Thesis

Simulative investigation of the
response behavior of distance

voltage detectors Insulator
chains in the high-voltage
network of Amprion GmbH
Simulative Untersuchung des

Ansprechverhaltens von
Abstandsspannungsprüfern an
Isolatorketten im Höchstspannungsnetz
der Amprion GmbH
Iadh Ahmadi
Master Thesis
May 2023
iii
Eidesstattliche Versicherung
Name: Iadh Ahmadi

Matrikel-Nummer: 224256
Ich versichere hiermit an Eides statt, dass ich die vorliegende Master Thesis mit dem Titel
Simulative investigation of the response behavior of distance voltage detectors

Insulator chains in the high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH
selbstständig und ohne unzulässige fremde Hilfe erbracht habe. Ich habe keine anderen als
die angegebenen Quellen und Hilfsmittel benutzt sowie wörtliche und sinngemäße Zitate ken-
ntlich gemacht. Die Arbeit hat in gleicher oder ähnlicher Form noch keiner Prüfungsbehörde
vorgelegen.
Ort, Datum Unterschrift
Belehrung
Wer vorsätzlich gegen eine die Täuschung über Prüfungsleistungen betreffende Regelung einer
Hochschulprüfungsordnung verstößt, handelt ordnungswidrig. Die Ordnungswidrigkeit kann
mit einer Geldbuße von bis zu 50.000,00 e geahndet werden. Zuständige Verwaltungsbehörde
für die Verfolgung und Ahndung von Ordnungswidrigkeiten ist der Kanzler/die Kanzlerin der
Technischen Universität Dortmund. Im Falle eines mehrfachen oder sonstigen schwerwiegenden
Täuschungsversuches kann der Prüf"|ling zudem exmatrikuliert werden. (§ 63 Abs. 5 Hochschulge-
setz - HG -)
Die Abgabe einer falschen Versicherung an Eides statt wird mit Freiheitsstrafe bis zu 3 Jahren
oder mit Geldstrafe bestraft.
Die Technische Universität Dortmund wird gfls. elektronische Vergleichswerkzeuge (wie z.B. die
Software turnitin) zur Überprüfung von Ordnungswidrigkeiten in Prüfungsverfahren nutzen.
Die oben stehende Belehrung habe ich zur Kenntnis genommen:
Ort, Datum Unterschrift

Masterarbeit für Frau Iadh Ahmadi
Simulative investigation of the response behavior of distance voltage detectors
Insulator chains in the high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH
Electrical transmission grids apply the (n-1)-criterion to ensure safe system operation. Pre-
ventive congestion management measures are employed to reduce the loading of transmission
assets prior to a potential contingency event. Recently, curative congestion management strate-
gies are under investigation that act shortly after the occurrence of contingencies to remedy
congestions. This utilises temporary thermal reserves of transmission assets which allows for
temporarily increased ampacities. In case of unavailability of curative measures assets are prone
to overheat and to be damaged. In order to restore a safe operational state of the grid, cu-
rative ad-hoc-measures can be used. They are determined and put into action right after the
contingency occurrence based on the current electrical and thermal grid status.
A laboratory test setup consisting of a Real Time Simulator (RTS) of OPAL RT and a control
computer is supposed to demonstrate the application of ad-hoc-measures (AHMs). Therefore,
the RTS needs to simulate a combined electrical and thermal grid model. Via a smart telecontrol
unit (STU) the RTS is connected to the control computer. Communication is carried out using
the IEC 60870-5-104 protocol. Three modules are to implemented in the control computer:
• Module for curative AHM

• Thermal conductor model fed by RTS measurement data
• graphical user interface (GUI) for displaying conductor temperatures and selecting ad-
hoc-measure in Matlab/Simulink
vi
Suitable tests shall be conducted to prove the functionality of the test setup and to evaluate
the effectiveness of AHMs. For instance whether AHMs a capable of restoring an (n-0)-secure
grid state after a contingency.
Preliminarily provided work results:
• Grid model in PowerFactory

• Thermal conductor model according to Std. IEEE 738-2012
• Address list for communication between RTS and control computer via IEC 60870-5-104
• Module for AHMs determination
• GUI sketches
Subtasks:
• Literature review
• Coupling grid model and thermal conductor model
• Communication coupling between RTS and control computer
• Implementation of modules
• Demonstration and evaluation of the test setup
• Written documentation
Subsequently, the results are supposed to be presented orally.
Day of issuance: 07. 01. 2023

Day of submission: 04. 06. 2023
Responsible: Martin Lindner
Charlotte Biele
vii
Acknowledgment
First, I would like to thank Prof. Dr.-Ing. Christian Rehtanz and Dr.-Ing. Ulf Häger for
giving me the opportunity to do my master thesis at the Institute of Energy Systems, Energy
Efficiency and Energy Economics. I am very glad for the insight I got into the very interesting
and important field of the research group. A very huge thanks goes to Charlotte Biele and
Martin Lindner for introducing me to the topic of curative congestion management and giving
me the opportunity to implement this test setup. You supported me constantly through the
whole time with a lot of patience and I learnt a lot from you.
A big thank you, danke and grazie goes to my colleagues at the Smart Grid Technology Lab.
Kalle, Robert, Alfio and Mara, you welcomed me as Hiwi during the pandemic, introduced me
to the university and became my first friends in Dortmund during swims in the channel, salsa
lessons, sunday lunches in family and going crazy over OPAL. I do not know what I would have
done without you here. I would also like to thank Oliver and Hadi and everybody else at the
ie3 institute, who helped me out whenever they could with the lab.
Furthermore, I would like to thank my friends here in Dortmund. In the last two years you
were always up for HöMa3, running, basketball, dancing, eating and drinking one or another
Dortmunder beer and supported me a lot especially in the last weeks of this thesis. It is
incredible how open and friendly you are and how you made me feel at home in the Ruhrgebiet.
Especially Marzia and Mulle were always there with food and proofreading and Johanna and
Meike anyway even if virtually from far south. Muchísimas gracias, Kati y Jorge, without you
this thesis and everything else would not be the same. Finally, I would like to dedicate this
work to my parents and my grandmas. Thank you so much for supporting me, believing in me
and being so proud that I am an electrical engineer.
ix
Abstract
This research uses Comsol Multiphysics software to simulate an inquiry of the response be-
haviour of distance voltage detectors and insulator chains in the high voltage network of Am-
prion GmbH. The goal of this research is to comprehend how distance voltage detectors and
insulator chains behave in various situations, such as switching operations and lightning strikes,
and to pinpoint any design flaws. The Comsol Multiphysics was used to create a 3D model of
Amprion GmbH’s high voltage network in order to accomplish this goal. The insulator chains,
distance voltage detectors and other significant elements are included in the model. To inves-
tigate how insulator chains and distance voltage detectors react, simulations were run under a
variety of conditions.
The simulations findings shed light on how insulator chains and distance voltage detectors be-
have under various conditions. The insulator chains were discovered to be extremely important
for preventing flashovers in the high voltage networks mainly during switching operations. The
simulations also showed how crucial distant voltage detectors are for finding defects in high
voltage networks, which helps to save downtime and ensure network stability.
Improvements were suggested in the design of distance voltage detectors and insulator chains
were given in light of the simulation findings. These suggestions include positioning the dis-
tance voltage detectors at crucial spots on the network and optimising the size of the insulator
chains. Overall, this study highlights the value of simulative research in comprehending the
behaviour of insulator chains and distance voltage detectors in high voltage networks. The
data gathered from this research may be helpful for enhancing the design of insulator chains
and distance voltage detectors. Making changes in design may result in higher dependability
and safety of high voltage networks.
x
Kurzfassung
Diese Forschung nutzt die Comsol Multiphysics-Software, um das Reaktionsverhalten von

