Heft | Issue R594 (2020)

FVV-Informationstagung Turbomaschinen | Frühjahr 2020 – Würzburg

FVV Information Sessions Turbomachinery | Spring 2020 – Würzburg

__________________________________________________________________________________

Relaxationsverhalten II | Stress Relaxation Behaviour II | No 1326

Zwischenbericht | Interim report (ZB)

__________________________________________________________________________________

1| Materialprüfungsanstalt | Materials Testing Institute (MPA)

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Stefan Weihe | Universität Stuttgart

2| Fachgebiet und Institut für Werkstoffkunde | Chair and Institute for Materials Technology (IfW)
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Matthias Oechsner | Technische Universität Darmstadt

__________________________________________________________________________________

Thema | Full title: Revisionskonzepte für hochtemperaturbeanspruchte Flansch- und

Schraubenverbindungen im flexiblen Anlagenbetrieb | Outage concepts
for heavy-duty flange joints and bolted joints under flexible service ope-
ration

Laufzeit | Duration: 01.04.2018 - 31.03.2021

Fördergeber | Funding: Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie / Arbeitsgemeinschaft in-

dustrieller Forschungsvereinigungen e. V. | Federal Ministry for Econo-
mic Affairs and Energy / German Federation of Industrial Research
Associations eV (BMWi/AiF)

Fördernr. | Funding no: IGF 20088 N

Obmann | Chairperson: Dr.-Ing. Martin Reigl (GE Power)

Bearbeiter | Coordinators: Dr.-Ing. Andreas Klenk (MPA)

Kevin Kettler, M.Sc. (MPA)
Dr.-Ing. Christian Kontermann (IfW)
Dr.-Ing. Michael Schwienheer (IfW)
Muhammad Mohsin Khan, M.Sc. (IfW)
Dipl.-Ing. Andreas Kempf (IfW)

Vortragende | Lecturers: Dr.-Ing. Andreas Klenk (MPA)

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Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

Danksagung

Dieser Bericht ist das wissenschaftliche Ergebnis einer Forschungsaufgabe, die von der Forschungs-
vereinigung Verbrennungskraftmaschinen (FVV) e. V. gestellt und an der Materialprüfungsanstalt
Universität Stuttgart (MPA) unter der Leitung von Prof. Dr.-Ing. Stefan Weihe und am Fachgebiet und
Institut für Werkstoffkunde (IfW) der Technischen Universität Darmstadt unter der Leitung von Prof. Dr.-
Ing. Matthias Oechsner bearbeitet wird.
Die FVV dankt den Professoren Weihe und Oechsner und den wissenschaftlichen Bearbeitern Dr.-Ing.
Andreas Klenk (MPA) und Kevin Kettler, M.Sc. (MPA) sowie Dr.-Ing. Christian Kontermann (IfW),
Dr.-Ing. Michael Schwienheer (IfW), Muhammad Mohsin Khan, M.Sc. (IfW) und Dip.-Ing. Andreas
Kempf (IfW) für die Durchführung des Vorhabens sowie der Arbeitsgemeinschaft industrieller
Forschungsvereinigungen (AiF) e. V. für die finanzielle Förderung. Das Vorhaben wurde von einem
Arbeitskreis der FVV unter der Leitung von Dr.-Ing. Martin Reigl (GE Power) begleitet. Diesem
projektbegleitenden Ausschuss gebührt unser Dank für die große Unterstützung.
Insbesondere danken wir den Firmen GE Power GmbH, Siemens AG und MAN Energy Solutions SE
für Ihre Einbringung im Rahmen des Arbeitskreises und die Bereitstellung diverser Sachleistungen.
Das Forschungsvorhaben wurde im Rahmen des Programms zur Förderung der industriellen
Gemeinschaftsforschung (IGF-Nr. 20088 N) vom Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie (BMWi)
über die Arbeitsgemeinschaft industrieller Forschungsvereinigungen (AiF) e. V. aufgrund eines
Beschlusses des Deutschen Bundestages gefördert.

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 Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

Acknowledgement

This report is the scientific result of a research project undertaken by the FVV (The Research Associa-
tion for Combustion Engines eV) and is performed by the Materials Testing Institute University of
Stuttgart (MPA) under the direction of Prof. Dr.-Ing. Stefan Weihe and by Chair and Institute for Materials
Technology (IfW) at University of Darmstadt under the direction of Prof. Dr.-Ing. Matthias Oechsner.
The FVV would like to thank the professors Weihe and Oechsner and their scientific research assistants
- Dr.-Ing. Andreas Klenk (MPA) and Kevin Kettler, M.Sc. (MPA) as well as Dr.-Ing. Christian Kontermann
(IfW), Dr.-Ing. Michael Schwienheer (IfW), Muhammad Mohsin Khan, M.Sc. (IfW) and Dip.-Ing. Andreas
Kempf (IfW) - for the implementation of the project. Special thanks are due to the AiF (German
Federation of Industrial Research Associations eV) for funding the project. The project was conducted
by an expert group led by Dr.-Ing. Martin Reigl (GE Power). We gratefully acknowledge the support
received from the chairman and from all members of the project user committee.
In addition, we would like to thank GE Power GmbH, Siemens AG and MAN Energy Solutions SE for
the contribution to the working group and the provision of various benefits in kind.
The research project is carried out in the framework of the industrial collective research programme (IGF
no. 20088 N). It is supported by the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWi) through
the AiF (German Federation of Industrial Research Associations eV) based on a decision taken by the
German Bundestag.

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Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

