Borje Holmberg - Distance Education in Essence PDF

studien und Berichteder ArbeitsstelleFernstudienforschung
der Carl von OssietzkyUniversittOldenburg
Studien und Berichte der Arbeitsstelle Fernstudienforschung

der Carl von Ossietzky Universitt Oldenburg
Volume 4
Brje Holmberg
Distance Education in Essence

An overview of theory and practice
in the early twenty-first century
2nd ed.
Bibliotheks- und Informationssystem der Universitt Oldenburg

2003
Studien und Berichte der Arbeitsstelle Fernstudienforschung

der Carl von Ossietzky Universitt Oldenburg
Herausgeber:
Dr. Ulrich Bernath
Prof. Dr. Friedrich W. Busch
Prof. Dr. Detlef Garz
Prof. Dr. Anke Hanft
Prof. Dr. Wolf-Dieter Scholz
1st edition, 2001

2nd edition, July 2003
Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Center for Distance Education
Publisher:
Bibliotheks- und Informationssystem der

Carl von Ossietzky Universitt Oldenburg
(BIS) Verlag
Tel.: + 049 441 798-2261
Telefax: + 049 441 798-4040
e-mail: verlag@uni-oldenburg.de
ISBN 3-8142-0875-7
Contents
Series Editors' Foreword..........................................................................5
Preface.....................................................................................................7
1
Prolegomena .....................................................................................9
Distance education as innovation....................................................21
The technology debate ....................................................................27
The theory of distance education ....................................................35
Methodology ....................................................................................47
Organisation ....................................................................................63
Expectations and outcomes ............................................................71
Distance education and society.......................................................81
Research on distance education .....................................................85
10 Summing up ....................................................................................89
References.............................................................................................93
Appendix:
The evolution of the character and practice of distance education.......107
Index ................................................................ ...................................115
Series Editors' Foreword

The editors of Studien und Berichte der Arbeitsstelle Fernstudienforschung
der Carl von Ossietzky Universitt Oldenburg are pleased to acknowledge
that Brje Holmberg has entrusted his latest work to the Oldenburg
University series of publications on distance education research. With this
step a fruitful cooperation begun in 1996 is further corroborated. At that time
Brje Holmberg had joined a pioneering project concerned with online
teaching and learning initiated by Ulrich Bernath and Eugene Rubin. As a
member of their team he contributed to the development of the Virtual
Seminar for Professional Development in Distance Education, which was
successfully conducted in 1997 and 1998 with participants from all over the
world. This course became the recommended first core course in the online
Master of Distance Education (MDE) program, which is jointly offered by the
University of Maryland University College and the Carl von Ossietzky
University of Oldenburg. Over 500 MDE students have met Brje Holmberg
in his capacity as a visiting expert in the first module of the course, the
subject of which is History and Principles of Distance Education. One of the
required readings of this course is Holmberg's comprehensive book Theory
and Practice of Distance Education. The MDE students have the unique
privilege to interact personally with him as their tutor in the online learning
environment.
Brje Holmberg has identified mediated subject matter presentation and
mediated student-tutor interaction as the two constituent elements of
distance education and insists on an empathy approach to its practice. In
the online seminars he himself consistently practices this approach by
providing individual guidance and feedback while discussing each
student's questions and opinions. For the seminar work his Theory and
Practice in Distance Education has proved an excellent basis providing

essential parts of the subject matter presentation.
The present book is on the one hand a short, somewhat conversational
presentation and updating of the most important concerns studied in
depth in Theory and Practice in Distance Education. On the other hand it
is a discussion of the status and trends of distance education at the
beginning of the twenty-first century, which among other things includes a
scrutiny of the relationship of technology to distance education.
What has led to the writing of Distance Education in Essence is both the
author's commitment to lucidity, which is badly missing in many of today's
confused references to distance education, and his wish to provide up-todate information about its theory and practice. In his work he has been
able to draw on his rich experiences as a scholar and tutor of distance
students. It is a unique and eloquent expression of a successful process
of advancing theory and practice. In Distance Education in Essence Brje
Holmberg succinctly and readably sums up and evolves his distinguished
life-long contributions to the field in the light of the electronic age.
The Editor of Open Learning deserves our gratitude for granting permission
to reprint Brje Holmberg's The Evolution of the Character and Practice of
Distance Education in the second part of this volume, which is the 1995
precursor on the essence of distance education, particularly as related to
its historical background.
Christine Walti and Franziska Vondrlik provided editorial assistance to this
second edition expanded by a subject index
The Editors
July, 2003
Preface
After many years of work in distance education I am somewhat puzzled
to find that at the beginning of the twenty-first century there is on the one
hand much talk about distance education, most of it favourable, on the
other hand little understanding of its character, theory and practice. This
booklet is meant to describe todays distance education, to elucidate the
basic thinking behind it and to do so as briefly as possible.
Some work I have been doing since the end of the 1990s for a Masterof-Distance-Education programme of the universities of Maryland and
Oldenburg has sharpened my awareness of the need for a succinct
identification and explanation of the most important aspects of distance
education as practised at the beginning of the new millennium. This to
some extent lies behind the following ten short chapters. I owe the title of
this book to one of initiators of this programme, my colleague Dr. Ulrich
Bernath of the University of Oldenburg in Germany.
For my presentation I have drawn on much literature and research, that
of others and my own. I constantly provide readers with full references to
these sources and also in some cases refer to my personal experiences.
To elucidate the background and historical development of distance
education an article on its evolution written by me and published in
Open Learning in 1995 is added as an appendix. The permission of the
publishers of that journal to reprint this paper is gratefully acknowledged.
Brje Holmberg
August 2001
Prolegomena
Preliminaries
Distance education is nothing new. In its early stages and long into the 20th
century the practically only media available to it was print and the written
word, and so it was adequately called correspondence education. As
various other media began to be used this term was felt to be inadequate
and was changed into distance education, officially so since the early
1980s. In 1982 the UNESCO-affiliated International Council for Correspondence Education changed its name into the International Council for
Distance Education (now the International Council for Open and Distance
Education).
From its inception distance education has been characterised by
mediated subject-matter presentation and mediated interaction between
students and tutors. These two characteristics are, in fact, the two
constituent elements of distance education, the former representing oneway traffic from the supporting (teaching) organisation to the students,
the latter two-way traffic between the two. Peer-group interaction between
students is an important but fairly late addition.
Even if the earliest mentions of distance-education activities date from the
end of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century it was towards
the end of the 19th century that it became firmly established. At that
time several large correspondence schools were founded and distanceeducation methods were then first applied to university education. I refer
to what I have written about these early stages of distance education in
my book Growth and structure of distance education (1986).
Prolegomena
Since then distance education has developed into a much applied and
frequently praised mode of education with millions of students in various
parts of the world. It has above all been applied to secondary and
tertiary education as well as to occupational and professional training.
The single-mode distance-teaching universities have attracted much
attention, particularly the Open University in the UK. At the beginning of
the third millennium the use of modern information and communication
technology strongly influences the practice and perhaps even the
reputation of distance education.
When in 1960 I published my first monograph on distance education
very little had been written about it and the research into it so far done
was largely limited to case studies and empirical comparative studies of
distance vs. traditional education. This situation has gradually and
strikingly changed. As late as the 1980s it was possible for individual
scholars to follow and take the measure of practically everything written
on the subject (cf. my international bibliography of 1990 and Dellings
German bibliography of 1977 with additions). The situation at the beginning
of the 21st century is very different. At a great many universities and
other research organisations a wealth of theses, articles and research
reports concerning distance education are continuously being published.
New contributions to the study of distance education now appear
practically every month. The periodicals wholly devoted to distance
education bear witness to this. Among them can be mentioned Open
Learning (UK), Distance Education (Australia), The Journal of Distance
Education/Revue de lducation distance (Canada), The American
Journal of Distance Education (U.S.A.) and the Indian Journal of Open
Learning (India). Regrettably the publication of Epistolodidaktika, the
journal of the European Association of Distance Learning, founded in
1963, was discontinued at the end of 1998.
10
Prolegomena
Distance education is thus no longer either unknown or exceptional, but

constitutes a recognised part of the educational services provided in
most parts of the world. I have described it in some detail in my book
Theory and practice of distance education (second, revised edition 1995
with some updating in a reprint of 2001).
In the present book, which can well be regarded as a mini-sequel to
Theory and practice, facts of current interest about distance education,
methods propagated and used, theoretical approaches, principles guiding
todays practice and the latest developments will be looked into.
Conceptual questions
With the international growth of distance education varying interpretations
of what it includes have been made known. The original situation, which
still largely characterises it, is that individual adults with jobs, families
and social commitments prefer this mode of study because it gives
them a possibility to study in their spare time. They can usually draw on
knowledge acquired in an informal way and on job experiences which are
often relevant in their study. Many of them find it important to be able to
begin and finish their study at any time, not to be bound by timetables except as to possible examination periods or usually optional
supplementary face-to-face sessions; these requirements are usually
met by the organisations offering distance education although some
keep to conventional terms of study and vacations and even impose
pacing on their students.
Distance students study specially prepared, pre-produced courses and
interact non-contiguously with tutors who comment on their work, which
they usually present in the form of solutions of assignments attached to
each course unit.
11
Prolegomena
While this individual study probably still dominates in distance education

world-wide there are a number of other applications. Thus regular university
students sometimes take parts of their degree courses as distance
students and thus integrate distance and face-to-face methods in their
study. This integration occasionally goes so far as to indicate a kind of
convergence of distance education with more conventional approaches
(cf. Smith & Kelly, 1987; Tait & Mills, 1999). Also forms of distance
learning under supervision for children and youngsters in school occur.
So do special applications in staff development and personnel training
(Holmberg, 1995, Chapter 8).
In all kinds of distance education some form of technology is used both
for the presentation of the learning material (perhaps print only although
recordings and other media may also be used for this purpose) and for
the student-tutor interaction (writing and posting, use of electronic mail,
telefax, telephone etc.). A special organisation is necessary to handle
the development and distribution of learning materials, the tutorial and
counselling activities required etc. The study is basically individual and
not group or class based; however, modern technology makes also noncontiguous student-student interaction in classes and ad-hoc groups
possible (by means of tele and/or computer conferencing), which many
students find extremely helpful. Supplementary face-to-face elements,
which occur quite frequently, can be similar in character.
Since a book of mine published in 1977 I have repeatedly described
distance education as covering the various forms of organised teaching
and learning that are not under the immediate supervision of tutors
present with their students in lecture rooms or on the same premises but
nevertheless benefit from the planning, guidance and teaching of a
supporting organisation. The typical target group of this kind of education
consists of adults studying beside work and family life. However,
12
Prolegomena
distance-education methods are, as already indicated, being increasingly

applied also to young students regular study, particularly at the university
level in that individual courses leading to specified credit points are
studied in this way.
A comprehensive summarising definition of distance education has been
provided by Desmond Keegan. He describes the following criteria as its
characteristics:
the quasi-permanent separation of teacher and learner throughout the

length of the learning process (this distinguishes it from conventional
face-to-face education);
the influence of an educational organisation both in the planning and

preparation of learning materials and in the provision of studentsupport services (this distinguishes it from private study and teachyourself programmes);
the use of technical media - print, audio, video or computer - to unite

teacher and learner and carry the content of the course;
the provision of two-way communication so that the student may

benefit from or even initiate dialogue (this distinguishes it from other
uses of technology in education); and
the quasi-permanent absence of the learning group throughout the

length of the learning process so that people are usually taught as
individuals and not in groups, with the possibility of occasional
meetings for both didactic and socialisation purposes. (Keegan,
1990, p. 44)
To the last-mentioned characteristic should now be added the possibility

of non-contiguous group work by means of modern technology. Keegan
himself in a later contribution characterises distance education as either
individual-based provision or group-based provision (Keegan, 1998, p. 43).
13
Prolegomena
What is particularly remarkable is that distance education brings about

one-to-one relations, each student interacting personally with his/ her
tutor. This one-to-one relation between learner and teacher is exceptional
in education, probably elsewhere known practically only in traditional
Oxford and Cambridge tutorials.
American usage sometimes differs from Keegans interpretation. Thus,
even the simple dissemination (by radio or TV, audio or video recordings) of
lectures from one university to another has been called distance
education and the mere use of technology in education is sometimes felt
to be what constitutes distance education (cf. Olcott, 1997, p. 273;
Steele, 1999).
In the interest of conceptual clarity some American writers use the term
distributed learning when technologies are blended with campus-based
delivery whereas the term distance education is limited to the meaning
analysed and presented by Keegan as quoted above. It seems as
though there is some reluctance in North America to recognise as
genuinely educational such approaches as play down the role of face-toface contact between students and teachers (cf. Garrison, 1989). The
extended classroom seems to be more in line with much American
thinking than distance education as defined above and to pave the
way for an interpretation of distance education as the technological
extension of classroom teaching (Peters, 1998, p. 144). To me distance
education is a mode of education in its own right; it is, as Peters says,
sui generis, (cf. Peters, 1996, and 1998, pp. 141 - 145; Holmberg, 1995,
pp. 2 and 4 - 5; see further below).
Distance education is often described as open learning. Cf. Mary Thorpe
who in 1987 maintained that just as correspondence education as a term
had been overtaken by distance education the latter had, in the United
14
Prolegomena
Kingdom at least, been overtaken by open learning. While the distinction

between the two is, indeed, blurred in todays usage I submit that there
is good reason to keep them apart and reserve open learning for forms
of study which refrain from all avoidable restrictions as to access,
study time and methods. The German FernUniversitt is a full distanceteaching university, but is no more open as to access and periods of
study than any other German university. I mention this to illuminate my
inclination to distinguish between distance learning and open learning. It
is important to recognise that distance education is eminently suitable for
open learning, however.
The emergence of advanced technology in distance education has in many
cases been coupled with forms of commercialisation. There is much talk
about it as a not sufficiently exploited market, and many providers
without any earlier background in education have succeeded in attracting
considerable numbers of students for more or less immediately useful
courses based on computer technology. When these providers are simply
on-line businesses engaging individual subject specialists and technicians
without any coherent school or university thinking behind them they are
often criticised as degree mills without educational aspirations. Whether
they should be regarded as providers of distance education is not selfevident. What they provide cannot be called distance education if their
students do not interact with tutors but only with computer programmes.
The product is then what Keegan calls a teach-yourself programme, not
a distance-education course. On this acceptability question see further
Chapter 3.
When in this book providers of distance education are mentioned they
invariably represent schools or universities with special organisations
created to support their students in truly educational endeavours, which,
however, does not preclude individual students from purely instrumental
15
Prolegomena
study. Some traditional university students study in order to acquire a

degree rather than to educate their minds, and so do some distance
students.
Some basic facts
Distance education is provided by a great number of official and private
bodies. Among them should be mentioned the members of the American
and European professional organisations active in the field, the European
Association of Distance-Teaching Universities, the Distance Education
and Training Council in the USA and the European Association of
Distance Learning. Among other similar bodies could be mentioned the
Australian and South Pacific External Studies Association and the Asian
Association of Open Universities. There are also a great number of national
associations.
In secondary education and occupational and professional training private
organisations seem to dominate, whereas higher distance education is
largely in the hands of state universities, at least in Europe.
Among old private distance-teaching organisations that are still active
can be mentioned the American School in Chicago, founded in 1897,
Hermods in Malm, Sweden (1898), International Correspondence Schools
(now Harcourt Learning Direct) in Scranton, Pennsylvania (1891) and
NKS in Oslo, Norway (1914).
Universities using distance-education methods as their sole or chief
procedure for delivery of courses, for interaction with students and for
counselling attract considerable attention. Some of them have proved
very successful both in teaching and research - an outstanding example
is the UK Open University - and all fill important gaps in the public
provision of higher education.
16
Prolegomena
The oldest distance-teaching university is the University of South Africa