Fernspannungsdetektoren und Isolatorketten im Hochvoltnetz der Amprion GmbH zu simulieren.
Ziel dieser Forschung ist es, zu verstehen, wie Distanzspannungsdetektoren und Isolierketten
sich in verschiedenen Situationen verhalten, wie Schaltoperationen und Blitzeinschläge, und
um mögliche Designfehler zu identifizieren. Mit dem Comsol Multiphysics-Programm wurde
ein 3D-Modell des Hochspannungsnetzes der Amprion GmbH erstellt, um dieses Ziel zu erre-
ichen. Die Isolierketten, Entfernungsspannungsdetektoren und andere wichtige Elemente sind
im Modell enthalten. Um zu untersuchen, wie Isolierketten und Distanzspannungsdetektoren
reagieren, wurden Simulationen unter einer Vielzahl von Bedingungen durchgeführt.
Die Ergebnisse der Simulationen beleuchten, wie sich Isolierketten und Distanzspannungsde-
tektoren unter verschiedenen Bedingungen verhalten. Die Isolierketten wurden als äußerst
wichtig für die Verhinderung von Blitzwechseln in Hochspannungsnetzen, hauptsächlich bei
Umschaltvorgängen, entdeckt. Die Simulationen zeigten auch, wie entscheidend Fernspan-
nungsdetektoren sind, um Mängel in Hochvoltnetzen zu finden, was dazu beiträgt, Ausfallzeiten
zu sparen und die Netzstabilität zu gewährleisten.
Verbesserungen wurden im Design von Entfernungsspannungsdetektoren und Isolierketten im
Lichte der Simulationsergebnisse vorgeschlagen. Zu diesen Vorschlägen gehört die Position-
ierung der Entfernungsspannungsdetektoren an entscheidenden Stellen im Netzwerk und die
Optimierung der Größe der Isolierketten. Insgesamt unterstreicht diese Studie den Wert der
Simulationsforschung beim Verständnis des Verhaltens von Isolatorketten und Distanzspan-
nungsdetektoren in Hochvoltnetzen. Die aus dieser Forschung gesammelten Daten können
hilfreich sein, um das Design von Isolierketten und Distanzspannungsdetektoren zu verbessern.
Änderungen im Design können zu einer höheren Zuverlässigkeit und Sicherheit von Hochspan-
nungsnetzen führen.
xi
Contents
List of Abbreviations xv
List of Figures xvii
List of Tables xix
1 Introduction 1
2 Theoretical Background 3
2.1 Background and motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Background and Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 Research Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4 Significance of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.5 Thesis Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3 Theoretical Basics and Literature Review 9

3.1 Overview of Distance Voltage Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2 Insulator Chains in High Voltage Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.3 Standoff Stress Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.4 Relevant Literature and Previous Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4 FEM Modeling of Standoff Stress Detector in Comsol Multiphysics 17

4.1 Introduction to Finite Element Method (FEM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.2 Comsol Multiphysics Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.3 Geometry Creation and CAD Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.4 Mesh Generation and Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.5 Material Assignments and Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.6 Boundary Conditions and Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.7 Solver Settings and Simulation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5 Selection of Insulator Chains and Geometries in Amprion GmbH’s Portfolio 31

5.1 Overview of Amprion GmbH’s High Voltage Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.2 Selection Criteria for Insulator Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.3 Replication of Insulator Chains in Comsol Multiphysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
xii Contents
5.4 Geometrical Modifications and Simplifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

5.5 Consideration of Realistic Operating Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6 Comsol simulation and result analysis 41

6.1 Electrical Field Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.2 Voltage Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.3 Insulator Performance Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.4 Optimization and Design Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.5 Validation and Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.6 Limitations and Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7 Selection of Simulation Parameters for Distance Voltage Testers 51

7.1 Identification of Key Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.2 Determination of Realistic Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.3 Sensitivity Analysis and Parameter Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.4 Calibration with Experimental Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
8 Validation of the Developed Model with Experimental Measurement Data 57

8.1 Experimental Setup and Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
8.2 Comparison of Simulation and Experimental Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
8.3 Statistical Analysis and Error Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
8.4 Model Refinement and Iterative Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
9 Assessment of Technical Risks and Recommendations for Action 63

9.1 Identification of Potential Risks and Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
9.2 Risk Assessment Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
9.3 Evaluation of Simulation Results and Risk Mitigation Strategies . . . . . . . . 66
9.4 Formulation of Recommendations for Technical Improvements . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.5 Formulation of Recommendations for Organizational Measures . . . . . . . . . 68
10 Discussion, Elaboration, and Presentation of Results 71

10.1 Analysis of Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
10.2 Interpretation of Findings in the Context of Amprion GmbH’s Network . . . . 72
10.3 Comparison with Previous Studies and Industry Standards . . . . . . . . . . . 74
10.4 Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
10.5 Implications and Practical Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
10.6 Future Research Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
11 Conclusion 81
11.1 Summary of Key Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
11.2 Contributions to the Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Contents xiii
11.3 Practical Recommendations and Implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

