J. A.

KATILI- - Large Transcurrent Faults in Southeast Asia

Large Transeurrent Faults in Southeast Asia

with Speeial Reference to Indonesia
By JoHN A. KATmI,Bandung *)
With 4 figures

Zusammenfassung
Rezente geologische Studien y o n ALLEN, KRAUSE, VISSERund HERMESim West-
tell des Pazifischen Ozeans haben die Existenz yon grol3en transversalen Horizon-
talverschiebungen im Taiwan-Philippinen-Gebiet und in dem Gebiet zwischeu
Celebes und Ost-Neuguinea bewiesen. Physiographische Erscheinungen von den
Philippinen, bathymetrische und geologische Daten von Neuguinea zeigen, dab
eine linksgerichtete Bewegung dem Bruch entlang erfolgt. Eine weitere links-
gerichtete Horizontalverschiebung ist neuerdings von BURTON aus Malaya be-
schrieben.
Das Bruchsystem von Sumatra, das deutlich eine rechtsseitige Versetzungs-
richtung zeigt, kann man entlang dem 500 Kilometer langen Ulu-Aer-Bruch
in Nord-Sumatra beobachten und entlang einer anderen Bruehzone zwisehen
dem Dibaruh-See in Zentral-Sumatra nnd dem Ranau-See in Slid-Sumatra, die
eine L~inge von mehr als 500 Kilomctern bedeeken.
Obwohl die Insel Java zum grSBten Teil mit jungem vulkanisehen Material
bedeekt ist, ist es mSglich, kleinere transversale Briiehe zu entdeeken, die mehr
oder weniger parallel zur L~ingsriehtung der Insel verlaufen. Die Fossa Sarasina
innerhalb von Zentral-Celebes zeigt eine gleiehmN3ige Rundung fiber Hunderte
yon Kilometern und kann ebenfalls als eine linkstransversale Horizontalver-
schiebung interpretiert werden.
Eine andere, reehtstransversale Verschiebung yon ungef~ihr 100 Kilometern
L~inge wird im Gorontalo-Gebiet yon Nord-Celebes vermutet.
Zwei Gruppen von transversalen Horizontalverschiebungen kann man in
Siidost-Asien unterscheiden: eine Gruppe mit einer Streiehriehtung etwa Nord-
west--Siidost und eine zweite Gruppe mit Ost--West-Streichen. Die Daten
in dieser Arbeit unterstiitzen die Theorie von VENmC MEINESZ, dab der Indone-
sisehe Archipel in sfidfstlieher Richtung vorgesehoben ist.
Die Hauptbloekbewegungen finden entlang der Philippinen- und Sumatra-
Bruchzone start, w~ihrend differenzielle Bewegungen innerhalb dieses Bloekes
entlang der Fossa Sarrasina- und Gorontalo-Bruchzone aufzutreten scheinen.
Die etwa Ost--West streiehenden iinkstransversalen Horizontalversehiebungen
sind mSglieherweise mit der westwfirts gerichteten ,,KonvektionsstrSmung"
(naeh WILSON)verbunden, die ihren Ursprung in der Ost-Pazifik-Schwelle hat.

Abstract
Recent geological studies in areas west of the Pacific Ocean by ALLEN, I~RAUSE,
VIssER, and HERMES have revealed the existence of large transcurrent faults
in the Taiwan-Philippine region and in the area between the Celebes and East
New Guinea. Physiographic evidence from the Philippines, bathymetric and
geological data from New Guinea demonstrate that the sense of movement
along these faults is sinistral. Another sinistral transeurrent fault has recently
been described by BURTONfrom Malaya.
*) Address of author: Professor Dr. J. A. KATmI, Division of Geology, National
Institute of Geology and Mining, Djalan Ganeqa 10; Bandung, Indonesia.

581
 Aufs~itze

The Sumatran fault-system which shows clearly a right-handed lateral sense

of displacement could be observed along the 500 kilometer long Ulu-Aer fault
in North Sumatra and along another fault-zone situated between Lake Dibaruh
in Central Sumatra and Lake Ranau in South Sumatra covering a length of
more than 500 kilometers. Although the Island of Java is mostly covered by
young volcanic material, it is still possible to detect smaller transcurrent faults
possessing a strike more or less parallel to the island. The Fossa Sarasina in
Central Celebes displaying smoothness of curvature over literally hundreds of
kilometers could also be interpreted as being a sinistral transeurrent fault. An-
other dextral transeurrent fault of about 100 km length has been postulated in
the Corontalo area, northern Celebes.
Two groups of transeurrent faults could be discerned in Southeast Asia viz a
group trending more or less northwest-southeast and another one striking
approximately east-west.
The data presented in this paper tend to support VENING MEmESZ' theory" that
the Indonesian Archipelago is being protruded southeastward. The major block
movements are taking place along the Philippine and Sumatran fault-zone, while
differential movements within this block seem to occur along the Fossa Sarasina
and the Gorontalo fault-zone.
The approximately east-west trending sinistral transeurrent faults might be
associated with the eastward drift of the Australian continent and the westward
convection flow originated from the East Pacific Rise as envisaged by WILSON.