(UNISA) which emerged as a development of the University of Good Hope,
founded in 1873 as an examining body along the lines of the University
of London. It was made a distance-teaching university in 1962 (Boucher,
1973).
Readers may find it useful to have a list of some well-known distanceteaching universities active at the beginning of the 21st century. Here is a
list, but I wish to stress that it is not complete and cannot claim to be upto-date as new distance teaching universities are continuously expected
to be created:
AKAD Hochschulen fr Berufsttige, Germany
Allama Iqbal Open University, Pakistan
Anadolu University, Turkey
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University, Hyderabad, India
Athabasca University, Alberta, Canada
Central Radio and TV University, China (with several regional universities)
FernUniversitt, Germany
Hanoi University of Technology - State Open University, Vietnam
The Hellenic Open University, Greece
Hong Kong Open University
Indira Gandhi National Open University, India
Korea National Open University, South Korea
Kota Open University, Rajasthan, India
Kyongi Open University, South Korea
Nalanda Open University, Bihar, India
Open Universiteit, Heerlen, The Netherlands
Private FernFachhochschule Darmstadt, Germany
The Bangladesh Open University
The National Open University of Taiwan
The Open University, United Kingdom (and of the United States)
17
Prolegomena
The Open University of Israel

The Open University of Sri Lanka
The Open University of Tanzania
Ramkhamhaeng University, Thailand
Shanghai TV University
Sri Lanka Institute of Distance Education
Sukhotai Thammathirat Open University, Thailand
Tl-Universit (part of the network of the University of Qubec,
Canada)
Unisur (Universidad Universitaria del Sur), Colombia
Universidad Estatal a Distancia, Costa Rica
Universidad Nacional Abierta, Venezuela
Universidad Nacional de Educacin a Distancia, Spain
Universidade Aberta, Portugal
Universitas Terbuka, Indonesia
Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, Spain
University of Distance Education, Union of Myanmar, Burma
University of the Air, Japan
University of South Africa
Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University, Nashik, India
Zimbabwe Open University.
Ten of these have over 100 000 active students each year in tertiary
education. Daniel (1996), who refers to them as mega-universities, has
analysed their particular characteristics.
Other very well-known providers of university distance education are, for
example, the Open Learning Agency and the North Island College in
British Columbia, Canada, the National Distance Education Centre in
Ireland, the Open Polytechnic of New Zealand and the French Centre
National dEnseignement Distance. The last-mentioned organisation in
18
Prolegomena
2001 reports on the work of 120 000 distance education students at

university level.
Distance education within dual-mode frameworks (dual mode referring to
both conventional and distance-education modes of teaching and
learning being applied within the universities or schools concerned) were
first developed in Australia and are now quite common in Europe (the
UK and Sweden, e. g.) and the USA. Departments for distance education
at German traditional universities and German private distance-teaching
universities have joined in creating an organisation, the Arbeitsgemeinschaft Fernstudium. Leading Australian dual-mode organisations
are, for instance, Deakin University and Monash University in Victoria,
the University of New England and Charles Sturt University in New South
Wales, the Universities of Central and Southern Queensland and Murdoch
University in Western Australia.
In Germany where traditionally education is a state concern and free
of charge a couple of private distance-teaching universities have
functioned since the 1990s. They are the AKAD Hochschulen fr Berufsttige and the Private Fernfachhochschule Darmstadt. While the former
make so extensive use of face-to-face teaching that it is questionable
whether they should be referred to as single-mode or dual-mode
universities, there can be no doubt that the latter is a single-mode one
relying primarily on distance-education methods. The term Fachhochschule means university of applied sciences (polytechnic). (On singlemode vs. dual-mode organisations, large-scale and small-scale distance
education see further Chapter 6).
Facts about distance students and about scholarly studies of the student
bodies are provided in my Theory and practice of distance education
(1995). The number of distance students in the world is considerable as
19
Prolegomena
evident already from the figures mentioned about the so-called mega
universities above. Only in Europe we have to count with at least some
three million distance students. A European commission census found
some 2 600 000 fee-paying distance students in 1996 (Keegan, 1996,
p.3).
Among fairly recent studies of relevance in this context should be
mentioned those by Ommerborn & Schuemer (1999 and 2000) of two
special target groups, on the one hand handicapped people, on the
other hand prisoners. For both these categories non-contiguous study is
as a rule the only option open.
In general terms it nowadays seems difficult to describe distance students
as belonging to clearly definable target groups. Distance education is
suitable for anyone capable of intellectual learning and prepared to work
individually, from elementary stages to advanced degree studies; it above
all attracts adults with jobs, families and social commitments. For reasons
of socialisation conventional schools and universities are usually
preferable for youngsters. There are highly appreciated applications of
supervised distance education for children and youngsters, however
(Holmberg, 1973; Tomlinson et al., 1985; Woodley, 1986). Naturally to
some, for instance the groups investigated by Ommerborn & Schuemer as
mentioned, distance education may not be the preferred choice but
nevertheless an acceptable possibility.
20
Distance education as innovation
As evident from what was said above in Chapter 1 about single-mode vs.
dual-mode universities the specific characteristics of distance education
can be applied to different degrees. If it is regarded as an innovation some
applications could (in Ross terminology) be described as instances of
extra-paradigmatic innovation, whereas others would be innovations
within the accepted paradigm (Ross, 1976). The latter type of distance
education is regarded simply as a substitute for education face to face
and is usually characterised by classes and paced study programmes.
Leslie (1979) describes a system of this kind which insists on fixed
starting times for a course, a fixed schedule of assignments, a fixed
duration of a course, students being treated as members of a class,
although that class is distributed geographically and having to submit
assignments and write examinations on a schedule (Leslie, 1979, p. 36).
Systems which allow and encourage students to make their own timetables, study when their work and family situations allow, submit their
assignments whenever it suits them, consult tutors (on the telephone,
by e-mail etc.) when they feel a need for this support and register for
examinations when they feel ready for them are examples of extraparadigmatic innovations. In systems of this kind (e. g. Hermods or the
Private Fernfachhochschule Darmstadt) students can begin, interrupt
and complete the study as it suits them or as work, health and family
conditions allow. This type of distance education paradoxically on the one
hand serves mass education, on the other hand is based on wholly
individual learning (which does not prevent optional seminars being
offered). This is part of the background of Peters description of distance
education as sui generis and well accords with his much-discussed view
21
of distance education as an industrialised form of teaching and learning

(Peters, 1973).
Technology plays an important part in the view of distance education as
innovative. Unfortunately references to and discussions of distance
education in this context are often characterised more by technology
euphoria than by insight into the potential, theory and practice of this
kind of education. The background is, of course, that it can today benefit
from the remarkable capacity created by information technology towards
the end of the last century to store, retrieve and communicate data.
Technology as such is not what distance educators are primarily
concerned with, but its possible contributions to non-contiguous education
cannot but be a top-priority matter for at least two reasons. One is that
individual use or manipulation of computers and telecommunication
facilities offer until recently unreachable sources of information and
little known procedures for computation and communication. The
second one is that the use of technology seems to exert favourable
influence on young students motivation to learn (cf. Wallace, 2000).
Distance education has always benefited from the products of technology,
print being the most important of them. Even at a very early stage audio
presentations occurred (Hermods used wax cylinders for this purpose at
the very beginning of the 20th century) and video presentations have
long been common including audio and video interaction. It is the use of
computers, however, which has changed the media situation in a
revolutionary way.
No distance-education organisation can limit itself to producing and
disseminating learning packages; to bring about educational interaction
with human teachers, tutors and counsellors is a sine qua non. The
mediated presentation of learning matter, i.e. one-way traffic from the
22
supporting organisation to the students, and the mediated interaction

between the two, i.e. two-way traffic, are, as mentioned in the very first
paragraph of this book, the two constituent elements of distance education.
In both an empathy approach is applicable. On this see further below
under Methodology (Chapter 5).
Computers can be and are to a great extent used to serve both these
constituent elements.
In fact, modern information and communication technology has opened so
many new possibilities and caused so dramatic changes in the practice
of distance education that some scholars have referred to these
changes as a paradigm shift. This will be discussed below under the
heading The technology debate (Chapter 3).
The presentation of subject matter can occur on the World Wide Web,
primarily as an outcome of search for information, facts and arguments.
It makes little sense to read texts from the screen, however, if printed
texts are available as the latter are easier to read and survey. Browsing
is facilitated by printed texts. Search on the WWW is particularly useful
for tracing sources of information and for extracting ephemeral or very
short texts, whereas the use of the Internet or restricted Intranet systems
lend themselves to supplementing printed texts and other sources. The
desirability of using the net for supplementing printed course materials is
often great when a new course is beginning to be used and students are
found to have unforeseen difficulties with certain parts of it. Students
may ask a question on the net, which causes both fellow students and
tutors to comment. This use of the net, which I have personal favourable
experience of, means that it serves both the presentation of subject
matter and the other constituent element of distance education, viz.
student-tutor and student-student interaction. For the last-mentioned
23
functions ordinary electronic mail, referred to below as e-mail, telefax

communication and computer conferencing are important media.
There is a danger that under the influence of technology euphoria
computer technology is used also where it has little or nothing to
contribute. The temptation is to use the computer screen as a
blackboard that transmits everything, even information that could be
more efficiently delivered in paper format (Burge, 1995, p.159).
For the element of interaction a-synchronous computer seminars have
proved to be excellent as they cater for non-contiguous group interaction.
So does teleconferencing. However, computer conferencing suits most
adult students better than teleconferencing as audio and video
conferencing makes it necessary for students to observe scheduled
seminar times, which many job and family situations do not allow.
Computer seminars can, on the other hand, well be a-synchronous, that
is allow students to make their contributions at any time that suits them
within a defined period. An agreed week may be reserved for such a
seminar implying that students can join in at any time, day or night, from,
say, Monday morning at 8 a.m. until Saturday evening at 10 p.m. and
that the seminar leaders summary will be on the net from a given day in
the following week. I have very favourable personal experiences also of
this type of computer conferencing in distance education. On practice of
this kind see Bernath & Rubin (1999 and 2001) and Fritsch (1997).
In many cases face-to-face sessions (seminars, consultations, lectures,
exercises) supplement distance education, usually as optional elements.
If a really liberal study system is applied the teaching organisation
cannot foresee when individual students will be ready for specific events
of this kind. Invitations will then have to be issued to students who have
24
completed the parts of the course which are the prerequisites for each
seminar. In actual practice this causes no difficulty.
On various applications of information and communication technology to
distance education see Bates (1995). Both more general and more
specific discussions about media in distance education are further to be
found in Chapters 5 (Media for subject-matter presentation) and 6 (Media
for student-tutor and student-student communication) of my book Theory
and practice of distance education (1995), which was written before the
computer had radically changed the media situation, however. The use
of computers for student-tutor interaction, for counselling purposes and
in the administration of distance education are nevertheless briefly
looked into in Chapters 6 and 7 of that book.
When students are on line they can communicate with the supporting
organisation not only on matters immediately concerning their learning but
also on administrative questions (the availability and distribution of course
materials, supplementary support, periods for any face-to-face sessions
and examinations, financial matters etc.). Various systems facilitating
this type of contact and also making student-student communication
constantly possible are in use.
There are a great number of further applications of information and
communication technology in distance education. Simulation of work
processes is one example. See further Rekkedal (1999) and Weidenfeld
(1999), e. g.
25
The technology debate
The relation of technology to distance education has - little surprisingly caused much debate. This discussion largely centres around the various
applications of the possibilities opened by the use of the computer.
Whereas computer conferences are usually seen as technological
innovations improving distance teaching and learning there are thinkers
who go much further. Garrison even claims that computer conferencing is
far more than a technique. Computer conferencing has the potential to
radically reshape learning at a distance (Garrison, 1997, p. 9). The same
author extols audio and video conferencing (Garrison, 1989 and 1993),
apparently because these media tend to make distance education more
similar to classroom teaching and learning (which to the present writer
implies no praise). In Peters (1998) there is an interesting discussion
about an assumed Europe-North America controversy behind the two
kinds of estimate:
While North Americans see distance education mainly as a
technological-organizational enabling of access to traditional
university teaching with the help of the latest technical media,
Europeans are interested above all in the pedagogical processing
and optimizing of teaching with the help of technical media,
whereby they deliberately remove themselves from traditional
forms of academic teaching. (Peters, 1998, p. 144)
In an earlier discussion about tele-conferencing Bates similarly states that
the the North American () assumption is that the traditional form of
group, face-to-face instruction is the preferred and most effective form of
higher education, at least, and that the closer distance education can
directly imitate this, the more effective distance education will be
27
whereas Europeans (...) have designed and developed forms of

