•

EDV-Lesezone

'
i
Aus:

I 21 I Wilhelmstr.32-Postfai
(dem Auswels entsprechend)
Datum: 5. 9. 95

Name, Vorname
Kessler,

760.203^.2
N9<212083829
bis zur Rdcksendung
Im Buch bleiben.

Dleser Absehnitt muB

Jr JW2q.lfi.Iubin
I universitAtsbibuo^ek
Benutzerkonto-Nr.
S2

- Nicht beschfldlgen -

a
O
O
3
Q
I
(J
AICHAAD W. WOODMAN

ZahlderBande:
Doris

,vk: /Bo: ZAU

Zahl der Bande

Zeltschrlften: Titel (ungekurzt), Band, Jahr, Ersch.-Ort.

Aufsatz: Seitenangabe, Verfasser, Titel.

m
Buch: Name, Vornamen des Verf., Titel, Aufl., Ersch.-Ort und -Jahr, ggf. Serie und Band.

Bibliographlscher Nachwels
""1981, Buffalo,*!)'
Journal of Creative Behavior, Vol. 15,
Zitiertin:

Concept on Personality Theory

S. 43-66, Woodman, R.W., Creativity as an

Propriety of the Erich Fromm Document Center. For personal use only. Citation or publication of

Veröffentlichungen – auch von Teilen – bedürfen der schriftlichen Erlaubnis des Rechteinhabers.
Bestell-Nummer

Eigentum des Erich Fromm Dokumentationszentrums. Nutzung nur für persönliche Zwecke.

^£

.fa
Creativity as a Construct

Hzf

D
£ b
o
°
1/1 .-^
o
>
X 212083829
in Personality Theory

Z>
o
D-
o
O
£
material prohibited without express written permission of the copyright holder.
Wilhelmstr. 32-Postfach 2620
universitAtsbibliothek
D-72016T0blngen

15
JK
x:
_

en
c
Creativity, as a concept, presents a special challenge for

o
<0 "O
(U
o
in
a
u

€*:

*<u O
•-

c •»
S o

ra o
<n —
u .y
theories of personality. This challenge is to describe and ex·

<u
to
V
a) £
c

£
£
x>
plain a phenomenon or type of behavior which does not

>
(0

•o
.2 $
~ §• '5 5
« S
35 <n
3 _
u
ro a
readily lend itself to explanations in terms of cause, the dis·

OS.
<U T3
F
E « ° g
C

u
covery of antecedent conditions and empirical sequences

y
E
10

*•
«E
x:
O

• s
or demonstrative reasoning. One way of dealing with this

C
s?.a

XI

to
<u
challenge is to decide that creativity is not suitable or mean·

<o

•ft"

**

g> S £ g> S
o
io
ingful as a separate construct in psychological theorizing

O
m

c
c
o
and therefore need not be explained. This position is not so

m
Signatur

Friststempel

<u
much one of ignoring behaviors commonly labeled creative

>• <0
Ef •"
o
c x:
E g u -c aj xj Q
u
o £
Sachbearbeiter

'S

(0
in
as it is one of treating novel, original behavior as requiring

o
a
a)

8S
x: •= "> «n n

"> =
no special explanation. This approach is often seen as less

(0 ? ^3 10

in _c 'C io ~
2 >,o c •=fe£
TO x: 8= ro i £
<n *•
o o^ ?« S ox-~5Jx: m-°o
m'r!'St-'=cx:w-C,0-Eo

g !8! 1
e « o o 5i
*^ xj u o £
acceptable for personality theory which typically concems

a.*3 o
u u is fi

1,

> o C o
itself with all behavior in an effort to describe the very essence

oJ ^ ro *;

g 5° oq>i
U
of "humanness:' Creativity as an abstraction or theoretical

S" _ o

U
construct is thus likely to appear more often in theories of

w a
x:

M
personality than in some other theories in psychology (e.g.,

o
"single·domain" theories).

**•
•S&8JI-I" g

¥1***3*
SI Si S "^
tj -g ^ a; .y 75 2

10 t at (o o. * tJ
| c £ a-~ in w
2«g3J,~.£

_ ia o. o 2? = v
The objective of this paper is to describe how a variety of

S ° | TJ 75 £ °
* £ 2 3 £ i f S.«

U> «
well·known personality theories and other general theories
\*
Ja D
Zahl der BSnde:

Falls Kosten anfallen, bis maximal

Auch mit anderen Auflagen bzw.

Slgnatur:
Clbers. elnverstanden

erledigt, brtte zurQck

DM

Umlauf durchalle r^l

LVZerwunscht
Falls nicht bis

of behavior have attempted to explain the concept of crea·

Wilhelmstr. 32 - Postfach 26 20
universitAtsbibuothek

C
tivity. Most of the theories discussed can be placed within
D-72016T0bingen

n
three main streams of psychological thought (psychoana·
Bestell-Nummer

1^
lytic, humanistic or behavioristic), although, as will be seen,
X 212083829

<U
some theories do not fit neatly into only one category. The
Neln D

To « o S
O
^.
intent of this effort is not to present an exhaustive list of all

r 8-75"

(0
c
in
-
o3££
L_'
einverstanden

(0
-(0 9D.
possible theoretical conceptualizations of creativity but rather

o
in
c

c
(0 &
to compare three major, often opposing, approaches to incor·

gs.
in
o 8

c
(0
porating creativity within a theory of personality or a general

>>
theory of behavior.

I
c
e
Volume 15 Number I First Quarter

E
43
9

Woodman, R. W., 1981: Creativity as a Concept in Personality Theory,

In: Journal of Creative Behavior, Buffalo Vol. 15 (1981), pp. 43-66.
 TheJournal of Creative
The Journal or Creative Behavior
Behavior
Creativity as a Construct in Personality Theoiy
Theory

seriously-that
. I _ that is,
is which he invests
which he with large
invests with large
PSYCHO-
PSVCHO- Any focus upon psychoanalytic thought must, of course, :~~~~~sy emoti~n -- while
amoun?syofof emotion while separating ,t sharply
separating it sharply
ANAlYTIC
RNRtVTK begin with Freud. Freud's contributions to abnormal psy· psy from reality
from reality (Freud. 1959b).
(Freud, 1959b).
u~~on~cious ;::~~sd:~~
POSITION

SIgmund
Sgmund freud
Fraud
chology, psychotherapy and psychiatry are recognized more
often than his contributions to personality theory. However,
O,course, ideas fromfreel~
sirable. Often these
the <??^™£2X££
Of course, ideas from the
Ideal~;~: ~~~e
rlsmg
may be
accepting of
Hall
Hall (1954) believes that Freud's most important role historic·
historic
waking hours. The creative persona.1 (Dayton 1976). In
ally is that of a psychological theorist. Just as a therapist . I f m the unconSCIOUS '
may find Freud's ideas useful without subscribing fully to his these Impu ses ro . ersons articularly artists,
theories of psychosexual development, so so too have many of general, Freud viewed ~reat\Ve.~ to a;ri~e at sublimation
5?•''^.rCSS^SSJthus7riglna.es from In-
Propriety of the Erich Fromm Document Center. For personal use only. Citation or publication of

has having an unusua capaci .. t from in-

Veröffentlichungen – auch von Teilen – bedürfen der schriftlichen Erlaubnis des Rechteinhabers.

his
his ideas been seminal for personality theories both within . 1971) The creative process thus ongma es
(Klein, '^i™'^^ creative product mirrors uncon-
(Kle m , · . d ct mirrors uncon-
Eigentum des Erich Fromm Dokumentationszentrums. Nutzung nur für persönliche Zwecke.

and out of the psychoanalytic tradition.

Taylor (1975) suggests that Freud was was the first to under·
take serious work on creative ability. Certainly many of
under Sufi^etl^rveTeen p^sed« «-» -
side the individual .and hthe crbeatelvne pP:~ceussed into socially
.
SCIOUS 1m
. ages which ave e
the e 0 (Freud, 1958a; Taylor, 197 .
5)

-B3ttSib^-ir^*em" "
acceptable forms by g f artist seem to have
material prohibited without express written permission of the copyright holder.