R6sum6

Des 6tudes g6ologiques r~centes par ALLEN, KRAUSE, VISSER et HERMES ont
d6montr6 l'existence de grandes failles transversales de d6eroehement dans la
r6gion Taiwan-Philippines et dans la r6gion entre le C6t6bes et la Nouvelle
Guin6e de l'Est. Les 6videnees g6ographiques dans les Philippines et des
donn6s bathymgtriques et g6ologiclues de la Nouvelle Guin6e ont d4montr6 que
la direction du mouvement le long de ees failles de d6croehement est gauche.
Une autre faille de d6eroehement gauche a 6t6 d6crite par BU~TON /L Malaya.
Le syst6me des failles de d6croehements de Sumatra qui indique clairement
une direction de d6plaeement lat6rale vers la droite a 6t6 observ6 le long de
la faille d'Ulu-Aer dans le Nord de Sumatra, sur une longueur de 500 kilo-
~6tres et 6galement le long d'une autre zone de failles situ6e entre Lae
Dibaruh dans le Sumatra central et Lae Ranau dans le Sud de Sumatra sur
une longueur de plus de 500 kilom6tres. Bien que File de Java soit couverte
pour la plus grande partie de mat6riel volcanique r6cent, il est encore possible
de d6couvrir des failles de d6crochement plus petites dont la direction est plus
ou moins parall61e • l'61ongation de File. La Fossa Sarasina dans Celebes
Central qui pr6sente une eourbure r6guli6re sur des eentaines de kilom6tres
peut ~tre aussi interpr6t6e eomme une faille de d6eroehement gauche. Une
autre faille de d6eroehement droite a 6t6 suppos6e sur une longueur de 100 kilo-
m6tres environ dans la r6gion de Gorontalo au Nord de Celebes.
On peut distinguer deux groupes de failles de d6eroehement dans l'Asie du
Sud-Est; un groupe de direction plus ou moins Nord-Onest Sud-Est et un
autre de direction ~ peu pr6s Est--Ouest.
Les donn6es pr6sent6es dans cette 6tude indiquent clue l'Archipel indon6sien
a 6t6 pouss6 dans la direction Sud-Ouest ce qui s'accorde avee la th6orie de
VENmO MEmESZ. Les mouvements importants des blocs ont lieu le long de la
zone g6n6rale des failles des Philippines et de Sumatra tandis que des mouve-

582
 J. A. KATILI- - Large Transeurrent Faults in Southeast Asia

ments diff6rentiels ~ l'int6rieur de ce bloc semblent se pr6senter le long de la

Fossa Sarasina et de la zone des failles de d6croehement de Gorontalo.
La direction approximativement Est--Ouest du mouvement des failles de
d6crochement gauches peut 8tre raise en rapport avee le d6placement vers rest
du continent australien et avee le eourant de convection vers l'Ouest qui d'apr6s
M. WILSONest li6 ~ l'616vation oe6anique du Paeifique Oriental.
RpaT~oe eo~epmaHKe
IIonepeyHbm c6poc~i B pa~o~e (I)0pM03I,I - - OH~HrlrIHH I/I Me~t~JIyIleae6ecoM
II BOCTONHOfI ~acwMo HOBOfI I'BHHeH. HanpaB~eHBi IIp0WIIB uIaCOBOfI c w p e ~ H ,
w a ~ e i~ Hall nouepeqH~i~ c6poe Ma~a~. CHCTeMbI eHJIa~oH CyMawpt,I ~a-
npaBaeHI)i ~CHO no ~iacoBofr cTpe~I~e I~ npOCTRpaHI~e ~X npoc~e~HBaewc~ Ha
5o~ee, UeM 500 RM O7~HaHa ceBepe, a ~pyrau na mre OCTpoBa. OCTpOB Hna
HoI~pLIT qex~IOM Ha 5osiee MO~O~oro MaTepHazia By~KaH14gecHoro H p o H c x o ~ -
~eHIIH~ HO, BO3MOH-~HO, ~ITO IIO~ HHM cHpHBaTOTCg nonepeqHL~e cSpoc~i, ~Ipoxo~-
~i~ne 6o~ee ~aH Mesee Hapaa~IeaSHO o~epTaHHgM oeTpOBa. Fossa Sarasina
~IeHTpaasHoro Heae6eca MOm~O paccMaTp~BaT~, ~ai~ noi~epeqHsi~ cSpoc B
HanpaB:IeH~ npOT~B qacoBof~ cTpyaI~H, aaTo Ha ceBepe I~eae6eca B pa~oHe
Gorontalo HpocT~paeTeg Tai~ofr ~e cSpoc B ]]pOTHBO~OJ~OH~HO~HanpaB~eH~H.
- - YIp~Be~eHnHe ;~aHHHe ]]O~Tnep~a~OT TeOpHIO Vening-Meinesz 'a o TO~,
"4TOHH~iOHeaCHHfIApxHneaar IIOBepHy~C~Ha SE. OCHOBUbIeHOBOpOTt,I62ioHa
I/IMeJI]/I MeeT0 B~0~IB cH~Ia~qawof~ 30HBI (I~FIgl]/IHIII/IHtI CFMaTp~L B TO BpeMH, HaI~
OT~IeABHBIe C~BtIFI/I BHyTpg ~TOF0 ~JIoHa LIIJIPI B~0gIIo F o s s a S a r a s i n a H 30HH
cI~a)Io~ Gorontalo.
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to give a review regarding the presence of
maior transcurrent faults in Southeast Asia described since 1962 and to
demonstrate the occurrence of similar tectonic phenomena from Indonesia.
The data on transcurrent faults from the Philippines, Taiwan, New
Guinea, and Malaya were derived from the most recent available litera-
ture, while evidence of large strike-slip movements in Indonesia is mainly
based on data gained dm'ing visits to some remote parts of the archipelago
and a re-evaluation of existing literature regarding the physiography, geo-
logy, and seismieity of this region.
Physiographic expressions, sense of movements, and age of faulting
form the main bulk of the discussion. The data presented in this paper
are further discussed in relation to the convection current hypothesis as
put forward by VEmNC MEINESZ (1954), W~LSON (1963, 1968) e. a.
The current review should be considered as an introductory study and
the present author is the first to agree that much remains to be revealed
by detailed field-work regarding the nature of these ma~or faults, which
are usually situated in the most remote part of the Indonesian Archi-
pelago.