distance education that place emphasis on the need for flexible learning
opportunities that enable independence on the part of the learners, and
have tried to develop forms of teaching that are deliberately quite
different from the traditional face-to-face approach of classroom
learning (Bates, 1995, p. 167).
Bates and Peters seem to be right in their descriptions of typically
European and American attitudes. When studying contributions made to
the discussion of media and methods readers should be aware of the
differences indicated. See further Peters (1998, p. 141) and his reference
to Rubins discussion of the extended classroom.
The use of the Internet is often described as representing virtual
communication. There is also much talk of virtual universities, virtual
seminars etc. This is neologism of doubtful value as virtual in nontechnical English means not really exact or true. A virtual promise is not
an explicit, real promise, and if a statement is described as virtually
accurate it is not absolutely accurate. A seminar arranged as a computer
conference is real and university teaching on the net is also real, so why
should they be called virtual seminar and virtual university? Regrettably it
is now no doubt too late to eliminate the use of the word virtual in the
technical sense indicated. This linguistic usage is an outcome of a
change of meaning initiated at the end of the twentieth century.
There is at the beginning of the 21st century on the one hand a discussion
of the appropriateness of various types of technology, particularly
computer technology, in higher education from the points of effectiveness,
a view of academic status and social acceptability, on the other hand a
philosophical-educational futuristic argumentation of interest.
28
The background of the acceptability discussion is, inter alia, the fact that
- as already mentioned - not only established universities and schools
offer internet courses but also publishing houses and other companies
more concerned with money making and technology than with
education. When these call themselves universities the academic world
is challenged. That on the other hand the University of Phoenix, which is
a large-scale provider of internet courses, is a stock exchange company,
illuminates and complicates the situation. This is by no means seen as
an internal academic matter, but has been given much attention in the
press, above all in the English-speaking world, particularly North America,
but also elsewhere. Thus the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung in Germany
in March 2000 printed an elucidating commentary on the present
American debate (Mejias, 2000), and about the same time the feelings of
uncertainty and academic repudiation of distance-education courses on
the net were reflected in a journal for university professors in Sweden
(Bjrck, 2000).
Organisations providing computerised educational services and using
the web are sometimes, particularly in North America, referred to as
distance-education schools or universities whether what they offer meets
the criteria of distance education as listed above or not. What they
provide seems often (as a rule?) to be little more than lectures and tests
on the screen and interaction with computer programmes, i.e. something
that can be described as a modernised version of the now discarded
programmed learning of the 1950s, around which a large industry has
been built up for the sale of various learning and testing materials (which
according to Schulmeister (2000) encourage cribbing rather than
education). If that is the situation in the first decade of the twenty-first
century when more than 160 virtual universities are active (Schulmeister
2000), it may well change for the better. We should be aware that as late
29
as around 1950 the now highly regarded regular distance education was
supposed - not always unjustly - to be in the hands of shysters. At the
present time the so-called virtual universities cannot indiscriminately be
counted as distance-teaching universities, however.
What is further queried is if a company or an institution of any other kind
which functions like this, which has no permanent academic staff (what
the Americans call faculty), and which in no way takes responsibility for the
academic freedom of the academics can be called a university of school.
The ownership of learning materials developed is also an important issue. If
the responsible academic is the owner, can he/she bring it with him or
her when moving to another institution? If the institution is the owner,
can it use the material without the participation or consent of its creator?
In such a context what remains of the university as a cohesive academic
unity and of its dignity and recognition?
A series of educational objections to so-called virtual universities have
been articulated by the President of the University of San Diego, who
claims that what they neglect are things like proper breadth and depth of
learning from courses sequenced logically into a curriculum and that
also missing are guided discussions that prompt students to reflect on
the values and ethical implications of issues and ideas (Alice B. Hayes as
quoted by Schulmeister, 1999, p. 76).
The questions and reservations thus brought to the fore are concerned
with the dangers of promoting degree mills. These dangers can be great,
small or non-existent depending on the policies of individual states and
authorities in recognising and awarding charters to would-be universities.
The representatives of distance education discussed in Chapter 1 do not
belong to the so-called virtual teaching institutions criticised. However,
30
they do to varying degrees apply modern information technology to their

teaching.
The internal educational debate pays much attention to the possibly
revolutionary impact of computer technology on the very character of
education. Some scholars in this context contrast what they call the
learning spaces of pre-computer education with those of types of
education relying on the use of computers. Applying both, the FernUniversitt in Germany officially calls its technology-based approach the
Education and Knowledge Space: Virtual University (Hoyer, 1999, p.
214). The German term is Lernraum Virtuelle Universitt.
Otto Peters in a paper of 1999 makes extensive use of this metaphorical
application of the word space (Raum) comparing the real learning
spaces (the presence of human beings and real objects, the relations of
which to one another provide the space with a content structure and
distances with possibly restrictive influence, etc.) with what is called virtual
learning spaces with their indefiniteness, unlimitedness and emptiness of
the space offered behind the screen of the monitor (op. cit. p. 9). Peters
claims that computer, multimedia and network technologies make a
number of new learning and teaching activities possible in the virtual
space, thus in the presentation of subject matter, in obtaining information,
in the areas of communication, collaboration, documentation, word
processing, multimedia, simulation and virtual reality. In a conference
documentation (Shanghai TV University, 2000, p. 8) Peters illuminates
virtual reality as follows: students can communicate interactively with
three-dimensional objects and persons . and even move in these
spaces and observe. Through this immersion in virtual space the attention
of the students can be drawn to given points, intensified and shielded from
diversions from the real world. (This quotation closely follows Peters
German text of 1999, pp. 22 - 24. See further Peters, 2002, Chapter 6.)
31
The possibilities of simulation are thus stressed. For a down-to-earth

description of a learning space virtual university see Hoyer (1999).
In the eyes of several scholars, Peters among them, the virtual learning
spaces represent something radically new. To others, like myself, they are
- with two exceptions - more of new sophisticated possibilities to improve
the presentation of subject matter and the interaction between students
and tutors and also between individual students and groups of students,
i.e. the two constant constituent elements of distance education.
The two exceptions are the search on the web and the simulation
possibilities, both revolutionary innovations.
Something that is allegedly new in the age of information technology is
that, rather than encouraging students to assimilate facts and wisdom
presented, todays distance education causes students to search for
relevant information and argumentation, to consider and apply what has
been found. There are two objections to this. One is that search on the
web far from always leads to relevant knowledge. The amassing of only
vaguely cohesive facts is an outcome that is not unknown. The other
objection is that the problem-oriented learning caused by searching for and
evaluating information had been propagated and practised in distance
education long before the introduction of modern information technology.
Monika Weingartz made a careful study of this at the end of the 1970s.
She identified two approaches to teaching and learning, one based on a
view of knowledge as something ready-made, i. e. already known and
described, the other problem oriented. She showed after a careful analysis
of distance-education courses developed in various parts of the world that
some of them, which started out from problems rather than from already
established knowledge, caused students to trace, collate and draw
conclusions from what they had found whereas others simply caused
32
students to assimilate what was taught (Weingartz, 1980, 1981). There

is no reason to assume that a study of todays web-based courses would
lead to results radically different from Weingartz. Some courses are
good and succeed in developing students critical capacity, others fail to
do this. I submit that this is a question of quality, attainable now and also
before modern information technology influenced distance education.
See further below on Lehners (and Eltons) research under Methodology
(Chapter 5).
Even hypertext approaches allowing non-sequential presentation of
learning matter and encouraging students to find their own way through
the material were and can still be applied without the help of information
technology (cf. Schnotz, 1994) even though this technology facilitates the
free navigation inherent in these approaches. On hypertext/ hypermedia
see Chapter 5. The use of encyclopaedias and dictionaries are the most
commonly occurring type of non-sequential reading.
For a book published in 1986 I used the motto Plus a change, plus cest
la mme chose. Even now after many both far-reaching and superficial
changes in the appearance of distance education I feel tempted to retain
this motto. While the valuable contribution of technology in facilitating
and speeding up individual search and communication must be
unreservedly recognised, the basic requirements and procedures of
distance education, subject-matter presentation, interaction and student
support remain the same as they were a hundred years ago. Text, e. g.,
does not change its character by being delivered by a computer.
33
The theory of distance education
On our way from the elucidation of the fundamental character of distance

education and the students it serves to its further concerns it appears
useful to pay some attention to the theoretical considerations on which it
is based. There are different views of what is to be included in the theory
concept, however.
The character and potential of a distance-education theory
If by theory we simply mean the systematic ordering of ideas about the
phenomena of a field of inquiry (Gage, 1963, p. 102) much of what has
been said above belongs to a presentation of a theory of distance
education. We must look further into our subject, however, particularly if
an understanding of the thinking and principles underlying these
phenomena is meant. Examples of theoretical approaches to distance
education aiming at understanding of this kind are Otto Peters view of
industrialisation as its basic characteristic, Michael Moores (and
Farhad Sabas) theory of transactional distance elucidating the roles of
autonomy, dialogue and structure, Desmond Keegans description of its
main task as re-integrating the teaching acts (regarded as divided by the
very nature of distance education) and mine of empathy as the optimal
condition for the effective presentation of learning matter and helpful
student-tutor interaction. These approaches are described in Peters
(1973), Moore (1993), Moore & Kearsley (1996), Saba (1989), Keegan
(1993b), Holmberg (1990c and 1995; in the last-mentioned work they are
all looked into at some length), Holmberg (1997) and elsewhere. To
what extent they also have explanatory power in Poppers sense (see
below) is worth considering. They have all been much discussed (see
Keegan, 1993a).
35
To the theoretical concerns belong considerations about the influence

distance education can exert on society apart from the spreading of
knowledge and making students aware of academic issues. Sumner (2000)
summarises many of these concerns in contrasting its possibilities to serve
either the system or what, following Habermas Lebenswelt concept,
she calls the lifeworld, i.e. the idea of a consensus of understanding
brought about by communicative action. The latter is said to empower
students to work together to solve community problems that threaten the
basis of the lifeworld itself, whereas the former may serve the system,
supporting multinational corporations, the military or administration, or
simply maintaining the convenient isolation of distance students (p. 282).
This approach is well in line with other so-called progressive thinking
presented by distance educators (cf. Evans & Nation (1993), Harris (1987)
and Carr & Kemmis (1983), the last-mentioned one commented on by
me in Open Campus 13).
However, theory may also be - and usually is - seen as providing for
methodological application. A theory of this kind should generate testable
hypotheses and thus make prediction possible, i.e. stating that if A, B
or C is done this will cause D to happen. (Cf. Boyd, 1993, p. 239):
Obviously, without some predictive power an educational theory is
useless for designing distance education. Less obviously, even to criticize
existing distance education projects we need a theory with causal
relationships, otherwise the bad outcomes that we see, or foresee, might
merely be due to chance, not to the features of the system Examples
of predictive theories applicable to distance education are Perratons of
1981, mine of 1982 and 1985, and Boyds of 1993.
Predictive theories are no doubt desirable. Nevertheless strict epistemological thinkers have reservations. To Karl Popper, the great rationalist
36
philosopher, the aim of the theoretician is to find explanatory theories.

While he recognises the value of testing theories, which to him means
trying to find out whether they cannot be shown to be false, he insists
that the theorists interest in explanation - that is in discovering explanatory
theories -is irreducible to the practical technological interest in the
deduction of predictions (Popper, 1980, p. 61).
Whether understanding, prediction or explanation is aimed at it is usually
found practicable to express the assumptions made as logico-deductive
hypotheses: If A, then B, the more (less) A, the more (less) B. Testing
such hypotheses in Poppers spirit means finding out if they can be
proved to be false; if not, they are accepted ad hoc, i.e. until better
hypotheses have been found. However, few distance-education theories
generating testable hypotheses have been presented and even fewer
have de facto been tested in the sense that they have been subjected to
falsification attempts. In 1970 Kurt Graff developed a decision model for
distance education, but resignedly submitted that the great problems are
beyond calculation (Graff, 1970, p. 54).
Others are less pessimistic. Thus Hilary Perraton, although finding it naive
to seek a single theory of distance education and limiting the scope of
possible theoretical statements to the teaching system (Perraton, 1987,
p. 11), in 1981 introduced a theory generating fourteen hypotheses or
statements (cf. my Theory and practice, pp. 172 - 173), and in 1993 Boyd
presented a falsifiable prescriptive theory for use by developers of, and
researchers into, distance education supported by quasi-intelligent multimodal computer-communications or cyberspace (Boyd, 1993, p. 252).
Simonsen, Schlosser, & Hanson (1999) discuss well-known approaches
to distance-education theory and present an equivalency theory, said to
be uniquely American and based on core values held almost sacred in
American education, such as the use of regular classroom teachers to
37
facilitate the teaching and learning process, local control, small class
size, rapport between teacher and learner and personalized learning
(Simonsen, Schlosser, & Hanson, 1999, p. 73). The last-mentioned
approach should be seen in relation to the quotations from Bates and
Peters in Chapter 1 and 3 on differences between European and North
American approaches to distance education.
The theory attempts that have been developed have, on the whole, met
with a good deal of reservation or rejection, which, however, has not
caused any recommendations about how better to develop and test
theories relevant to distance education. A well-considered study of the
problems arising from theorising on distance education has been carried
out by Greville Rumble (1992), however.
As one who has again and again grappled with theory attempts and is
prepared to face the negative reactions to be foreseen I suggest a
comprehensive theory including a characterisation of distance education,
an understanding of its underlying thinking, principles and tradition, a
predictive part based on these prerequisites and an explanatory approach.
It is from the conclusions of this theory that the methodology of practical
work is derived. The following wording draws on Theory and practice
(1995), an article in Open Learning of 1997 and other writings of mine.
The theory suggested
1. Distance education implies non-contiguous teaching and learning as
students and teachers need not, and for the most part do not, meet
face to face. In principle it is instrumental to individual study, but can
be adapted to group learning. Distance education is well suited to the
conditions of adults with jobs and social commitments who cannot
- or do not want to - take part in classroom activities or keep to a
prescribed time-table. It aims at benefiting from the expected maturity
38
of these students, usually assumes a certain amount of student

independence and aims at promoting it further. If the full potential of
distance education is exploited students are indeed independent of
decisions made by others as to place and time of study (cf. Chapter 2
on extra-paradigmatic innovation and Chapter 7 below on independent
learning).
2. Distance education includes teaching and learning in the form of (a)
mediated presentation of subject matter (one-way traffic) and (b)
mediated interaction between students and tutors (two-way traffic).
This interaction implies a one-to-one relation between the individual
student and his/her tutor. Learning is expected to ensue from the
teaching thus provided through these applications of mediated oneway and two-way traffic. Distance education may also - and with the
advent of computer technology usually does - include interaction
between individual students, in groups and individually.
3. Distance education relies on technical media both for subject-matter
presentation and for interaction. Its provision entails some kind of
supporting organisation (usually a school or university) responsible
for teaching, student support and logistics. Within this organisation
subject specialists, educational designers, tutors, counsellors and
administrative staff cooperate. The adequate term supporting
organisation for institutions providing distance education emanates
from Delling (1966), who originally referred to responsible correspondence schools as helfende Organisationen.
4. Central to the learning and teaching in distance education are personal
relations between the parties involved, study pleasure, and empathy
between students and those representing the supporting organisation.
Expressions of and actions testifying to empathy are instigators of
39
motivation promotion and retention; they are thus likely to pave the
way for success.
Feelings of empathy and belonging promoting students motivation
to learn and influencing the learning favourably can be developed in
the learning process independently of any face-to-face contact with
tutors. They are conveyed by students being engaged in decision
making; by lucid, problem-oriented, conversation-like presentations of
learning matter that may be anchored in existing knowledge; by
friendly non-contiguous interaction between on the one hand students,
on the other hand tutors, counsellors and other staff in the supporting
organisation; and by liberal organisational-administrative structures
and procedures.
Underpinning the theory
The four parts of the theory are related to the notions expressed in the
following five statements:
1. The historical and social background of distance education is adult
learning adapted to the conditions of people who because of work
and family life cannot give first priority to their learning, find it difficult
and/or disagreeable to take part in classes and follow time plans
unrelated to their private circumstances, or even wish to keep their
study entirely private as a confidential matter between them and the
distance-teaching organisation.
Early studies illuminating this situation are, for example, Flinck (1980),
Glatter & Wedell (1971), and Wedemeyer (1981). Cf. also my Theory
and practice (1995, pp. 12 14). It should be mentioned that special
applications of distance education adapted to children and schoolage youngsters also occur. See Theory and practice, Chapter 8.
40
The particular relations between student independence and distance

