deep seated issue, and exacerbated by prolonged economic stagnation in Nigeria. It might be argued that after all, conditions in other parts of the country are not necessarily better than the Niger-Delta. But what makes the situation quite pathetic however is the egregious mismanagement of funds by politicians who flaunt ill gotten wealth in the midst of abject poverty. This is not helped by the flagrant disregard of native communities by oil producing companies with the connivance of government officials. Today, the region is arguably the least developed and also having one of its States as the only State capital in Nigeria, (Yenegoa, Bayelsa State) that is yet to be connected to the National Grid. Oloibiri wiith no single all season road remains one of the most backward areas of the country. At the height of the oil boom in Nigeria, 60% of oil production came from Rivers State but it received only 5% of the Statutory Allocations. Few Ogoni households have electricity, there is one doctor per 10,000 people, child mortality rate are the highest in this part of the nation, unemployment is almost 85%, 80% of the population is illiterate and close to half of its youths have left in search of greener pastures. Life expectancy is hardly 50years. Ogoni land experiences ecological disaster and what the European parliament called environmental nightmare. The heart of these harms stem from Oil spills either from pipelines, which criss- crosses the delta, often passing directly through villages, or from blow-outs at the well heads, and gas flaring. About 76% of natural gas in oil producing areas is flared. The Oil spillage is worse. There are about 300 spills per year in the Delta. In one year alone almost 700,000 barrels were soiled according to a Government Commission. Ogoni land has suffered over 120 spills between 1958. and 1999. and between 1982-1992 Shell BP alone accounted for 1.6 million gallons of spilled oil.The consequences of these spills have been very devastating. The clean natural water is gone; the fishes die from poisoning, land is made uncultivable as it now yields nothing for the people who farm it. Given the immense contribution of the region to the economic well being of the nation, the region should be a major recipient of the earnings it attracts to the nation. The government granted the region 1.5% as deviation fund for development purposes during the Military era. This was increased to 3% during Babangida Regime while it got to 13% during the Abacha/ Abdulsalami Regime. It must be stated that most of these Derivation Funds have been badly utilized by the civilian governors in the Niger-Delta States. Also the fact that the region enjoys Derivation Funds had made the government take a loop sided approach in spending for infrastructural needs in the region when compared to others. This begs the question of how long the condition will persist. Efforts at addressing the problems so far have yielded nothing. Whether through increased allocation to the state or specialized agencies like the Niger-Delta Development Corporation (NDDC) money per se has not made the desired dent on poverty. This scenario could be likened to a bee that perches on your nose, you have to be careful in swathing the bee in order not to hurt your nose, yet, if you do nothing, the bee will sting you badly. Militants Uprising And The Economy The natural beauty and the endowment of the region, which produces the black gold that boosts the Nigerian Economy, may after all not be totally a blessing. The oil deposits across the region have attracted Multinational
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firms, which include Shell BP, Total, ChevronTexaco, Exonnmobil etc. The hopes of the indigenes for the better are dashed. The blessing has become a curse. Mismanagement and corruption over the years by successive Public Officials means that resources meant to develop the communities are diverted into private bank account stashed away abroad. The effect is that the people are denied the basic amenities and services that would have enhanced the quality of their lives. Poverty is now pervasive, unemployment increased and access to health care is almost zero. From one crisis to another, the Delta quickly graduated as the hot bed of trouble in Nigeria. The socio-economic imbalances brought about by these oil explorations created an army of youths that are unemployed. They engage in oil bunkering and vandalisation of pipelines thereby jeopardizing the government's interest. From bunkering to armed robberies and hostage taking, the government is made to pay huge ransoms. The scenario has so far produced such names as Asari Dokubo, Ateke Tom, Soboma George etc. From Delta, Rivers, Bayelsa, Akwa Ibom etc, hostage taking is now a recurring decimal for Nigerian authority, which is indeed sending wrong signals to the International community. As far back as the 1970s and 1980s a number of ethnic communities had begun to mobilize against the so called slick alliance of oil companies and the Government. Most famously the Movement for the Survival of Ogoni People (MOSOP) led by Ken Saro Wiwa challenged Shell for its environmental despoliation and Human Rights violation and the Nigerian State for its unjust control of their resources. Wiwa and the MOSOP leadership were executed by the Nigerian Military in 1995, and since that time, the Niger-Delta has become a zone of intense conflict as more oil producing minorities are waking up to clamor for compensation and for the recognition of their claims for Resource control. The MOSOP attempted the use of dialogue for a while and making no headway, resolved to the use of force. From early 2000 the Niger-Delta question assumed a new dimension with the formation of youths and ethnic inclined groups which now used other methods apart from protests and demonstrations. Hostage taking is the newly introduced