Freud's writings were concerned

concemed with the act of creation Freud's feelings toward the crea Ive
(Freud, 1953, 1957a, 1959b). It is important to understand been rather
been rather ambivalent
ambivalent (Storr,
(Storr, 1972).
1972). .
that in Freud's view the basic tendency of all of life is to maxi-
maxi An artist is once more in rudiments «,.Introvert.not
An artist is once more in rudiments an mtrovert n~t
ci
mize instinctual gratification while minimizing punishment
and guilt (Maddi, 1976; Freud, 1957b). The investment of
far removed from neurosis. He is oppwjedby
far removed from neurosis. He is oppresse . Y
excessively powerful instinctual needs He desires
excessively powerful instinctual needs. ~e 1eslre~
energy in an action which will will gratify an instinct is called an to Shonor, power, wealth, fame and the love of
to win honor, power, wealth, fame and.t ~ ove 0
object-choice or object-cathexis. Displacement to a new ca- women; but he lacks the means for -crjevino^
women, u
. b t he lacks the means for achlevmg the~e
. ther unsatls-
thexis occurs when the original object-choice of an instinct
becomes inaccessible. Displacement which produces cul- cul
satisfactions. Consequently, like any other unsatis
satisfactions. Consequently, hke any 0 f
VLa m»n he
.ed man he turns away from
from reality and and transfers
trans ers
tural achievement is called sublimation (Hall & & Lindzey, afhiTfnterest and his libido too. to the wishful con-
fI , . ..d
all his interest, and hiS hbl 0 too, 0
t the wishful con·
h
1970). Sublimation, then, results in the diversion of libidinal lotions of his life of Phantasy whence the path
structions of his life of phantasy, whence the pat
energy from primitive sexual
sexual goals toto more socially accept-
accept might lead
might lead to neurosis (Freud,
to neurosis (Freud, 1963).
1963).
able scientific or artistic activities (Dayton, 1976; 1976; Freud,
1961). For example, Freud (1957a) observed that Leonardo
da Vinci's painting of Madonnas was a sublimated longing
On «,e other hand suction ^£cel£° sS
On the other ha.n. '..
d sublimation is considered the most ma-
of the defensive processes. Subli-
lure and least rigidifying of ™ *™?TL| wlth me genital
ture and least rlgldlfymg . t d with the genital
for a mother from whom he was separated at an early age. mation is the defense ^"^in^Sell^-cte of devel-
mation is the defens~ ~enera\l~:~:~~~: pinnacle of devel-
stage of psychosexual <****£*« 6, rCnheless, the
For
For Freud, all cultural achievement, including creativity, stage of psychosexu~ ~~:~~i 1976). Nevertheless, the
occurs through the process of sublimation. Indeed, the
development of civilization
civilization itself was made possible through
opment """""^S and creativity ha»e
opment and maturity , . and creativity have
Freudian position is that menta~II~;:: from conflict within
this process (Freud, 1959a, 1961). identical ori~ins in tha~ ~el~ bOd that the psychoanalysis of
The close relationship between creativity and the uncon- uncon the u.nc~ns~l?us·IFre~11 h e~e;eblending of productive ability
scious may be seen in Freud's essays on creative writing and creative mdlVldua s WI s 0
daydreaming (1959b) and also in various writings about
literature, art and love (1958b).
"gSZH&XSi* summartied Freud's position
and neurosis (Taylor, 19(76 )62) ummarized Freud's position
Getzels and Jackson 19 s
Should we not look for the first traces of imagina-
imagina as follows: .. .,.,,„
un-
1 Creativity has its genesis in confhct, and the un-
1 Creativity has its genesiS In conflict, a~d t~,e I _
tive activity as
as early as in childhood? The child's
best-loved and most intense occupation is with his
LSnsdous forces motivating the creative solu-
. conscious forces motivating the cr~atlv~ so u
play or games. Might
Might we not say that every child at
tion" are parallel to the unconscious forces
· .. are parallel to the unconSCIOUS forces
t Ion .. I . ..
play behaves like a creative writer, in that he creates motivating the
motivating neurotic "solution.
the neurotic so ution. .
a world of his own or, rather, rearranges the things 2 The psychic function and effect of creative beha-
2. The psychic function and effect of c~ative b~~~
his world in a new
of his new way which pleases him?
him?...The
... The v£r is £ discharge of pent-up emotion resulting
vior is the discharge of pent-up em~tJon resu m
creative writer does the same as as the child at play. fom conflict until atolerable level ,s reached.
from conflict until a tolerable level IS reached.
He creates a world ofof phantasy which he takes very

45
45
44

Woodman, R. W., 1981: Creativity as a Concept in Personality Theory, In: Journal of Creative Behavior, Buffalo Vol. 15 (1981), pp. 43-66.
 The Journal of Creative Behavior
In Personality Theoiy
Creativity as a Construct in Theol}'

ofof an unconscious consisting

an unconscious consisting ofof repressed
repressed thoughts
thoughts and
and
3. Creative thought derives from the elaboration of
memories. h' h·
the "freely rising" fantasies and ideas related to "TTontrast
In contrast to
to the personal unconscious,
the personal unconscious, wwhich is aa
IC IS
daydreaming and childhood play. relatively thin layer immediately below the thr~sh'
relatively thin layer immediately below the thresh
The creative person accepts these "freely rising"
4. The old of consciousness, the collective unconsc^us
old of consciousness, the collective unconSCIOUS
ideas.
ideas, the noncreative person suppresses them. shows no tendency to become conscious iinto
shows no tendency to become conscious under
5. It is when the unconscious processes become.
become, normal conditions, nor can it be .broug~t ba.ck to
normal conditions, nor can it be brought back to
recollection by
recollection by any
any analytical
analytical technique,
technique, since it was
s~nce It was
speak. ego·syntonic
so to speak, ego-syntonic that we have the occa·
occa
SS^e-id or forgotten. The collective uncon-
never repressed or forgotten. The collective u~con·
Propriety of the Erich Fromm Document Center. For personal use only. Citation or publication of

sion for "achievements of special perfection:'

perfection."
sdous is not to be thought of as a self-subsistent
Veröffentlichungen – auch von Teilen – bedürfen der schriftlichen Erlaubnis des Rechteinhabers.

scious is not to be thought of as a self·subslstent

6. The role of
of childhood experience in creative pro·
pro entity it is no more than apotentiality handed down
Eigentum des Erich Fromm Dokumentationszentrums. Nutzung nur für persönliche Zwecke.

entity; it is no more than a potentiality ha.n.ded down

duction is emphasized, creative behavior being to us from primordial times in the speCifiC for~ of
to us from primordial times in the specific form of
seen as "a continuation and substitute for the mnemonic images or inherited in the anatomical
mnemonic images or inherited in the anatomical
structure of the brain. There are no inborn ideas, but
material prohibited without express written permission of the copyright holder.

play
play of childhood." structure of the brain. There are no inborn ideas, but
cori
Cort Jung As did Freud, Jung also saw creativity as springing from there are inborn possibilities of ideas that set bounds
there are inborn possibilities of ideas that set bounds
the unconscious. "The creative process, so far as we are able to even the boldest fantasy and keep our fantasy
to even the boldest fantasy and keep our fantasy
activity
activity within certain categories
within certain ... (~ung, 19ob).
categories...(Jung, 1?66).
to follow it at all,
all. consists in the unconscious activation of an
archetypal image, and in elaborating and shaping this image
When he artist or any individual is creating, -^ -ere under
When the artist or any individual is creating, as It were, under
into the finished work" (Jung, 1966). Jung·sJung's archetypes, it the influence of the collective unconscious, he or she
the influence of the collective unconscious. he or she be·
comes "Every Man:'
will be recalled, may be thought of as contents of the collec·
will
tive unconscious (Hall(Hall (,
& Nordby,
collec
Nordby, 1973), or predispositions C°mThe'S£not
The artist is not aperson endowed with
a person endowed with free
free wi»
will who
w~o
to characteristic thoughts and feelings (Maddi. 1976) or pri· pri
seeks his own
seeks his ends, but
own ends, but one
one who
who allows
allows art to reahze
a~ to realize
mordial images (Rychlak, 1973).
ts purposes through him. As ahuman being he may
its purposes through him. As a human. being he may
Jung essentially postulated two types or processes of crea·
crea have moods
have moods and and aawill and personal
will and personal alms,.
a.ms b~t
bu: as.an
as an
tivity (Jung, 1933, 1966; Siochower,
Slochower, 1974). First, there is a artist he isis "man"
artist he "man" inin aa higher
higher sense-he
sense - he ISis collec
collec·
"psychological" type whichwhich deals with
with materials drawn from tive man" -- one
tive man" who carries
one who carries and
and shapes the uncon'
shapes the uncon
the realm of human consciousness and experience. There is, scious, psychic life
scious, psychic life of
of mankind
mankind (Jung,
(Jung, 1933).
1933).
in addition,
addition, a "visionary" type of creativity which stems from Later Jung extended some of these concepts from the
the unconscious. Describing artistic creation, Jung further artist to creative works or good ideas in ge~eral. Jung pro·
divided creativity influenced by the unconscious into"into "symp
symp· posed some eight categories of personalIty types (J~~g,
tomatic art" which stems from the personal unconscious of 1946) but not one of these has a monopoly upon creatlVlty.
the individual and "symbolic art" which stems from the col· col Peopl~ may be differentiated psychologically yet have eq~al
lective unconscious of mankind. The process resulting in capacities to use imagination and fantasy. Some personalIty
"symptomatic art" is to some extent subject to individual
individual types, however. are more prone to be creative t~an others. I~