Previous work on transcurrent faults in Southeast Asia

In 1962 CLARENCE R. ALLEN from the California Institute of Technology
published his most important results on the Philippine-Taiwan fault-zone.
The Philippine fault-zone, occupying a length of more than 1200 km
within the archipelago, turns out to be physiographically and structurally
fully as spectacular as the San-Andreas and Alpine faults. A b u n d a n t

583
 Aufsgtze

evidence of recent and probably historic displacements and consistent

offset streams lead ALLEN (1962) to the conclusion that Quarternary dis-
placements have been predominantly transcurrent and sinistral. The best
displayed segment of the Philippine fault-zone is in northwestern Leyte
between the towns Visares and Leyte. The zone here was described as
consisting of a number of parallel active breaks over a width of about
500 meters. Both north and south of the central Philippine area the fault
separates into a number of branches. The fault that enters northern Luzon
at Dingalan Bay is considered by ALLEN (1962) to be the main Philippine
fault on the basis of its similar strike, degree of complexity, and sense of
displacement as compared to the fault exposed farther south.
Based on contour bathymetrie charts of the Celebes Sea - - Sulu Sea
region, KRAUSE (1966) concluded that the left-lateral strikeslip Philippine
fault extends south of the Taland Islands and may have at least l l 0 k m
of horizontal displacement.
ALLEN'S further study suggests that the remarkable Longitudinal Valley
of Eastern Taiwan represents another great sinistral strike-slip fault par-
allel to the western Pacific rim. This fault has been considered as an active
one on account of ground displacement observed during historic earth-
quakes.
Striking approximately east-west passing Sorong, West New-Guinea,
there exists a fault-zone that has been described and interpreted by VlSSER
& HERMES (1962) as a large transeurrent fault. This fault-zone could be
traced westward to the island of Salawati across North Vogelkop to North-
west Manokwari. From West Vogelkop it is thought to continue to the
south of the island of Obi and the Sula Spur Island. To the east the fanlt-
zone could be detected as far as the meridian of Sausopor. According
to VISSER • HERMES (1962) there is little doubt that the fault-zone con-
tinues farther east as is clear from aerial and field observations through a
number of east-west river valleys.
KRAUSE (1965) described the Papua-Solomon shear zone and mentions a
possible left lateral movement of at least 180 kilometers. Combining the
results of the above-mentioned authors one comes to the conclusion that
the length of the Sorong fault-zone is at least 2500 km. The Sorong fault-
zone is characterized by a chaotic tumble of blo&s of many kinds of rock
units. Large scale faulting has obviously occurred giving rise to what can
perhaps be described as a huge tectonic breccia. HERMES explains the
Sorong fault-zone by leftlateral transcurrent movements. The age of the
New Guinea fault-zone is still obscure. VISSER & HERMES (1969.) are of the
opinion that it has taken plaee at the end of the Miocene till Plio-
Pleistocene while ROD (1966) assumes that the Sorong "geosuture" has a
longer history, probably starting in the Lower Carboniferous or earlier.
Large transcurrent faults have also been d~scribed from the more stable
part of Southeast Asia. BURTON (1965) has recendy described considerably
faulting in the Baling area, Northwest Malaysia. The principle fault in the
Baling area is the Bok Bak fault which has been mapped by BURTON for
some 51 miles and postulated further 52 miles in Northwest Malaya. He

584
 J, A. KATILI- - Large Transcurrent Faults in Southeast Asia

concluded that the sense of movement in this region is sinistral with a

displacement of 82--86 miles. Through the Thai-Malay peninsula .the line
of fault is seen to coincide with a number of geological and physio-
graphical discontinuities which can largely be solved by restoring the in-
dicated offset along the Bok Bak fault. The above mentioned author con-
cluded that the fault is at least 650 miles long. The age of faulting is
obscure, but Bu~To~ thinks that the main sinistral movement took place
in the Mesozoic orogeny, Jurassic to Cretaceous.
Indications of Transcurrent Faulting in Indonesia
Sumatra
Along the axis of Sumatra a 1650 km long fault-zone occurs stretching
from Atjeh in the northwestern end to the Semangko Bay in the south-
eastern part of this island.
VAN BEMMELEN (1949) introduced the name Semangko fanlt-zone for
this interesting tectonic feature while WESTERVELD (1953) proposed the
name Great Sumatran fault trough system. Both authors have attributed
predominantly vertical displacements to this fault.
The great Sumatran fault-zone comprises a number of large longitudinal
depressions of which the most important are (from northwest to southeast)
the Atjeh Valley, the Tangse Valley, the Singkarak-Solok Valley, The
Muara Labuh Valley, the Kerintji Valley, the Ketahun Valley, the Kepa-
hiang-Makakau Valley and the Semangko Valley (fig. 1). The main trend
of the longitudinal valleys is accompanied by faults in South, Central,
and North Sumatra. Faultscarps are to be observed in the Lamping Bay
east of the Semangko Valley, in the Kerintji Valley, in the longitudinal
basin in Eastern Padang Highland and in Lake Tawar in North Sumatra.
In North Sumatra, particularly in the Gajo area, the north-northwest-south-
southeast directed fault-zone is present in the form of small and deep
canyons, while many small depressions in a line parallel to the axis of this
island have been observed southeast of Lake Dibaruh in Central Sumatra.
Sagponds bordered by fault-scarps, numerous ponds and swampy areas
along the fault, are common features in the areas of the Ketahun and
Seblat rivers in South Sumatra. The existence of an active fault is also
proved by the presence of lines of hot springs amidst the jungle covering
the floor of these valleys. Numerous fumaroles arc found in the Tarntung
and Angola Gadis Valley, the Sumpur Valley, the Muara Labuh Valley,
the Lebong and Semangko Valley; in all cases in connection with the
fault, while a number of earthquake epicentres are situated along the fault.
According to some investigators the vertical movements of the Sumatran
fault-zone have already been started in pre-Tertiary times. Paleogene
deposits are widely distributed in the Barisan Mountains, and a part of
these sediments formed is considered to be deposited in graben-like
structures (VANBEMMELEN1949, WESTElqVELD1958).
Vertical displacements can be observed in the pre-Tertiary rocks border-
ing the Semangko fault-zone near Solok, and similar features occur on
the border of the Umbilin basin. A rectilinear limestone ridge of pre-
585
 Aufsatze