dimension; daring groups such as Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger-Delta (MEND) have claimed responsibility for several abductions of expatriate workers. The group started with the blowing up of oil pipelines and later hostage taking. In January 2006, a tugboat with arms bearing youths zipped over the waters and' in a moment, four expatriates were gone with the youths. They were kidnapped for almost 3 weeks; it took the intervention of the Government to negotiate to get them back. The negotiations involve of course money transfer. At this point one begins to ponder if there are no selfish interests involved here. We should ask ourselves why these militants demand for money to release their hostages. The Niger Delta Peoples' Volunteer Force's (NDPVF) leader Asari Dokubo who is said to have been arm twisted by the government to surrender his guns is presently in prison. The new group MEND claims in one of their statements that it is a union of all relevant militant groups in the Niger-Delta. This includes units headed by Asari Dokubo. Recently, the MEND made a statement on CNN with Koinange's report but still remained faceless as no one was willing to assume headship. This may be because NDPF which had Asari as its visible leader was so easily scattered because of the knowledge of its headship. MEND seems to have no form; this is a big graduation into real war strategies. It behooves on one to say that these militants get more and more fearless by the day and indeed very daring (see CNN Reports) and fearless of death. The Nigerian economy in the last four and a half decades is a paradox of sort. The nation has benefited immensely from the Niger-Delta region, compared to other states. The Niger-Delta still accounts for over 85% of National earnings and over 90% Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) on the nation's economy. Its contribution to the nations GDP is stipulated at about 20%. Any worthwhile economic growth is attributed to higher earnings from Oil and Gas sector which has its bearing in the region. When the Nation's growth rate moved from 3% to 7%, it was attributed to higher earning from oil as prices jumped on the International markets. Presently, the nation looses over 25% of its earnings from Oil and Gas sector totaling $12billion yearly due to disruptions caused by pipelines vandalism, militancy, shut down of operations. This continuing and festering situation in the region leaves most economic watchers aghast at the implications of the continuing hostilities in the region. Tens of foreign companies are pulling out daily from the region, foreign workers are retreating to their countries. The country's production capacity has remained diminished by 600,000 barrels per day. In financial terms at an average price of $60 a barrel that amounts to $36million daily in lost revenue of about $126Billion over a seven-month period. Various reasons have been proffered on the origin of these conflicts. It is fair to say that some of the aspirations of these people are well founded, even though it is wrong to agree with the methods deployed to achieve these goals. Also the adoption of a joint military task force to bring an end to the killings and abduction of oil workers is like reverting to boys scout approach to solving a major problem. There is the need for a more conscientious way of resolving this prevailing crisis.
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Ojochide Okunnu Atojoko: The Environment & Militants Restiveness in Nigeria's Niger Delta Region
Corporate Social Responsibility From time immemorial oil firms have preferred to play down the danger that comes with activities and petroleum spillage. They would rather grief over the waste and spill sites, and sometimes they even suggest sabotage. Until now, the response of oil companies to communities needs have been in area of petty compensations for obvious spills as well as community development projects such as electrification, classroom blocks and scholarships amongst others. Even the government when compelled to address the Niger-Delta issue preferred to address the easy side. They would always promise to provide roads, water, electricity, schools etc. The environment of the Delta on which generations unborn would depend is daily subjected to the level of degradation that can make the land scream. A plethora of issues daily confront the Niger-Delta Environment with little or no pro-active efforts from the stakeholders to provide remediation measures to the problems. From gas flaring, soil erosion, land, air and water pollution destruction of the ecosystem. Most of which comes from oil spillages deforestation, overgrazing and other factors have contributed in no small measures to diminish the Niger-Delta area, with little or no environmental accountability from the oil companies. These companies leave pre-emptive measures rather than proactive strategies that will put in check the reoccurrence of oil spillages. The companies should device more environmental friendly initiatives to salvage these communities. Rather than give all royalties to the government, such should be diverted into these areas as well. Conclusion And Recommendations The militants might not hold the ace on how to solve these problems, but their actions are capable of creating a vacuum in the economic survival of Nigeria. Programs to boost oil production or develop the gas sector will continuously come under serious jeopardy unless something is done expeditiously and aggressively. There are insufficient mechanisms on ground to tackle the problems. There is also the problem of widespread corruption and inefficiency within Government systems and weak social safety nets have not helped in finding lasting solutions to hunger, illiteracy and unemployment. Some State Governments of the Niger-Delta region have not utilized money at their disposal