education have been investigated by, among others, Michael Moore
(1976 and 1993) and Farhab Saba (1989). See below Chapter 7 and
Theory and practice (1995, pp.165 - 172). Insights articulated by
constructivist thinkers are relevant in this context. Cf. Boud (1990, p.
6): Knowledge does not exist independently of those who possess
it...It always fits into the existing framework of understanding of the
learner and is shaped by this frameworkLearning for meaning and
tight teacher control sit uneasily together.
2. Distance education does not simply mean producing learning materials
and possible facilities for interaction with a computer programme, but
also necessarily includes communication between human beings.
3. The very fact that students and teachers either do not meet at all or
meet only occasionally in the distance-education situation leads to
media being required both for the presentation of subject matter and
for the communication. This applied a hundred years ago and earlier
and still applies. Modern information and communication technology
has increased the impact of media and provides new possibilities for
improving distance education (cf. Chapters 3 and 5).
4. To co-ordinate course development, student-tutor and any studentstudent interaction, counselling and administration, a school, university
or other set-up is required. It is essential that this functions as a truly
supporting organisation applying the empathy approach according to
part 4 of the theory (see further Chapter 6 below).
5. Empathy is taken to be the recommended guiding principle for distance
education. This is more than a vague desideratum as it influences
all activities involved, course development, counselling, student-tutor
interaction, administration etc. It is not difficult to see how this
41
guiding principle can be applied in all contacts between students and

tutors, counsellors etc., whereas its application to the development of
learning materials in print, on the net, in recordings etc. is less easily
perceived. In 1960 I introduced a concept meant to identify this.
Unfortunately I called it guided didactic conversation. However, I
operationalised the concept, developed a formal theory about its
effects and had this theory empirically tested twenty years later
(Holmberg, Schuemer, & Obermeier, 1982; Holmberg, 1983, 1999).
The gist of this theory, which I now call a theory of teaching-learning
conversations (the word didactic being very misleading as to many
speakers of English it implies an authoritarian approach and student
subordination, the opposite of what I have in mind), is that if a course
consistently represents a communication process that is felt to have the
character of a conversation, then the students will be more motivated
and more successful than if it has an impersonal textbook character.
Similar theories have been developed by Thomas & Harri-Augstein
(1977), Pask (1976), Forsythe (1986), and Rowntree (1986). See my
Theory and practice (1995, pp. 45 - 55.)
Hypotheses generated
In the theory presentation I gave in Theory and practice (1995), which is in
principle identical with the one worded above but also includes references
to behaviourist techniques and cognitivist thinking based on Ausubel (1968)
and Marton & Slj (1976), I listed ten hypotheses on learning, fourteen
on teaching (in Rogers sense interpreted as facilitation of learning) and
seven on organisation and administration generated by my theory. They
are - or can easily be translated into - ifthen or thethe statements: If
circumstances identified occur (the more they occur), then (the more)
42
learning will be promoted (teaching or administration respectively will

facilitate learning).
Examples of statements expressing hypotheses immediately relevant to
the above theory presentation are:
(1) Warmth in human relations bearing on the study situation is
conducive to emotional involvement.
(2) Emotional involvement in the study promotes deep learning and
goal attainment.
(3) Prerequisites for emotional involvement can be brought about by a
conversational style of presentation.
(4) Consultation facilities (in writing, on the telephone, by e-mail etc.)
constantly open to students for questions and exchanges of opinion
with tutors and fellow-students accord with and facilitate learning.
(5) Frequent, friendly and helpful mediated interaction between on the
one hand students, on the other hand tutors, counsellors and
administrators is conducive to learning.
(6) Large-scale distance education with courses developed for
hundreds or thousands of students by subject specialists and
educational designers and with the student-support work divided
among a large team of tutors is compatible with individual learning
and the empathy approach.
Statement 5 based on part 4 of the theory in its turn leads to the hypotheses already tested in connection with my study of the conversational
approach (Holmberg, Schuemer, & Obermeier, 1982; Holmberg, 1983).
They were:
The stronger the conversational characteristics, the stronger the
students feelings of personal relations between them and the
supporting organisation.
43
The stronger the students feelings that the supporting organisation

is interested in making the learning matter relevant to them, the
greater their personal involvement.
The stronger the students feelings of personal relations with the
supporting organisation and of being personally involved with the
learning matter, the stronger the motivation and the more effective
the learning.
The more independent and scholarly experienced the students, the
less relevant the conversational characteristics for motivation and
success.
The first three of these four hypotheses were subjected to empirical
testing, inter alia rigorous falsification attempts in Poppers spirit by
means of comparisons of experimental and control groups of students.
While no consistent, statistically significant corroboration emerged,
the tendency in three different studies favoured these hypotheses.
The students who took part in these studies stated that they felt
personally involved
by the
conversational presentations, their
attitudes were favourable to them, and those who belonged to the

experimental group, i. e. those who studied courses characterised by the
conversational approach, did marginally better than those belonging to
the control group.
The fourth hypothesis, the one on the relative irrelevance of the
conversational approach to advanced students, has been queried by
Mitchell (1992), who insists that the conversational style is relevant in all
aspects of education (Mitchell, 1992, p. 130).
Peters, on the other hand, is critical of the conversational style, apparently
as he fears that students may be overprotected by being made to eschew
complicated scholarly texts (Peters, 1998, pp. 20 - 23). It is my contention,
44
however, that in academic study the conversational approach should be

applied to texts guiding students reading of original scientific books and
articles, not to rewriting them (cf. Holmberg, 1999).
Inferences
Whether my presentation above deserves to be called a theory is, to
judge from comments made on earlier theorising attempts, not self-evident.
However, I submit that
it has internal consistency as a logical system, and claim with some

confidence that it
establishes functional relationships between the teaching and the

outcomes of learning and that it
generates specific hypotheses and predictions which are expressed in

such a way that research data capable of possibly refuting (falsifying)
the theory can be collected.
Whatever value it may have or not have I feel entitled to call it a theory
as the requirements that it thus meets corresponds to those usually
expected of an educational theory.
I also claim that empathy as an instigator of predictions also gives it a
basis for understanding. It could, of course, be argued that empathy
plays a similar role in all kinds of education. The decisive point here,
however, is that the fact that distance education relies on mediated
presentation of subject matter and mediated interaction with tutors and
fellow-students and, on the whole, functions without face-to-face contacts,
makes it necessary for empathy to be explicitly made evident, whereas
in face-to-face situations a smile between two persons or the tone of a
comment may be enough for empathy to be shown. I thus claim that
regarding empathy as a typical basis of successful distance education
contributes to an understanding of its character.
45
I further claim that my theory to some extent even meets the Popperian
requirement of explanation. It has some explanatory power as it implies
a consistent view of effective learning and teaching in distance education
identifying a general approach on which various procedures can be based.
What above all characterises the theory and its hypotheses is their
stress on individual relevance, human warmth, emotional involvement,
personal approaches, ease of communication, frequent and undelayed
interaction. The insistence on personal relevance causes attention to
students fitting new subject matter and new problem solutions into their
existing cognitive structures. The warmth and emotional involvement
lead to emphasis on the development of rapport between students and
representatives of the school, university or other body responsible for
the teaching. That this body is regarded and described as a supporting
organisation is in tune with the empathy approach.
The theory approach thus developed and tested is based on a conviction
of mine, first expressed in a monograph of 1960, that conversation-like
interaction between distance students and their supporting organisation
promotes motivation, learning pleasure and study results.
To be worth its salt an educational theory must indicate accessible paths
to useful practice. Apart from what has already been said the exposition
of distance-education methods, media, and administration in the following
chapters will illuminate the practical application of the theoretical discussion
above.
46
Methodology
General observations on teaching and learning in distance education

The first basic characteristic of distance-education methodology is, as
indicated, that teaching, i.e. support of learning, is provided noncontiguously and is thus dependent on media of some kind (print,
writing, recordings, tele and computer activities etc.). The second is that,
as already stressed, it consists of two constituent elements, on the one
hand the presentation of subject matter, which is primarily a kind of oneway traffic, on the other hand interaction between students and the
supporting organisation (university, school) with its tutors, counsellors
and administrators, and nowadays often also student-student interaction,
i.e. two kinds of two-way traffic.
General educational theories have influenced distance education
throughout its history. Bths classical study of different schools of
thinking and their degrees of compatibility with distance education bears
witness to this (Bth, 1979). The behaviourists have taught distance
educators the possible value of defining learning objectives in operational
terms to the extent that their application is tempered with an
understanding of its inherent deficiencies (Macdonald-Ross, 1973, p.
47). The use of Blooms and similar taxonomies of learning levels has
left its mark on distance-education methodology and so has cognitivism,
particularly through Ausubels advance organisers and his plea for
meaningful learning anchoring new learning matter in already existing
cognitive structures. These theoretical approaches are dealt with in
relation to distance education in my book Theory and practice of distance
education (1995, pp. 32 - 44 and 56 - 67).
47
Methodology
My theory of distance education as outlined in Chapter 4 above is

practicable and testable in this methodological environment. It could be
seen as to some extent serving what is called instructional design,
which is itself a far from uncontroversial concept (cf. Richey, 1988;
Barrow, 1986; Benkoe de Rotache, 1987). Instructional design is a concept
understood as scholarly inquiry and verification of observations used to
guide practice by validated recommendations for the structuring of
teaching. There is little doubt that this can be useful although differences
between students and learning situations make generalisable, detailed
recommendations both extremely difficult and uncertain. Barrow (1986,
p. 75) refers to our relative ignorance about cause and effect, and the
likelihood that there are many good ways to kill a fox. Nevertheless
search for guiding principles of instructional design seems to be worth
while. Thus Jung (2000, p. 229), reporting on the Korea National Open
University, does not hesitate in stating that it is instructional design, not
technology, that is at the centre of quality distance education.
Todays variety of instructional design is strongly influenced by the
school of thinking that goes under the name of constructivism. The main
contribution of this thinking seems to be raising the awareness that each
learner constructs his/her knowledge by individual interaction with subject
matter and that thus different students learn different things from the
same course. In its extreme form constructivism represents rejection of
all objectivism (Jonassen, 1991) and a belief that all knowledge is
constructed socially (which would imply that even knowledge of anatomy
guiding surgery, for example, could have no objective foundation). For
criticism of this extreme interpretation see Holmberg (1998).
The rejection of belief in objective reality is, of course, a stand well
known in philosophy and literature. Cf. Somerset Maughams novel The
narrow corner, published in 1932:
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Methodology
The world consists of me and my thoughts and my feelings; and

everything else is mere fancy. Life is a dream in which I create the
objects that come before me. Everything knowable, every object of
experience, is an idea in my mind, and without my mind it does not
exist. (This, quoted from the Penguin edition (1963), is said by
Maughams a-moral character Dr. Saunders).
In a study of practical applications of constructivist approaches to distance
education Johansson (1999) has identified a series of criteria required
for making constructivist learning milieus possible, among them activating
students, contextualising theoretical content with experience, learning in
the form of social experience, multiple perspectives of the learning content
and metacognitive considerations (Johansson, 1999, pp. 123 - 124).
There can be little doubt that, interpreted and applied sensibly,
constructivism can provide bases for unique and exciting distance
learning environments. These environments should emerge from authentic
tasks, engage the learners in meaningful, problem-based thinking, and
require negotiation of meaning and reflection on what has been learned
(Jonassen et al., 1995, p. 21). Weidenfeld (1999, p. 237) argues that
constructivist approaches favour experimentation and discovery learning.
It is in my view very important that learning should be regarded as
something more than acquisition of factual knowledge and that therefore
teaching, which following Rogers I describe as facilitation of learning,
cannot mean simple transfer of knowledge. Learning includes such things
as the capacity to abstract meaning from presentations of various kinds,
to select what is relevant in a mass of information, to separate what is
essential from what is less important, to relate concepts and arguments
to others, to analyse concepts and to combine them in a meaningful
way. This corresponds to what Marton and his school call deep learning
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Methodology
(Marton & Slj, 1976). Cf. the desired generative effect advocated by
Forsythe (1986) and quoted in the discussion of media choice below.
It is my contention that to serve learning in this sense the conversational
approaches inherent in my theory (and in Sparkes and Forsythes
recommendations, on which see below) are of decisive importance. They
contribute to reasoning by argument, to directing students attention to
what is important and engaging them intellectually and often emotionally.
What must not be neglected in any endeavour to favour deep learning is
the type of examination, if any, that follows on the completion of study. If
examinations can be passed simply as a consequence of learning a
number of facts, then only surface learning is encouraged. To cater for
deep learning as described examination tasks must require students to
explain, combine and draw conclusions. The latter type of examination
paves the way for students active participation in the conversational
illuminations of subject matter. (See further Morgan, Dingsdag, & Saenger,
1998).
Presentation of learning matter - one-way traffic
Choice of medium/media for subject-matter presentation
The media options open to todays distance educators for presentation
of learning matter are considerable. Apart from print, audio and video
recordings, films, radio, TV, and the simple presentation of texts on the
net, data files with possibilities for animation of graphics and independent
sound files offer new possibilities which are often attractive from the
points of view of accessibility and effectiveness. There is a wealth of
literature on modern information technology and its media. (See Bates,
1995, for example.) What medium or media are selected in individual
cases depends on the specific needs and circumstances of the situation.
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Methodology
There is no cookbook of recipes for media selection that can be applied