Kurzfassung

Mit Blick auf den wachsenden Anteil der erneuerbaren Energien an der Stromerzeugung, gewinnt der
flexible Anlagenbetrieb konventioneller Kraftwerke immer weiter an Bedeutung. Diese Betriebsweise
stellt die Industrie und Kraftwerksbetreiber insbesondere bei der Revision bestehender Anlagen vor
neue Herausforderungen.
Flanschverbindungen, z. B. von Kraftwerksrohren an Turbinengehäuse stellen konstruktiv einfache,
aber für den zuverlässigen Betrieb essentielle Elemente dar. Durch die komplexe Überlagerung von
Belastungen durch die erhöhten, zunehmend wechselnden Temperaturen mit Kriech- und
Relaxationsvorgängen und Temperaturgradienten innerhalb der Bauteile ergeben sich große
Unsicherheiten beim Festlegen der Revisionsintervalle. Dabei geben nationale und internationale
Normen lediglich allgemeine Hinweise, wie im flexiblen Anlagenbetrieb mit der Festlegung von
Revisionsintervallen umzugehen ist bzw. geben nur allgemeine Bewertungskriterien für warmgehende
Bolzenverbindungen.
Ziel des Forschungsvorhabens ist die Untersuchung und Charakterisierung des Relaxationsverhaltens
von typischen Hochtemperatur-Schrauben- und Flanschwerkstoffen unter Berücksichtigung
bauteilnaher Beanspruchungsbedingungen und deren Beschreibung mittels robuster Materialroutinen.
Anhand der gewonnenen Erkenntnisse und Materialroutinen sollen zukünftig Revisionsintervalle
präziser und unter Berücksichtigung der Betriebsweise und akkumulierter Schädigung ermittelt und
festgelegt werden. Dabei werden mit Blick auf Frischdampftemperaturen moderner Kraftwerke von über
600 °C in dem Projekt vorrangig die Schraubenwerkstoffe Nimonic® 80A und X12CrMoWVNbN10-1-1
sowie der Flanschwerkstoff GX13CrMoCoVNbNB9-2-1 untersucht. Zum Vergleich und zur Verifikation
der entwickelten Methoden und ihrer Übertragbarkeit sind weitere Versuche an dem bereits gut
untersuchten X22CrMoV12-1 vorgesehen. Aufbauend auf der umfangreichen Basis an Werkstoffdaten
aus dem Vorgängerprojekt (AiF-Nr. 17146) [Hah16/17] werden die Einflüsse des Nachziehens von
Schrauben, niedriger Temperaturen, stationärer Temperaturgradienten, des „negativen Kriechens“
sowie der Relaxation unter Temperaturwechseln untersucht. Erste Ergebnisse werden im Rahmen
dieses Zwischenberichts ab Kapitel 5 vorgestellt.
Einen weiteren Teil des Projektes stellen Versuche unter betriebsnahen Bedingungen an einem
realitätsnahen Mitteldruckturbinen-Flansch im Maßstab von ca. 2,5:1 dar. Im vorliegenden Bericht wird
kurz der Aufbau des aus dem Vorgängerprojekt stammenden Flansches und das Versuchsprogramm
im Rahmen des Forschungsprojektes beschrieben. Im Fokus steht dabei ein Vergleich zwischen einer
weniger kriechbeständigen Legierung bzw. Werkstoffkombination und einer kriechbeständigeren
Nickelbasis-Schraubenverbindung unter längerer stationärer und zyklischer Belastung. Der
Flanschversuch stellt auch eine geeignete Möglichkeit für die Validierung der erstellten und erweiterten
nummerischen Berechnungsansätze bzw. Materialmodelle dar.
Ein weiteres Ziel des Projektes ist die Entwicklung von Flanschersatzmodellen, welche das
Verformungsverhalten während des Verspannens und des Betreibens realer Flansche bei deutlich
geringerem Aufwand und Kosten nachbilden sollen. Hierzu werden erste Ergebnisse und ein Ausblick
vorgestellt.

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 Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

Abstract

With a view on the growing share of renewable energies in power generation, flexible operation of
conventional power plants is becoming increasingly important. This flexible mode of operation faces the
industry and power plant operators with new challenges especially with regard to determining revisions
of plants which are in-service.
Flange connections, for example from pipes to turbine casings are structurally simple, but essential for
reliable operation. The complex superimposition of loads due to the elevated, increasingly alternating
temperatures with creep and relaxation processes and temperature gradients within the components
leads to higher uncertainties when determining the revision intervals. National and international
standards provide only general information on the determination of revision intervals concerning flexible
system operation or only give general evaluation criteria for bolt connections under elevated
temperatures.
In this research project, the relaxation behaviour of typical high-temperature screw and flange materials
under near service loads will be investigated and characterized, in order to finally to finally described
the material behaviour with robust subroutines. Based on the knowledge gained and the material
routines, revision intervals shall be determined more precisely in the future, taking into account the mode
of operation and accumulated damage. Considering steam temperatures beyond 600 °C in modern
power plants the project primarily examines the screw materials Nimonic® 80A and the
X12CrMoWVNbN10-1-1 as well as the flange material GX13CrMoCoVNbNB9-2-1. For comparison and
verification of the developed methods and their transferability, further tests on the well-examined
X22CrMoV12-1 are planned. Building on the extensive material data from the previous project (AiF No.
17146N) [Hah16/17], the effects of tightening screws, low temperatures, steady-state temperature
gradients, "negative creep" and relaxation under cycling temperatures are investigated. First results are
shown within this interim report starting with chapter 5.
Furthermore, tests on a scaled intermediate-pressure turbine flange under near service load are carried
out. This report gives a brief description of the flange model assumed from the previous project and the
test program planned in this research project. The focus of these tests is on a comparison of a less
creep-resistant steel alloy bolted joint and a creep-resistant nickel-base alloy bolted joint under longer
stationary and cyclical loads. The flange test also represents a suitable possibility for the validation of
the created and expanded material models.
A further aim of the project is the development of flange substitute models, which are capable to simulate
the deformation behaviour during bracing and operation of real flanges with significantly lower effort and
costs. On this, first results and an outlook are presented.

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Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

1 Introduction

The rising share of renewable resources leads to a new requirement profiles for plants which are in
service. The number of stationary base load operating phases of large steam turbines (> 1000 MW)
decrease steadily in recent years and flexible operation has become more important for maintaining grid
stability [Aum16][Lam12]. Due to the large dimensions, the increased number of warm and hot starts
results in unsteady temperature gradients in the components, which have been partially neglected in
the origin design targeting on base load operation. This requires revaluations and upgrades of existing
plants to fulfil market requirements outlined above. In the future, smaller industrial steam turbines (≈ 100
MW) will also become more important for ensuring a sustainable and climate-friendly energy supply.
These machines are essential for the system integration of renewable energies and are used e.g. in
biomass power plants, waste incineration plants, combined heat and power (CHP) and solar thermal
power plants (concentrated solar power; (CSP)). Especially for CSP power plants the ability to quickly
start-up and shut-down the turbines (quick start capability) is important [Kli15], which exposes
components to an anisothermal-cyclic operation with high temperature gradients.
Flanged and bolted connections represent functional elements for steam turbine components exposed
to the operation modes mentioned above. Thus, such connections are increasingly exposed to
cycling/changing thermal and mechanical stresses. European and international regulations specifically
provide instructions for the design and evaluation of high-temperature (HT) flange and bolt connections
to a very limited extent and exclusively based on isothermal investigations. The applicability of these
methods for cyclic thermal and mechanical stresses has not been sufficiently investigated so far.
Furthermore, there are no investigations on the effect of transient stresses on the definition of inspection
and replacement intervals of high temperature flange and bolt connections.
The previous project (AiF No. 17146) [Hah16/17] delivered some promising findings for the description
of the deformation and relaxation behaviour of bolt and flange connections under cyclical loading.
However, for a precious valuation further influences have to be considered.
Therefore, as part of this project the transient relaxation behaviour of specific alloys, the influences of
stationary temperature gradients, retightening bolts, the microstructure contraction as well as the thread
deformation and short-term relaxation are investigated.
These results will provide suggestions for suitable maintenance concepts. At the end of the project user-
friendly and universally valid calculations methods will be available to determine maintenance intervals
for high temperature flange- and bolt connections under anisothermal and transient loadings. In addition,
the results may lead to recommendations for further adaptions of standards and technical guidelines.