well or exhibited financial prudence to get and utilize more money, resulting in an impasse. It is also pertinent to remark that at the root this conflict is the high incidence of State failure. The State's inability to meet its primary social obligation notably development provision and maintenance of internal order as well as its unconcealed order for misrule, epitomize a total State failure. It suffices to say that Nigeria is marked by an unacceptably high level of functional failure to the States including a large scale corruption and insensitivity of public functionaries to the plight of the populace. The high level of youth violence, especially those of the militia who attempt to usurp authority and functions of the state could be seen as response to the problem of state failure. This undoubtedly presents a grim future for the region and the nation. As the various States and Local Government as well as Federal Governments begins to oil their developmental policy machinery for the 2007 fiscal year, one area they should focus on is investment in human capital development because people are the very essence of life in any society. In the 21st century International Economic system in driven by and based on knowledge. This is where investing in human resource development in the Niger-Delta becomes imperative, and there is no gain saying that the productive capacity of humans is wider than all others forms of wealth taken together. Human development brings together the production and distribution of commodities and the expansion and use of human capabilities. The first is for people to lead a long and healthy life, then they would have to acquire knowledge and thirdly, they must have access to resources needed for a decent standard life. This should be hinged on formation of human capabilities such as improved health, knowledge and skills. When this is done, one would have gone a long way in addressing most of the conflicts and social upheavals in the region after all society is as good or bad as its people. Also these communities in particular should take the driving seat and demand accountability from the local and state governments. It is also useful to revert to conflict resolution through the use of mediators who will focus on peace resolutions through constructive dialogue; this will help in deflecting and preventing a considerable number of violent conflicts. The answer to the Niger-Delta question is not with the use of the guns or the kidnapping of foreigners, but rather, the engaging in constructive dialogue and also taking practical actions such as channeling more financial resources and technical support to host communities, as well as making oil companies socially responsible and accountable to host communities. Getting them to do a proper clean up of their acts and treating host communities as partners. Finally, Enacting and enforcing strict environmental standards, such as restricting and banning gas flaring as well as holding culprits responsible for sabotage and violations. Letting companies implement similar kinds of environmental policies that obtains in their own countries. There should be in place developmental pro-
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grams that directly attack the innate problems of poverty, illiteracy, lack of skills/financial resources, diseases and youth restiveness. - Implementing programs that touch on economic empowerment of local people through direct employment in oil companies. - Designating certain Local and International communities as disaster zones and environmentally disadvantaged areas deserving special attention with direct allocation channeled through local trust funds to be managed by the community in focus. - Allowing the local people too make input through the use of referendum on how their funds should be managed and disbursed and how programs should be run to their benefit. - Make people more answerable to their communities for use of authority. The problem is not only a Nigerian problem and so must not be regarded as one. We all leave in one revolving world and will always in one way or the other be affected by what happens in places thousands of kilometers away from us. It must be noted that an environmental problem in one part of the world will always result in an imbalance in other parts of the world. To this end therefore, I crave the intervention of international communities as well to take a peek into this crisis and help salvage what we have left of our beautiful society. It is no longer a war for the youths of the Delta alone, but for us all to rise up to the challenge and stop this madness that is ravaging our world. References:
Law of Environmental protection: Margareth Okorodudu.(1998) International Environmental Policies: Lynton K Caldwell( 1984) Land Use Act 1979 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999 Federal Environmental Protection Act. 1988 Harmful Waste Decree 1988 Youths Conflicts and perpetual instability in Nigeria: Kenneth Omeje www.holler.Africa.com The Niger Delta question: Hosiah Emmanuel. The Niger Delta Standard, In defence of the Niger Delta youth: Ken Ugbechie Economies of Violence More Oil More Blood: Rakesh Bhandari
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englische Einfluss auf Gestaltung und Pflanzenverwendung im deutschen architektonischen Hausgarten zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts. - . - 2005. 124 S., zahlr. farb. Abb., A 4. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1969-3 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1969-1 Preis EUR 17,90 Das Beispiel Brodowin/ Uckermark. - 1995. - XII, 204 S., zahlr. Photos, 1 Farbkte. als Faltbl., A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1649-X ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1649-2 unverbindl. Preis EUR 2,60
98: Barsig, Michael; Simon, Ulrich: Vitalittsvernderungen