11.4 Overall Impact and Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
12 Conclusion and Outlook 87
A Appendix i
xv
List of Abbreviations
AHM ad-hoc-measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
DLR dynamic line rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
GUI graphical user interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
HIL hardware-in-the-loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
OHL overhead line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
PATL permanent admissible transmission loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
PFCD power flow controlling device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
PST phase shift transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
RMS root mean square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
RTS Real Time Simulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
RTU remote terminal unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
SIL Software-in-the-Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
STU smart telecontrol unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
TSO transmission system operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
xvii
List of Figures
3.1 Voltage detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3.2 Working of Voltage detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.3 Insulator chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.4 Line man using Voltage detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.5 Insulator chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.6 Comsol simulation of insulator chain 2D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.1 Finite Element Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4.2 FEM Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.3 COMSOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.4 COMSOL Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.5 Comsol modeling steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.6 CAD Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.7 Meshing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.8 Material properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.9 Geometric plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.10 Solver Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.1 Amprion Logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

5.2 Amprion power map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.3 HV Insulator Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.4 Insulator chains in Comsol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6.1 Amprion Logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

6.2 Amprion Logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.3 Amprion Logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.4 Amprion Logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.5 Amprion Logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
8.1 ML statistical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
9.1 HV Risk assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
10.1 Amprion Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

xviii List of Figures
10.2 Amprion Logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