2 Current State of Knowledge

The flange and bolt connections utilized in the different parts of the steam turbines are the functional
elements that play an essential role in maintaining the integrity of the system. Due to increasing cyclic
loading, these connections are subjected to increasingly changing thermal and mechanical stresses.
Limited studies are available in the European and International regulations for the specific design of
flange and bolt connections at high temperatures. The applicability of already existing methods has so

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 Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

far been insufficiently investigated for flange and bolt connections at such extreme conditions, and there
are even no studies that define the effect of transient stresses on the revision intervals.
In power plants, the most frequently utilized materials for flange and bolt connections are nickel and
steel alloys, such as NiCr20TiAl (Nimonic® 80A), X22CrMoV12-1 and X12CrMoWVNbN10-1-1, which
has been shown by a series of National, European and International projects [Pur02] [Lös92] [Szc83].
Modern cast steel alloys, such as the GX12CrMoWVNbN10-1-1 or the GX13CrMoCoVNbNB9-2-1
(CB2) have become established as typical housing materials for applications up to 625 °C [Sta06]. It is
recommended for a flange and bolt connection to utilize materials with high creep resistance as it
correlates to high relaxation resistance, which is essential in order to maintain the pretension of the
connection and a resulting tightness of the connection.
There are several methods for the experimental characterization of the deformation and relaxation
behaviour as listed in Table 1. The short-term relaxation is usually characterized by the uniaxial
relaxation experiment on cylindrical samples with continuous strain control and stress measurement
[Deu03]. For the characterization of the long-term relaxation of the bolted joint, bolt joint models are
commonly used [Deu07]. In the bolt joint model experiment, a threaded bolt is clamped against a flange
sleeve. The residual stress is determined through the elastic expansion of the threaded bolt after the
removal and opening of the model. The methods discussed above are simple approaches to
characterize the material behaviour. However, the assessment of the relaxation behaviour of flange
connections requires the knowledge of the interaction between the flange and screw material
combinations, which are often different in industrial applications. Therefore, these interactions and
effects can only be investigated to a limited extent with standard relaxation experiments. Several
research projects [Gen03] [Pur02] have shown that the interaction of the flange and threaded bolts can
be experimentally depicted by model flange experiments. In addition, component-like bolt joint model
experiments [Mai94] [May80] [May88] were carried out with different bolt-flange material combinations,
in particular for 1% and 12% chromium steels and also to a limited extent for the Nimonic® 80A. With
the help of numerical calculation methods, the transferability of the determined material properties to
real flange connections was demonstrated with scaled model flange experiments.
Comprehensive studies on the influence of transient loads on the relaxation and deformation behaviour
apart from [Hah16/17] are not known for flange and bolt connections. Only general information for the
evaluation of transient loading and definition of inspection concepts are present in the national standards
and regulations. For example, VDI 2230 [Ver03/11] and AD-2000 Leaflets of TÜV [Ver15/15a] for the
design of bolt joints, DIN EN 1591 for the mathematical design of flange connections [Deu14a] or the
VGB guideline R-505 [VGB04] need to be mentioned here.

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Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

Table 1: Overview of different experiment types for characterization of relaxation behaviour

Experiment Uniaxial Experiment Bolt Joint Experiment Model Flange Experiment

Type
Degree of  Strain  Strain  Strain
Component  Temperature  Temperature  Temperature
Proximity  Relaxation behaviour  Relaxation behaviour
 Sleeve strength  Interaction between
flange and
threaded bolt
 Internal pressure
Result Material Detailed material Component-like
characterization characterization characterization
Limits No information about Limited information about Costly and required a lot of
the interaction of the interaction of flange effort (instrumentation)
flange connection connection

All of these standards and regulations do not describe specific evaluation methods and instructions. In
DIN EN 10269 [Deu14], only isothermal relaxation parameters. International standards (for e.g. ASME
regulations) also lack in providing such information [Adi14] [ASM10].
Beside standards, several phenomenological and constitutive material models are available for the
numerical and analytical evaluation of the deformation behaviour of flange and bolt connections. The
former describes the creep strain with the help of analytical equations [Gar65] [Hol14] [Riv15] while the
latter utilizes physical based approaches [Wan12] [Sim07]. Constitutive models are equipped with
evolution equations for damage, whereby the challenge is the development of a robust method for
parameter identification. Complex components and application related scenarios can be evaluated with
the help of phenomenological and constitutive material models integrated in FE-Software.
Phenomenological models were developed and successfully validated in the previous project [Hah16]
for typical bolt materials (Nimonic® 80A, Nimonic® 101, X12CrMoWVNbN10-1-1, and others) based on
the extensive database utilizing isothermal creep and relaxation experiments. The influence of transient
anisothermal stresses on the relaxation behaviour was only observed on Nimonic® 80A and Nimonic®
101, where the global relaxation behaviour seem to be understood as an accumulation of quasi-
isothermal relaxation quantities. Furthermore, it has been shown that the temperature and time
dependent volume contractions that occur in the nickel-based alloy are thermodynamically unstable as
a result of the formation of order structures of the face-centred cubic matrix. The order structures
dissolve when a critical temperature is exceeded which is currently neither be represented numerically
nor analytically. With flexible plant operation, such effects can have a great influence on the accuracy
of the residual stress assessment and in exceptional cases even lead to component damage [Dah04].
According to Garofalo [Gar65], the total strain 𝜀𝑡 is divided into an elastic part 𝜀𝑒𝑙 and an irreversible
plastic part 𝜀𝑝𝑒𝑟 , where the permanent strain is considered as a superposition of time-independent initial
plastic strain 𝜀𝑖 , creep strain 𝜀𝑓 , volume contraction 𝜀𝑑 and inelastic strain 𝜀𝑘 as shown in Eqn. 1:
𝜀𝑡 = 𝜀𝑒𝑙 + 𝜀𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 𝜀𝑒𝑙 + 𝜀𝑖 + 𝜀𝑓 + 𝜀𝑑 + 𝜀𝑘 (1)

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 Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

It has been shown previously that [Gen01] [Gen03] [Mai99] [Pur02] an exact description of stress
relaxation processes using FEM calculations requires a high quality of fit of the creep strain 𝜀𝑓 , especially
in the primary and secondary creep zones. Using the Garofalo approach, an implicit form of creep
equation [Hah16] was developed, which is advantageous in numerical implementation. The creep rate
is given as a function of creep strain, temperature, and stress as shown in Eqn. 2:

𝜀̇𝑓 = 𝑓(𝑇, 𝜎, 𝜀𝑓 ) = 𝜀̇𝑓,𝐼 + 𝜀̇𝑓,𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝜀̇𝑓,𝐼𝐼𝐼 (2)

The incremental implementation of the relation as shown in Eqn. 3, according to Graham and Walles,
represents a further candidate for implementation in FE-Programs,
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝜀̇𝑓 = 10𝐴1 𝜎𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑛1 𝜀𝑓 + 10 𝐴2 𝜎𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑛2 𝜀𝑓 (3)

It is shown in the previous project [Hah16], that the determination of the material model parameters
including the relaxation data leads to an improved representation of the primary creep zone. The long-
term relaxation behaviour can be simulated with sufficient accuracy using the phenomenological models
mentioned in Eqn. 2 and Eqn. 3. However, significant differences were observed in the evaluation of the
short-term relaxation between experiment and simulation as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Recalculation of staged relaxation experiments on X21CrMoV5-7 for a) stages 1-5 and b)
stages 6-10 [Hah16]

The models generally underestimate the experimentally measured decrease in stress within the first 30
hours. Here, the utilization of the hardening law has a major influence on the calculated stress relaxation.
The most commonly utilized hardening laws are the strain and time hardening laws, where it has been
shown that through strain hardening more accurate results are achieved [Bar87] [Odq62]. However, it
is still to be examined to what extent this applies to higher quality creep laws as well as to cyclic
anisothermal loading conditions and whether alternative approaches e.g., energy hardening approach
and/or the expansion ratio rule, allow a more precise description of the component-near relaxation
behaviour.

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Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

3 Problem Definition

In the previous project, a test-rig was developed and operated for carrying out anisothermal component
tests on a medium-pressure steam turbine flange, where two CB2 cast steel flanges were clamped
together by expansion bolt and expansion sleeves. The heating from inside was a major development
concerning the representation of real stress and temperature conditions. The experiments showed that
an almost 50% decrease in the screw force due to the used material combination has been mainly
caused by the permanent deformation of the flange within almost 1,400 hours of operation. However,
the effects of different starting conditions and the effects of the repeated tightening of the bolts are
unclear and need to be investigated. Furthermore, only Nimonic® 80A bolts were examined, where the
flange (as a weaker creep partner) is mainly responsible for the decrease in the preload force. Therefore,
different flange and bolt material combinations with varying starting conditions will be examined in this
project. Also, flange substitute models will be developed to model the stiffness behaviour of the model
flange assembly.
In addition, a first successful development and validation of phenomenological models were achieved
in the previous project with good accuracy for the description of the long-term relaxation behaviour.
However, significant differences were observed in the short-term relaxation behaviour especially during
staged relaxation tests. As already discussed, the strain accuracy prediction in short-term relaxation is
majorly influenced by the applied hardening laws. Therefore, the influence of different hardening
approaches (damage hardening, energy hardening, etc.) need to be examined. Also, constitutive
material models will have a major potential in mimic the material behaviour under such complex
situations. However, utilizing them can pose challenges. Therefore, at first a robust method and/or a
tool need to be developed in order to reliably determine model parameters.
The developed methods should also be able to address the problem of the dissolution behaviour of the
microstructure contraction, which occurs mainly in nickel-based alloys when a critical temperature is
exceeded. Hence, this problem will be taken into account for the development of the models.

4 Concept

The central aim of the research project is the investigation and characterization of the relaxation
behaviour of typical high temperature (HT) bolts and flange materials under consideration of near service
load conditions and their description with platform-independent, robust material routines.
These material routines and the recommendations on revision intervals and replacement derived from
the findings of the project should enable calculation engineers in the future to determine and specify
revision intervals more precisely and dependent on the operating mode and previously accumulated
damage. In the previous project (AiF No. 17146N) [Hah16/17], some promising steps were already
made. For a better understanding more investigations towards the transient relaxation behaviour of
specific alloys, the influences of stationary temperature gradients, of retightening bolts and a better
numerical descriptions of the microstructure contraction as well as the thread deformation and short-
term relaxation are necessary. Therefore, seven work packages were defined for achieving the research
objectives named above. These aims and the methods are explained in detail below. Figure 2 illustrates
the approach schematically with its experimental and numerical work packages.

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 Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

Figure 2: Overview of related work packages

In work package 1, further supplementary basic tests for the evaluation of remaining questions from the
precursor project AiF No. 17146N, such as the cyclically repeated loading (retightening) of specimen,
relaxation at relatively low temperatures or the effects of different flange-bolt material combinations
(AP1) are planned. In addition, long-term annealing tests of the Nimonic® 80A are planned to evaluate
the transient volume contraction behaviour. Based on these results, the further developments and
improvements of the material models and adaptation tools from the precursory project AiF-No. 17146N
can take place (AP3.1/3.2). Simultaneously, transient relaxation experiments on specimens and bolt
joint models are planned at IfW Darmstadt (IfWD) to characterize the anisothermal material behaviour
(AP2.1). This work package includes the evaluation of local deformations of bolts due to static
temperature gradients with a component-like bolt model test. The investigation of changed flexible start-
up conditions and longer transient test phases are carried out on the model flange at the MPA University
of Stuttgart (MPAS) (AP2.2). This flange model was developed and set up in the predecessor project
(AiF-Nr. 17146N). Whereby repeated retightening of the bolts and the usage of less creep resistant bolt
material should provide important findings for the derivation of practical relevant inspection intervals.
The recalculation of the tests of AP2.1 and 2.2 offers the possibility to validate the material models under
real loading conditions (WP3.1/3.2). With the knowledge gained on simulative predictions and
experimental experiences from WP1 and WP2 a new, easy to handle experimental approach for the
investigation of near-flange loads will be developed (WP4). The members of the project-working group
W11 prove the robustness of the developed material models and methods by practical recalculations of
real power plant components (WP5). Thus, after ending of the project the industrial applicability of the
material models can be guaranteed. The results obtained in AP1 to AP5 will be considered in the
following for a sensitivity analysis (WP6), which includes for example an evaluation of the influence of
the load velocity on the short-term relaxation behaviour, the effects of the property scatter of different
flange material batches, local deformations in the thread or the variation of numerical parameters during
modelling. Based on the knowledge gained so far, recommendations for standards/regulations (WP7.1)
and material data sheets (WP7.2) can then be drawn up, enabling condition oriented and reliable
statements about replacement criteria and intervals (inspection strategies) under transient loads of

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Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

flexible plant operation. Table 2 shows an overview of the working packages and the contributing project
partners.