von Kiefernnadeln und ihre Auswirkungen auf die Phytophagenfauna. - . - 1995. - V, 165 S., zahlr. graph. Darst., mehrere Farbtafeln, A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1652-X ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1652-2 unverbindl. Preis EUR 2,60
S 16: Otto, Daniela: Am Rand - Zwischen Stadt und

Zwischenstadt. Aktuelle Stadterweiterungskonzepte. - 2006. - 164 S., A 4. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-2010-1 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-2010-9 Preis EUR 14,90
99: Courtney, Mandy: Moorkundlich-hydrologische

Untersuchungen im Naturschutzgebiet "Jeggauer Moor" (Drmling). Grundlage einer kologisch begrndeten Grundwasserregulierung. - 1996. - 140 S., zahlr. graph. Darst., A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1667-8 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1667-6 unverbindl. Preis EUR 2,60
S17: Cavalcanti Braun, Ruth: Mies van der Rohe als

Gartenarchitekt. ber die Beziehung des Auenraums zur Architektur. - 2006. - 192 S., A 4. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1971-5 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1971-4 Preis EUR 19,90
S18: Go, Jeong-Hi: Herta Hammerbacher (1900 - 1985).

Virtuosin der Neuen Landschaftlichkeit - Der Garten als Paradigma. - 2006. - 240 S., zahlr. Abb., A 4. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-2013-6 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-2013-0 Preis EUR 12,90
100: Dinnebier, Antonia: Die Innenwelt der Auenwelt. Die

schne "Landschaft" als gesellschaftstheoretisches Problem. 1996. - 324 S., zahlr. Abb. u. graph. Darst., A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1672-4 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1672-0 unverbindl. Preis EUR 2,60
S 19: Kleinschmit, Birgit (Hrsg.); Walz, Ulrich (Hrsg.):

Landschaftsstrukturmae in der Umweltplanung. Beitrge zum Workshop der IALE-AG Landschaftsstruktur Berlin 2006. - 2006. - 180 S., zahlr. Abb., B 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-2020-9 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-2020-8 Preis EUR 19,90
101: Kratz, Werner (Hrsg.): Wissenschaftliche Tagung zum