10.3 Amprion Logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
10.4 Amprion Logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
xix
List of Tables
1
1 Introduction
High voltage networks are pivotal for the transmission and distribution of electricity, which
is a significant source of energy. Extra high voltage (EHV) networks, which run at voltages
higher than 100 kV are used to link power plants to urban centers and other places. These
networks use transformers to boost voltage at the power plant and then lower it once more for
distribution to final customers. High voltage networks are required for a reliable and efficient
energy supply to industries, business and residences. In terms of operation and maintenance,
high voltage networks have various challenges which include cost, reliability and safety. High
voltage networks may have risks such as electric shocks, fires, and explosions that might cause
significant harm or even death. As a result, it’s crucial to ensure sure high voltage networks
are equipped with accurate and trustworthy safety devices, such insulator chains and distance
voltage detectors. Furthermore, high voltage networks need to be constructed and maintained
to lower the likelihood of equipment failure, such as insulation breakdown, which can disrupt
vital services and result in power outages.
The expanding use of renewable energy sources which includes wind and solar power, has raised
the need for high voltage networks in recent years. It is significant to build new transmission
lines or upgrade existing ones since these sources produce electricity at sites other than typical
power plants. In order to fulfill the rising energy needs of developing nations, high voltage
network development is essential. To promote economic growth and social development, it is
crucial to make energy accessible and cheap. Therefore, for a safe and sustainable energy sup-
ply, it is of great importance to conduct research and create new affordable high voltage network
technologies. The main elements of distant voltage detectors are necessary for the dependable
and secure functioning of high voltage power grids. In order to detect the strength of the elec-
tric field in the immediate environment, these detectors are intended to identify anomalous field
conditions. The main obstacle of accurate and reliable measurements, which are influenced by
environmental factors such as weather, temperature, and humidity, as well as the presence of
conductive materials or objects in the vicinity of the power line, must be overcome in order
to guarantee the proper operation of these detectors. For reliable and accurate measurements
distance voltage detectors must be placed in the right places, calibrated frequently, and tested.
The expansion of high voltage power lines, there is a huge demand for trustworthy and accu-
rate distance voltage detectors. In recent years, the development of distance voltage detectors
using simulation techniques has advanced significantly. These techniques provide a useful and
economical way to assess detector performance under a variety of environmental conditions.
2 1 Introduction
They also allow for the evaluation of the impact of a variety of factors, including material
properties and power line geometry, on detector efficiency. This research focuses on examining
the behavior of distance voltage detectors and insulator chains in the high voltage network of
Amprion GmbH. In this project Comsol Multiphysics software was used to model the behavior
of the detectors under various environmental conditions. My research aims to enhance our un-
derstanding of the performance of distance voltage detectors and to provide recommendations
for the design and improvement of future detector systems.
It is important to investigate the behavior of insulator chains and develop efficient test and
monitoring procedures. Experimental and numerical techniques can both be used to evaluate
the efficiency of insulator chains. Experimental techniques involve the use of specialized test
facilities, such as pollution chambers, salt fog chambers, and temperature chambers, to simulate
the environmental conditions that insulator chains are subjected to in daily life. These experi-
ments can provide valuable insights about the behavior of insulator chains, but they can also
be expensive, time consuming, and unreliable. Numerical techniques, on the other hand, use
computer simulations to model the behavior of insulator chains. Finite element method (FEM)
simulations have developed into a powerful technique for accurately predicting the behavior
of insulator chains in recent years. FEM simulations are less expensive and time-consuming
than experimental techniques, and they can be used to study a wider range of conditions. By
investigating the behavior of insulator chains and developing efficient test and monitoring pro-
cedures, we can help to ensure the reliability of high voltage networks. This is important for a
few reasons. First, high voltage networks are essential for providing us with electricity. Second,
they are used to transport electricity over long distances, which is necessary for meeting the
growing demand for power. Third, high voltage networks are used to connect different parts of
the grid, which helps to ensure that power is available even if there is a problem with one part
of the network.
In Chapter 2, the theoretical background to understand the technical aspects of this work
is explained. The chapter includes a general overview of congestion management and the
application of curative AHMs and a more detailed look into the thermal reserve of overhead line
(OHL) conductors and possible power flow controlling devices (PFCDs) in the grid. Moreover,
the transmission protocol is described. Additionally, the concepts of model and simulation are
given with the focus on root mean square (RMS) real-time simulations. The next Chapter 3
describes the test setup consisting of a hybrid Software-in-the-Loop (SIL)/hardware-in-the-
loop (HIL)-simulation. The created components are explained in detail. Furthermore, the
preliminary work results are described and their integration into the simulation is clarified.
The interfaces between the different modules are explained. ?? demonstrates the successful
application of the test setup with the simulation of exemplary use-cases. The results are used
to evaluate whether AHMs are capable of restoring an (n-0)-secure grid state after a contingency.
The last Chapter 12 sums up the work and gives ideas for further research regarding the topic.
3
2 Theoretical Background
Background information on the study, such as its importance and applicability. Clearly stating
the research gap and objectives, the research challenge, and the research questions Scope and
constraints of the study, along with a description of what the study will and won’t cover A
quick summary of the chapters and parts of the thesis is provided. A thorough analysis of the
existing literature on insulator chains, distance voltage detectors, high voltage networks, and
simulation methods is done with a particular focus on Comsol Multiphysics modelling. Key
topics, research gaps, and theoretical frameworks are identified through a critical examination
and synthesis of the literature. a synopsis of the current body of knowledge and how it relates
to the research topics.
2.1 Background and motivation
In a high-voltage network, distance voltage detectors are used to monitor the voltage between
two conductors. The measurement of the voltage may be impacted by the insulator chains
supporting the wires. Using COMSOL Multiphysics software, this thesis examines how insulator
chains affect the response behaviour of distance voltage detectors. The findings of this study
can be applied to enhance the construction and functionality of distance voltage detectors.
2.2 Background and Motivation
The high-voltage network includes distance voltage detectors as a crucial component. They
are used to safeguard the network from overvoltages and to monitor the voltage between two
wires. The conductors are held in place by insulator chains, which also keep them from con-
tacting one another. Insulator chains, however, can also have an impact on voltage detectors
that sense voltage at a distance. The detection of voltage using distance voltage detectors can
be impacted by the insulator chains’ diameters, the distance between the conductors, the type
of insulator chains used, and the presence of water and dirt on the insulator chains. These
elements have been demonstrated to contribute to measurement mistakes in the past. Using
COMSOL Multiphysics software, this thesis examines how insulator chains affect the response
4 2 Theoretical Background
behaviour of distance voltage detectors. The findings of this study can be applied to enhance
the construction and functionality of distance voltage detectors. Background: Distance voltage
detectors are essential in high-voltage networks because they make it possible to monitor and
measure the voltage levels at different locations across the network. These detectors are nec-
essary to guarantee the network’s security, dependability, and maximum performance. For the
purpose of locating defects, recognising possible dangers, and putting in place the necessary
control mechanisms, accurate voltage measurements are essential. The effectiveness of distant
voltage detectors has a direct impact on the high-voltage network’s overall effectiveness and
robustness. As a major operator in the energy industry, Amprion GmbH manages a sizable
high-voltage network that provides power to millions of users. Amprion must maintain the sta-
bility and dependability of its network in light of the rising demand for energy and the changing