Table 2: Content of the working packages and contributors

WP Working packages Project partners

Design of experiments & production of specimen concerning WP1,
MPA, IfW
WP2.1 and WP2.2
Additional basic experiments with materials
1 GX13CrMoCoVNbNB9-2-1 and X12CrMoWVNbN10-1-1 MPA

Additional basic experiments with materials

IfW
Nimonic® 80A, X6NiCrTiMoVB25-15-2 and X22CrMoV12-1
Transient stress relaxation experiments & experiments with
2.1 IfW
stationary temperature gradient

2.2 Model flange tests MPA

Further validation of the material models, transient stress relaxation

3.1 IfW
experiments (part 1: transient loads)
Further validation of the material models,
3.2 MPA
model flange tests (part 2: model flange tests and fitting tool)
4 Development and testing of flange substitute models MPA, IfW
MPA, IfW,
5 Check of robustness of methods
Industrial Partners
6 Sensitivity analysis IfW, MPA
7.1 Preparation of recommendations for design and revision concepts MPAS
7.2 Preparation of datasheets of residual stresses IfW
8 Status and final reports MPA, IfW

5 Basic experiments and influences on bolt pretension relaxation

The extensive database from the previous project [Hah16] is extended with specific test which cover the
remaining open questions. Figure 3 shows an overview of the tests from work package 1, 2.1 and 6
covering different influences / aspects of relaxation behaviour.

Figure 3: Connection of the tests with the description of the relaxation behaviour

16
 Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

Additional Relaxation Tests

The previous project [Hah16] has shown that the stress relaxation up to 5,000 hours for Nimonic® 101
(BCW) strongly depends on temperature and is superposed by microstructure contraction. At the lower
temperatures down to 650 °C no significant stress relaxation could be observed. Here, the stress even
increases due to contraction. At 700 °C a stress relaxation due to creep strain accumulation overruns
the contraction after about 1,000 h. However, the new relaxation test at 750 °C shows a significant stress
relaxation since its inception. After currently 6,700 h the loss of initial stress is about 50%, see Figure 4.
This result is in line with the expectations.

400
Nimonic 101 (BCW)
350

300
600°C

650°C
stress  (MPa)

250
700°C
200

150
750°C
100

50 Relaxation
0 = 0.15%
0
0,1 1 10 100 1.000 10.000
time t (h)
Figure 4: Isothermal stress relaxation tests for Nimonic 101 (BCW)

Negative Creep
Beside nickel-based alloys, which have been already investigated [Hah16], also austenitic steel alloys
can be affected by contraction under thermal loading. In order to compensate different thermal
expansion behaviour of the component materials, so-called expansion sleeves are used. Therefore
long-term contraction tests up to 20,000 hours for austenitic material X6NiCrTiMoVB25-15-2 (Alloy 286
/ dAC) are performed at 400 °C and 625 °C with discontinuous strain determination. The dissolution
behaviour of Nimonic® 80A (BEZ) will be further investigated in experiments with continuous strain
measurement at further elevated annealing temperature. Current status of the density-dependent strain
𝜀𝑑 for is shown in Figure 5.

17
Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

Figure 5: Isothermal contraction tests for X6NiCrTiMoVB25-15-2 (alloy 286 / dAC)

Temperature cycles
Current steam turbine operation is characterized by frequent hot starts. In particular for standard bolt
material X22CrMoV12-1 (BDY) and X12CrMoWVNbN10-1-1 (BDL) the stress relaxation behaviour
under transient conditions shall be investigated more detailed in this project. Figure 6 shows a simplified
weekly temperature profile for the bolted flange connection with X12CrMoWVNbN10-1-1 (BDL) bolt and
Figure 7 the derived experimental temperature profile for specimen and bolted joint model (BJM) testing.
Based on that anisothermal service-near short term relaxation tests will be conducted. To study the
influence of the loading rate further schematically experiments will be conducted by varying loading
rates within subsequent relaxation cycles based.

18
 Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

Figure 6: Determined temperature profile for X12CrMoWVNbN10-1-1 (BDL) flange bolt with defined
minimum and maximum temperature and stationary intervals

Figure 7: Derived temperature profile for testing of X12CrMoWVNbN10-1-1 (BDL) specimen and bolted
joint model (BJM)

19
Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

Near-service loaded Bolt Model

An experimental intermediate step between a standard bolt model and a flange is represented by a large
bolt model with M64 thread and 450 mm length. This large bolt model is exposed to an axial temperature
gradient which is realized by utilizing a large creep testing available at the IfWD, see Figure 8. The
planed exposure time is 20,000 h. The test represents a contribution sponsored by the Siemens AG in
order to allow a verification of the material models to be developed in this project. The current exposure
time is about 7,500 h.

Figure 8: Bolt model with M64 thread under exposure with temperature gradient (Tmax= 590 °C,
Tmin=480 °C)

Local Creep Deformation in Threads

Previous investigations have shown that the amount of creep deformation and the resulting stress
relaxation in flange connections is underlying known main influence parameters, e.g. local stress raisers

20
 Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

at the notches and resulting gradient effects. When bolts are engaged in the flange component, its less
creep-resistant behaviour compared to the bolt material has a high impact on the stress relaxation of
the entire bolted joint. In order to verify numerically determined creep deformation at the notch of the
threaded flange, the influence of the notch load will be identified by creep experiments with notched
specimens for CB2 cast alloy (BDE) at 400 °C and 625 °C and compared with results of unnotched
specimens with identical nominal stresses.

Relaxation Behaviour - Scattering between Casts

In addition the influence of the scattering of creep properties on the relaxation behaviour is investigated
on the example of the CB2 alloy. For this purpose, isothermal relaxation experiments are carried out on
three different CB2 casts with code names BEG, BDE, BEK. All three casts are within the material
specification, but show significant different creep properties. Figure 9 shows the results of recently
finished tests for the first two specimens BDE1 and BEG1. The specimen RC.3 was tested in the
previous project and made out of the same cast like specimen BEG1. Further investigations starting
with the previous project (AiF No. 17146) [Hah16/17] has shown a significant amount of casting defects
present in the BEG version of CB2. Further correlations and tests will be made also concerning this
topic.

Figure 9: Relaxation tests on different CB2-casts

6 Material Modelling and Numerical Investigations

In the previous project phenomenological material models with good accuracy in the description of long-
term relaxation behaviour were successfully developed and validated (AiF No. 17146) [Hah16/17], but
further improvements are needed with respect to the following.
For example, the description of the microstructure contraction is already implemented in material
models, but the dissolving of the microstructure contraction at higher temperatures needs to be

21
Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

implemented in transient way. A further issue is the improvement of the short-term relaxation and an
improvements of the robustness of the simulation as well as the material parameter fitting methods.
Aside of further adaptations / improvements the platform independency is aspired for a general
applicability of material models and material laws. The current status related to the mentioned tasks is
briefly summarized within the following sub-chapters.