Forschungsschwerpunkt "Rieselfelder in Berlin und Brandenburg". gefrdert vom BMBF, BMU und dem LUA Brandenburg 12.-13.10.1995 in der Biologischen Bundesanstalt fr Land- und Forstwirtschaft Berlin Tagungsband. - 1996. - 272 S., zahlr. Abb. u. Tab., A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1680-5 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1680-5 unverbindl. Preis EUR 2,60
111: Krner, Stefan (Hrsg.); Heger, Tina (Hrsg.); Nagel,

Annemarie (Hrsg.); Eisel, Ulrich (Hrsg.): Naturbilder in Naturschutz und kologie. - . - 1999. - 120 S., A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1818-2 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1818-2 unverbindl. Preis EUR 2,60
112: Weil, Angela; Gindele, Mirjam: ber den Begriff des

Gleichgewichts in der kologie - Ein Typisierungsvorschlag. Die Funktion der Biodiversitt: Zur Problematik der Redundanz von Arten in kologie und Naturschutz. - . - 1999. - 172 S., A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1819-0 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1819-9 unverbindl. Preis EUR 2,60
102: Rutschmann, Nina: Skulpturengrten der Moderne. Die

Rckkehr der Kunst in den Garten. - 1996. - 116 S., zahlr. Photos u. Abb., 3 Faltbl., A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1681-3 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1681-2 unverbindl. Preis EUR 2,60
113: Horbert, Manfred: Klimatologische Aspekte der Stadt103: Kim, Hyea-Ju: Die Ufervegetation eines Fliegewssers in
Abhngigkeit vom Ausbau mit unterschiedlichen Materialien. Ein Beitrag zum Renaturierungsproblem. 1996. - 284 S., zahlr. graph. Darst. u. Abb., 2 Farbbilder, A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1714-3 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1714-7 unverbindl. Preis EUR 2,60 und Landschaftsplanung. - . - 2000. - 331 S., zahlr. graph. Darst. u. Tab., 18 x 24 cm. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1832-8 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1832-8 unverbindl. Preis EUR 10,90
114: Bruns, Elke; Herberg, Alfred; Kppel, Johann:

Konstruktiver Einsatz von naturschutzrechtlichen Kompensationsmanahmen. Im Kontext der Regionalparkentwicklung durch interkommunale PoolModelle. - 2000. - 112 S., A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1834-4 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1834-2 unverbindl. Preis EUR 5,90
104: Zerbe, Stefan (Hrsg.): Vegetationskologie

mitteleuropischer Wlder. Kolloquium zum "kologietag" 1995 in Berlin. - 1996. - 140 S., zahlr. graph. Darst. u. Abb., A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1721-6 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1721-5 unverbindl. Preis EUR 2,60
115: Arbeitskreis Eingriffsregelung und

Umweltvertrglichkeitsprfung an der TU Berlin: Flexibilisierung der Eingriffsregelung - Modetrend oder Notwendigkeit?. - . - 2000. - 108 S., A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1835-2 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1835-9 unverbindl. Preis EUR 6,90
105: Khler, Manfred; Schmidt, Marco: Hof-, Fassaden- und

Dachbegrnung - Zentraler Baustein der Stadtkologie. Zwlfjhrige Erfahrungen mit einer Begrnungsutopie -. 1997. - 188 S., zahlr. Abb. u. Photos, A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1757-7 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1757-4 unverbindl. Preis EUR 2,60
116: Schmitz, Solveig: Die spontane Gefpflanzenflora

zwischen Berlin-Mitte und Berlin-Kpenick. Transektuntersuchung zu Auswirkungen von Stadt-UmlandGradienten und Nutzungen. - 2000. - 244 S., 12 Fotos, A 5 . Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1837-9 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1837-3 unverbindl. Preis EUR 10,90
106: Cornelius, Reiner; Faensen-Thiebes, Andreas (Hrsg);