~
Q

/ I

9
,4
/ /
4,

'~ W

586
 J. A. KATILI-- Large Transcurrent Faults in Southeast Asia

Tertiary age south of Kuntjir rises steeply from the adjacent granites and
young volcanic deposits. This limestone ridge, which dips up to 85 ~ is a
fault bordering the So]ok Valley. Very steep dips of Triassic limestones
are mainly found at the border area with the Tertiary deposits south
of Sawahlunto, and may be caused by .the downward movement of the
Umbilin basin, one of the graben-like structures on top of the Barisan
geanticline. These observations indicate that the graben structures might
already have been formed during the Middle to Upper Cretaceous
orogenesis which affected the whole length of Sumatra (KATILI1962). These
vertical movements in the upper part of the geanticline continued in the
Tertiary, and are probably connected with the Intra-Miocene phase of folding.
DVmtAM (1940) was the first to point out the possibility of a horizontal
displacement along the Sumatran fault-zone. He considered the 500 km
long fault-zone, which he called the Ulu-Aer fault situated in North Suma-
tra, as a strike-slip fault and not a graben as was always assumed before.
Assuming that the compressive stress in Indonesia makes an angle of 55 ~
with the main deformation belt from the Sunda Strait to Sumba, VENING
MEINESZ (1954) predicted that wrench faulting must occur in Sumatra.
Studying the Great Sumatra fault-zone more in detail the present author
encounters several lines of evidence suggesting that in many parts of the
Semangko fault-zone the displacement during the Recent History of the
fault has been primarily horizontal. Smoothness of curvature of the fault-
line can be observed in the areas between Lake Ranau in South Sumatra
and Lake Dibaruh in Central Sumatra occupied by the Kepahiang-Maka-
kau fault, the Ketahun fault and the Muara Labuh fault, covering a
distance of about more than 500 kilometers. Exceedingly linear regional
featm'es could also be observed along the 500 kilometer long Ulu-Aer fault
in North Sumatra. Such extreme linearity of a fault-trace over literally
hundreds of kilometers is, according to ALLEN (1962, 1965), difficult to
reconcile with anything but horizontal displacement.
Excepting the predominance of horizontal displacement in certain see-
tions of the Semangko fault-zone, the sense of displacement poses an inter-
esting problem. At numerous localities along the Upper Musi, Ketahun,
and Seblat rivers in South Sumatra and the Upper Gadis River in Central
Sumatra stream offsets demonstrate clearly that the sense of displacement
is dextral (KATILI & HEHUWAT 1967). It can be observed that some of the
displacements are in the uphill direction (fig. 1), which according to ALLEN
(1962, 1965) represents a very important tool in establishing the sense of
movement with certainty.
The known juxtaposition of different rock types along the Batang Gadis
fault in North Sumatra, the Ketahun and Kepahing faults in South Suma-
tra suggests that the displacement has been appreciable. The geology of
the above mentioned areas of the Semangko fault-zone deduced from
Zwierzycki's map shows the character of a horizontal displacement of a
right-handed character. The Permo-Carboniferous, Triassic, Paleogene, and
young volcanic deposits appear to have been displaced laterally between
20 to 25 kilometers.

58'7
 AufsRtze
Observations of horizontal displacement have been made by DURHAM
(1940) in North Sumatra. He observed that the fault-zone has a series of
nearly east-west trending structures on its west side, with the northwest-
southeast structures on its east side in the area northwest of Kota Tjane.
According to this author differential movement has produced drag along
the fault-zone which may be interpreted as indicating movement towards
southeast on the east side of the fault.
Of interest to discuss here is the age of the movements of the Sumatran
fault-zone. It has already been mentioned that according to some authors
the movement started already in pre-Tertiary times and continued during
the Tertiary period. Movements along the existing faults continued till
Recent time. VEtSTAPI'EN (1955) observed that the area surrounding Lake
Kerintji has been affected by tectonics in the very recent past as proved
by the faeetted spurs of the rejuvenated part of the fault between Semerap
and Pulau Tengah.
Paleogene and Quarternary deposits are affected by the fault while
stream offsets and recent earthquakes prove that the fault is still active at
the moment. In conclusion we may say that vertical movements resulting in
graben-like structures along the entire length of the Barisan mountains
which started already in Cretaceous time, were still predominant during
the Tertiary, but that horizontal movements of a right-handed nature
affecting the pre-existing faults 1;resumably originated later in Quarternary
time and are still continuing nowadays.
Numerous earthquake epieentres are aligned along the trace of the Great
Sumatran fault-zone. Most of the largest earthquakes occurring between
1890 and 1964 are situated within or near the fault-zone like the Tapanuli
earthquake (1892), the Kerintji earthquake (1909), the Padangpandjang
earthquake (1926), the Liwa earthquake (1982), the Tes earthquake (1952)
and the Atjeh earthquake (1964). Direct observations of horizontal dis-
placement along the fault during the earthquake will be discussed here
which might serve as an indication regarding the sense of displacement.
MULnER (1895) observed that the triangulation points on the summits of
the volcanoes Malintang and Sorik Marapi as well as the one on the
Si Madondong, all situated in a line 50 kilometers long in the direction of
the main axis of the island, on the side of the Batang Gadis fault, North
Sumatra, had shifted 1,9. to 1,8 meters to the northwest. On the other
hand, the signal pillar Tot Si Hire situated 12 kilometers to the east of the
fault had moved 0,6 meter to the southeast. These observations indicate a
dextral movement along the Sumatran fault-zone.
Lateral movement has also been described by KRAEFI~(1959.) during the
Tes earthquake in South Sumatra. In two villages Turun Lalang and Tes,
both situated west of the fault, the building and houses have been shifted
of about 0,5 meter to the northwest. The villages Kotadonok and Talan-
gratu, situated east of the fault, show houses which have been slanted to
the southeast, indicating again a dextral sense of movement along the
Kepahiang-Makakau fault.
Horizontal displacements have also been observed during the earth-
588
 J. A . KATILI - - Large Transcurrent Faults in Southeast Asia