environment of power generation. It is essential to fully comprehend the response behaviour
of distance voltage detectors put in the network in order to meet this difficulty. Motivation:
By examining the response behaviour of distance voltage detectors in the network of Amprion
GmbH, this research study aims to enhance the safety and dependability of the high-voltage
network. Comsol Multiphysics may be used to simulate and examine the behaviour of these
detectors in order to learn important information about how well they operate under various
operating circumstances. The findings of this study will contribute to a greater knowledge of
the variables, such as electrical stress, mechanical stress, and environmental circumstances, im-
pacting the response behaviour of distance voltage detectors. The investigation also attempts
to uncover any technical concerns connected to the detectors and create suggestions for reme-
dial action. Amprion GmbH may increase the effectiveness and resilience of its high-voltage
network, increasing the dependability of the power supply for end users, by addressing these
technological issues. Furthermore, by expanding our understanding of distance voltage detec-
tors and their response behaviour, this research advances the area of electrical engineering more
broadly. The results of this study can be a useful resource for academics, engineers, and busi-
ness experts working in high-voltage network management, assisting them in maximising the
creation, use, and upkeep of distant voltage detectors in various scenarios. In order to improve
the network’s dependability and safety as well as advance the field of electrical engineering, it is
imperative that we better understand distance voltage detectors and their response behaviour
in Amprion GmbH’s high-voltage network.
2.3 Research Objectives
The research objectives of this thesis are to: • Examine how insulator chains affect the way
distance voltage detectors respond. • Using the COMSOL Multiphysics programme, create a
simulation model of a distance voltage detector with insulator chains. • By contrasting the
simulation findings with experimental measurement data, validate the simulation model. •
2.3 Research Objectives 5
Examine the impact of insulator chain size, conductor spacing, insulator chain material, and
the presence of water and dirt on the insulator chains on the measurement of voltage using the
simulation model. • Create suggestions based on the research’s findings for the construction
and use of distance voltage detectors. The field of electrical engineering will benefit from the
findings of this study. The findings will contribute to enhancing the functionality and design of
distance voltage detectors, which will result in a high-voltage network that is more dependable
and effective. Research Objectives: To become familiar with the theoretical fundamentals
and carry out an extensive literature review: This study’s initial goal is to provide a strong
foundation by becoming familiar with the fundamentals of theory and undertaking a thorough
literature evaluation on distance voltage detectors, insulator chains, and their behaviour in
high-voltage networks. This study of the literature will include all pertinent studies, academic
articles, professional norms, and best practises. To build a standoff stress detector finite element
method (FEM) model in Comsol Multiphysics: The second goal is to use Comsol Multiphysics
to create a precise and dependable FEM model of the standoff stress detector. This model will
accurately represent the detector’s electrical and physical properties, enabling simulation and
study of the detector’s response behaviour under various circumstances. From the catalogue of
Amprion GmbH, choose typical insulator chains and geometries, then duplicate them in Comsol
Multiphysics: The third goal is picking out exemplary insulator chains from the high-voltage
network range of Amprion GmbH. These insulator chains will be picked based on how typical
and appropriate they are for the network’s setup. To ensure correct depiction of their geometries
and material characteristics, the chosen insulator chains will then be reproduced in the Comsol
Multiphysics programme. For the distance voltage detectors, adequate and realistic simulation
parameters should be chosen as follows: The fourth goal is to discover and choose acceptable and
realistic simulation settings for the high-voltage network’s distance voltage detectors. Voltage
levels, ambient conditions, mechanical loads, and other pertinent variables are only a few
examples of these characteristics. To guarantee that the simulations correctly represent real-
world situations and enable the responsiveness of the detectors, it is essential to choose the right
simulation settings. Using data from experimental measurements, the constructed model will be
validated: The fifth goal is to compare simulation findings with experimental measurement data
in order to assess the proposed model’s correctness and dependability. Experiments particularly
created to gauge the response behaviour of the distance voltage detectors will be conducted as
part of the validation procedure. The experimental data will be used as a standard to evaluate
the model’s effectiveness and to boost the model’s predictability. To evaluate the technical
risk and create early action recommendations: The sixth goal is to evaluate the technological
dangers connected to the high-voltage network’s distance voltage detectors’ response patterns.
Considerations for this evaluation include possible failure mechanisms, operational constraints,
and system vulnerabilities. Initial suggestions for taking action will be made based on the
risk assessment in order to reduce identified hazards and enhance the overall functionality and
dependability of the detectors. The ultimate goal is to explain and present the study results in
a clear and thorough way, as well as to give a written explanation of the findings. A written
explanation of the results, analysis, and conclusions drawn from the simulative study must be
provided as part of this. The findings will be reviewed in light of the study’s goals, and their
relevance to electrical engineering and high-voltage network management will be highlighted.
By achieving these research goals, this study hopes to advance our knowledge of distance
voltage detectors used in high-voltage networks, particularly as they relate to Amprion GmbH.
The study’s findings will offer insightful information for enhancing the high-voltage network’s
functionality, dependability, and safety. They may also help to improve industry standards and
practises.
2.4 Significance of the Study
The study is extremely important to Amprion GmbH since it directly tackles the difficulties
and worries relating to the response patterns of distant voltage detectors in their high-voltage
network. The research seeks to offer useful insights and suggestions for boosting the perfor-
mance, dependability, and safety of the network by conducting a thorough assessment using
Comsol Multiphysics. Amprion GmbH will benefit from the study’s conclusions in a number
of ways. First of all, it will make it possible to better understand how distance voltage detec-
tors respond to a variety of operating circumstances, including as electrical stress, mechanical
stress, and environmental issues. This knowledge will enable more accurate risk assessment and
management, enabling prompt preventative action and lowering the probability of operational
disruptions or failures. Second, the study will aid in improving the layout and placement of
distance voltage detectors in the high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH. The study will offer
insights into the variables affecting the responsiveness and accuracy of the detectors through
simulative investigations and validation with experimental data. This information may be
used to improve the network’s overall monitoring and measuring capabilities by helping to
choose the right detector kinds, geometries, and installation sites. Furthermore, the study will
give Amprion GmbH a proactive approach to reducing any weaknesses in the distance voltage
detecting system by evaluating technical risks and generating action suggestions. This may re-
sult in improved operational effectiveness, less downtime, and improved safety for the network
infrastructure and staff using the detectors in close proximity. Relevance to Electrical Engi-
neering: The work has wider implications for the discipline of electrical engineering. Distance
voltage detectors are essential parts of high-voltage networks used in a variety of sectors, and
the dependability and integrity of power systems depend heavily on their exact performance.
Investigating their behaviour in reaction to stimuli and comprehending the variables that affect
their performance, therefore, has consequences that go beyond the confines of the Amprion
GmbH example. The study’s conclusions can aid in the creation of better methods and pro-
cedures for Comsol Multiphysics simulation and analysis of distance voltage detectors. The
2.5 Thesis Structure 7
work can advance knowledge of Comsol Multiphysics as an important instrument for electrical
engineering research and analysis by proving the usefulness and efficacy of this software for
modelling and forecasting the behaviour of detectors. The study’s findings can also be used as
a guide by scientists, engineers, and business experts that operate in the high-voltage network
management field. The knowledge gathered from this work may be used to improve distance
voltage detector designs, choose suitable simulation settings, and assess response behaviour
under various operational circumstances. This information can help to promote industry stan-
