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Ugaz, Cecilia

Working Paper
A public goods approach to regulation of utilities

WIDER Discussion Paper, No. 2001/09

Provided in Cooperation with:


United Nations University (UNU), World Institute for Development Economics Research
(WIDER)

Suggested Citation: Ugaz, Cecilia (2001) : A public goods approach to regulation of utilities,
WIDER Discussion Paper, No. 2001/09, The United Nations University World Institute for
Development Economics Research (UNU-WIDER), Helsinki

This Version is available at:


https://hdl.handle.net/10419/52850

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Appendix Table
Features of the regulatory agencies, by country

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