mmmrn
intent and purpose, and is similar to Freudian theory con· con his discussion of personality types, Jung theOrIzed that crea
cerning the relationship between creativity and the uncon· uncon tive products and ideas do not depend solely upon the uncon'
scious, but rather stem from the interaction ~etween
e
scious, although Jung seemed to consider the personal lh:
unco ..lscious to
to be closer to consciousness than did Freud. conscious and the unconscious ^^1^%^
conscious and the unconscious mind. PsychiC energy IS
surface. :rh~
unconscious
Jung criticized Freud's attempt to explain a work of art solely needed to
needed bring unconscious
to bring unconscious thoughts
thoughts toto the
the surtace. •n
in terms of the personal unconscious of the artist (Jung, personality contains or performs a "transcenden.t functl~n
1933), and drew aa distinction with his emphasis upon the which mediates between conscious and unconscIOUS dunng
tho
the creative process (Stein (, &Heinze,
Heinze, 1960).
collective unconscious which Freud did not make. This col·
lective unconscious is in a a sense a
col
a storehouse of racial
^t is SesrTng that Jung, despite his own attempts, was
It is interesting that Jung, despite his own .a~empts. was
memories handed down from the distant past in the form of skeptical of science ever fully explaining creativity
skeptical of science ever fully explaining creativity. . .
archetypes (Taylor, uncon
(Taylor, 1975). The concept of a collective uncon· Any reaction to stimulUS may be causally expl~me~.
Anv reaction to stimulus may be causally explained.
scious represented a radical departure from Freud's concept £ut\he creative act, which is the absolute antithesis
but the creative act. which is the absolute antIthesIs

46
46 47
47

Woodman, R. W., 1981: Creativity as a Concept in Personality Theory, In: Journal of Creative Behavior, Buffalo Vol. 15 (1981), pp. 43-66.
 The Journal of Creative Behavior

CreatMty IS a Construct In PersonaHty Theoll'

of sublimation, fantasy and dreaming in artistiC creation (Rank

of mere reaction, will forever elude the human (, Sachs, 1916). Nevertheless, it is clear that Rank did not
understanding (Jung, 1933). consider the creative personality as totally controlled by his
Otto Rank Rank devoted a g?od deal more time to an attempt to or her unconscious.
understand the creative personality than did most early psy· In spite of all "unconsciousness" in artistic produc·
choanalysts. For Rank, creativity was a construct central to tion ... there can be no doubt that the modern indio
the u~derstanding of healthy human behavior...... creative· vidualist type of artist is characterized by a higher
ness ~Ies equally.at the root of artistic production and of life degree of consciousness than his earlier prototype:
Propriety of the Erich Fromm Document Center. For personal use only. Citation or publication of

expenence. That IS to say, lived experience can only be under· the consciousness not only of his creative work
Veröffentlichungen – auch von Teilen – bedürfen der schriftlichen Erlaubnis des Rechteinhabers.

stood as the expression of volitional creative impulse " and his artist's mission, but also of his own person·
Eigentum des Erich Fromm Dokumentationszentrums. Nutzung nur für persönliche Zwecke.

(Rank, 1932). . .. ality and its productiveness (Rank, 1932).

Rank's ideal personality type is called the "artist." His artist As do many personality theorists, Rank viewed the creative
has no necessary relationship to the conventional meaning individual as representative of ideal functioning or ideal
material prohibited without express written permission of the copyright holder.

of the term but rather describes the personality who has suc· mental development in the human being. In this Rank might
~es.s~ully accep~~d the "fear of life" - fear of being a separate be said to be a blend of both the humanistic and psycho·
mdlv~dual; the . fear of ~eath" -fear of union and depend· analytic positions.
ency, and achieved an mtegration of the two (Maddi 1976' Kris is a psychoanalytic ego psychologist whose concep'
Ernst KrIs
Rank, 1945). ' , tion of creativity as " regression in the service of the ego"
~ank' s choice of the term artist for the human ideal appears to be widely accepted among psychoanalysts today,
I~ an attem~t to convey a sense of creative integra' at least as a partial explanation of the creative process {Ro'
tion as the highest goal of man - in contrast to more thenberg (, Hausman, 1976).
limited ideals of spiritual or material achievement ...ego regression (primitivization of ego functions)
(Munroe, 1955). occurs not only when the ego is weak - in sleep, in
Ra~k used the concept of will as an important force in the falling asleep. in fantasy, in intoxication, and in the
shapmg of an individual's life. The will involves a sense of self psychoses - but also during many types of creative
and what one wants to accomplish. The concept of will is processes (Kris, 1951).
similar to Freud's ego (although more conscious) in that it Kris reformulates Freudian theory, putting more empha·
re~resents ~e aspect of personality having an overall organi· sis upon the role of the ego in creativity (Da~~n. 1976: ~Iei~:
~tlon.runctlon (Maddi, 1976). The will manifests itself nega· 1971). For Kris. creativity stems from the preconSCIOUS
tively In repre~~ion a~d control and positively in the urge to rather than the unconscious. This preconscious is on the
create. Descrlbmg thiS creative impulse, Stein and Heinze borderline between consciousness and unconscious and
(1960) state: contains material "capable of becoming conscious" under
The creative impulse of the artist springs from the the proper conditions.
tendency to immortalize himself. The artist uses In the state of inspiration, the psychic apparatus is
the art forms that he finds in the culture but he also in an exceptional condition. The barrier between
saves his individuality, and stands out from the the id and the ego has temporarily become perme·
mass, by giving his work the stamp of his indio able. Impulses reach preconsciousness more easily
viduality. than under other conditions. and their translation
This c~eative impulse then may be considered the pressure into formed expression can proceed painlessly.
or d.eslre. to be an individual ("life impulse") in the service of Forces previously used for repression are being
the mdiVldual will. used by the ego for another purpose. All energy
In creativity, as in many of his constructs, Rank placed seems to be vested in the process of coming to con·
g~eater emphasis upon the influence of consciousness than sciousness .. .. The coming to consciousness In the
did Freud. Rank did not deny completely, however, the role case of creative effort presupposes a long unno'
of the unconscious in creative behavior. Very early in his ticed process of shaping: it is this process which.
career he recognized the effects of the unconscious, the role

49
48

Woodman, R. W., 1981: Creativity as a Concept in Personality Theory, In: Journal of Creative Behavior, Buffalo Vol. 15 (1981), pp. 43-66.