automatically in every educational system (Schramm, 1977, p. 263).
However, it is very important that no medium used should be of such a
character that it stifles students imagination or isolates students from
conversation, which TV has been assumed to do in some cases. This
would be what Forsythe (1986) calls a degenerative effect. She warns
against feedback information in closed loops (ibid. p. 24), which indicates
reservations against so-called programmed learning and some types of
computer technology. The importance of media facilitating conversation
along the lines of my theory as described above is also stressed by
Sparkes, who points to the effectiveness of TV in the affective domain
but describes text as the natural channel for teaching complex ideas
(Neil, 1981, p. 113).
The distance-education course
There are basically two kinds of distance-education courses, the selfcontained ones and those which are based on generally available
handbooks and literature, recordings and/or computer programmes of
various kinds. The former have proved particularly useful at elementary
levels (courses in foreign languages, accountancy, e.g.) and in subjects
with indisputably correct solutions of problems and little room for
varying interpretations (mathematics and computer science may be
seen as examples).
At the university level students should in many cases be made aware of
different approaches, conflicting theories, needs of both analyses and
syntheses. In these cases it is usually better to cause students to go to
the sources, acquaint themselves with the origins of the contentious
issues and try to reach conclusions of their own. These sources may
be available in conventional libraries, on the net or in readers specially
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Methodology
prepared for the distance students. The distance-education courses will

then consist of guides to the study of the presentations in question,
clarifying and explaining, but preferably more asking for students own
understanding than providing correct answers. Courses of this kind are
usually referred to as study guides or commentary courses. (See Ljos,
1975, du Plessis, 1987, and Holmberg, 1995, p. 71 ff).
Distance-education courses are almost invariably based on text. Text is,
in fact, basic to all education and the interactions students have with
their texts are just as important as the interactions they have with people
(Juler, 1990, p. 28). In distance education this interaction with texts can and in my view - should represent a kind of simulated communication
while the real communication is brought about by various types of
mediated interaction between students and tutors and students between
them.
When I discuss text as the basis of learning I include not only print but all
other forms of text reproduction for reading, thus also text presented on
the computer screen. As already indicated I am very sceptical of text
presentations on the net as they invariably lead to students making their
own print-outs, which is time-consuming, causes costs for the students
and often results in texts of lower quality than that of those printed.
However, in individual teaching-learning situations it has proved useful
to use the net for expanding and commenting on printed texts (and for
correcting misprints and other errors) as well as for presenting short
extracts from writings of relevance in specific situations. In this way texts
can constantly be updated and experiences of students difficulties can
lead to explanatory additions and references.
For the development of instructional texts both the general theoretical
considerations referred to and my theory of distance education are highly
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Methodology
relevant. A conversational presentation causes considerable redundancy,

but is easier and - as a rule - less time-consuming to read than short
handbook-type texts. It facilitates learning by pointing out difficulties,
clarifying difficult points and making students aware of contexts, thus,
e.g., in wordings like this: Once you have read through section x, refresh
your memory of what was said in section y on the calculation of x, compare
the two issues while making sure that you also see the differences. If you
dont, check . Students may then be asked to solve an exercise which
should be followed not only by a model solution but also by detailed
explanations of why one particular solution is correct or why specified
alternative solutions are possible or unacceptable.
This approach means making students see contexts, consider options and
generally think about the subject matter rather than merely assimilate
facts, conditions and arguments reported on in the texts read.
A finding reported on by Mary Thorpe of the UK Open University throws light
on this. Asked what they thought about questions inserted in instructional
texts some students were negative or hesitant and one of them articulated
what evidently not a few thought:
Sometimes I feel they get in the way. They make me think. I dont want to
think, I just want to get on. (Thorpe, 1986, p. 39).
This is an easily understandable reaction on the part of students feeling
the pressure of study requirements combined with those of their jobs
and family life. By proper examinations students can be shown that the
best way to get on is to think, not only to assimilate facts.
The readability of texts is evidently something of a problem not only at
elementary levels but even, for instance, among graduates from American
liberal arts colleges. A number of empirical studies have caused recommendations on how to write instructional texts. It has been suggested that
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Methodology
short sentences, the use of the active rather than the passive voice, the
replacement of abstract nouns by verbs and frequent use of pronouns
facilitate reading (cf. Miller, 1951; Langer et al., 1974, Taylor, 1977;
Rowntree, 1986, and my discussion in Theory and practice of distance
education, 1995, pp. 88 - 96, of the contributions these and other
scholars have made).
It is sometimes found desirable that students studying printed courses
should be given the opportunity to work really independently. This
implies a free choice of learning objectives and possibilities to select
items of learning matter as they seem interesting and relevant to the
individual student. It is, in fact, possible, though seldom practised, to let
students on their own select learning objectives in that they are given a
choice between related course units, each provided with a detailed
description of the objectives it meets, which makes this choice possible.
Ljos & Sandvold (1983) describe such a procedure. So-called contract
learning goes far in this respect: on the basis of suggestions made by
students individual curricula leading to degrees are agreed. On this see
further Coughlan, 1980; Worth, 1982, and Weingartz, 1991.
There are also methods for allowing students to study in a non-linear way,
i.e. finding their own way through subject matter. Hypermedia and
hypertext systems, which let students browse and navigate freely in
learning material, printed and/or on the net, are of great interest to anyone
anxious to pave the way for independent learning and are to a limited
extent being used, but have in many cases caused difficulties in that
students, particularly those with faulty prior knowledge, have been
hindered rather than helped by the non-sequential learning. The term
hypermedia refers to the possible use of other elements than text (audio
and video).
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Methodology
Blisle (1999, p. 59) describes hypermedia systems as characterised by

leur non-linarit, leur interactivit, leur interconnexion et leur htrognit. What is indeed typical of hypertext is the explicit character of its
interconnections. The interconnections are defined by the author (or
even by the user) in the form of links between words or phrases or
chunks of the document. They are made navigable by defining these
chunks as buttons, such that when the user interrogates that button
(e.g. by clicking on it with a mouse) the connected word or phrase or
chunk appears (Laurillard, 1993, p. 268). Cf. the brief discussion of nonsequential learning above in Chapter 3. A more general presentation of
the hypertext/ hypermedia issue occurs in Jonassen & Mandl (1996).
Hypertext/media may in future become valuable instruments for independent distance learning, but so far few wholly favourable experiences
seem to have been made. It is the difficulties inherent in navigating in
masses of information that cause negative or ambivalent views of their
practicability. However, navigators helping students to master the situation
have been developed. See Blisle (1999) as already referred to.
Supplementary face-to-face sessions
In the cases when face-to-face sessions are offered these can to some
extent be seen as bringing about knowledge-matter presentation, but
usually their main role is creating possibilities for interaction with tutors
and fellow students. It is important to realise that in distance education
any face-to-face activity has to function as a supplement of the noncontiguous work. Doubling what is taught at a distance by providing a
kind of parallel presentation orally has often been found to be confusing,
whereas brush-up courses before examinations are usually regarded as
useful.
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Methodology
Interaction - two-way traffic

To bring about distance education the presentation of learning matter,
simulated communication brought about by interaction with texts and
computer-programmed exercises are by no means enough. Interaction
between human beings remains the other constituent element of distance
education. It is possible to regard this as a technological system of
interpersonal relations and to see knowledge as a product of the contact
between student and teacher. Meaning is given by mediation in dialogue
(Galliani, 2000, p. 46).
Choice of medium/media for interaction
The media used to bring about interaction between students and tutors
and between individual students and groups of students are above all
the written word communicated by the post, by telefax or by computer
and the spoken word, usually communicated by oral recordings and
telephone. Drawings and other illustrations, models, sometimes mobile,
can be included.
Telephone conversations have proved to be very helpful when students
consult their tutors and when tutors wish to supplement written explanations by oral dialogue. Voice mail and the exchange of audio recordings
also occur. Satellite communication is practised in some countries. Thus,
e.g., at the Open University of Israel satellite communication including
two-way audio and one-way video is of common occurrence. See further
Keegan (1995).
While it is difficult or even impossible for large groups of distance students
to take part in classes or other face-to-face activities - this because of
their job and family conditions, geographical situation, health and other
personal circumstances - many, perhaps most distance students like to
join such sessions. It gives them opportunities to listen to explanations
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Methodology
given orally by tutors, to discuss problems face to face with tutors and
fellow-students. Some, but by no means all distance students, find this
more personal and effective than interacting with tutors and other students
non-contiguously, i.e. in writing, on the net and on the telephone although
computer conferencing, synchronous (real-time') and a-synchronous,
attracts many students. (See below Student-student interaction.) Several
of the distance-teaching universities run special study centres in which
face-to-face sessions and other possibilities for student-tutor and studentstudent interaction are provided. (On study centres in the age of information
and communication technology see Mills (1996).)
The practice of student-tutor interaction
The traditional form of student-tutor interaction is based on assignments
given in pre-produced learning materials, answered/solved by students
who submit their solutions to the supporting organisation where a tutor
reads, corrects and comments on them, after which they are returned to
the students. The work done by the tutors implies checking on students
results, but this is only a minor concern. Basically commenting on students
assignments is a teaching task. Tutors correct misunderstandings, direct
students attention to profitable approaches, suggest ways to overcome
difficulties, explain in detail why something is wrong or correct,
acceptable or not acceptable, and invite students to react to the comments
given. In the old correspondence schools as well as in modern distanceteaching organisations like the open universities this commenting has
been developed into extremely valuable student support.
If, as regrettably sometimes occurs, students assignments are merely
ticked off and awarded marks, unique opportunities to teach at a distance
are lost, students are deprived of support and the quality of the educational
activity provided is low. When the full potential of interaction by means of
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Methodology
assignments is used, on the other hand, students are given valuable

help. There is then a real one-to-one relation between each student and
his/her tutor which facilitates the exchange of questions and answers,
views and arguments.
There is much evidence of students appreciation of this interaction
between students and tutors (Beijer, 1972; Kelly, 1982; Thorpe, 1986
and 1988 etc.). It has proved impossible so far to find general principles
for the desirable frequency of interaction opportunities, however. A careful
empirical study by Bth in 1980 showed that higher submission frequency
correlated with more positive attitudes to the interaction (Bth, 1980,
p. 151), but no consistent differences as to course completion or results
were found. A replication study carried out by Rudolf Schuemer and myself
two decades later proved no more conclusive (Holmberg & Schuemer,
1989). Future research may fill this gap.
The tutoring given at a distance is very often connected with the
weakness that students have to wait too long for the comments of their
tutors. Before the age of the computer this delay was usually excused as
a necessary consequence of the use of the postal system. Today when
assignments can be - and very often are - sent by e-mail or fax there is
no such excuse. It is the availability of tutors that is decisive for quick
and full commenting on students assignments. To make the tutoring
system function properly distance education organisations, schools and
universities, have to provide constant tutorial service with tutors always
available per subject, per course, per student with stand-ins for tutors
out of function because of holidays, illness or other causes.
There is convincing research evidence to show that motivation suffers if
students have to wait for their tutors comments for more than a week.
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Methodology
Completion rates have also been shown to correlate with turn-round time
(Rekkedal, 1983).
The expectations that students (with experiences of actual distanceeducation practice) have at the turn of the century are illuminated by
Stevenson (2000), who reports from an inter-European study that, inter
alia, most students expected contact about once a month and extensive
feedback on their assignments (p. 124). Gaskell & Simpson (2000) have
studied the expectations that Open University tutors have about students
wishes and compared these expectations with the wishes actually
expressed by students themselves. They report in table form as follows:
Priority
Students want tutors who...
Tutors think students want

them to...
Know the subject well
Give quality feedback on

assignments
Be friendly and approachable
Be friendly and approachable
Run very good tutorials
Run very good tutorials
Give quality feedback on

assignments
Know the subject well
Develop study skills
Mark promptly
Be easy to get hold of
Be easy to get hold of
Mark promptly
Understand problems
Understand problems
Develop study skills
Help with time management
Explain grades
10
Explain grades
Help with time management

Gaskell & Simpson (2000, p. 121)
In all these activities the empathy approach, discussed above in the

theory chapter, remains important. Friendly and really helpful interaction
between students and tutors should characterise the communication.
Students should be regarded and treated as partners, not as clients.
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Methodology
There are indications that contacts with one tutor-counsellor rather than
with several representatives of the supporting organisations contribute to
the feelings of belonging and also to effectiveness (Rekkedal, 1985).
This tutor-counsellor represents the whole of the teaching-supporting
organisation and gets to know each of his/her students well, which is in
many cases important. Lack of insight into the students total situation
and the total teaching system may be an obstacle to giving maximum
support (Rekkedal, 1985, p. 9).
Student-student interaction
Before the introduction of information and communication technology it
was hardly possible for distance students actively to cooperate with one
another unless they met in person, i.e. if they took part in face-to-face
sessions. E-mail, the chat function on the net and computer conferencing
have changed this radically: today distance students frequently keep in
touch with other students, discuss problems and also interact socially.
(On this see Chapter 2 above, Distance education as innovation.) This
means that distance education relies on mediated subject-matter
presentation, mediated student-tutor interaction and mediated studentstudent interaction.
Computer conferencing is flexible and can occur at fixed times so that
students have immediate contact with one another. This synchronous,
real-time interaction is preferred by many, but is not always possible or
practical as it compels participants to reserve certain days and hours for
the interaction. These time constraints can be avoided by a-synchronous
interaction, which makes it possible for students to take part in discussions
at times that suit them, in the night, for instance. Instead of organising
a two-hour seminar at a time when all students must participate the
supporting organisation can invite students to make their contributions
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Methodology
and acquaint themselves with the contributions of other students at any

time within a week or other period deemed suitable. This is a procedure
well adapted to the conditions of working adults. As an academic I have
personally very favourable experiences of such a-synchronous seminars
in university distance education.
An interesting finding was made when a training of distance educators
by means of text readings and a series of a-synchronous computer
seminars was evaluated. Fritsch (1997) could identify what he calls witness
learning showing that also students who make no contribution of their own
benefit from following a computer seminar, which confirms an assumption
of Laurillards about the value of eavesdropping. This should be compared
with a more sophisticated study of the vicarious learner by Lee et al.
(1997). On the a-synchronous seminar referred to see further Bernath &
Rubin (1999).
Counselling
A special type of interaction between students and their supporting
organisation concerns counselling. For adults studying on their own,
without meeting either tutors, administrators representing the university or
school that is their supporting organisation or fellow students, mediated
counselling is usually of prime importance both before the beginning of
the study and during it. The counselling cannot be limited to information
and advice about study paths and course offer, but must take the
individual students background, conditions, needs and possibilities into
consideration. David Sewart, the director of the student-support of the
British Open University, underlines that the counsellor must be close
enough to the student to have a thorough knowledge of the students
domestic, work and study circumstances (Sewart, 1984, p. 11). Counselling is a tricky task which is, however, competently handled in a number
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Methodology
of distance-teaching organisations. (See Tait, 1995; Thornton & Mitchell,