Further Development of Material Models

In this project, one of the main goals is to further develop the material models to better predict the short-
term stress relaxation and material behaviour specifically with regard to transient and cyclic load cases.
To address this, different hardening approaches have been implemented and compared to each other.
Beside others, a so called “Damage hardening” approach has been figured out. A schematic illustration
of the damage hardening principle is shown in Figure 10:

Figure 10: A schematic illustration of the damage hardening approach using time fraction rule

Unlike strain or time hardening, the idea here is to identify the continuing slope of strain using the time
which represents identical damage values at the point of changing stress. Clearly, such approaches can
be realized by applying different damage accumulation philosophies like time fraction rule or ductility
exhaustion rule for instance.
The main idea behind the damage hardening approach is to rely not on time (time-hardening) or strain
(strain-hardening) only, but bring energy-driven concepts into play. Although the time fraction rule or the
damage exhaustion rule does not contain any energy-driven equation, the concept can be utilized to
build the approach using constitutive material models incorporating fundamental laws of
thermodynamics and hypothesis of energy equivalence [Wan12] [Sim07].

On-going numerical Investigations

In the first step of material modelling, creep data of uniaxial isothermal experiments at 550 ºC of material
X22CrMoV12-1 (BDY) from the previous project were taken as the database. Four creep experiments
at varying stresses were fitted using Norton-Bailey and Implicit Garofalo models by applying the IfWD-
program “INCA” (Interactive Creep Assessment). First results are shown in Figure 11.

22
 Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

Figure 11: Parameter fitting of creep experiments using a) Norton-Bailey and b) Implicit Garofalo

The creep data provided in Figure 11 are shown up to reaching 1% of creep strain. With parameters
determined from creep experiments, relaxation computations were performed and compared to the
isothermal uniaxial relaxation experiments on X22CrMoV12-1 (BDY) at 550 ºC with an initial strain of
0.2%. The relaxation simulation were first performed utilizing strain-, time-, and damage hardening on a
unit test cube on AbaqusTM without a loading step as shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12: Isothermal relaxation computation for X22CrMoV12-1 (BDY) with Norton-Bailey model
using strain, time, and damage hardening

It can be observed in Figure 12 that due to no “Visco” loading step, all of the hardening approaches only
model the stress relaxation after the same initial stress which is due the static preloading step in
AbaqusTM, because there is no creep strain present in the static step. In this case strain and damage
hardening make accurate predictions than time hardening. However, the strain hardening approach is
more accurate in the short-term relaxation while the damage hardening delivers better results in the
long-term relaxation area. The relaxation simulations were then performed utilizing a visco step with
strain and time hardening to model the loading phase as shown in Figure 13. For damage hardening,
the simulation with a visco step is still under debugging phase as it has algorithm convergence issues.

23
Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

Figure 13: Isothermal relaxation computation for X22CrMoV12-1 (BDY) with Norton-Bailey model using
strain and time hardening

It can be seen in Figure 13 that strain and time hardening approaches predict significant difference in
the relaxation behaviour. It can also be noticed that the initial stress after the loading step in both cases
is different. One reason for this is that in both the simulation in AbaqusTM the loading step is a visco step,
where creep law is active and therefore stress relaxation is also computed within this step. For loading
ramps, where the stresses change dramatically as a function of time, the hardening approach itself is
crucial. Therefore, it can be concluded that the hardening majorly influences the simulated short-term
stress relaxation response. As mentioned earlier, it can also be concluded that strain hardening provides
more accurate results than time hardening.
For the same material, the relaxation computation was also performed using Implicit Garofalo and
Norton Bailey model with strain hardening approach as shown in Figure 14:

Figure 14: Isothermal relaxation computation of X22CrMoV12-1 (BDY) with Norton-Bailey and Implicit
Garofalo models using strain hardening

In Figure 14, the main difference between the predictions of the two models is that the Implicit Garofalo
model describes the long-term relaxation behaviour more accurately than the Norton-Bailey model.
Furthermore, short-term stress relaxation is modelled differently in both models. In Garofalo, the stress
relaxes rather slower than the Norton-Bailey behaviour, where the stress relaxes quickly in the beginning

24
 Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

of the strain-hold phase. Although the stress relaxation in the short-term regime is modelled better with
implicit Garofalo, a more generalized prediction of the short-term stress relaxation is to be developed,
especially addressing cyclic and anisothermal loading, which might be realized by utilization of other
hardening approaches.

Robustness Testing of the Methods

For industrial applications, material routines are required that are independent of the numerical platform.
These routines should be reliable, sufficiently validated and as accurate as possible in the description
of the deformation and relaxation behaviour. A lean and user-friendly structure of these routines is as
necessary as a purely reliable numerical calculation.
One of the main challenges when implementing material models is the determination of the model
parameters. In the previous project [Hah16/17], model parameters were determined by using in-house
developed software at MPA Stuttgart and IfW Darmstadt, such as “Creep-Relax Tool” and “INCA”,
respectively. The “Creep-Relax Tool” can automatically fit parameters for the modified Graham-Walles
creep law using both creep and relaxation data. “INCA” is able to determine model parameters for the
Garofalo approach by means of a semi-automatic and interactive method. However, all of the mentioned
approaches are convenient to identify parameters for pure creep material models only. If one would like
to use higher-order constitutive viscoplastic models for a more general and unified description of the
high-temperature material response, methods for a robust and objective parameter identification
considering both creep and relaxation data as an input are essential and need to be developed.
A Chaboche type constitutive material model called “KORA” was developed at IfW Darmstadt within the
recent years which has 19 temperature-dependent material parameters and can be utilized for damage
and lifetime assessment of high-temperature materials. Model parameters of KORA were until now
determined manually by hand, where every single parameter was determined one after another based
on its physical meaning. However, utilizing optimization techniques, a first implementation of an
automatic model parameter fitting of KORA is achieved within the present project. The system of
equations of a first reduced KORA-version addressing creep and relaxation (without damage and cyclic
hardening/softening) is given below:
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑒 + 𝐸𝑝𝑙 , (4)

𝑇 = 𝐶[𝐸𝑒𝑙 ], 𝐶 = 2𝜇. 𝐼 + 𝜆. 1 ⨂ 1, (5)

𝜉 = 𝑐𝑌, (6)

(7)
3
𝑓 = √ (𝑇 − 𝜉)𝑑𝑒𝑣 (𝑇 − 𝜉)𝑑𝑒𝑣 ,
2

𝐹 = 𝑓 − 𝑘𝑂 , (8)

3 (𝑇 − 𝜉)𝑑𝑒𝑣 (9)
𝐸̇𝑝𝑙 = 𝑠̇ ,
2 𝑓

〈𝐹〉𝑚 𝑎〈𝐹〉𝑑 (10)

𝑠̇ = 𝑒 .
𝜂

25
Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

Here the strain 𝐸 is divided into elastic 𝐸𝑒 and plastic 𝐸𝑝𝑙 part. The stress tensor 𝑇 follows the Hooke’s
law with 𝐶 as stiffness tensor for isotropic material, where 𝜇 and 𝜆 are Lamé parameters. The von Mises
equivalent stress 𝑓 is built from the deviator of the difference between the stress tensor 𝑇 and back
stress tensor of kinematic hardening 𝜉. The overstress 𝐹 is the difference between the stress tensor 𝑇
and radius of the flow cylinder 𝑘𝑂 . The accumulated plastic strain 𝑠̇ is described by a power law according
to Norton with four material parameters 𝑚, 𝜂, 𝑎 and 𝑑. 𝐸̇𝑝𝑙 is the plastic strain flow rule.
The automatic fitting of the parameters of the above system of equations was done by using optimization
algorithms such as Nelder-Mead and BFGS. These algorithms are utilized for finding the extrema of a
non-linear function in a multidimensional space. These algorithms were integrated in the already
developed material parameter determination tool using KORA and the parameters were then
determined automatically. The comparison between results gained by using manually and automatically
fitted parameters for the system of equation shown before is presented in Figure 15.