Creativity lIS a Construct in Personality Theory
en~rusted to preconsciousness, is geared to integ·
ration and communication (Kris, 1975).
Regression in the service of the ego refers to utilization of
a def~nsive mechanism - regression - in a more or less
conscl~us retrea~ to an. earlier level of development. Rather
tha~ this r~gresslon being an unconscious attempt to avoid
anxiety, .as I~ c~mmon!y ~e case, it is a purposeful attempt
to find inspiration or insight by relinquishing some of the
Propriety of the Erich Fromm Document Center. For personal use only. Citation or publication of
Veröffentlichungen – auch von Teilen – bedürfen der schriftlichen Erlaubnis des Rechteinhabers.
la~ers .?f dev~lopment or socialization of the more mature
Eigentum des Erich Fromm Dokumentationszentrums. Nutzung nur für persönliche Zwecke.
mmd. So while regr~ssion in the service of the ego retains
~h~ element of defensiveness comprising distortion of reality
It IS not defensive in that it operates consciously and is unde;
material prohibited without express written permission of the copyright holder.
the control of the person" (Maddi, 1976).
lawrence Kuble KU?ie .ex~nded ~ri.s's position on the role of preconscious
functiomng In creatiVity. For Kubie, the preconscious is the
source of true creativity; the influence of the unconscious is
more likely to result in neurotic processes which block crea·
tive behavior (Kubie, 1967).
It has been my thesis that a type of mental function
whiC~ ,!,e call technically, "the preconscious sys·
tem, IS the essential implement of all creative
activity; and that unless preconscious processes
can flow freely there can be no true creativity (Kubie
1958). ' nated all other concepts within his theoretical system to the
~nlike Kris, however, Kubie sees the preconscious processes
I~portant. fo~ creativity as being related to healthy and adap·
tlve functtonmg rather than regression or sublimation. For
example, Kubie states:
Together all of this carries the implication that the
ad hoc ~stulate that there is a separate and special
mechanism known as the sublimation of uncon·
sciou.s. processes may not be needed to explain
creatiVity, and may actually be misleading (Kubie
1958). ' of the world and transforms these facts into a per·
Actually b~th cons.cio~s and unconscious processes may
block creative functlonmg in the sense that they are fixed and
rigid. Consciousness is anchored to reality; the unconscious
Is anchored to .un~eality. Creativity depends upon the free
flow .of .symboh~ Imagery available only in preconscious
functioning (Kuble. 1967). Kubie's main theme howeve~ is
that ~~conscious p.rocesses lead to a neurotic distortion' of
creatiVity; preconscIous processes are associated with crea·
tive flexibility and production.
50
Woodman, R. W., 1981: Creativity as a Concept in Personality Theory, In: Journal of Creative Behavior, Buffalo Vol. 15 (1981), pp. 43-66.
The Journal of Creative Behavior
As a personality theorist, Adler does not fall exclusively into
HutN\NISTlC
POSITlON either the psychoanalytic or the humanistic tradition. He was,
of course, an early disciple of Freud. and Rychlak (1973)
Alfred Adler places him within the "classical" psychoanalytic tradition.
Maddi (1976). however, categorizes Adler's theory as fitting
the "fulfillment" model- a position largely occupied by the
more humanistic theories, In Maddi's typology, psychoana·
lytic theories are generally classified as "conflict" theories.
Hall and Lindzey (1970) classify Adler as a social psycho·
logical theorist. Further. they state that "Adler fashioned a
humanistic theory of personality which was the antithesis of
Freud's conception of man." Certainly Adler stressed the
social influences on human behavior much more than did
Freud or Jung. Ansbacher wrote. "Our late beloved friend
Abe Maslow counted Alfred Adler from the beginning as
part of the Third Force or humanistiC psychology movement
which he created ..... (1971). A further aid to categorization
here is based upon Adler's belief that creativity springs from
conscious intent rather than from the unconscious (Taylor.
1975).
For Adler. the individual possesses a creative power to
shape his or her own life (Ansbacher & Ansbacher. 1956).
This "creative power of the self' or "creative self" as later
writers renamed it. became the capstone concept in Adler·s
theory. Such was its importance that he eventually subordi·
construct of the creative self (Bischoff, 1970). Adler's view
of man was basically teleological. Man interprets life rather
than merely responding in a predisposed, instinctual man·
nero A unique self·structure is created for each individual
based upon the inherited past, the active interpretation of
experiences, and a search for new experiences. Adler's view
of creativity is thus broader than a simple explanation of a
creative process or act. Creativity and uniqueness are basic
to life itself.
The creative self is the yeast that acts upon the facts
sonallty that is subjective. dynamiC, unified, per·
sonal. and uniquely stylized. The creative self gives
meaning to life; it creates the goal as well as the
means to the goal. The creative self is the active
principle of human Iife ... (Hall & Lindzey. 1970).
Fundamentally, creativity in the Individual springs from
compensation. "The child's first creative act, therefore. to
which in the use of his capacities he is urged by his feeling of
51
 Creativity as a Construct in PersonaUty Theo!)' I The Journal of Creative Behavior

inferiority, is his adjustment to the circumstances of his origi- or creative behavior. In his more recent work, Murray postu-
nal environment" (Adler, 1938). Adler originally explained lated a series of eras or stages in life which are based on
compensation in organic terms (Adler, 1917, 1923). Later genetiC and maturational processes. This theoretical model
he came to view compensation as more psychological or allows for continual growth toward self·actualization and
emotional in nature and the feeling of inferiority as being a creativity (Murray, 1968).
conscious or unconscious recognition of either a physical As Murray is perhaps best known for his taxonomy of needs
or psychological insufficiency (Rychlak, 1973). In any event, (Murray, 1938), it is not surprising to find that he also sug-
compensation for inferiorities is seen as the basis for much gested that human beings have a "creative need" which is
Propriety of the Erich Fromm Document Center. For personal use only. Citation or publication of

Veröffentlichungen – auch von Teilen – bedürfen der schriftlichen Erlaubnis des Rechteinhabers.

creative achievement. For example, Adler postulated that met by the construction of novel, useful ideas or objects. In
Eigentum des Erich Fromm Dokumentationszentrums. Nutzung nur für persönliche Zwecke.

geniuses often have some imperfect organs, and science it- addition to this innate need for creativity, Murray suggested
self arises from people's feelings of ignorance; indeed, much that some degree of creativity is required for adaptation to
of human culture is based upon feelings of inferiority (Adler, novel situations. In the absence of this capacity, the person-
material prohibited without express written permission of the copyright holder.

1938). ality may not develop normally (Murray, 1951).

It is interesting to note that Adler did not entirely dismiss Abraham Maslow Although he was not the first personality theorist to advo-
the role of the unconscious in creativity; he suggested that cate a more humanistic psychology, Maslow represents, for
at some point some poets and philosophers are motivated many, the epitome of the humanistic pOSition (MacKinnon.
by an unconscious fear of death (Adler, 1929). The fear may 1972). Like Murray. Maslow focused more upon the psychol-
be overcome by creating some lasting cultural contribution. ogy of healthy persons than on pathology. Maslow also per-
It is apparent that creativity played a major role in Adler's haps represents the clearest example of a common theme
theory of personality. Taylor (1975) interprets Adler, with his in the humanistic position - that creativity stems from at·
emphasis upon social interest, as viewing creativity as su- tempts at self-actualization. Indeed. he wrote:
preme usefulness. The creative individual is thus seen as My feeling is that the concept of creativeness and
serving a more useful social function than the noncreative the concept of the healthy. self-actualizing. fully
person. human person seem to be coming closer and closer
Murray also represents an interesting combination of the together. and may perhaps turn out to be the same
psychoanalytic and humanistic traditions in psychology. In thing (Maslow, 1971b).
his theoretical position Murray accepts the role of uncon- The term self-actualization seems to have been first used
scious determinants of behavior including Freudian defense by Goldstein (1939) as a description of the overriding drive
mechanisms such as repression and resistance (Hall (, in people to realize their full potential. For Maslow. s~lf­
Lindzey, 1970; Murray, 1938, 1971). Yet, Murray's view of man actualization had a similar meaning. It refers to the deSIre
and personality development is essentially humanistic of human beings for self-fulfillment - the desire to become
(Maddi, 1963; Maddi (, Costa, 1972). everything that one is capable of becoming (Maslow, 1970).
For Murray, creative imagination is viewed as a powerful "What a man can be, he must be."
and central concept in personality. This is congruent with his In his studies of self-actualized people, Maslow identified
emphasis on the more positive aspects of human behavior. a common trend toward creativeness (Maslow, 1968. 1970).
... creativity-the formation of new and conse- Going further, he maintained that the capacity for creativity
quental entities and of new and consequental pat- is fundamental to all human beings. Creativity exists as a
terns of activity - is a centrally determining capacity potentiality present in all persons at birth.
of nature, more especially of human nature (Murray. The creativeness of the self-actualized man seems
1959a). rather to be kin to the naive and universal creative-
Though he came from a psychoanalytic background, Murray ness of unspoiled children. It seems to be more a
was critical of the theoretical limitations of the psychoana- fundamental characteristic of common human
lytic position (Murray, 1959a). Indeed, in this view, psychology nature - a potentiality given to all human beings at
as a field is seen to be at its best when dealing with human birth. Most human beings lose this as they become
nature's darker side and at its worst when explaining positive enculturated, but some few individuals seem either

52
53

Woodman, R. W., 1981: Creativity as a Concept in Personality Theory, In: Journal of Creative Behavior, Buffalo Vol. 15 (1981), pp. 43-66.
 The Journal of Creative Behavior

Creativity as II Construct In Personality Theory

states of integration, even of self·actualization, and

to ~etain ~his fresh and naive. direct way of looking therefore of self·actualizing creativeness (Maslow,
at hf~. o~ If they have lost it, as most people do, they 1959).
later In hfe recover it (Maslow, 1970). As a personality theorist, Maslow was more interested in this
Masl~,:" drew. ~ distinction between "primary" and "sec· self.actualizing creativity than he was in the production of
ondary creativity. Primary creativeness is that "which some creative work based on special talent. His emphasis
c?mes out of the unconscious, which is the source of new was upon the personality of the individual rather than his or
discovery - of real novelty - of ideas which depart from her achievements. Nevertheless, Maslow did suggest that
~~at .exists at this point" (Maslow, 1971a). Secondary crea· great works of art, philosophy and science ar~ produced by .
Propriety of the Erich Fromm Document Center. For personal use only. Citation or publication of

tlVlty IS the type of rational logical productivity demonstrated an "integrated" creativity composed of the pnmary and sec·
Veröffentlichungen – auch von Teilen – bedürfen der schriftlichen Erlaubnis des Rechteinhabers.