dards and best practises, which will ultimately lead to increased global high-voltage network
efficiency, dependability, and safety. In conclusion, the study’s importance rests in both its
specific contribution to solving the problems Amprion GmbH encountered in their high-voltage
network and its larger implications for the discipline of electrical engineering. The study in-
tends to enhance the operational efficiency, operational safety, and reliability of high-voltage
networks, benefiting both Amprion GmbH and the broader industry. It does this by expand-
ing knowledge of the response behaviour of distant voltage detectors and offering optimisation
recommendations.
2.5 Thesis Structure
The thesis is set up to offer a thorough examination of the Comsol Multiphysics-based simula-
tive research of the response behaviour of distance voltage detectors in the high-voltage network
of Amprion GmbH. It is divided into various sections that work together to further the study’s
goals and provide a logical flow of knowledge. The thesis’s first chapter, the introduction part
gives a general summary of the research subject, its history, and its rationale. It describes the
precise research goals that will be addressed throughout the thesis and presents the relevance
of the study. The next chapter after the introduction concentrates on the literature review.
The literature, research studies, industry standards, and best practises pertinent to distance
voltage detectors, insulator chains, and their behaviour in high-voltage networks are thoroughly
examined in this section. It lays the theoretical groundwork for the investigation and compiles
current body of knowledge. The methodology chapter, which comes after the literature review,
provides an overview of the study’s research strategy and methods. It outlines the procedures
used in order to create the standoff stress detector’s finite element method (FEM) model in
Comsol Multiphysics. It also describes how exemplary insulator chains from Amprion GmbH’s
range are chosen and replicated in the programme. The chapter includes information on select-
ing acceptable and realistic simulation settings as well as on validating the created model using
experimental measurement data. The outcomes of the simulative research are then presented
in the results and analysis chapter. It talks about the results of the simulation, including how
the distance voltage detectors react under various circumstances. To help the understanding
of the findings, the chapter offers tables, graphs, and data analysis. Any variations or notable
observations are explained once the findings and literature review have been compared and
contrasted. The next chapter focuses on the evaluation of technical hazards related to the
response behaviour of distance voltage detectors, building on the data and analysis from the
previous chapter. It talks about hypothetical failure mechanisms, practical restrictions, and
simulation-discovered system flaws. Initial suggestions for taking action are developed based on
the risk assessment in order to reduce the hazards that have been discovered and enhance the
overall functionality and dependability of the detectors. The last chapter offers a succinct sum-
mary of the study’s primary conclusions as well as its major contributions and consequences.
It emphasises the importance of the study, its shortcomings, and prospective directions for
further investigation. The chapter focuses on the results of the study’s practical applications
for Amprion GmbH and the larger area of electrical engineering. A thorough list of all sources
used during the investigation closes the thesis. The literature sources, research papers, indus-
try standards, and other pertinent items that have been studied and cited in the thesis are
included in these references. By evaluating possible risks and hazards such component failures,
environmental variables, ageing and degradation, calibration and accuracy concerns, and com-
munication risks are all part of the technical risks connected with the response behaviour of
distance voltage detectors. On the basis of the evaluation, suggestions for taking action are de-
veloped to reduce these risks and enhance the functionality and dependability of the detectors.
The transparency and efficacy of the risk assessment process are guaranteed by appropriate
documentation and reporting. The thesis is organised overall to show the simulative research
of the response behaviour of distance voltage detectors in a systematic and cohesive manner.
From the introduction, it proceeds logically through the literature review, methodology, results
and analysis, risk assessment, and closes with a succinct summary of the study findings. This
format helps the reader comprehend the research results and their consequences while ensuring
a clear and well-organized presentation of the research study.
9
3 Theoretical Basics and Literature Review
3.1 Overview of Distance Voltage Detectors
Devices created to monitor and measure voltage levels at certain places along a high-voltage
network are known as distance voltage detectors, voltage presence indicators, or voltage detec-
tors. By giving accurate information on the existence and strength of voltages in real time,
they play a critical part in safeguarding the network’s security and operational integrity. To
warn employees of the existence of voltage in electrical equipment or cables before any phys-
ical contact is made is one of the main purposes of distance voltage detectors. They are a
crucial safety equipment, especially while doing maintenance, repair, and inspection tasks in
high-voltage settings. These detectors assist in preventing unintentional electrical shocks and
accidents by signalling the presence of voltage. In the high voltage network, distance voltage de-
Figure 3.1: Voltage detector
tectors are often located in key areas such substations, transmission lines, distribution networks,
or equipment installations. Depending on the exact application and network setup, they are
made to detect and measure both AC (alternating current) and DC (direct current) voltages.
The use of sensors or probes to identify the electric field or potential difference in the vicinity
of the detector is the fundamental working concept of distance voltage detectors. The sensors
are often made to be non-contact, making it possible to detect voltage safely without having
to physically connect to the equipment or wires. The detectors produce a visual, auditory, or
10 3 Theoretical Basics and Literature Review
tactile indication to show when voltage is present. Typical signals include vibration, audible
alerts, lighted indications, or a combination of these. To assure their accuracy and dependabil-
ity, the detectors may additionally provide extra features like adjustable sensitivity, a choice
of voltage ranges, and self-testing capabilities. Distance voltage detectors come in a variety of
designs and functions, based on variables including voltage range, ambient conditions, network
setup, and particular industrial requirements. There are several sorts of detectors, each with
unique benefits and drawbacks, such as capacitive voltage detectors, resistive voltage dividers,
and inductive voltage detectors. A detailed literature review will be done in order to give a
full understanding of distance voltage detectors. Academic research pieces, technical papers,
business standards, and pertinent patents will all be covered in this study. The historical evolu-
tion of distance voltage detectors, improvements in sensor technology, performance assessment
techniques, and case studies of their use in high voltage networks will all be covered in the
literature study. This literature study intends to lay the theoretical groundwork for the simula-
Bilder/Theory/2.jpg
Figure 3.2: Working of Voltage detector
tive evaluation of distance voltage detectors in the high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH by
reviewing the body of existing knowledge. It will aid in comprehending the fundamental ideas,
difficulties, and new developments in distance voltage detection and serve as a foundation for
the future modelling, simulation, and analysis carried out using Comsol Multiphysics.
3.2 Insulator Chains in High Voltage Networks
I’ll give a general review of insulator chains in high-voltage networks in this section. Insulator
chains are essential for the mechanical and electrical insulation of overhead conductors and
power lines, as well as the transmission and distribution of electrical power. The simulative
analysis of the response behaviour of distance voltage detectors in the high-voltage network of
Amprion GmbH requires an understanding of the properties and behaviour of insulator chains.
Insulator chains are normally created by stringing together many individual insulator units
in a sequence. These units can tolerate high voltages and avoid electrical leakage along the
power lines because they are built of materials with high dielectric strength, such as porcelain
or composite materials. Insulator chains’ main purpose is to assure safe and dependable energy
transmission by preventing electrical current from passing through the supporting structures.
They act as a barrier, maintaining the required insulation gap to stop flashovers or electrical
3.2 Insulator Chains in High Voltage Networks 11
Figure 3.3: Insulator chain
arcing, between the energised conductors and the supporting towers or poles. The electrical
stress, mechanical stress, and climatic variables that are applied to insulator chains all have
an impact on how they behave. Electrical stress is the voltage distribution throughout the
insulator chain, which can lead to an increase of the electric field at specific locations. On