Figure 15: A comparison between manually fitted and automatically fitted reduced KORA-approach

It can be seen in Figure 15 that both set of parameters leads to a more or less good approximation of
the creep behaviour. Subsequently, the determined parameters have been used to perform relaxation
computations and compare the results to the isothermal uniaxial short-term relaxation experiments on
X22CrMoV12-1 (BDY) at 550 ºC with an initial strain of 0.2%. The result is shown in Figure 16.

Figure 16: Isothermal relaxation computation of X22CrMoV12-1 using a reduced KORA-approach

26
 Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

It can be seen in Figure 16 that the relaxation behaviour predicted by using the automatically fitted
parameters seems to be more accurate compared to the manually fitted parameter set. Moreover, short-
term relaxation is not accurately described by using the system of equation in general. However, as
mentioned earlier, this model is utilized without hardening and damage equations. In the next steps, the
set of equation will be enriched to mimic the experimentally observed material behaviour more accurate.
Apart from the development of material models, platform-independent material routines are required for
industrial applications. In industrial practice, FE-Software, such as AnsysTM, AbaqusTM, etc., are used
for material modelling. Therefore, the material routines should be able to work with both environments.
In the on-going project, material subroutines will be developed to work with different software.

7 Flange Testing

Within this project tests are planned on a model of an intermediate pressure turbine flange on a scale
of approx. 2.5:1. This model flange has already been constructed and tested in the previous project (AiF
No. 17146N) [Hah16/17]. A schematic sketch of the test setup for the transient flange test is shown in
Figure 17. Both flange halves (1) are connected with 16 pairs of bolt, sleeve and nut (2). The electric
heating mats (3) on the inner surface allow the flange to be heated up while internal pressure is applied.
This allows reproducing the conditions during real start-up, where the steam heats the inner wall of the
flange under pressure, while the outer wall and the bolted joint heat up with a delay. The insulation (4)
on the heating mats allows a faster and a more defined heating. The ends of the flange pipes have cast-
on hemispheres to enable pressurising the flange. Welded sockets at these ends, see Figure 18, allow
the supply of the heating mats with electricity (5) as well as the attachment of the pressure connections
(6) for the inflow and outflow of nitrogen to apply internal pressure of up to 65 bar to the test flange. In
order to reduce the risk of accidents the flange contains filling elements to minimize the pressure litre
product (7). Each flange half has its own filling element for a better installation of the heating mats and
easier assembly of the flange halves.

Figure 17: Schematic sketch of the flange test setup, based on [Lei15]

In addition, the flange, some bolts and sleeves are equipped with 94 temperature sensors in total to
measure the current temperature distribution. To the surrounding the flange is covered with an insulation
usual in power plants like shown in Figure 18.

27
Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

Figure 18: CAD-model of the flange (left) and flange test setup with insulation [Hah16]

Aside of the temperature, the flange gap closure is measured online by using HT-strain gauges, shown
in Figure 19-d). Bevor, after and while interim revisions the length changes of the bolts, see Figure 19-
a), and the flange gap closure are captured (Figure 19-c)). On the contrary, the flange plate deformation,
depicted in Figure 19, b), and the length changes of the sleeves can only be measured in disassembled
state.

a) Length change of bolts and sleeves b) Measurement of the flange plate deformation

c) Measurement of the flange gap d) Online measurement of the flange gap closure with
closure between spherical measuring HT-strain gauge and the temperature distribution
marks
Figure 19: Measurement Methods Flange Testing [Hah16]

The flange halves (see Figure 17, No. 1) are made of the cast steel CB2 (GX13CrMoCoVNbNB9-2-1).
In the previous project, the bolts were made of the creep resistant nickel based alloy Nimonic® 80A
(NiCr20TiAl). To compensate the different coefficients of thermal expansion sleeves made of A286
(X6NiCrTiMoVB25-15-2) sleeves were used. The testing time was approximately 1.400 h, including

28
 Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

730 h at maximum temperature of 625 °C. Like shown in Figure 20 the first 656 h were tested under
steady state conditions and the next 742 h under cyclic loading.

Figure 20: Overview of the testing temperature in the previous project [Lei17]

The results of the last project [Hah16] can be summarised as follows. The major part of the creep
deformation occurred on the flange during the first and second phase (steady state, 530 h at 650 °C),
resulting in a permanent flange gap closure of about 0.2 mm. The deformation of the bolts on the other
hand was almost negligible (0.007 %). In the transient phase the bolt elongation and the flange gap
didn’t change significantly. Therefore, it could be assumed that a stabilized state was reached.
The present project examines whether the knowledge gained is confirmed for longer testing times and
the influence of longer transient phases. To cover both cases, a less creep resistant bolted joint with 9-
12 % chromium steel is also tested. Afterwards the same procedure will be repeated with the nickel-
base bolt joint. At the beginning the test program will start with 1 500 h of steady state testing. Afterwards
the bolts will be loosened and tightened again to get information on the influence of retightening and
continued usage of the same bolts for another 500 h of total steady-state testing. After that a transient
test phase of 3 000 h follows. Table 3 shows an overview of the test program. At this time, the flange
has been tightened with the X12-bolts and most of the preparations are completed.