~y. c~pable, well·adjusted, successful people. Primary crea· ondary creative processes described above.
Eigentum des Erich Fromm Dokumentationszentrums. Nutzung nur für persönliche Zwecke.

tlVlty In every human at birth but often the access to primary Roger's treatment of creativity is similar to MasloW'S in
Carl AogeIs
process material becomes blocked as one matures. For many respects. For Rogers, also, the motivation for creativity
example,
material prohibited without express written permission of the copyright holder.

stems from self·actualization attempts.

In our culture, the tendency to equate imagination, The mainspring of creativity appears to be the same
fantasy, the arts, and other products of the primary tendency which we discovered so deeply as the cur·
proc~s~es with "femininity" leads to a blocking of ative force in psychotherapy - man's tendency to
creatiVIty among men. The primary processes are actualize himself, to become his potentialities. By
felt to endanger masculinity, and consequently are this I mean the directional trend which is evident in
"walled off' from the rest of the personality (Stein all organic and human life - the urge to expand,
& Heinze, 1960). extend, develop, mature - the tendency to express
True creat!vity depends upon the utilization and integration and activate all the capacities of the organism, to
of both prn~nary and secondary processes in the personality. the extent that such activation enhances the or·
Maslow pomted out that healthy, creative (self·actualized) ganism or the self. This tendency may become
persons can be childlike, deeply buried under layer after layer of encrusted
... when they want to be (regression in the service of psychological defenses; it may be hidden behind
the ego) ... These same people can afterward ... elaborate facades which deny its existence; it is my
become grown·up, rational, sensible, orderly, and belief, however, based upon my experience, that it
so on, ~nd examine with a critical eye what they pro· exists in every individual and awaits only the proper
duced In a great burst of enthusiasm and creative conditions to be released and expressed. It is this
fervor ... A truly integrated person can be both sec· tendency which is the primary motivation for crea·
ondary and primary; both childish and mature tivity as the organism forms new relationships t? the
(Maslow, 1971a). environment in its endeavor most fully to be Itself
At anothe~ point ~aslo~, distinguished between "special (Rogers, 1959).
talent creativeness and self·actualizing creativeness" According to Rogers the creative personalit~ will be ch~ra~·
(Maslow, 1959). Self·actualizing creativeness is a creative terized by three conditions. Firstly, the creative personahty IS
capa~ity present in everyone, but particularly found in the open to experience. This is a lack of rig~dity and a tolera~ce
fully mtegrated personality, and therefore correlated with for ambiguity - in essence the oPPOsite of psychological
~en.tal health. Since it is apparent that not all creative people defensiveness. Secondly, the source or locus of evaluative
m hl~tory have been psychologically healthy, special talent judgment is internal. For the creative person the value o.f the
creativeness is that creative capacity associated with genius product of his or her efforts is established by the indiVidual
and ~as. no necessary relationship to healthy psychological and not by others. And lastly, associated with the openn~ss
functlomng. and lack of rigidity is the ability to play spontaneously With
Maslow believed motivation or desire for self'actualization ideas, colors, shapes and relationships. The creative se~ing
to be universal. And further, of life in new and significant ways arises from the examma·
I had to come to the tentative conclusion that many, tion of countless possibilities (Rogers, 1959).
pe~haps most, people are capable of temporary

55
54

Woodman, R. W., 1981: Creativity as a Concept in Personality Theory, In: Journal of Creative Behavior, Buffalo Vol. 15 (1981), pp. 43-66.
 The Journal of Creative Behavior
Creativity aa a Construct In Pel'llOnaUty Theory

already been blueprinted .... But just as a person

In Roger's personality theory the vigorous expression of
who uses tight constructions exclusively cannot be
the a~ua1izing tend~ncy.leads to the development of a "fully
creative, so a person who uses loose constructions
functioning person. This person is characterized by his or
exclusively cannot be creative either., .. He would
her creativity.
never get around to setting up a hypothesis for cru-
With his sensitive openness to his world, his trust
of his own ability to form new relationships with his cial testing (Kelly, 1955a).
Essentially Kelly saw any alteration or replacement of con·
environment, he would be the type of person from
structs as requiring creative effort (Kelly, 1969). But true
whom creative products and creative living emerge
creativity is never a single, isolated mode of thought; rather .
Propriety of the Erich Fromm Document Center. For personal use only. Citation or publication of

(Rogers, 1961).
Veröffentlichungen – auch von Teilen – bedürfen der schriftlichen Erlaubnis des Rechteinhabers.

it follows the cycle just described, Unfortunately, many peo·

The health~ creative person, then, has a tendency to produce
Eigentum des Erich Fromm Dokumentationszentrums. Nutzung nur für persönliche Zwecke.

pie perform only one half of the cycle. "What one man can
both effective and new Ideas, behavior and things. imagine he cannot test. while another goes through Ufe
George IWlly Kelly called his personality theory "the psychology of per- attempting only what others have imagined" (Kelly, 1955b).
material prohibited without express written permission of the copyright holder.

~nal construct:"." The fundamental postulate of this theory EIIc ffomm For Fromm, creativity stems from people's basic need for
IS that a person s processes are psychologically channelized transcendence. This need may be defined as the urge to rise
by the ways _in which he or she anticipates events (Kelly, above man's animal nature or his "situation as a creature."
1970~. ~addl (~976) interprets this basic tendency of per· In the act of creation man transcends himself as a
sonahty In Kelly s theory as a continual attempt by the indi- creature, raises himself beyond the passivity and
vidual to predict and control the events he or she experiences. accidentalness of his existence into the realm of
In order to predict and control experience the individual will purposefulness and freedom. In man's need for
engage in~. process called "construing" (Kelly, 1955a) which transcendence lies one of the roots for love, as well
means to place an interpretation" on events so that they as for art, religion, and material production (Fromm,
take on a shape or assume meaning. The end result of this
1955).
~onstruing is the "construct." A construct then refers to the According to Fromm (1955) the mentally healthy individual
pattern or templet" with which an individual attempts to is characterized by the ability to be creative. Indeed, Fromm's
order his or her reality or understand his world. Further, "a ideal character type - called the "productive orientation"-
construct is a way in which some things are construed as has the abilities of creativity and transcendence. The process
being alike and yet different from others" (Kelly, 1955a). of creation allows people to productively relate themselves
Thus, ~rom the perspective of personality theory, Kelly's con- to their world (Fromm, 1947).
struct IS a patterned structure or style of viewing life which Fromm also differentiated between creativity "in the sense
can be identified in an individual (Rychlak, t 973). of creating something new" and creativity as an attitude.
Now all of this relates to understanding Kelly's formula· Creativity when viewed as an attitude or character trait "is the
ti~n of creativity in the following manner. Creativity may be ability to see (or to be aware) and to respond" (Fromm, 1959).
viewed as a cycle moving from "loose" constructs to more This creative attitude is characterized by the capacity to be
"tigh,~ened" c?~structs. Kelly postulates this "creativity puzzled, to wonder, the ability to concentrate, a sense of self
cycle as explaining how a person develops new ideas. or identity, and the ability to accept conflict and tension rather
The Creativity Cycle is one which starts with loos- than avoiding them. When creativity is regarded as an atti·
ened construction and terminates with tightened tude it becomes universal,
and validated construction, ... Loosened construc- ... creativity in this sense does not refer to a quality
tion is that which Is characterized by varying align' which particularly gifted persons or artists could
ment of elements, while tightened construction achieve but to an attitude which every human being
involves rigid assignment of elements within the should and can achieve (Fromm, 1959).
construct's context.... A person who always uses
8EHfM()AISTIC In general, theories in the behavioristic tradition are much
tight constructions may be productive - that Is, he
POSIl1ON less concerned with personality than with other aspects of
may turn out a lot of things - but he cannot be cre·
psychology. As Berlyne states: "It can hardly be overlooked
ative; he cannot produce anything which has not