1978; Kirkwood, 1989; Mills & Tait, 1986, and Phillips, Scott, & Fage,
1998, e.g.)
In some academic circles the suitability of un-asked for intervention when
students seem to get into difficulty or are not heard from has been queried.
In some university systems students are regarded as so wholly
autonomous that even offers of help in these situations are seen as
encroaching on their integrity. If a student stops submitting assignments
this is then interpreted as a decision on mature consideration to
discontinue the study. Anyone who knows something about the
conditions of adult study beside work and family commitments realises
that this is an unrealistic conclusion. Failure to submit assignments or in
other ways continue study usually means something entirely different:
illness in the family, marriage problems, overburdening because of
overtime work, much travel on duty or other claims typical of adult life.
Reminders with offers of support have proved very effective in - as far as
the study is concerned - helping students over problems of this kind (cf.
Rekkedal, 1972, and Simpson, 1977).
For a more detailed discussion of the role of interaction see Chapter 6 of
my book Theory and practice of distance education (1995).
62
Organisation
Demands on distance-education providers

Distance-education work as described differs radically from that in other
types of education. The organisation found practical in traditional schools
and universities is only to a very limited extent suitable for distanceeducation organisations. Among the functions that are special to distance
education are
the development and production of course materials
the provision of a telematic network including a user-friendly system

for computer conferencing and electronic mail, facilities for a chat
function etc.
warehousing
the distribution of course materials to students
the handling of assignments submitted by students, commented on

by tutors and to be returned to students (by post, e-mail or fax)
counselling in writing and on the telephone; mediated information on

study arrangements, examination periods etc.; invitations to face-toface sessions if any
registration of data from assignments and other communications with

students.
This means, among other things,
that combinations of research and editing offices are established,
that facilities for the organisation and distribution of non-contiguous

tutoring tasks are built up,
that academic staff, editors, instructional designers and media

specialists are brought together in a way facilitating their co-operation,
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Organisation
that arrangements are made for unimpeded co-operation between

external course writers and internal staff,
that organised co-operation between course developers and tutors

commenting on students work is brought about and constant staff
development occurs so that counsellors, tutors and other personnel
mutually support one another.
To the functions listed could be added a number of other specific tasks,

for instance intervention on the part of the teaching organisation to help
students over difficult passages in course materials and in set texts and
constant study support. While this kind of service may or may not be
provided by traditional universities and schools, they are usually a must
in distance education. Subject-matter presentations, student-tutor
interaction, the use made of facilities for student-student interaction and
the administration of the educational process must be evaluated, at least
for the purpose of acquiring information useful for revisions and general
continuous improvement of the work.
The administration of course development
Most distance courses are no doubt developed by a subject
specialist co-operating with an editor, the latter of whom functions
also as an advisor, an instructional designer and a media
specialist. A great number of successful courses have been
created by co-operation of this kind. However, since the founding
of the Open University in the UK in 1970 the creation of so-called
course teams has been considered a most important and
effective procedure to make sure that high-quality course materials
are produced. Lord Perry, the first vice-chancellor of this university,
illuminates the background as follows:
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Organisation
To produce the drafts of the various course materials that would

enable an adult, working in isolation, to reach a predetermined
standard of performance in a given area of study, called for the
combined skills of a number of groups of people. First we had to
have not just one university teacher, with his thoughts and ideas
about the objectives, contents and methods of presentation of the
course, but several, because our courses were to be multidisciplinary as well as multimedia in nature. This, in turn, meant
that each teacher would have different and inevitably conflicting
thoughts and ideas which would somehow have to be reconciled
with each other to lead to an agreed final version. Second, since the
university teachers that we could recruit would mostly be unfamiliar
with the special problems both of educating adults and of teaching
at a distance, we would need the advice of other experts, in particular
educational technologists and television and radio producers, in
order to determine the method of presentation of the course. (Perry,
1976, p. 77)
These considerations led to the institutionalisation of the course team at
the Open University. Perry regards this as a very important innovation:
The concept of the course team is, I believe, the most important single
contribution of the Open University to teaching practice at the tertiary
level (ibid. p. 91). The co-operation of several specialists has without
any doubt resulted in course materials of very high quality.
However, the course-team approach, which invariably causes tough
scrutiny of drafts written by colleagues and hot discussions, has not
been adopted without serious criticism and discussion. In 1979 Michael
Drake, a professor at the Open University, published an article entitled
The curse of the course team, in which he criticised the course team on
several points, stating inter alia, that it places more emphasis on content
65
Organisation
than on teaching (p. 52) and that the course team format gives the
articulate, the domineering and the thick-skinned an influence out of all
proportion to their numbers or their merit (ibid.). This contribution gave
rise to strong objections. Thus Andrew Blowers, dean of the OpenUniversity faculty of social sciences, rejected the idea that the model of a
corporate, co-operative approach to teaching and learning would be
supplanted by the more individualistic, authoritarian approach adopted in
traditional university teaching (1979, p. 56) and claimed that the course
team is a flexible instrument for change and provides the creativity and
community on which our whole enterprise depends (p. 57). Considering
the question more than twenty years after this discussion there can be
little doubt that the course team has proved its worth. It is clearly
context-dependent, however (cf. Chung, 1997).
This does not mean that the course team is accepted without reservations.
There is a danger that the product of co-operative work gets an impersonal
character. The ways of address that I propagate for distance-education
courses (I suggest that you should now ) may not always be felt to be
a natural outcome of this co-operation, but can, of course, well be if an
editor is entrusted with the task of wording a course text in this way.
Monika Weingartz in a thought-provoking study of 1990, regrettably
available in German only, provides data and arguments which may make
us query whether the course-team model may risk impeding personal
approaches and contribute to knowledge being presented more as a
finished, ready-made product than as a complex of problems under
development. On the dichotomy problem learning vs. ready-made systems
identified by her see Weingartz (1981) and Holmberg (1995, p. 35).
Whether course teams of the Open-University type are relied on for the
development of learning materials or less sophisticated procedures
are applied, any distance-education organisation, school or university
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Organisation
must make arrangements for co-operation between subject specialists

and distance educators. A step-by-step co-operation has proved more
successful than complete drafts being delivered for revising. A survey of
course-development procedures used in distance-teaching organisation
was presented by Kevin Smith in 1980 and commented on by me in
1995 (pp. 136 - 138).
The organisation of communication
Student-tutor interaction
Only in extremely small operations is it possible to leave the organisation
of the interaction to individual tutors. Normally there must be staff who
keep lists of tutors available for each subject taught, who see to it that
the right tutors receive the assignments of his/her students, who register
dates for the arrival of each student assignment and its return, marks
given and notes about supplementary measures to support students
etc. That this is necessary in really big organisations, in which a million
assignments per year or more, are handled, is evident, but even small
organisations with less than a thousand students have to build up
organisational units for this work. It is an administrative concern, but
cannot be left to administrators only.
Academically responsible staff have to find competent tutors for each
subject and divide and co-ordinate the work when more than one tutor
teaches the same course, which is almost invariably the case. Monitoring
the work of tutors is further necessary in the interest of students, who all
have the right to be properly taught at a distance, to receive full and
helpful comments on their work without unnecessary delay etc. While
some subject specialists are keen on this kind of work and manage it
well, others do not and must then be given support and advice to reach
an acceptable standard or even be replaced.
67
Organisation
Arrangements must also be made to facilitate spontaneous contact

between students and tutors on the net and telephone etc.
Student-student interaction
While in conventional education contact between individual students is a
matter for the students themselves, distance-education organisations
must provide practical opportunities for this type of contact. This includes
asking individual students permission to disclose their names and postal
and/or e-mail addresses and telephone numbers to other students
(which is not always given) and making computer chats available.
Distribution of learning materials
In a truly liberal system which makes no attempt to pace the students but
allows them to work entirely individually it makes little sense to distribute
course materials on fixed dates, for instance once a month. Instead
sending all of the material before the study begins or in smaller batches
based on the speed of individual students work have proved
recommendable. The former is a rational procedure, which has, however,
caused some problems as has the distribution following a predecided
plan. In both cases students have complained that they have been
intimidated by the mountain of course material piled up in front of them
(cf. Bartels & Fritsch, 1976).
A practical solution is to send a reasonable amount of material at the
outset of the study and then together with each assignment commented
on send a course unit roughly corresponding in size to the one finished
by the assignment submitted. Experience shows that office routines for
this can easily be developed - and could be so even before the use of
computer administration (ster, 1965).
68
Organisation
Customer-protection legislation in some cases prevents procedures of

this kind which are rational from the points of view of study but possibly
putting students in a financially unfavourable position by making them
pay for tuition not received because of drop out before a course has
been completed. A serious argument against the continuous individual
dispatch of course materials is also high postage costs (to be compared
with the costs for sending batches of material at fixed intervals) and,
in some developing countries, the time and inconvenience caused by
consignments having to be fetched.
Single-mode and dual-mode distance-teaching organisations
The above presentation has discussed the organisation and administration
of distance education from the points of view of specialised distanceeducation providers like the open universities and the private distanceeducation schools. In many parts of the world, however, distance education
is offered also by traditional universities which have distance education
as a sideline activity beside their regular teaching. This occurs in Europe,
America, Australia and New Zealand and also elsewhere. It is in Australia
that the philosophy of this dual-mode approach was developed
(Sheath, 1972; Smith, 1984).
The single-mode organisations like the open universities and the successors of the American and European correspondence schools can also be
described as large-scale bodies, whereas the dual-mode universities
represent a small-scale model. The former develop and run courses for
hundreds and thousands of students. The course development is, as
discussed above, often carried out by special so-called course teams,
while a group of tutors, who may or may not have taken part in the course
development, comment on students work and generally guide their study.
In the small-scale organisations on the other hand individual teachers
69
Organisation
usually develop courses for their own students only, perhaps less than
50 altogether. In the latter cases the course writer is, as a rule, identical
with the tutor, guides the study and usually also teaches face to face
during residential periods, which are sometimes but far from always
optional. The Australian University of New England in Armidale, New
South Wales, is often regarded as the prototype of the small-scale, dualmode type (Smith, 1979 and 1984). See further Bates (1995) and
Holmberg (1995, pp. 7, 141 - 142).
Typologies of distance education
Apart from the single-mode and the dual-mode distance-teaching
organisations it is possible to identify other types, such as service
organisations working on behalf of universities or other bodies awarding
degrees or certificates and networks of various kinds; Norsk Fjernundervisning in Norway and the Mauritius College of the Air (Jenkins 1997)
can be mentioned as examples of the last mentioned type.
While these three types of distance-education organisation can well be
seen as covering actual practice some further attempts have been made
from various viewpoints to develop typologies of distance education.
Keegan (2000) pays attention to on the one hand distance education for
groups of students, on the other hand individual students, and identifies
four models of distance-education organisations, viz. publicly owned
and run providers, distance-teaching universities, traditional universities
offering distance education, and private bodies doing this. Peters (1998,
pp. 157 - 214) lists and discusses eight distance-education models specific
to institutions. Schuemer (1988) made an interesting classification
based on purely educational, as opposed to organisational, criteria.
Other classifications have also been made.
70
Expectations and outcomes
For a long time the forms of distance education known as correspondence

study, home study and external study were widely regarded with
scepticism. At the beginning of the twentieth century they were often
seen as something pathetic, as modest and largely ineffectual attempts
to overcome underprivileged peoples lack of early schooling. Among
educationists little was expected of these unconventional forms of study.
While this is no longer so in Europe, where distance education, largely
thanks to the public distance-teaching universities, has much prestige,
there still seems to be prejudice against it in the USA.
Views and validated evaluations of distance education
Those practising distance education a hundred to fifty years ago - then
almost exclusively based on the printed and written word and occasional
audio recordings were convinced that distance education could be
made effective - and some of them saw to it that this was done. Naturally
there was much interest in studies comparing the effectiveness of
distance education with that of traditional face-to-face teaching and
learning, and a number of such studies were carried out, regrettably only
rarely with the acumen required of proper scholarly examinations. One
of the scholars who did meet the requirements of sound educational and
statistical study was Gayle B. Childs of the University of Nebraska. He
could show that correspondence education as practised in the USA in the
middle of the twentieth century was by no means inferior to traditional
education in imparting knowledge and skills. In 1965 he wrote: One
thing of which we may be certain is that correspondence study does an
excellent job of subject matter instruction (p. 80). Similar conclusions
were drawn in Sweden, for instance, where correspondence education
71
Expectation and outcomes
had by then acquired so much prestige that the largest correspondence

school, Hermods, had in 1958 been given official status as an examining
body for university entrance and other examinations. (On Childs and other
early effectiveness studies see Childs (1965 and 1971) and Granholm
(1971).)
Thus long before information technology had begun influencing media
use and methodology distance education had proved its effectiveness in
what, following Bloom (1956), we call the cognitive domain and also, to
some extent, in the psychomotor domain (drawing, typing, shorthand
writing, manipulating machinery). Much later its potential also in the
affective domain was illuminated (Sparkes, 1982).
The negative prejudices related to distance education were long-lived,
however, not only in the United States, and were aired in Europe as late
as the 1980s. With the advent of information and communication
technology there was, to judge from press publicity, a radical change in
the opposite direction, at least initially. A kind of technology euphoria
was widely spread in the 1990s and education based on the use of
computers became both popular and highly respected ( cf. Chapter 3
above on the technology debate). This contributed to drawing attention to
favourable experiences made by distance students and former distance
students, to the extensive methodological development work that had
been carried out and to the inclusion of distance-education research in
respected academic milieus. This mode of education thus became a
well-established approach with prestige.
At the beginning of the twenty-first century thus fewer voices querying
the effectiveness of distance education are heard and evaluation
reports support the positive conclusions drawn from what is generally
said and written. As early as 1994 Bartels showed that 38.7% of the
72
FernUniversitt graduates in business administration had, only five