Marschner, Bernd; Weigmann, Gerd: Das Forschungsvorhaben "Ballungsraumnahe Waldkosysteme" (BallWS) 1986-1992 in Berlin. - . 1997. - 124 S., 9 Photos, graph. Darst., A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1758-5 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1758-1 unverbindl. Preis EUR 2,60
117: Ahrens, Susanne; Zerbe, Stefan: Historische und

floristisch-vegetationskundliche Untersuchungen im Landschaftspark Mrkisch-Wilmersdorf als Beitrag zur Gartendenkmalpflege. - . - 2001. - 172 S., Kartenbeilage, A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1863-8 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1863-2 unverbindl. Preis EUR 10,90
107: Overdieck, Dieter (Hrsg.); Forstreuter, Manfred (Hrsg.):

Stoffverlagerung in Pflanzen und von Pflanzen zum kosystem. 2. Treffen des Gf-Arbeitskreises in Berlin "Experimentelle kologie der Pflanzen". - 1997. - 204 S., graph. Darst., 1 Farbgraphik, A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1705-4 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1705-5 unverbindl. Preis EUR 2,60
118: Krner, Stefan: Theorie und Methodologie der

Landschaftsplanung, Landschaftsarchitektur und Sozialwissenschaftlichen Freiraumplanung vom Nationalsozialismus bis zur Gegenwart. - . - 2001. - 468 S., A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1870-0 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1870-0 unverbindl. Preis EUR 18,90
108: Seidling, Walter: Das Land-Reitgras in den Berliner

Forsten. - . - 1998. - 68 S., 4 Fotos, A5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1772-0 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1772-7 unverbindl. Preis EUR 2,60
109: Appel, Elisabeth; Wolf, Angelika: Landschaft - Tourismus

- Planung. Festschrift fr Prof. Dr. Helmut Scharpf. - 1998. 174 S., zahlr. graph. Darst., A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1786-0 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1786-4 unverbindl. Preis EUR 2,60
119: Forstreuter, Manfred: Auswirkungen globaler

Klimanderungen auf das Wachstum und den Gaswechsel (CO2/H2O) von Rotbuchenbestnden (Fagus sylvatica L.). - . - 2002. - 341 S., A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1910-3 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1910-3 unverbindl. Preis EUR 13,90
110: Schpel, Christiane: Klimatische Auswirkungen der

landschaftlichen Vernderungen in Folge der Kohlefrderung - Relevanz fr Folgenutzungen. - . - 1999. - 188 S., 7 s/w Karten, 5 farb. Karten, A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1808-5 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1808-3 unverbindl. Preis EUR 2,60
120: Deiwick, Britta: Entwicklungstendenzen der

Eingriffsregelung. - . - 2002. - VI, 145 S., A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1914-6 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1914-1 unverbindl. Preis EUR 8,90
125: Fery, Thekla: Von der Restflche zur neuen Landschaft Das Schneberger Sdgelnde in Berlin. - . - 2005. - 96. S., A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1962-6 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1962-2 Preis EUR 10,90
121: Zerbe, Stefan (Hrsg.); Kchler, Johannes (Hrsg.);

Hamann, Bettina (Hrsg.): kologische und soziokonomische Grundlagen und angewandte Aspekte des Natur- und Umweltschutzes in Nord-China und SdKorea. . Basic and Applied Aspects of Nature and Environmental Protection in North China and South Korea with a Focus on Ecology and Socio-Economics. - 2002. - 117 S., A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1915-4 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1915-8 unverbindl. Preis EUR 8,90
126: Wende, Wolfgang; Reinsch, Norbert; Jlg, Dominik;

Funke, Joachim : Kommunale Landschaftsplne. Rahmenbedingungen der praktischen Umsetzung von Erfordernissen und Manahmen. - . - 2005. - 186 S., A 5. Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1963-4 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1963-9 Preis EUR 15,90
127: Zutz, Axel: Kulturen der Landschaft. Ideen von