56 57

Woodman, R. W., 1981: Creativity as a Concept in Personality Theory, In: Journal of Creative Behavior, Buffalo Vol. 15 (1981), pp. 43-66.
 The Journal of Creative Behavior
Creativity as a Construct in Personality Theo!}

As an example, creativity may be explained in terms of instru'

that pr?blems o~ .personality have figured much less promi- mental conditioning which involves building S-R bonds.
nently m the Wrttlngs of the behavior theorists than in psy- Simply put, desired responses are rewarded and unwanted
chological Iite~ature as a whole" .,,(1968). Berlyne (1968) linkages are not rewarded or are punished. Thus, a pattern
goes on to pomt out that this lack of interest is partially a of creative behavior may be established in a child and later
function of historical development. Behavior theorists have in the adult by rewarding creative thinking and activities when
~pical~y had a .bias toward environmentalism, a preoccupa- he or she Is very young (Cropley, 1970). In his work on social
tion WIth learnmg and a preference for stimulus-response behaviorism, Staats moves beyond this most basic concep-
laws rather than the response-response laws which are often tion of S-R theory and attempts to explain how a single re:
Propriety of the Erich Fromm Document Center. For personal use only. Citation or publication of

Veröffentlichungen – auch von Teilen – bedürfen der schriftlichen Erlaubnis des Rechteinhabers.

the focus of personality theorists. sponse to a single stimulus may be generalized to account
Eigentum des Erich Fromm Dokumentationszentrums. Nutzung nur für persönliche Zwecke.

Ju~t a~ b.ehaviorism ~~s often shown little interest in per- for a wide range of novel behavior which has not been speci-
sonahty, It IS not surprtslng that creative behavior has also fically learned. Staats' well-reasoned position is representa-
been frequently overlooked. However, it would seem to be tive of the behavioristic explanations of creativity. Staats
material prohibited without express written permission of the copyright holder.

r~c~,gnized that behaviorism, as a "general theory of beha- concluded:

VIor must account for creativity. .,. individuals with certain repertoires of behavior,
A pri~ary o?jection to beha'1.orism and learning faced with certain novel stimulus situations, will
theory IS that It makes of man a reactive," not a crea- come up with certain novel responses and products
tive crea.ture. It is said, and rightly so, that the simple of those responses (discoveries, findings, and so
conceptIon that human behavior is learned does on). These products will then serve as new stimuli
~ot provide for originality or creativity. The question which then produce additional novel responses,
IS, how can behavior be novel and original if it first which then serve as new stimuli which then produce
has to .be learned? This is a paradox that requires additional novel responses, which then serve to
resolutIon, for no conception of human behavior elicit yet other creative behaviors, It is suggested
can be credible unless it accounts for originality. that a detailed history of such long-term acts of crea-
Some of the most important behaviors in man's tivity, analyzed in terms of the learned skills of the
continuing advancement are those that involve men involved and the manner in which their find-
new behaviors hitherto not made by others. Such ings served as stimuli to themselves and other
novel behaviors are ones the individual has not individuals, would give us a more profound view of
been specifically trained to make (Staats, 1975), human creativity (Staats, 1975).
Despite the obvious shortcomings of grouping various Staats argued that the exceedingly large number of behav-
S-R theories and learning theories together in the behavior- ioral repertoires coupled with the tremendous number of
~stic tradition, these theories nevertheless often have more possible stimulus configurations provides ample opportu-
In common. ~an the. ~heories found in the psychoanalytic nity for creative S-R combinations to occur. The process
and ~~manlstlc. tradItIons in regard to their approach to described above whereby a novel response becomes in turn
explaml~g creative be~avior, This common theme might be the stimulus for additional novel behavior is called cumu-
summanzed as: CreatIve behavior, despite its originality, is lative-hierarchicalleaming. Such learning sequences can be
nevertheless learned and may be explained in stimulus- used to explain the development of both individuals and
resp~nse terms,. Because of this common approach, the
societies.
remam~er of thl,S ~e~tion will present what appears to be Sarnoff Mednick (1962, 1964) provides a variation of this
the baSIC behaVIOristIc explanation of creativity and some behavioristic position based upon an associative explana-
notable variations on this common theme. tion. Mednick views creative thinking as the formation of
S-R psychologists have attempted to account for associative elements into new combinations which meet cer-
creativity in their own way, which involves the notion tain requirements or are in some way useful. A more crea-
that human behavior is essentially a matter of build- tive solution or process will be built upon more mutually
ing up links or bonds between stimuli and responses remote elements. That is, the creative person will form unu-
(Cropley, 1970),
59
58

Woodman, R. W., 1981: Creativity as a Concept in Personality Theory, In: Journal of Creative Behavior, Buffalo Vol. 15 (1981), pp. 43-66.
 Creativity as a Construct In Personality Theory
The Journal of Creative Behavior

sual S-R bonds - will tend to link stimuli with highly unusual So, in Skinner's view. creative thinking is primarily concerned
~espo~s~s. Th~ formation of associative elements may result with the production of "mutations." The consequences of
In attaining a creative solution" in any of three ways (Med- behavior determine which behavioral mutations will be selec·
nick, 1962):
ted. Contingencies of survival and contingencies of rein·
1. The ~equisite associative elements may be evoked forcement are similar processes in that they both produce
contiguously by the contiguous environmental novelty. The myriad of species upon the earth may be ex·
appearance (usually an accidental contiguity) of plained by natural selection. So too may the consequences
stimuli which eliCit these associative elements. of behavior explain all behavior.
Propriety of the Erich Fromm Document Center. For personal use only. Citation or publication of

This sort of creative solution is often dubbed In the field of human behavior the possibility arises
Veröffentlichungen – auch von Teilen – bedürfen der schriftlichen Erlaubnis des Rechteinhabers.

serendipitous. that contingencies of reinforcement may explain a

Eigentum des Erich Fromm Dokumentationszentrums. Nutzung nur für persönliche Zwecke.

2. The requisite associative elements may be evoked work of art or the solution to a problem in mathe-
in contiguity as a result of the similarity of the matics or science without appealing to a different
associative elements or the Similarity of the kind of creative mind or to a trait of creativity or to
material prohibited without express written permission of the copyright holder.

stimuli eliCiting these associative elements. This the possibility that "men of genius have more crea·
mode of creative solution may be encountered tive nervous energy than lesser mortals" (Skinner,
in creative writing. 1974).
3. The requisite associative elements may be evoked OTHER Psychoanalytic, humanistic and behavioristic explanations
in contigUity through the mediation of common POSITIONS do not, of course, exhaust all the possible ways that psychol·
elements. This means of bringing the associa- ogy in general or personality theories in particular have
tive elements into contiguity with each other is attempted to account for creative behavior. Much of the reo
of great importance in those areas of endeavor search on creativity during the last several decades falls into
where the use of symbols (verbal, mathematical, a category of theory which Taylor (1975) called ·'trait·
chemical, etc.) is mandatory. factorial." Personality theory in this tradition emphasizes the
No treatment of a behavioristic position would be complete distinct traits or characteristics of the individual and relies
wlt.h0ut a I.ook at B. F. Skinner's explanation of creativity. heavily upon the use of factor analysis. Representative of this
Skinner pomted out that an explanation of creative behavior approach, which focuses on the personality traits of creative
presented an insoluble problem for classical stimulus- persons. would be the work of Barron (1955, 1969, 1972),
response psychology. If behavior is nothing but learned Helson (1966. 1967, 1971), MacKinnon (1965. 1970) and
r~spo~ses to stim~1i it can never be novel even though the Roe (1953. 1972). One of the better known theories in this
stlmuh may be. Skinner rescues us from this dilemma with area is Guilford's "Structure-of-Intellect" (Sl) model (1959.
his principle of operant conditioning which allows for reo 1967. 1975). In Guilford's SI model intelligence is defined as
sponses to b~ under the influence of their consequences a collection of abilities or functions for processing informa-
rather than bemg only determined by a prior stimulus (Skin- tion. These intellectual abilities are organized along three
ner, 1969). "Artists paint pictures because of the conse- dimensions: content, product and operations. Content refers
quences, and people look at pictures because of the conse- to the kinds of information contained in or used by the
quences" (Skinner. 1972). By combining operant reinforce. human mind. Product represents the form of the informa·
ment theory with Darwin's evolutionary theory, Skinner pre- tion. Operations refer to the basic processes performed with
sented an explanation for creative behavior. information by the mind. In Guilford's theory many different
Operant conditioning solves the problem (of ex. mental functions relate to creativity; however. the operation
plaining creative behavior) more or less as natural of "divergent production" is seen as being particularly critical
selection solv~ a similar problem in evolutionary for creative behavior. This term has become fairly widely
theory. As aCCidental traits, arising from mutations accepted and refers to adaptive flexibility or the ability to
are selected by their contribution to survival, so acci: generate logical alternatives.
dental variations in behavior are selected by their SUNMAAY As a general theory of behavior, a theory of personality is
reinforcing consequences (Skinner, 1974). challenged to explain all behavior. As such, a theory which
60
61