years after they had attained their degrees, been promoted into top
management positions and high-scale salaries. Woodley (1995), who pays
considerable attention also to outcomes other than those concerned with
careers, reports that around three out of four Open-University graduates
declare that they have gained great or enormous benefit from their
study.
The great distance-education providers regularly carry out careful
evaluation studies which invariably testify to the effectiveness of
distance education. We are thus on safe ground when we state that
distance education has proved to be an excellent form of study for many
students. A number of success stories characterise the work in the field.
However, the evaluation reports also almost invariably show that high
drop-out figures are typical of distance education. When non-starters
(i.e. students who have registered for the course but who have not sent
in one single assignment for correction and comment) are included
among non-completers, dropout rates round 50 per cent are not unusual
(Bth, 1984, p. 32). Even higher dropout figures are far from rare.
There is, in fact, a dropout problem in most distance education. This has
been carefully studied by, apart from Bth, several other researchers,
among them, Cookson (1990), Schuemer & Strhlein (1991), Peters,
(1992), and Morgan & Tam (1999).
The backgrounds of success and failure
Naturally the awareness of this problem has caused distance educators
not only to search for the causes of discontinuation but also to try to find
remedies. Studies on the influence of domestic environments, social
conditions, age etc. have been carried out without, as Sewart (1983, p.
168) puts it, pointing to any quantifiable term standing out as a
73
salient feature. It is motivation above all else which, despite physical and
general social and environmental problems, brings success. Attempts to
develop models for the study and reduction of student drop out have
been made. A critical investigation of these was carried out by Woodley,
de Lange, & Tanewski (2001).
On the basis of my many years of experience I dare claim that the most
favourable factor paving the way for motivated students success and
preventing dropout is empathy between the learning and teaching
parties, availability of immediate support and advice when difficulties
crop up, ease in consulting tutors and other subject specialists and
general feelings of rapport. Thus, again, I refer to my theory of distance
education as set out in Chapter 4.
Much has been written on evaluation principles, procedures and
experiences. I refer to Chapter 10 of my book Theory and practice of
distance education (1995), in which several authoritative studies are
referred to. It is no doubt correct to state that by now we have a pretty
good grasp of the potentials and outcomes of distance education.
Costs
A very special type of evaluation concerns its costs and cost-effectiveness.
It is possible to run distance education in a very economical way, working
with large numbers of students per course, thus benefiting from economies
of scale, and limiting the media offers to, for example, the written word
and e-mail. However, it is extremely difficult to lay down general principles
for how to judge the benefit of each component included in the distance
education provided in relation to its cost. We must presumably accept
that we can go no further than stating that distance education can, under
some circumstances, be more cost-effective than traditional education,
but that, on the other hand, no generalisable conclusion can be drawn
74
as distance education occurs in many different forms, using merely

one medium or in other cases several media, one approach or several
approaches etc. (On the issue of costs see Dhanarajan et al., 1994, and
Hlsmann, 2000.)
Independent learning
The relation of student independence to distance education
From the very beginning it has been claimed that distance education is a
type of study particularly suitable for the independent learner and also
promoting student independence. There is no denying that distance
learning requires a certain amount of independence. Learners studying
on their own without any teacher or other person present to organise
periods of learning and bring learning matter to the their attention have
to possess a capacity which can be described as independence in
carrying through learning tasks. These tasks may, however, be
prescribed more or less in detail by the distance-education course. If, as
is usually the case, much of the decision making as to when and how
the study is carried out is left to the individual students we have reason
to talk about self-regulated learning. The type of independence that is
thus described as self-regulation characterises most distance education.
If by independence we merely mean self-regulation and define this as
the capacity individually to carry through study tasks set, we are, of course
entitled to claiming a special relation between distance education and
independent learning. However, another type of independent learning
requires each student to judge learning material and other sources in
relation to the aims of the study, to select relevant matter, compare items
and arguments, analyse and synthesise. Paul (1990, p. 32) refers to openness to new ideas and to rethinking current beliefs..., attitudes (selfmotivation) and the development of new skills, problem conceptualisation,
75
critical and lateral thinking, research and library skills. The relations of
distance education to this type of independence is by no means clear,
however.
Nevertheless there are many distance-education courses catering for this
type of far-reaching independence, some of them by making problems
rather than what we know about their solutions the starting-point (as
shown by Weingartz, 1980, e. g.). They may represent what is called
genetic learning, exemplified in Lehner (1979, pp. 76-77) by a presentation of gravitation starting out from the questions asked by Aristotle and
Galileo instead of from present knowledge. Weingartz study shows that,
while being by no means representative of most distance education, this
kind of independence is catered for internationally in a number of
courses offered.
Almost complete independence occurs in so-called contract learning,
which expects students themselves to suggest the objectives of the
course programme they have in mind, to develop a full plan for their
study, usually a plan for a complete unique degree including the types of
examination foreseen (written or viva-voce, project, thesis etc.), to
submit this plan to the supporting organisation (university) for
modifications and possible additions and then to carry through the study
on the basis of the literature, distance-education courses and other
relevant learning material identified in the plan agreed on in a learning
contract. The Empire State College of the State University of New York
and East London University in the UK are well-known providers of this
type of degree study (Coughlan, 1980; Worth, 1982, and Weingartz,
1991).
Only this third type of independent learning should be described as
really autonomous. I regret having been too generous in my use of the
76
term autonomous learning in earlier publications. For an excellent

analysis of the autonomy concept see Peters (1998, pp. 46 - 54).
Moore, well known for his early study of student independence (1976,
1983), which in distance education he regards as based on the degrees
of dialogue and structure characterising a course or programme, has
identified what he calls transactional distance to describe the mental rather
than the spatial distance between the teaching and learning parties in
distance education (1993). Reducing this mental distance is naturally an
essential task. Saba (1989) has studied this further and expanded
Moores concept of transactional distance, which can be minimised by
telecommunication maximising dialogue. The empathy approach outlined
in Chapter 4 is highly relevant here.
A study of practice in a great number of distance-education organisations in
various parts of the world has clearly shown that independence as
practised must be regarded from two different viewpoints. Distanceeducation programmes have been shown either to expect or to promote
students independence, a view analysed and identified by Lehner and
Weingartz (Bckmann et al., 1985; Lehner & Weingartz, 1985; Lehner,
1991 and 2000).
It seems remarkable and worth mentioning that some writers see no
relation between distance education and students independence (Willn,
1981; Garrison & Shale, 1990).
Attitudes to the independence issue exert practical influence on the
execution of distance education, on guidance and control. They decide if
and to what extent students are given the possibility to pace their study on
their own, cf. Daniel & Marquis (1979) and Coldeway (1986) discussed in
my Theory and practice (1995, pp. 168 - 169). These attitudes also
influence what, if any, intervention by the supporting organisation in
77
students learning is accepted. There is a school of thinking that considers

even encouraging letters and telephone calls caused by students inactivity
as encroaching on their independence and integrity and interprets drop out
as the result of the independent students mature decision to discontinue
the study. This is in my view absurd as it means that the particular situation
of individual adult distance students is disregarded; if distance students
are not heard from, submit no assignments or questions this is seldom
the result of a conscious decision to finish or interrupt study but rather an
outcome of the pressure of conditions unrelated to the study (cf. what is
said about this under Counselling in Chapter 5 above). There is much
evidence to show that encouraging telephone calls and other types of
contact from the supporting organisation offering advice and support
(Rekkedal, 1972, e. g.) exert highly positive influence on students
motivation to continue their study or start again.
The independence issue in distance education has engaged several
scholars. Relevant contributions of interest, apart from those mentioned
above, are, e. g., Weingartz (1990), Elton (1988), and Boud (1988).
Self-regulation in practice
Let us first consider the more modest requirements of the type of
independence described above as self-regulation. The extra-paradigmatic
innovation mentioned in Chapter 2 above facilitates self-regulation. If - as in
some highly successful distance-teaching organisations - students can
register for study at any time, work at their own pace, submit their
assignments for correction and comment at any time of the year and
register for examinations when they feel ready for them, then much is
done to bring about self-regulated learning. It is a remarkable - and in my
view regrettable - fact that most open universities do not avail themselves
78
of this possibility for students self-regulation but insist on semesters and

fixed vacation times.
Why universities created for adults should follow the conventions of
traditional universities in this respect is not easy to understand. Some
people have better opportunities for study during normal vacation times
than in traditional term time. Conditions in business and industry, where
many distance students work, by no means always coincide with what is
desirable from the points of view of the academic calendar, nor do family
conditions, births or illnesses.
When there are no fixed periods for either study or vacations, the distanceteaching organisations have to provide service on all weekdays apart
from recognised national or church holidays, which is sometimes said to
be impossible. That it should be so is a myth, however. Two of the
organisations in which I have had leading positions allow - and encourage
- their students to avail themselves of the opportunities for counselling
and tutoring at any time of the year. It is up to the individual student to
decide when (or even if) he/she makes breaks in the study for holidays.
The question whether or not some kind of pacing should be prescribed
by the supporting organisation is contentious. Personally I favour a
liberal approach causing each student to make his/her own time plan at
the beginning of the study and informing the supporting organisation of
this plan. When the student deviates from the plan in the sense that
he/she works more slowly than planned it will be part of the student
support given by the university or school to remind him/her of this. The
outcome will be either more intense study or the development of a more
realistic time plan than the one the student had not been able to follow.
This plan may foresee periods of highly concentrated study, for instance
during normal vacation time, to compensate for comparatively few study
79
hours per day or week at other periods. On this issue see further my
Theory and practice of distance education (1995, pp. 165 - 172).
Further-reaching independence
As already indicated (Chapter 5) it is possible to give students the right and
possibility to decide on their own learning objectives not only in contract
learning but also in the study of occasional subject-matter areas. They
may build up individual courses by combining selected course units. This
is possible only if each course unit is provided with detailed statements
of objectives which can be used as bases for the selection (cf. Ljos &
Sandvold, 1983).
Whether a distance-education course caters for and encourages students
independence by making them analyse and synthesise, compare and
draw conclusions, is a function of the presentation and interaction methods
applied. The conversational style recommended above as a consequence
of the empathy approach is highly suitable for guiding students in their
use of various sources and their considerations of the problems inherent
in their study. So are, of course, personal one-to-one interactions with tutors
and peer-group discussions, nowadays easily brought about by e-mail
and computer conferencing.
Contract learning as described above goes very far in relying on the
independence of students. It can be combined with distance education,
but need not necessarily be based on distance-education courses.
Weingartz (1991) illuminates it in relation to distance education.
80
Distance education and society
When in the nineteenth century distance education was organised in the

form of correspondence study there was a clearly understood social
objective, that of making education and the acquisition of intellectual
competencies available also to the underprivileged, those who for
reasons of poverty or subordinate positions had not had the opportunity
to get the kind of schooling required of those wanting to go in for higher
education or for making careers in trade or industry. Thus general
education and occupational/professional training became the main
purposes of study. Distance education was, in fact, extremely successful
as a second-chance educational possibility and paved the way for
academic success and careers of various kinds for gifted and
hardworking people with no possibility to benefit from traditional study
paths. Thus distance education contributed to upward social mobility and
to enriching society with qualified people emanating from social groups
earlier underrepresented among leading categories. In 1973 Gaddn
could show that a great number of leaders in Swedish industry, banking,
university and trade unions had had all or most of their pre-university
education as students of Hermods, a very large non-profit making
distance education provider.
The situation has changed in the developed world by the widening of
publicly provided education, but there can be no doubt that distance
education in many cases still provides a second chance for learning and
that there is considerable need for this function. However, other social
concerns have also come to the fore, such as questions concerning the
role of distance education in preserving societal status quo or promoting
change.
81
Towards the end of the twentieth century several social scientists thus
began looking into distance education from other viewpoints than the
methodological ones which had mainly occupied the distance educators
themselves. The student bodies of particularly the large distanceteaching universities were studied, and so were the institutional concerns of
these universities and their relations to trends in society. Many came to
the conclusion expressed by John Field (1994, p. 9) that commercial,
technological and cultural trends combine with one another to reinforce
the appeal of distance open learning to a consumer market which currently
shows every sign of growth without limit.
If at the outset distance education represented marginal systems for
marginalised sections of the population (Tait, 1994, p. 26) it is now a
widely recognised and respected mode applied by people of practically
all categories. At the university where I have made my latest experiences of
distance education most students hold highly responsible jobs and many
already have a degree behind them before they enrol. They certainly do not
represent an underprivileged group but are in most cases well established
people who study with a view to getting into the front line of new
developments.
It has been argued that research has largely neglected the external forces
influencing and being influenced by distance education (thus Campion &
Guiton, 1991, e. g.) and that emphasis on internal, methodological problems is not enough. Questions concerning power and control, societal
pressures etc. also attracted the attention of several scholars in the
1990s, thus, e. g., Tait (1994), who equates critical approaches to distance
education with the end of innocence, Edwards (1991), Harris (1987),
Raggat (1993), and Faith (1988). When in these contexts the adjective
critical appears it usually refers to criticism of society and social
conditions or the role of distance education in society, not, as expected
82
by many educationists, criticism of teaching and learning methods or of

empirical research. From discussions of the application of Fordism and
Post-Fordism to distance education and the use of this mode of
education not only in open societies but also in dictatorships it is evident
that distance education - like any mode of education - can serve various
ideological and other purposes. It may, as Sumner (2000) claims, serve
the established system or a supposedly better society - or it may wholly
disregard this issue. The only ideological tendency that can be considered
inherent in distance education is, because of its as a rule individual and
private character, individualism.
A safe-guard against anti-pluralistic indoctrination is available in the form
of promotion of students independence, which in turn can benefit from
the conversational approaches as discussed above. Distance education as
such neither favours nor counters social developments, as it is open to
contents of various kinds. It has great potential for discussions, openness
as to views and arguments, for pluralistic approaches and unprejudiced
learning, however. It is up to the distance educators to avail themselves
of these possibilities by presenting in as unbiased a way as possible
alternative approaches and interpretations, inspiring search and discussion
free from dogmatic shackles and generally paving the way for reflection.
83
Research on distance education
The great number of references to scholarly studies and empirical