quake in the Padang Highland (VIssER 1927). The calamity was especially
severe along the narrow zone stretching from Lake Singkarak to Lake
Dibaruh in southeast direction. The direction of the shocks in general is
parallel to the Sumatran fault-zone although at some places it appears that
the direction is perpendicular to it. Shifting of houses and other buildings
in Padang Pandjang amounts to 60 cm. At the station of Padang Pandjang,
which is situated west of the fault, a water tank was displaced 80 cm in
northwestern direction. Horizontal movement is also demonstrated near
Singkarak by tracks of the railroad which were buckled by the earthquake.
Another proof of the importance of horizontal movement along the fault-
zone has been provided by BERLAGE (1984) during the Liwa earthquake
in South Sumatra. The greatest damage was confined to a rather narrow
but extremely long zone coinciding with the northwest-southeast directed
Sumatran fault-zone. BERLAGE(1984) concluded that nearer to the epicentre
in the Liwa district the severest shocks were horizontal, and that vertical
shocks occur in the surrounding of the Ranau Lake. These vertical shocks
were, according to him, of secondary origin. Houses have been shifted in a
northwest-southeast direction and in the direction perpendicular to it. The
most recent evidence of a dextral horizontal movement along the Sumatran
fault-zone has been reported by SOETADI• SOEKAPtMAN(1964) in connec-
tion with the Atjeh earthquake of April 1964. In Banda Atjeh, a town
situated west of the fault, a large school building has been slanted in
northwest direction. Shifting of schools and other buildings in Kruengraya
and Lamtaba, villages both located east of the fault, were directed towards
the southeast. The maximum displacements during the earthquake amounts
to ~/.~meter. In Lamtamat a bridge has also been buckled.
From the foregoing discussions it could be concluded that the recent
movement along the fanltplane as proved by direct observations during
several earthquakes are of a lateral right-handed nature. This opinion is
supported by t{ITSEMA (1957) who found that in Indonesia normal fault
movements are common for deep earthquakes while transcurrent faulting
are predominant in shallow earthquakes.

Java
Approximately ten kilometers north of Bandung, West Java, there runs
parallel to Java's longer axis a distinct, northward-facing scarp. This fault,
outcropping over about 22 kilometers can be traced as a fairly straight
line from Mt. Pulusari in the east to the west near village Tjisarua where it
disappears below recent volcanic deposits. The longitudinal profile of the
scarp shows its relative height above the generalized surface north of it
to be about 50 m in the west, 180m directly east of the Tjikapundung
valley and gradually increases eastward until below Mt. Pulusari the throw
amounts to 450 meters.
Former Lnvestigations have always attributed predominantly dip slip
displacements to this fault. VAN BEMMELEN (1984) has related the fault
with the history of the volcanic centers north of Lembang. According to this
author the first collapse and the development of the Lembang fault commen-

589
 Aufs~itze
ced after the big eruption of the Sunda volcano which took place in Old
Quarternary time. Renewed faulting of the Lemoane, fault oceurred after
1 cY

the eruption of Tangkuban Perahu volcano in Younger Quarterna W time.

The last phase of the eruption of the above mentioned volcano occurred,
according to anthropological and philological data, 8000 to 6000 B.P.
In his most recent investigations TjIA (1968) recognized other topo-
graphical evidence for faulting consisting of offsets of twelve recognizable
streams and valleys which cross the scarp in a general north-south direc-
tion. For ten rivers and valleys the horizontal displacement is sinistral. The
horizontal displacement averages 140 m.
TjIA comes to the conclusion that although the Lembang fault may have
been a normal fault (predominant dip slip) originally, its later, still pre-
served record displacements indicate that the fault-zone west of the Tjika-
pundung valley is transcurrent in nature with important dip slip offsets.