Woodman, R. W., 1981: Creativity as a Concept in Personality Theory, In: Journal of Creative Behavior, Buffalo Vol. 15 (1981), pp. 43-66.
 Creativity as II Construct In Personality Theory The Journal of erelltive Behllvlor

does not account for the creative act seems incomplete. ADLER. A. The practice and theory of individual psychology. London:
Nevertheless. some personality theorists have little to say Routledge & Kegan Paul. 1923.
regarding creativity. Many of the theories which do attempt ADLER. A. Problems of neurosis. London: Kegan Paul. 1929.
to explain creative behavior fall into three major streams of ADLER. A. Social interest. London: Faber & Faber. 1938.
ANSBACHER. H. L. Alfred Adler and humanistic psychology. Journal of
psychological thought: (1) psychoanalytic, (2) humanistic
Humanistic Psychology. 1971. II (I J, 53·63.
and (3) behavioristic. Of course, any attempt to categorize ANSBACHER. H. L. & ANSBACHER, R. R. (eds.). The IndlUldual psychol·
personality theories with their rich diversity of content will be ogy of Alfred Adler. NYC: Basic Books, 1956.
flawed and is suggested only as an aid in conceptualization. BARRON. F. The disposition towards originality. Journal of Abnormal and
It is possible, however. to suggest some global statements Social Psychology. 1955.51.478·485.
Propriety of the Erich Fromm Document Center. For personal use only. Citation or publication of

BARRON, F. Creative person and creatiue process. NYC: Holt, Rinehart. 1969.
Veröffentlichungen – auch von Teilen – bedürfen der schriftlichen Erlaubnis des Rechteinhabers.

which indicate the approach taken in each of these three psy-

BARRON. F. Artists in the making. NYC: Seminar Press. 1972.
Eigentum des Erich Fromm Dokumentationszentrums. Nutzung nur für persönliche Zwecke.

chological traditions. In general, theorists writing in the

BERLYNE, D. E. Behavior theory as personality theory. In Borgatta, E. F. &
psychoanalytic tradition view creativity as somehow stem· Lambert. W. W. (eds.). Handbook of personality theory and research.
ming from the unconscious or. In some cases, the precon- Chicago: Rand McNally. 1968.
material prohibited without express written permission of the copyright holder.

scious. Humanistic theories typically relate creativity to the BISCHOF. L. J. Interpreting personality theories (2nd ed.). NYC: Harper.
individual's striving for self·actualization. Theories which 1970.
CROPLEY, A. J. S·R psychology and cognitive psychology. In Vernon. P. E.
are behavioristic are often less concerned with creative be- (ed.). Creativity. Harmondsworth. Middlesex. England: Penguin Books.
havior. When an explanation is advanced it is likely to recog· 1970.
nize creativity as novel or unusual behavior which is never- DAYTON. G. C. Perceptual creativity: where inner and outer reality corne
theless a learned response, fundamentally no different than together. Journal of Creatiue Behal'ior. 1976. 10. 256·264 .
FREUD. S. Three essays on the theory of sexuality (1905). I.n Strachey. J.
other behavior and explainable in stimulus-response terms_ (ed.). The standard edition of the .:omplete psychologIcal works of
There is. of course, some overlap among the positions Sigmund Freud. Vol. 7. London: Hogarth Press. 1953.
examined here. For example, many personality theories FREUD. S. Leonardo da Vinci and a memory of his childhood (1910). Stand·
posit two or more types of creativity having different origins. ard Edition. Vol. 11. 1957. (a)
FREUD. S.lnstincts ond their vicissitudes (1915). Standard Edition. Vol. 14.
Humanistic theories find some common ground with psy- 1957. (b)
choanalytic theories, often seeing one of these sources for FREUD. S. Formulations on the two principles of mental functioning (1911).
creativity in the unconscious. Despite some similarities, how- Standard Edition. Vol. 12. 1958. (a)
ever, fundamental differences exist among these three major FREUD, S. On creativity and the unconscious. NYC: Harper. 1958. (b)
psychological traditions. For example, ..... the extent to FREUD. S. "Civilized" sexual morality and modem nervous illness (1908).
Standard Edition. Vol. 9. 1959. (a)
which the creative process is seen to be under cognitive con- FREUD. S. Creative writers and daydreaming (1908). Standard Edition.
trol continues to be an emotionally laden issue - related, no Vol. 9. 1959. (b)
doubt to one's reference groups," (Helson (, Mitchell, 1978). FREUD, S. Qvilization and its discontents (1930). Standard Edilion. Vol. 21,
As Rychlak (1968) stated: 1961.
FREUD. S. The paths to the formation of symptoms. Lecture XXIII in Intro·
At heart is the image of man which Is at issue in psy- ductory Lectures on Psycho·Analysis (1917). Standard Edition. Vol. 16,
chology's internal conflict ... How shall we theorize 1963.
about the human being? Shall we say that he can FROMM. E. Man for himself. NYC: Holt. Rinehart. 1947.
think, or not? Can he grow personally and rise above FROMM. E. The sane sociely. NYC: Holt, Rinehart. 1955.
his environment, or not? Can he respond to the FROMM. E. The creative attitude. In Anderson, H. H. (ed.). Creativity and its
opportunity for independent action by taking re- cultivation. NYC: Harper. 1959.
GETZELS, J. W. & JACKSON. P. W. Creativity and Intelligence. NVC: John
sponsibility, or not?
Wiley. 1962.
The attempts of personality theories and other general theo- GOLDSTEIN. K. The organism. NYC: American Book. 1939.
ries of behavior to explain the concept of creativity seem to GUILFORD. J. P. Traits of creativity. In Andel'8On. H. H. (ed.). Creativity and
highlight and dramatize some of these basic issues. its cultivation. NYC: Harper. 1959.
GUILFORD, J. P. The nature 0( human intelligence. NYC: McGraw·HiII.
1967.
REFERENCES ADLER. A. Study of organ Inferiority and Its psychical compensation. G(JJLFORD, J. P. Creativity: a quarter century of progress. In Taylor. I. A. &
NYC: Nervous and Mental Diseases Publishing Company. 1917. Getzels. J. W. (eds.). Perspectives in creativity. Chicago: Aldine. 1975.