Kulturlandschaft zwischen Tradition und Modernisierung. - . - 2006. - 399 S., A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-2009-8 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-2009-3 Preis EUR 13,90
122: Strassemeyer, Jrn: Gaswechsel (CO2/H2O) von

Eichenbestnden (Quercus robur L.) unter erhhter atmosphrischer CO2-Konzentration. - . - 2003. - 252 S., A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1918-9 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1918-9 unverbindl. Preis EUR 9,90
128: Matz, Kerstin: Was ist ein Stadtpark wert?. konomische

Bewertung des Grlitzer Parks in Berlin mit einer Zahlungsbereitschaftsanalyse. - 2006. - 95 S., 10 S. Anh. mit Faltbl., A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-2021-7 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-2021-5 Preis EUR 12,90
123 : Reichenbach, Marc: Auswirkungen von

Windenergieanlagen auf Vgel - Ausma und planerische Bewltigung. - . - 2003, 2. unvernderte Aufl.. - VIII, 211 S., zahlr. Abb., A 5. - Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1921-9 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1921-9 unverbindl. Preis EUR 10,90
129: Lippert, Jana: Kommunales Frei- und

Grnflchenmanagement. - . - 2007. - 127 S., zahlr. Tab. u. Abb., A 5. - Br ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-2047-5 Preis EUR 9.90
124: Becker, Anja: Wie Gras ber die Geschichte wchst. Orte
der Erinnerung an der ehemaligen deutsch-deutschen Grenze. - . - 2004. - IV, 92 S., A5. Br ISBN-10: 3-7983-1961-8 ISBN-13: 978-3-7983-1961-5 Preis EUR 9,90
_____________________________________________________________________________________ Nicht aufgefhrte Bd.-Nrn. sind vergriffen. Bei Abnahme mehrerer Exemplare eines Titels wird Preisnachla gewhrt; Nheres auf Anfrage. Die Preise sind unverbindlich und gelten fr den Barverkauf. Bei Bestellungen wird zustzlich eine Versandpauschale erhoben: fr das 1. Exemplar 2,00 Euro; fr jedes weitere Exemplar 0,50 Euro. Vertrieb/ Publisher Universittsverlag der TU Berlin Universittsbibliothek Fasanenstr. 88 (im VOLKSWAGEN-Haus), D-10623 Berlin. Tel.: (030) 314-76131. Fax.: (030) 314-76133 E-Mail: publikationen@ub.tu-berlin.de http://www.ub.tu-berlin.de/
ISBN: 978-3-7983-2050-5

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LANDSCHAFTSENTWICKLUNG UND UMWELTFORSCHUNG

Schriftenreihe der Fakultt Planen Bauen Umwelt

BAND S20 Berlin 2007

Eds.: Hartmut Kenneweg & Uwe Trger

LANDSCHAFTSENTWICKLUNG UND UMWELTFORSCHUNG

Umschlagfoto: Moabiter Spreebogen, Berlin Partner/FTB-Werbefotografie

LANDSCHAFTSENTWICKLUNG UND UMWELTFORSCHUNG

BAND S20 Berlin 2007

Eds.: Hartmut Kenneweg & Uwe Trger

Druck/ Printing: Vertrieb/ Publisher

Landschaftsentwicklung und Umweltforschung

2nd International Congress on Environmental Planning and Management

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Workinggroup 1 Indicators and concepts for sustainable life in cities

Landschaftsentwicklung und Umweltforschung

Indicators of sustainable development for the monitoring of adapted urban spaces

Landschaftsentwicklung und Umweltforschung

Indicators and concepts for sustainable life in cities

Landschaftsentwicklung und Umweltforschung

Basic Orientor 1. Existence

Landschaftsentwicklung und Umweltforschung

Indicators and concepts for sustainable life in cities

Landschaftsentwicklung und Umweltforschung

Demand-driven Life Cycle Management of Urban Neighbourhoods