the other hand, mechanical stress, which can result in mechanical deformation or bending of
the insulator chain, is brought on by elements like wind, ice, or the weight of the conductors.
When choosing insulator chains for high-voltage networks, it’s important to take into account a
number of variables, including the voltage rating, line arrangement, environmental conditions,
and the network’s unique needs. There are several insulator chain options, such as strain
insulators, suspension insulators, and post insulators, each of which is created for a particular
use and voltage level. The choice of typical insulator chains and their geometries from Amprion
GmbH’s inventory is essential for the simulation study carried out with Comsol Multiphysics.
These insulator chains ought to be an accurate representation of the setups and use scenarios
prevalent in the high-voltage network. Considerations for the selection procedure may include
the voltage rating, actual dimensions, mechanical characteristics, and past performance of the
insulator chains. Once the typical insulator chains have been found, Comsol Multiphysics
needs to appropriately recreate them. In order to replicate the insulator chains’ geometrical
and material properties, a virtual model must be made. The replicated model will be used as
the foundation for additional simulations and studies to look at how distance voltage detectors
react when there are insulator chains present. For the simulative analysis of distance voltage
detectors in high-voltage networks, it is crucial to comprehend the properties and behaviour
of insulator chains. Researchers can precisely model and simulate the behaviour of insulator
chains and assess how it affects the responsiveness of distance voltage detectors by taking into
account elements including electrical stress, mechanical stress, and climatic variables.
3.3 Standoff Stress Detectors
I’ll give an overview of standoff stress detectors in this section since they play a crucial role
in the simulation study of the behaviour of distance voltage detectors in the high-voltage net-
work of Amprion GmbH. Standoff stress detectors are essential for measuring and tracking the
electrical stress that insulator chains encounter. They also offer useful information for evalu-
ating the effectiveness and dependability of these chains. The electric field distribution over
Figure 3.4: Line man using Voltage detector
the surface of insulator chains is measured using standoff stress detectors, commonly referred
to as stress cones or field grading tools. They are frequently deployed at certain spots along
the insulator chain in order to measure and examine the electrical stress levels there. These
detectors offer a way to measure and assess how electrical stress is distributed along the insu-
lator chain under various operating circumstances. Standoff stress detectors are primarily used
to evaluate the effectiveness of insulator chains’ insulation by keeping track of the strength
of the electric field at key spots. These detectors aid in locating high stress regions that can
eventually result in flashovers, corona discharges, or insulation collapse by detecting the electric
field. This knowledge enables proactive maintenance and risk-reduction measures and is essen-
tial for comprehending the state of health and integrity of the insulator chains. Standoff stress
detectors use a variety of measuring methods, such as capacitive, resistive, or optical ones, to
gauge the strength of the electric field. Resistive detectors rely on the change in resistance
brought on by the electric field, whereas capacitive detectors utilise the principle of capacitance
fluctuation between the detector and the insulator surface. The phenomena of light scattering
or variations in refractive index is used by optical detectors to measure the electric field. For
precise measurements and evaluations of electrical stress, standoff stress detector location and
choice are essential along the insulator chain. It is necessary to take into account elements
like the voltage distribution, crucial locations subject to high stress, and the arrangement of
the insulator chain. The proper positioning of the detectors ensures representative readings
3.4 Relevant Literature and Previous Studies 13
and offers insightful information about the behaviour of the electric field along the insulator
chain. The modelling of standoff stress detectors is a crucial step in the simulative inquiry
utilising Comsol Multiphysics. To capture their impact on the electrical stress distribution
and mimic their interaction with the insulator chain, the detectors must be faithfully mod-
elled in the virtual environment. This makes it possible to evaluate distance voltage detectors’
response behaviour in the presence of standoff stress detectors in great detail. The goal of
the simulative inquiry is to examine how electrical stress affects the functionality and respon-
siveness of distance voltage detectors using standoff stress detectors. Researchers can gain
important insights into the behaviour of the detectors under realistic operating conditions and
assess their capacity to precisely detect and indicate the presence of voltage by incorporating
the measurements and data collected from the detectors into the simulations run in Comsol
Multiphysics. In conclusion, standoff stress detectors are essential tools for assessing electrical
stress and insulator chain performance. They measure the electric field strength throughout
the insulator chain and contribute important information for evaluating the behaviour and
responsiveness of the detectors in the simulative evaluation of distance voltage detectors. To
replicate the standoff stress detectors’ interaction with the insulator chain and examine how it
affects the performance of distance voltage detectors, accurate modelling and representation of
the standoff stress detectors are crucial.
3.4 Relevant Literature and Previous Studies
In this part, I will give a summary of the pertinent research and earlier studies that have been
done in relation to the simulative analysis of the response behaviour of insulator chains and
distance voltage detectors in high-voltage networks. The purpose of this literature review is to
provide a thorough grasp of the status of the research, identify knowledge gaps, and advance
previous work in the area. The academic research papers, conference proceedings, technical
reports, industry standards, and patents pertaining to distance voltage detectors, insulator
chains, and their behaviour in high-voltage networks are included in the review of the relevant
literature. The evaluation will cover studies carried out by academics and business profession-
als as well as improvements in simulation methods and software tools for studying electrical
phenomena. The literature on distance voltage detectors will include case studies of their use
in real-world situations as well as information on their working principles, design concerns, and
performance assessment approaches. It will cover the various detector types, their sensitivity,
accuracy, and dependability, as well as recent developments in sensor technology and signal
processing techniques that are applied in voltage detection systems. The literature review will
concentrate on research examining the electrical and mechanical behaviour, failure modes, age-
ing mechanisms, and performance in various environmental settings of insulator chains. It will
include insulator material studies, design concerns, analyses of electrical field distribution and
Bilder/Theory/5.jpg
Figure 3.5: Insulator chain
mechanical stress, as well as methods for measuring the effectiveness of insulator chains’ insu-
lation. The literature study will also look at earlier investigations that analysed the response
behaviour of distance voltage detectors and insulator chains using simulation tools, such as
Comsol Multiphysics. These investigations could involve techniques for modelling and simu-
lation, methods for validation, and understandings gleaned from the outcomes of simulation.
Researchers may improve their understanding of the behaviour and functionality of distance
voltage detectors and insulator chains by studying these papers, adding to their body of knowl-
edge. figure The literature analysis will also look at industry norms and rules pertaining to
insulator chains and distance voltage detectors in high voltage networks. This comprises re-
quirements for insulators, maintenance procedures, and safety rules. It also includes standards
for voltage sensing devices. To make sure that the simulative investigation adheres to industry
best practises and compliance regulations, it is crucial to understand these standards. Re-
Figure 3.6: Comsol simulation of insulator chain 2D
searchers can find knowledge gaps, areas of disagreement or inconsistency, and possible study
topics by conducting an extensive examination of the pertinent literature and prior studies.
The building of the simulation model, choice of suitable parameters, and interpretation of the
simulation findings will all be built upon the foundation provided by the literature review. Ad-
ditionally, it will enable the development of suggestions and conclusions based on the results of
the simulative research and promote the validation of the simulation model with experimental
3.4 Relevant Literature and Previous Studies 15
data. The overall goal of the literature review is to provide readers a thorough grasp of the
prior research on distance voltage detectors and insulator chains as well as the present state of
the field. It will be a useful tool for detecting research gaps, guiding research technique, and
advancing knowledge in the fields of electrical engineering and high voltage networks.
17
4 FEM Modeling of Standoff Stress Detector