Celebes
Cutting obliquely the median-zone of Central Celebes, there extends a
north-northwest-south-southeast directed, 200 kilometer long exposed fault-
zone known as the Fossa Sarasina, which, according to RUTTEN (1927),
could be projected farther southwards occupying a distance of about
800 km. By virtue of its striking topographic appearance this fault-zone has
already been recognized many decades ago (SA•ASlN 1901). To the west
the fault-zone is bordered by the Molengraaff's mountains consisting
mainly of granites and associated plutonic rocks, gneiss mzd cwstalline
schists. Nowhere in whole Celebes could we find such fault tectonics so
clearly expressed topographically as this remarkable series of uninterrupted
valleys which could be traced from the Palu Bay in the north-northwest
to the Leboni basin in south-southeast. These tectonic valleys, arranged
in an exceedingly linear feature comprise from north-northwest to south-
southeast of the Palu Bay, The Pahi Valley, the Min Valley, the Halua
Valley, the Koro Valley, and the Leboni Valley which, according to
ABENDA•ON (1915) could be traced farther south-southeastwards (fig. 2).
Numerous mylonitic zones, slickensides, eatadastic rocks, pressed granitic
rocks, are to be observed in the Koro Valley, Gimpu Basin, Koelawi Basin,
Palu Basin, and Donggala Basin (BRouWER 1984). The existence of an
active fault is proved by the presence of earthquake eentres and numerous
hot springs along the fault-zone.
The extreme linearity of the Fossa Saa'asina over such a long distance and
that neither side of the fault is consistently higher than the other as has
been reported by ABENDANON (1915), tends to make the present author
believe that this fault-zone could be considered as the largest transeurrent
fault in the Cdebes. In some sections of this large fracture-zone it is to
be observed that the stream offsets are sinistral in nature as demonstrated
by many tributaries of the Koro River, i.e. the S. Lampi, S. Moa, S. Lempi
(fig. 2 b). This feature has already been observed by BROUWE~ (1984) who
stated that the S. Moa, before joining the Koro River, flows parallel to it,
but in opposite direction, which indicates that the displacement is in the
590
Fig. 2. The Fossa Sarasina, Central Celebes. Diagrams o~ fig. 2 A are SCmJmT'S
net lower hemisphere projections. For explanation see text.
 Au~s~tze

uphill direction. This fact represents, as has been stated earlier, a very
important tool in establishing the sense of movement along the fault-zone.
The scarcity of physiographical, geological, and other data of this remote
area makes it at present not possible to speculate further regarding the
amount of displacement.
The geological structure of Central Celebes is very complicated.
AIBENDANON (1915) reported an approximately east-west strike in folded
gneisses and schists in Central Celebes. Structural trends in north-south
direction with bending to the northwest and southeast have been described
,by BnOVWER (1984).
The sedimentary and metamorphic rocks along the fault-zone seem to
display fold-axes trending north-south making an angle varying between
10 ~ and 15 ~ with the general direction of the Fossa Sarasina. East of the
fault-zone the diagram suggests an east-west trending fold axis (fig. 2 a).
This folded structure might be interpreted as drag-folds developed by the
left lateral motion of the Fossa Sarasina.
Of interest to discuss here is the age of faulting. Earthquakes in 1905,
1907 and 1984 are recorded in the Gimpu, Koelawi and Kantewoe basins
along the fault-zone which proves that the fault is still active. Clear
evidence of recent displacement was observed by ABENDANON (1915) in
the Palu plain. He described a fan-shaped delta the surface of which dips
gradually about 8 ~ in the direction of the valley. This alluvial fan, how-
ever, does not continue to within the plain, but is cut at a height of about
500 m by a steep wall. This feature led him to conclude that faulting has
taken place in the very recent past.
In conclusion we may say that the Fossa Sarasina or the Palu fault-zone
represents a sinistral transcurrent fault of a geologically very young age.
The northern arm of the Celebes displaying a slight sinus-shaped pat-
tern is usually divided into three sections viz. the Minahasa section, the
Gorontalo section, and the "neck" (fig. 8). The Minahasa section could be
considered as a normal island are with its convex side turned toward the
southeast, while the "neck" between Donggala and Paleleh shows a very
strong arcuate form with its convex side facing northwest. The zone link-
ing the normal Minalaasa arc and the inverted are of the "'neck" is
occupied by the east-west trending Gorontalo section. Mechanically it is to
be expected that shear will take place in this area.
The very pronounced and straight coastal line between Cape Tom-
buililato and Gorontalo, the southeast-northwest trending Limbotto Lake,
the extreme linearity of the Patente river, the existence of hot springs,
further on the peculiar configuration of the Malinggopoto Bay in the
northern coast, are all features which are difficult to reconcile with any-
thing but a northwest-southeast rurming fault-zone between T ombuililato
and Cape Denoeki (fig. 8). The argument favouring the presence of a
fault-zone is further reinforced by the fact that in the southern coast the
east-west striking Miocene deposits are intersected at an angle by the
present southeast-northwest trending coastline between Cape Tombuilflato
and G orontalo. A similar feature could be discerned in the northern coast

592
 J. A. KATILI- - Large Transcurrent Faults in Southeast Asia

where the Miocene sediments are also cut by the straight coastline of
Cape Denuki.
It is therefore contended that a 100 kilometer northwest-southeast runn-
ing dextral transcurrent fault exists stretching between Cape Tombuililato