Table 3: Flange test program

Material
Description
Flange Bolted Joint
• Total Test time: 5000 h
• 2000 h steady state
9-12% Cr Steel connection with
• 3000 h transient
X12CrMoWVNbN10-1-1 bolts
• Reassembling after 1500 h
9% Cr cast steel • Tmax = 600 °C
GX13CrMoCoVNbNB9-2-1/
CB2 • Total Test time: 5000 h
• 2000 h steady state
Nickel-base alloy connection with
• 3000 h transient
NiCr20TiAl bolts (Nimonic® 80A)
• Reassembling after 1500 h
• Tmax = 625 °C

To confirm the test conditions for the flange version with the 9-12 % Cr-Steel bolted joint some
preliminary simulations were made. For this, the material model and the slightly adopted flange model
form the previous project were used. Figure 21 gives a brief outlook to what might be expected for the
real flange test. The simulation in Figure 21-a) shows the equivalent creep strain of the flange with the
nickel-base bolt joint after 5000 h at 625 °C with a homogeneous temperature distribution and an internal

29
Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

pressure of 65 bar. Figure 21-b) shows the equivalent creep strain of the flange with the 9-12 % Cr Steel
bolted joint under the same conditions but at 600 °C. The contour plot of the version with nickel-base
bolt joint, see Figure 21-a) shows higher creep deformations in the flange halves and only a very small
deformation of the bolt, which was also confirmed in the previous project. On the other hand, for the
contour plot of the 9-12 % Cr-steel version the creep deformation in the flange halves is significantly
lower. On the opposite the creep deformation in the bolt is higher.

a) b)

Figure 21: Comparison of the equivalent creep strain after 5000 h and an internal pressure of 65 bar;
a) Flange with nickel-base bolt joint at 625 °C; b) Flange with 9-12% Cr Steel bolted joint at 600 °C

8 Development of Flange Substitute Models

Since transient pipe flange tests, like shown above, require very high efforts and high costs, it is an aim
of this project to make suggestions for a simplified test methodology. Therefore, the development and
testing of flange substitute models (FSM), which can represent the deformation behaviour of real flanges
or components during tightening and operation, is of relevance.

Table 4 shows an overview of the planned FSM-Tests.

Table 4: Overview of the planned FSM-Tests

Sleeve
Institute Bolt / Nut Material Material Body Testing Time
Material
GX13CrMoCoVNbNB9-2-1 3000 h steady-state
MPA Nimonic® 80A Alloy 286 GX13CrMoCoVNbNB9-2-1 1500 h transient
GX12CrMoCoVNbN9-1 3000 h steady-state
GX13CrMoCoVNbNB9-2-1 3000 h steady-state
IfW X12CrMoWVNbN10-1-1 none GX13CrMoCoVNbNB9-2-1 1500 h transient
GX12CrMoCoVNbN9-1 3000 h steady-state

This flange substitute models should be are capable to represent flange typical load conditions like pre-
strain of the bolts, elevated steady-state and transient temperatures, the setting behaviour in the threads
and flange plate bolt interaction. In order to determine the influence of internal pressure on the loading
situation simulations were performed, see Table 5-a-b, showing a negligible influence of the internal
pressure. Based on the first proposals from working group meetings, three concepts, shown in Figure
22, were developed at MPA Stuttgart.

30
 Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

a) b) c)

Figure 22: Drafts of the Flange Substitute Models, a) Model 1: Eccentric bolt joint, b) Model 2: Double
bolt joint, c) Model 3: Central bolt joint

For the simulation and the comparison with the flange model the Graham-Walles based creep model
(GWD-model) with adjusted material parameters from the last project was used. With a look at the
previous project the same material parameter sets were assigned to the FSM parts; bolt and nut:
Nimonic® 80 A, sleeve: alloy 286, body/flange: CB2 (GX13CrMoCoVNbNB9-2-1).

The simulation steps, orientated on those of the previous project, were:

1. Pretensioning with bolt load; force controlled
2. Applying pressure; 65 bar, (flange only)
3. Heat up to 625 °C
4. Hold at 625 °C for 530 h
5. Cool down
For an assessment of suitability the gap closure of the flange plates under the bolt load, the strain
distribution inside the bolt and the remaining bolt stress under creep load were evaluated. Due to the
scaling from flange (M30) to FSM (M16) some values like the pretension force, have to be adopted.
Table 5 shows equivalent stress distribution of the flange model and the FSM-versions after
pretensioning the bolts. Model 1 and model 2 are able to copy the stress distribution of the flange model,
whereas model 3 has a homogeneous stress distribution in the bolt shaft as expected. Due to the scaling
from M30 to M16 thread some geometrical target values derived from the flange have to be adapted like
shown in Table 5-f. Model 1 and 2 show good results regarding the flange gap closure. For model 3 no
comparable flange gap closure is measureable. The strain distribution depicted in Figure 23, confirms
the results in consideration of the smaller diameter. With regard to the reproduction of the flange-bolt
behaviour, the eccentric bolt joint and the double bolt joint model are preferable.

31
Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

Table 5: Comparison of the equivalent stress after pretensioning between the flange model and the
different FSM

a) Flange Model after pretensioning b) …and applying internal pressure

c) Model 1: Eccentric bolt joint d) Model 2: Double bolt joint

Gap Closure after
Pretensioning / mm
Flange 0,301

Target value 0,160

Eccentric bolt
0,160
connection
Double bolt
0,162
connection
Central bolt
-
connection
e) Model 3: Central bolt joint f) Gap Closure after pretensioning

Further numerical investigations under elevated temperatures of 625 °C were made with the favoured
models 1 and 2, see Figure 24. In comparison with the flange model, both FSM show between 13 and
18 % higher residual axial bolt stresses. Therefore, further optimizations of the FSM geometry are
necessary to improve the prediction under creep load before first examples can be machined and tested.

Figure 23: Strain distribution in the middle of Figure 24: Residual axial bolt stress under creep at
the bolt shaft after pretensioning 625 °C

32
 Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

9 Summary and Outlook

Within this ongoing project, the relaxation behaviour of typical high-temperature screw and flange
materials under near service loads is being investigated and characterized. In the further course a
description with robust material routines should be possible. Based on the knowledge gained and the
material routines, revision intervals shall be determined more precisely in the future, taking into account
the mode of operation and accumulated damage.
Therefore specific tests are planned to cover different influences on the relaxation behaviour. The first
experimental results are shown in chapter 5.
Further work on material models is ongoing to improve applicability, accuracy and robustness. A first
version of the automatic parameter fitting tool for “KORA” have been developed and untilized.
The preparations on the model flange test with the less creep-resistant 9-12% Cr-steel bolted joint are
practically completed and the test can be started soon.
Towards the development of the flange substitute models first model candidates have been selected
and compared to each other. Two models are able to recreate the load conditions while tightening bolts
but further work needs to be done to improve the results under creep load.
Experimental and numerical results obtained so far as well as the finalized preparation for the flange
component test are a good basis for the work to achieve the final goal of a comprehensive and validated
description of the relaxation behaviour of flanges in order to derive procedures to determine revisions
more precisely.

33
Stress Relaxation Behaviour II

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temperatures. Proceedings of the ASME 2014 PVP Conference PVP2014-28261,
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[ASM10] ASME Standards Technology, LLC: Bolted Flanged Connections in Elevated
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[Deu14] Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V. (DIN): DIN EN 10269: Stähle und
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tiefen Temperaturen. Beuth VerlagGmbH, Berlin (2014)
[Gar65] Garofalo, F.: Fundamentals of Creep and Creep-Rupture in Metals. The MacMillan
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