62
63

Woodman, R. W., 1981: Creativity as a Concept in Personality Theory, In: Journal of Creative Behavior, Buffalo Vol. 15 (1981), pp. 43-66.
 Creativity as a Construct In Peraonallty Theory
HALL. C. S. A primer of Freudian psychology. Cleveland: World Publishing.
1954.
HALL, C. S. f, L1NDZEY. G. Theories of personality (2nd ed.). NYC: John
Wiley, 1970.
~ C. S. (, NORDBY, V. J. A primer of Jungian psychology. NYC: Tap-
hnger. 1973.
HELSON, R. Personality of women with imaginative and artistic interests:
the role of masculinity. originality. and other characteristics in their crea.
tivlty. Joumal of Personality, 1966,34, 1·25.
HELSON, R. Sex differences in creative style. Journal of Personality 1967
Propriety of the Erich Fromm Document Center. For personal use only. Citation or publication of
35, 214·233. ' ,
Veröffentlichungen – auch von Teilen – bedürfen der schriftlichen Erlaubnis des Rechteinhabers.
Eigentum des Erich Fromm Dokumentationszentrums. Nutzung nur für persönliche Zwecke.
HELSON, R. Women mathematicians and the creative personality. Journal
of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1971,36,210·220.
HELSON, R. (, MITCHELL. V. Personality. In Rosenzweig, M. R. (, Pewter, L W.
(eds.), Annual review of psychology, 1978, 20. 555·585.
material prohibited without express written permission of the copyright holder.
JONES, E. The life and work of Sigmund Freud. NYC: Basic Books, 1953
(Vol. .1); 1955 (Vol. 2); 1957 (Vol. 3).
JUNG. C. G. Modem man in search of a soul. NYC: Harcourt, Brace, 1933.
JUNG, C. G. Psychological types. NYC: Harcourt. Brace. 1946.
JUNG. C. G. On the relation of analytical psychology to poetry. In The spirit
in man. art. and literature. Vol. 15. The Collected Works of C. G. Jung.
NYC: Bollingen Foundations. 1966.
KELLY. O. A. The psychology of personal constructs. Volume One: a
theory of personality. NYC: Norton. 1955. (a)
KELLY, G. A. The psychology of personal constructs. Volume Two: clinical
diagnosis and psychotherapy. NYC: Norton. 1955. (b)
KELLY, O. A. Personal construct theory and the psychotherapeutic Interview
(1958). In Maher, B. (ed.), Clinical psychology and personality: the
selected papers of George Kelly. NYC: John Wiley. 1969.
KELLY, O. A. A summary statement of a cognitively·oriented comprehen.
sive theory of behavior. In Mancuso, J. C. (ed.). Readings for a cognitive
theory of personality. NYC: Holt, Rinehart, 1970.
KLEIN, R. H. Creativity and psychopathology: a theoretical model. Journal
of Humanistic Psychology. 1971, II (I), 40· 52.
KR~S, E: On preconscious mental processes. In Psychoanalytic explora-
tIons In art. NYC: International Universities Press. 1951.
KRIS. E. Psychoanalysis and study of creative imagination. In Selected
papers of Emst Kris. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1975.
KUBIE, L S. Neurotic distortion of the creative process. Lawrence: Univer-
sity of Kansas Press, 1958.
KUBIE, L S. Blocks to creatiVity. In Mooney, R. L. (, Razlk. T. A. (eds.), Explo.
rations in creativIty. NYC: Harper, 1967.
MacKINNON. D. W. Personality and the realization of creative potential.
American Psychologist. 1965,20.273-281.
MacKINNON. D. W. The personality correlates of creativity: a study of Ameri-
can architects. In Vernon, P. E. (ed.). Creativity. Harmondsworth,Middlesex,
England: Penguin Books. 1970.
MacKINNON. D. W. Maslow's place in the history of psychology. Journal of
Creative Behavior. 1972.6, 158·163.
MADDI: S. R. Humanistic psychology: Allport and Murray. In Wepman. J_ M.
(, Heme. R. W. (eds.), Concepts of personality. Chicago: Aldlne, 1963.
MADDI, S. R. Perspectives on personality: a comparative approach. Boston:
LIttle. Brown f, Company, 1971.
MADDI, S. R. Personality theories: a comparative analysis (3rd ed.).
Homewood. IL: Dorsey Press, 1976.
64
Woodman, R. W., 1981: Creativity as a Concept in Personality Theory, In: Journal of Creative Behavior, Buffalo Vol. 15 (1981), pp. 43-66.
The Journal of Creative Behavior
MADDI. S. R. f, COSTA, P. T. Humanism in persona logy: AI/port. Maslow.
Murray. Chicago: Aldlne-Atherton. 1972. -
MASLOW. A. H. Creativity in self·actuallzing people. In Anderson. H. H. (ed.).
Creativity and its cultivation. NYC: Harper. 1959.
MASLOW. A. H. Tou.'ard a psychology of being (2nd ed.). NYC: Van
Nostrand Reinhold. 1968.
MASLOW. A. H. Motit'ation and personality (2nd ed.). NYC: Harper. 1970.
MASLOW. A. H. Emotional blocks to creativity (1958). In The further
reaches of human nature. NYC: Viking Press. 1971. (a)
MASLOW. A. H. The creative attitude (1963) In The further reaches of
human nature. NYC: Viking Press. 1971. (b)
MASLOW. A. H. A holistic approach to creativity. In Taylor. C. W. (ed.), Climate
for creativity. NYC: Pergamon Press. 1972.
MEDNICK. S.A. The associative baSIS of the creative process. Psychological
Review. 1962. 69. 221·229.
MEDNICK. S. A. (, MEDNICK. M. T. An associative interpretation of the crea-
tive process. In Taylor. C. W. (ed.). Widening horizons in creativity. NYC:
John Wiley. 1964.
MUNROE, R. L. Schools of psychoanalytic thought. NYC: Holt. 1955.
MURRAY. H. A. Explorations in personality. NYC: Oxford University Press.
1938.
MURRAY. H. A. Toward a classification of interactions. In Parsons. T. f, ShUs.
E. A. (eds.). Toward a general theory of actIon. Cambridge: HaMlrd Uni-
versity Press. 1951.
MURRAY. H. A. Preparations for the scaffold of a comprehenSIve system. In
Koch. S. (ed.), Psychology: a study of a science. Vol. 3. NYC: McGraw-
Hill. 1959. (a)
MURRAY. H. A. VicisSItudes of creativity. In Anderson. H. A. (ed.). Creativity
and its cultivation. NYC: Harper (, Brothers. 1959. (b)
MURRAY. H. A. Components of an evolving personological system. In Sills.
D. L (ed .). International encyclopedia of the SOCIal sciences. NYC:
Macmillan and Free Press, 1968. 12.5-13.
MURRAY. H. A. Basic concepts for a psychology of personality (1936). In
Vetter. H. J. f, Smith. B. D. (eds.), Personality theory: a source book. NYC:
Appleton·Century·Crofts. 1971.
RANK. O. Art and artist. NYC: Alfred Knopf. 1932.
RANK. O. Will therapy and truth and reality. NYC: Alfred Knopf. 1945.
RANK. O. f, SACHS. H. Esthetics and psychology of the artist. In Rank. O.
f, Sachs, H.• The Significance of psychoanalysis for the mental sciences.
Washington. DC: Nervous and Mental Diseases Publishing Company. 1916.
ROE. A. The making of a scientist. NYC: Dodd. Mead. 1953.
ROE, A. Maintenance of creative output through the years. In Taylor. C. W.
(ed.). Climate for creativity. NYC: Pergamon Press. 1972.
ROGERS. C. R. Toward a theory of creativity. In Anderson. H. H. (ed.). Crea·
tlvity and its cultivation. NYC: Harper, 1959.
ROGERS. C. R. On becoming a person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 1961 .
ROTHENBERG, A. (, HAUSMAN. C. R. (eds.). The creativity question.
Durham. NC: Duke University Press. 1976.
RYCHLAK. J. F. A philosophy of science for personality theory. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin. 1968.
RYCHLAK. J. F. Introduction to Personality and Psychotherapy. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin. 1973.
SKINNER. B. F. Contingencies of reinforcement: a theoretical analysis.
NYC: Appleton-Century-<:rofts. 1969.
65
 Creativity 8S • Construct In PersonaHly Theory

SKINNER. B. F. Creating the creative artist In Cumulative record (3rd ed.).

NYC: Appleton·Century·Crofts. 1972.
SKINNER. B. F. About behavior/sm. NYC: Alfred Knopf. 1974.
SLOCHOWER. H. Psychoanalysis and creativity. In Rosner. S. f:. Abt, L. E.
(eds.). Essays in creativity. Croton-On·Hudson. NY: North River Press.
1974.
STAATS. A. W. Social behavior/sm. Homewood.IL: Dorsey Press. 1975.
STEIN. M. I. f:. HEINZE. S. J. Creativity and the individual: summaries of
Propriety of the Erich Fromm Document Center. For personal use only. Citation or publication of

selected literature in psychology and psychiatry. Glencoe. IL: Free

Veröffentlichungen – auch von Teilen – bedürfen der schriftlichen Erlaubnis des Rechteinhabers.

Press. 1960.
Eigentum des Erich Fromm Dokumentationszentrums. Nutzung nur für persönliche Zwecke.

STORR. A. The ambivalence of Freud. In The dynamics of creation. NYC:

Atheneum. 1972.
TAYLOR. I. A. A retrospective view of creativity investigation. In Taylor. I. A.
material prohibited without express written permission of the copyright holder.

f:. Getzels. J. W. (eds.). Perspectives in creatiVIty. Chicago: Aldlne. 1975.

TAYLOR, I. A. Psychological sources of creativity. Journal of Creative
Behavior. 1976. 10. 193·202.218.
Richard W. Woodman. Assistant Professor.
Address: Department of Management. Texas Af:.M University. College
Station. Texas 77843.

66 Woodman, R. W., 1981: Creativity as a Concept in Personality Theory,

In: Journal of Creative Behavior, Buffalo Vol. 15 (1981), pp. 43-66.