09
9

9
O
Z

in the southern coast and the Malinggopoto bay in the northern coast.
The Miocene volcanic deposits and granites seem to have been displaced
over a distance of 80 to 40 kilometers.
Studying the geology of the Gorontalo section more in detail, the present
author is struck by the number of geological and geomorphological dis-
38 Geologische Rundsehau, Bd. 59 ~
 Aufsatze
continuities as demonstrated by the irregular distribution of small granitic
masses and the peculiar position of the longitudinal depression comprising
the Bone Valley, the Gorontalo-Limbotto and Pagujama plain. KOPEtlBERG
(1928a) explained the irregular distribution of the granitic bodies by
assuming that they do not comprise one huge batholith but small lacoliths
scattered throughout the area trending usually in northwest-southeast
direction. The same author also expressed his opinion that the northern
mountain chain east of Lake Limbotto seems to protrude in southern
direction.
The east-west trending Bone Valley could be traced east of Gorontalo
over a distance of about 50 kilometers. West of the Limbotto Lake, how-
ever, this valley ends abruptly and its place is occupied by a hilly terrain
considered by KOPER~EnG (1928 a) as a "transversal ridge". The east-west
running longitudinal valley finds its continuation north of the Limbotto
Lake in the more or less east-west trending Pagujama depression. The
link between these two longitudinal valleys is occupied by the northwest-
southeast trending Limbotto Lake (fig. 8).
Previous investigators considered the Boneh-GorontMo-Limbotto and the
Pagujama Valley as two separate depressions.
By postulating a northwest-southeast trending dextral strike-slip fault it is
quite obvious that many problems posed above could be met with rather
satisfactorily. The number of geomorphologieal and geological disconti-
nuities could be solved by restoring the ineidated offset along the postu-
lated fault-zone. Exeeuth~g this procedure we noticed that the large granitic
mass of the Tilongkabila, the Pomboloe and Pomamabua mountains seem
to occupy the central part of the orogenic belt. Situated on the top part of
this geantieline we encounter the 140 kilometer long uninterrupted tensional
fracture or graben comprising the Bone-Gorontalo-Limbotto-Pagujama de-
pressions. This east-west trending graben, presumably formed during the
Miocene orogenesis, was shifted later on along the northwest-southeast
trending Gorontalo transeurrent fault-zone.
Ore veins in the mineralized areas situated in the northern part of the
Gorontalo section show directions coinciding with the main trend of the
postulated fault-zone. Many mineralized areas as K. Hoenog, K. Patente,
Isimu, are located along this major shear zone. It would be very interesting
to re-explore this area for gold, copper, etc. in relation to the postulated
shear zone. The strange shape of the northwest-southeast trending granitic
mass near Gorontalo might be partly caused by this considerable faulting.
Of interest to mention here is the occurrence of another fault-zone
parallel to the major fault in the bay of Malinggopoto. KOrEnBEaO (1928 b)
already suggested horizontal displacement of the P. Otanggala in north-
west direction along a distance of 41/2 km (fig. 8). This fault-zone is a sini-
stral fault parallel to and accompanying the major dextral Gorontalo fault-
zone.
Numerous earthquake centres are found in this area and might be
associated w i ~ the fault-zone. The towns and villages like Gorontalo,
594
 J. A. KATILI - - Large Transeurrent Faults in Southeast Asia

Telaga, Limbotto, Isimu etc., all situated along the postulated fault, have
been damaged frequently by earthquakes.
Horizontal movements along the fault-zone near P. Otanggala were also
reported by the captain of a Dutch vessel during an earthquake in 1941.
The time of inception of the fault is obscure, but it appears that it
occurred after the Miocene orogenesis.
Historic earthquakes, hot springs along the fault-zone, indicate that
movement is still active at present.
The dispositions given in the foregoing pages do not challenge the ob-
vious existence or even the predominance of vertical movement in this
area, but they certainly show that there are evidences of considerable
horizontal movements in this region, tlaised Quarternary coral reefs near
Gorontalo and Tandjong Daka in the northern coast attaining heights
of more than 1000 meters, the deep-sea basins north and south of the
Goroutalo section, are all salient features demonstrating the importance of
vertical displacements in this region.

General conclusions

From the foregoing discussions it is quite obvious that major trans-

current faults, more or less parallel to the axis of the regional structures
have been observed in Malaya, Sumatra, the Philippines, and New Guinea.
Transeurrent faults in Celebes display a different character, they
cut the regional structure at an oblique angle. The outcome of our pre-
liminary study tends to support earlier postulations that major strike-slip
faults around the Pacific are associated with island arcs and deep-sea
trenches (VENINGMEINESZ 1954, ALLEN 1962, KI~AI~SE1966).
The forces responsible for large transcurrent faults have been attributed
by some authors to gravity sliding away from the crest of the oceanic
rise or convection currents.
In a series of articles VAN BEMMELEN (1965 a, 1965 b, 1966) ascribed con-
tinental drift to the lateral movements and spreading of the crust caused
by upwarps and downwarps of the outer spheres of the earth. Such ex-
tensive deformations of the geoid measuring thousands of kilometers
known as mid-ocean ridges or rises are called by VAN BEMMELEN mega-
undations. Characteristic geotectonic features as dextral transcurrent faults
will be formed at the starboard and sinistral ones at the port of the
crustal shield which moves under gravity away from the crest of the mega-
undations.
In his synthesis regarding the evolution of the Indian Ocean mega-
undation in which the geotectonic aspects of Southeast Asia are discussed,
VAN BEMMELEN (1965 b) postulated two parallel more or less north-south
directed large transcurrent faults in the western part of Indonesia and four
large ones, most of them striking east-west in the eastern part of the
archipelago. The faults cutting the regional structure of the Malayan
Peninsula and Sumatra, however, do not coincide with the ones described
by BURTON (1965) and the present author. The fault, which according to
595
 Aufs~itze
VAN BEMMELEN near Etna Bay offsets the northern end of the northeast-
southwest trending Arafura fault and traceable to the Flores deep across
the 5000 meter deep Banda Sea, is difficult to prove. KRAUSE (1965) and ROD
(1966) did not extend the latter fault farther west but terminated it at the
eastern end of the Banda Sea. No transcurrent fault cutting the south and
southeastern arm of the Celebes have been described so far.
In his report to the Upper Mantle Committee, WILSON (1968) made an
inventory of faults with large horizontal offsets on land and faults along
which horizontal motions of large but unknown extent have been postulated.
The Sumatran, Malayan, Philippine and New-Guinea transcurrent faults
have been included in his report.
Two groups of transcurrent faults could be discerned in Southeast Asia
viz. A group trending more or less east-west and another one striking
approximately northwest-southeast (fig. 4).
The Malayan fault-zone is, according to BURTON (1966), associated with
the Mesozoic orogeny of Jurassic to Cretaceous age. Indications of an older
movement in the Malayan-Indonesian tin belt have recently been reported
by KOOVMANS(1965) and KATILI (1967, 1968), SO the possibility exists that
the Malayan fault has been initiated earlier. To account for the sinistral
movement of the Malayan fault-zone and small earthquakes in northwest
Malaya during the present century, BURTON (1968) concluded that these
faults may have resulted from continental drifting movements as Gond-
wanaland disintegrated, a process which according to this author has not
entirely ceased.
Projecting the Sorong fault-zone farther west, it is obvious that it occu-
pies part of an old landmass known as the Sula Spur which has been
consolidated by the Variscian cycle of orogeny (KLoMVs 1957) or perhaps
even earlier. The relatively old age of the Sorong fault supports tloD's
(1966) assumption that this fault possesses a longer history presumably
dating back in Lower Carboniferous time or earlier. In the New-Guinea
section this fault might have been re-activated by the Tertiary orogenesis,
because it dislocates the Befoor formation of Pile-Pleistocene age (VlssER &
HERMES, 1962). VAN BEMMELEN (1965 b) has related the Sorong fault to
the eastward drift of the Australian continent during Cenozoic time.
TjIA (1968) presumed that the sinistral displacement of the Lembang
fault may be the result of an east-west compression during recent times
in Southeast Asia.
With regard to the youngest movements of the Philippine-Indonesian
archipelago, it is of interest to discuss briefly the recent results obtained
by geophysicists regarding the nature of stress condition in the regions
of Southeast Asia. LENSEN'S (1960) map indicated that in Southeast Asia
the principle horizontal stress is parallel to the continental borders mad
oceanic trenches.
Studies on reliable fault-plane solutions performed by tllTSEMA (1964)
indicates that the movements in Southeast Asia are radial, eastward under-
neath Mindanao and the Banda Sea, southward under Eastern Java Sea
and southwestward under the Western Java Sea. It is obvious that the