examinations given in the preceding chapters have already made it clear
that much research has been carried out on distance education. Attempts
have been made to survey the research situation and provide overviews
of what has been done. Otto Peters published such a survey in 1997 (in
German). I have tried to summarise in a useful way the research carried
out until the middle of the 1990s, thus, for example, in Holmberg, 1990
and 1996. Also my book Theory and practice of distance education of
1995 reports comprehensively on the research data on which it is based.
The themes reported on in these publications have concentrated on targetgroups and environmental studies, students learning conditions, development of learning materials, interaction, organisation and administration,
economics, applications of various types of and approaches to distance
education, evaluation and theory attempts, and to an increasing degree
exogenous factors related to distance education in society (cf. Campion
& Guiton, 1991). What out of the research findings thus available has
seemed to me to be of great relevance at the beginning of the 21st century
has been briefly discussed in the first eight chapters of this book, which,
however, does not mean that I claim to have given full and adequate
information on the research reports referred to. I have made a selection of
contributions which are important from my point of view. For further
information I refer my readers to the original articles, reports and books
listed.
There is, in fact, evidence of so much distance-education research of an
acceptable standard that the field can well be described as a discipline
of its own. On this issue see a discussion in the Journal of Distance
85
Education I, (1) (1986) and IV, (1) (1989) as well as chapter 11 of Holmberg
(1995). Nevertheless we have to acknowledge that there are evident
weaknesses in some fields.
In quickly developing areas more or less new to distance education it is
thus hardly possible to present a cohesive picture of relevant research.
This would seem to apply to the use of information and communication
technology. In the research surveys mentioned above little attention is
paid to the role of technology in distance education. In the first decade of
the 21st century there is, of course, much literature on it, the lasting
relevance of which is very difficult to judge. Apart from the sources looked
into in the previous chapters references should be made to a consecutive
series of articles on this concern in The American Journal of Distance
Education and, further, for example to Cookson (2000) containing a list of
internet-related issues facing higher education and Eisenstadt & Vincent
(1998) elucidating artificial intelligence technologies,
Although computer technology and its applications develop at very high
speed and new techniques can thus be foreseen it is tempting to regard
the present status in this area as representing at least an excellent and
influential intermediary position. What I have in mind are the possibilities
to search the world-wide web for information and literature, to use the
net on the one hand for additions to and corrections of printed learning
material, on the other hand for interaction with individual students by e-mail
and with groups of students by computer conferencing. As shown above
in Chapter 2 a-synchronous computer seminars have particularly great
potentials for adult distance students. Future research in this area will no
doubt bring about new approaches and possibly even better solutions.
An old extremely important concern in which we have too little validated
knowledge is students learning as influenced by distance education. We
86
simply know too little of how students really learn. Marland et al. (1990
and 1992) made small-scale interview studies of the mental processes
which mediate or come between the teaching and the learning outcomes,
such as strategy planning, hypothesising, elaborating and generating.
They reported on interesting findings from the small groups that their
studies necessarily had to be limited to. I wish to plead for more interest
in studies of this kind (as I did at the EDEN research workshop in
Prague in March 2000; Wagner & Szcs, 2000, p. 3). It would seem to
be possible to continue along the lines indicated by developing a series
of questions aiming at finding out how students really learn and by
inspiring colleagues all over the world to carry out interviews on the
basis of these and report on the outcomes to a group of scholars
prepared to collate the replies given. Much work would be required for
such a study including strict guidelines for the interviewing, transcription
of the interviews, schemes for coding replies and the coding itself by
independent coders, constant international co-operation etc. In my view a
study of this kind or any other study contributing real knowledge about
students learning would be worth much demanding work.
Although we are no doubt entitled to claim that distance-education research
has by now reached an acceptable level much remains to be done. My
references to information technology and students learning are simply
examples of personal choices made on the basis of much thinking
and many years of work in distance education. A great number of
other research needs could well be added.
87
10
Summing up
The very gist of the above presentation can, if summarised in just a few
sentences, be described as follows:
Distance education means learning without learners and teachers
meeting face to face or only meeting occasionally to supplement the
teaching and learning that takes place non-contiguously. It can be and
usually is wholly individual, students meeting other students either not at
all or only occasionally at supplementary face-to-face sessions and each
student working at his/her own pace.
Distance education has two constituent elements, on the one hand
presentation of learning matter, i.e. in principle one-way traffic, on the
other hand interaction between learners and teachers and sometimes in
the form of peer-group interaction, i.e. learners interacting with one another.
Special methods and media have been developed both for the subjectmatter presentation and for the interaction; modern information and
communication technology contributes to the effectiveness of distance
education.
There are special organisations set up to develop, apply and administer
distance education. It is their task to co-ordinate and carry out effective
support of the distance learners. They can adequately be called supporting
organisations.
Distance education from its beginning in the 19th century had and still
retains an innovatory character; striking outcomes of this are on the one
hand an almost unparalleled one-to-one relation between individual
learners and individual teachers, on the other hand the possibilities it
offers for individual and self-paced learning.
89
Summing up
Distance education is above all a mode of learning applied by adults with

jobs, families and other social commitments; its adaptability to the
conditions of adult life and to self-regulated learning constitute the
background for this. However, also children and youngsters are distance
learners, above all in scarcely inhabited areas or where grammar
schools have not a sufficient number of academically duly qualified
teachers.
Millions of learners in various parts of the world use the teachinglearning facilities provided by distance-teaching organisations, among
them more than thirty established distance-teaching universities, some
of which have more than 100 000 students enrolled.
Distance education is being constantly evaluated and has proved to be
very effective in helping motivated and hard-working students to reach
their goals.
Like other modes of learning distance education can serve both truly
educational objectives and mere instrumental learning; on the one hand
it has the potential to contribute to the development of independence in
learning, on the other hand it usually expects a certain amount of
independence on the part of the learner.
There is a wealth of research on distance education and some theory
building both of a kind to guide its further development and of a sociological
type; in this book important parts of this research are expounded and a
theory based on the principle of empathy and the use of conversationlike approaches has been presented with a report on its testing.
Several distance educators have contributed descriptive, critical and
querying studies of distance education, its principles and practice as well
90
Summing up
as its role in society; the above presentation draws on and comments on

these.
The first nine chapters of this book illuminate and discuss the points
listed, show how distance education is practised on the basis of principles
specified and provide groundwork for further thinking and practice.
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107
The evolution of the character and practice of distance education
108
109
110
111
112
Reprinted from Open Learning, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 47 53, with
permission of the Open University and the editor of Open Learning.
113
Index
acceptability (appropriateness) of
computerised educational services:
15, 28-30
affective domain: 51, 72
(the) American School: 16
American vs. European approaches:
14, 27-28, 37, 38
applications: 12, 20, 21, 25, 27, 39, 40,
49, 85, 86
artificial intelligence: 86
assignments: 11, 21, 57, 58, 59, 62, 63,
67, 78
a-synchronous computer seminars: 24,
57, 61, 86
audio (presentations and interaction):
14, 22, 24, 50, 54, 56, 71
autonomy: 77, 111; see further
independence
deep learning: 43, 49-50

definitions of distance education: 11-15
delay (of tutor comments): 58, 67
development of distance education: 7,
9-11, 107-113
discipline of distance education: 85-86
distance-teaching universities: 10, 17-19,
57, 71, 82
distributed learning: 14
distribution (of course materials): 6-69,
12, 25, 63, 68,
drop out: 69, 73-74, 78
dual-mode: 19, 21, 69-70
educational theory: 36, 46- 47-50; see
also theory
electronic mail, e-mail: 12, 21, 24, 43,
58, 60, 63, 68, 74, 80, 86
emotional involvement: 43, 46
empathy: 5, 23, 35, 39, 40, 41, 43, 45,
46, 59, 74, 77, 80, 90,
European vs American approaches: 14,
27-28, 37, 38
evaluation: 71, 72, 73, 74, 85, 109
extended classroom: 14, 28
extra-paradigmatic innovation: 21, 39,
78
behaviourism: 47
chat: 60, 68
class/es/: 12, 21, 38, 40, 56, 110-111
cognitive domain: 72
cognitivism: 47
commentary course/s/: 52
commercialisation: 15
computer technology: 15, 24, 28, 31,
39, 51, 86
computer conferences, seminars: 12,
24, 27, 28, 57, 60, 61, 63, 80, 86
concept of distance education: 11-15
constituent elements: 5, 9, 23, 32, 47, 89
constructivism: 48-49
consultation: 24, 43
contract learning: 54, 76, 80
convergence: 12
conversational approach 40, 43, 44, 46,
50, 53, 80, 83, 90
correspondence education: 9, 14, 71
costs: 52, 69, 74-75
counselling: 12, 16, 25, 41, 61-62, 63,
78, 79
course (subject-matter presentation): 9,
11, 23, 39, 41, 50, 51-52, 54, 60, 64,
68, 69, 89
course development: 41, 51-55, 64-67,
69, 70
course team: 64-66, 69
critical approaches: 82-83
face to face: 11-14, 19, 24-25, 27, 40,

45, 55-57, 60, 63, 71, 89
falsification: 37, 44, 45
fax: 24, 56, 58
FernUniversitt: 15, 17, 31, 73
group study: 12, 13, 21, 38, 86, 87
Hermods: 16, 21, 22, 72, 81, 109
hypertext, hypermedia: 33, 54-55
ideological purposes: 83
independence (autonomy): 28, 39, 41,
54, 75-80, 83, 90, 110, 111
individual learning: 12, 21, 38, 43, 83,
89, 110,111
industrialised teaching and learning: 22,
110
information: 6, 10 22, 23, 24, 31, 32,
49, 51, 55, 61, 63, 64, 85, 86
innovation: 21
inserted questions: 53
instructional design: 48
115
Index
Private FernFachhochschule
Darmstadt: 17, 19, 21
problem-oriented learning: 32, 40
professional organisations: 16
programmed learning: 29, 51
psychomotor domain: 72
interaction: 5, 9, 12, 16, 21, 22-24,

24-25, 29, 32-33, 39-41, 43, 45-48,
52, 55, 56-62, 64, 67-68, 80, 86, 89,
International Council for Open and
Distance Education: 9
International Correspondence Schools:
16
internet, net :23, 24, 28-29, 31, 42,
50-52, 54, 56, 57, 60, 63, 68, 86
intervention: 62, 64, 77
rapport: 38, 46
readability: 53-54
reminders: 62
satellite communication: 56
search on the web: 32, 33, 86
self-contained course: 51
self-paced learning: 21, 79, 89
self-regulation: 75-80
simulation: 25, 31, 32
single-mode: 10, 19, 21, 69-70
small-scale: 69-70, 109
social objectives: 81, 107
students (target groups): 11-12, 15-16,
19-20, 21, 24, 35, 38-39, 43, 46-48,
56, 58-59, 72-78, 79-80, 82, 86, 90,
111
student-student interaction: 12, 25, 39,
47, 57, 64, 68, see further peer-group
interaction
student support: 33, 39, 79; see further
counselling
student-tutor interaction: 5, 9, 11, 12,
25, 39, 47, 57, 60
study centres: 57
study guide: 52
study skills: 59
submission frequency: 58
supervised distance learning: 12, 20, 90
supporting organisation: 23, 25, 39, 41,
44, 46-47, 57, 60-61, 76-79,
synchronous interaction: 57, 60; see
further synchronous seminars
journals on distance education: 10,

85-86
large-scale distance education: 19, 29,
43, 69, 109
learning: 5, 12-15, 19-22, 25, 27-33, 38,
39-46, 49-50*-57, 61, 66, 74-, 78,
80-81, 85-87, 89-90
learning materials: 12-13, 30, 41, 42,
57, 66, 68-69, 85, 86
learning situations: 48, 52
mass education: 21
media, mediated presentation and
interaction: 5, 9, 12-13, 22-25, 27-28,
31, 39, 41, 43, 45-47, 50-52, 56-57,
63-64, 72, 74-75, 89, 107, 111
mega universities: 18, 20
motivation: 22, 40, 44, 58, 74, 78
net - see internet
NKS: 16
objectives: 47-48, 54, 65, 76, 80-81, 90
one-to-one relations between student
and tutor: 14, 39, 58, 80, 89
one-way traffic: 9, 22-23, 39
online communication: 5, 25
open learning: 14-15, 82
(The) Open University, UK: 10, 16, 53,
61, 64-65, 109
(The) Open University of Israel: 56
organisation of distance education: 9,
12-13, 22-25, 39, 41, 44, 46-47, 57-58,
60-61, 63-70, 77-79
teaching: 5, 12, 19, 22, 27-28, 32, 35,

38-40, 42-43, 45-46, 47, 49, 51, 57,
65-66, 71, 83, 89
teaching activities: 31, 35
teaching organisations: 10, 15, 24, 30,
40, 57, 62, 64, 67, 69-70, 78-79, 90
teaching parties: 74, 77
teaching systems: 37, 60
target-groups: 85; see further students
technology: 6, 10, 12, 13-15, 22-25,
27-29, 31, 33, 41, 48, 50, 57, 60, 72,
86, 87, 89,
tele conferencing: 12, 24, 27
telefax: 12, 24, 56, 58
pacing (and self-paced learning): 11,

21, 79, 89
peer-group interaction: 9, 80; see
student-student interaction
periodicals on distance education: 10
periods of study: 15, 79-80
personal relations, personal
approaches: 39, 43-44, 46, 66
pioneering work: 107-108
print: 9, 12, 22, 47, 52, 54, 111
116
Index
telephone: 12, 56, 57, 68, 78,
text: 51, 52, 54, 61, 66,
theory: 6-7, 22, 35-38, 40-41, 42-52,
45- 50, 85, 90
theory of distance education: 35-46,
transactional distance: 35, 77
tutorial service, tutoring system: 58
two-way traffic: 9, 22, 23, 39, 47, 56-62
typologies of distance education: 70
video presentation: 22, 56

video recordings: 14, 50
video conferences: 24, 27
virtual communication: 28
'virtual' universities etc.: 28, 29-30
virtual reality, space: 31-32
voice mail: 56
witness learning: 61
WWW-the world-wide web: 23, 29, 32,
33, 86
University of London: 17, 109

University of New England (Australia):
19, 70
University of South Africa (UNISA): 17,
109
117
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studien und Berichteder ArbeitsstelleFernstudienforschung

der Carl von OssietzkyUniversittOldenburg

Studien und Berichte der Arbeitsstelle Fernstudienforschung

Distance Education in Essence

Bibliotheks- und Informationssystem der Universitt Oldenburg

Studien und Berichte der Arbeitsstelle Fernstudienforschung

1st edition, 2001

Bibliotheks- und Informationssystem der

Distance education as innovation....................................................21

The technology debate ....................................................................27

The theory of distance education ....................................................35

Expectations and outcomes ............................................................71

Distance education and society.......................................................81

Research on distance education .....................................................85

Series Editors' Foreword

Practice in Distance Education has proved an excellent basis providing

Distance education is thus no longer either unknown or exceptional, but

While this individual study probably still dominates in distance education

distance-education methods are, as already indicated, being increasingly

the quasi-permanent separation of teacher and learner throughout the

the influence of an educational organisation both in the planning and

the use of technical media - print, audio, video or computer - to unite

the provision of two-way communication so that the student may

the quasi-permanent absence of the learning group throughout the

To the last-mentioned characteristic should now be added the possibility

What is particularly remarkable is that distance education brings about

Kingdom at least, been overtaken by open learning. While the distinction

study. Some traditional university students study in order to acquire a

The oldest distance-teaching university is the University of South Africa

The Open University of Israel

2001 reports on the work of 120 000 distance education students at

Distance education as innovation

Distance education as innovation

of distance education as an industrialised form of teaching and learning

Distance education as innovation

supporting organisation to the students, and the mediated interaction

Distance education as innovation

functions ordinary electronic mail, referred to below as e-mail, telefax

Distance education as innovation

The technology debate

The technology debate

whereas Europeans (...) have designed and developed forms of

The technology debate

The technology debate

The technology debate

they do to varying degrees apply modern information technology to their

The technology debate

The possibilities of simulation are thus stressed. For a down-to-earth

The technology debate

students to assimilate what was taught (Weingartz, 1980, 1981). There

The theory of distance education

On our way from the elucidation of the fundamental character of distance

The theory of distance education

To the theoretical concerns belong considerations about the influence

The theory of distance education

philosopher, the aim of the theoretician is to find explanatory theories.

The theory of distance education

The theory of distance education

of these students, usually assumes a certain amount of student

The theory of distance education

The theory of distance education

The particular relations between student independence and distance

The theory of distance education