596
 J. A. KATILI - - Large Transeurrent Faults in Southeast Asia

~.~, ~ ,~

~.~ ~ ~.

% /
".-4
g

0
.q

o ~,~ D~ t
.<

-I ~ h _5 ~ / ~
i ~ \ ~' v ~::,,I ~ ~
.-.~ ~ ~ .,~ ~"~-.~ o

59?
 Aufs~itze
large transcurrent faults postulated in this paper could only be partly
related to the complicated stress pattern outlined above.
The sense of movements of transcurrent faults in oceanic areas still
forms a topic of heated discussions among seismologists. SYKES (1967) is
of the opknion that the sense of movement of faults in oceanic ridges is in
agreement with the one predicted by WILSON (1965) for transform faults
and envisages that a worldwide shear net as constructed by VANBEMMELEN
(1965 b) based on single offsets of oceanic ridges seems not to be in har-
mony with the latest results of seismological investigations.
The easiest way to explain the diverse: tectonic features in Southeast
Asia as the large transcurrent faults on land put forward in this paper is
to relate them intimately to the convection current hypothesis along the
lines suggested by VENING MEINESZ (1954) for Indonesia and which later
was improved by WILSON (1968, 1968) e.a. in the light of the newer
geological and geophysical data obtained from mid-ocean ridges. WlLSON'S
(1968) map of the Cireum Pacific area, including Indonesia, showing the
position of oceanic trenches, major transcurrent faults and directions of
outward convective flow from the oceanic ridges and modified by BADGELY
(1965) is in harmony with the large strike-slip faults postulated in this
paper.
The demonstrated sinistral displacement in the Philippine areas and the
supposed dextral transcurrent faults in Sumatra gives, according to ALLEN
(1962), strong support to VENING MEINESZ' (1954) proposal that the Indo-
nesian archipelago is being protruded southeastward toward Australia. The
results of our study tend also to sustain VENING MEINESZ' theory, not only
on account of the observed dextral transeurrent movement of the Great
Sumatran fault-zone, but also for the postulated strike-slip faulting in the
Celebes. VENINGMEINESZ' supposition of a shear zone running north-north-
west or northwest from the end of East Celebes might find its geologic expres-
sion in the Gorontalo fault-zone. His assumption of a second shear zone running
from the western end of the East Gelebes toward the Mangkaliat peninsula
of Borneo might be represented on land in Central Gelebes by the north-
northwest to south-southeast trending Fossa-Sarasina.
It is therefore contended that the Fossa Sarasina and the Gorontalo
fau!t-zone be considered as tectonically very significant and might re-
present VENING MEINESZ' shear zones along which two separate crustal
blocks north of the East Celebes-Maju-Talaud tectonic belt move towards
it with different velocities.
In conclusion we may say that the Sumatran, Celebes, and the Philip-
pine faults might be explained by the concept that East and Southeast
Asia moved southeast off the continuation of the Mid Atlantic ridge in the
arctic area.
The Malayan, Lembang, and Sorong faults might be related to the
eastward drift of the Australian continent caused by the convective flow
of the Indian Ocean rise and by the westward flow originated from the
East-Pacific rise.
The complicated pattern of transeurrent faults in Southeast Asia might

598
 J. A. I<ATILI- - Large Transcurrent Faults in Southeast Asia

be a t t r i b u t e d to the c o m b i n e d result of convection flow originated from

the Mid-Atlantic, I n d i a n O c e a n and East-Pacific rises.

Acknowledgment
The present author is indebted to Professor R.W. VAN BEMMELEN for the
criticism of the theoretical part of the original manuscript. Although he does
not share many of Professor VAN BEMMELEN'S points of view on the geotectonic
position of Southeast Asia, the present author maintains his high esteem for
Professor vA~ BEMMELEN'S pioneering work on teetonophysies which was first
developed 85 years ago in Indonesia.

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600