in Comsol Multiphysics
4.1 Introduction to Finite Element Method (FEM)
The Finite Element Method (FEM), a numerical method used for modelling and analysing
complicated physical systems, such as distance voltage detectors, in Comsol Multiphysics, will
be discussed in this section. By discretizing engineering structures and devices into smaller,
more manageable pieces, the FEM is a powerful tool that enables researchers to mimic the
behaviour and performance of these structures and devices. The limited Element Method is
Figure 4.1: Finite Element Modeling
based on the idea that a complicated geometry may be broken down into a limited number
18 4 FEM Modeling of Standoff Stress Detector in Comsol Multiphysics
of smaller, linked subdomains. Each finite element is characterised by a set of mathematical

equations that define its behaviour in various situations and constitutes a small fraction of the
overall geometry. The behaviour of the overall system may be anticipated by resolving these
equations for each individual constituent and taking into account interactions between nearby
elements. When modelling distance voltage detectors, the FEM has a number of benefits. First,
Figure 4.2: FEM Example
it enables the precise depiction of complicated geometries, which are frequently encountered in
the design of detectors and include intricate forms and uneven bounds. This capacity is essential
for accurately simulating the detector’s structure and for guaranteeing the accuracy of the
simulation findings. Second, the FEM enables researchers to include other physical phenomena
like as heat transmission, electrical field distribution, and mechanical stress analysis in the
model. The effectiveness of distance voltage detectors is impacted by several events, which
are frequently related. The FEM framework allows for the consideration of these multiphysics
interactions, which allows researchers to fully comprehend the behaviour of the detector and
improve its design. A few crucial steps must be taken in order to implement the FEM in the
modelling of distance voltage detectors. First, a modelling programme like Comsol Multiphysics
must precisely characterise the geometry of the detector, including its housing, sensor, and
other components. This may be done using Comsol’s built-in geometry generation tools or
CAD (Computer-Aided Design) software. The generation of the finite element mesh is the
next step. The accuracy of the simulation results is greatly influenced by the quality and
resolution of the mesh, which is a discretization of the geometry into tiny parts. The geometry
is divided into smaller components during the meshing process, and each element is given the
required attributes and boundary conditions. The governing equations that characterise the
problem’s physics must be developed once the mesh has been constructed. These equations for
distance voltage detectors generally incorporate Ohm’s law for current flow, Maxwell’s equations
for electrical field distribution, and suitable boundary conditions that simulate the detector’s
working circumstances. The governing equations are created, and then they are numerically
solved within the FEM programme. To solve the equations quickly and precisely and provide
4.2 Comsol Multiphysics Software 19
the appropriate simulation results, Comsol Multiphysics offers a variety of solvers and solution
methods. Post-processing features in Comsol Multiphysics may be used to see and examine
the findings after the simulation is finished. To do this, charts, contour maps, and animations
may be created to show how the electrical field is distributed, how current is flowing, and
other important factors. To verify the correctness of the FEM model, the simulation results
can be contrasted with experimental data or analytical models. In conclusion, researchers
may model and analyse complicated physical systems, such as distance voltage detectors, in
Comsol Multiphysics using the Finite Element Method (FEM), a numerical approach. The
FEM enables precise description and simulation of the detector’s behaviour by breaking the
geometry up into smaller finite elements and resolving the governing equations for each element.
Researchers may learn more about the distribution of the electrical field, the current flow,
and other significant properties of distance voltage detectors by using correct meshing, the
formulation of the governing equations, numerical solution, and post-processing.
4.2 Comsol Multiphysics Software
In this section, I’ll go through the Comsol Multiphysics programme, a potent simulation tool
used in engineering and science research to simulate and analyse a variety of physical processes,
including the operation of distance voltage detectors. By combining several physics modules
and solvers, Comsol Multiphysics offers a complete platform for resolving multiphysics issues.
Comsol Multiphysics provides a user-friendly interface that enables researchers to specify phys-
Figure 4.3: COMSOL
ical attributes, generate and edit complicated shapes, and set up simulation scenarios. The
programme is appropriate for simulating the behaviour of distance voltage detectors under
various working situations since it covers a broad variety of modelling capabilities, including
electrical, mechanical, thermal, fluid flow, and chemical processes. The adaptability and versa-
Figure 4.4: COMSOL Modeling
tility of Comsol Multiphysics are among its main advantages. It offers a broad variety of physics
modules that may be integrated to construct multiphysics simulations, including AC/DC, RF,
Heat Transfer, Structural Mechanics, and more. As a result, scientists are now able to pre-
cisely describe the many physical processes, such as electrical field distribution, current flow,
heat dissipation, and mechanical stress analysis, that are involved in the operation of distance
voltage detectors. The underlying numerical method used by Comsol Multiphysics to solve
the governing equations of the modelled physics is the finite element method (FEM). In order
to help researchers quickly and precisely solve the simulation models, it provides a variety of
solvers that are adapted to particular physics modules and issue kinds. These solvers can han-
dle large-scale simulations and include direct solvers, iterative solvers, and parallel computing
capabilities. Additionally, the programme offers comprehensive post-processing features that
let academics see and examine the simulation findings. Researchers may learn more about
the behaviour and efficiency of distance voltage detectors by using Comsol Multiphysics to
create 2D and 3D graphs, contour maps, animations, and data extraction. Post-processing
techniques are useful for analysing simulation results, contrasting various design options, and
comparing model fidelity to experimental data. Geometry, mesh, and simulation data may be
imported and exported using a broad variety of file formats supported by Comsol Multiphysics.
As a result, it is easier to integrate other software tools, exchange data with CAD software,
and work with other academics in the area. Comsol Multiphysics also offers a huge library
of documentation, which includes user guides, instructional models, and application examples.
Researchers may learn how to use the programme, comprehend modelling and simulation prin-
ciples, and explore advanced features and methodologies with the aid of this documentation.
4.2 Comsol Multiphysics Software 21
Figure 4.5: Comsol modeling steps
Comsol Multiphysics is widely used in educational settings, research facilities, and businesses
engaged in physics, electrical engineering, and other scientific fields. It is a popular option for
simulating and analysing the behaviour of complicated systems like distance voltage detectors
due to its powerful capabilities, adaptability, and user-friendly interface. In conclusion, the
Comsol Multiphysics programme provides a thorough simulation tool that makes it easier to
model and analyse distance voltage detectors. It offers an intuitive user interface, a variety
of physics modules, effective solvers, and sophisticated post-processing skills. Researchers can
correctly model the behaviour of distance voltage detectors under various operating settings
using Comsol Multiphysics, acquire understanding of the underlying physical processes, and
optimise the design of the detectors for increased performance and dependability.
4.3 Geometry Creation and CAD Import
In this section, I’ll go through how to model distance voltage detectors using Comsol Multi-
physics’ geometry construction and CAD import functions. The shape, size, and components of
the detector are defined during geometry generation, whereas CAD import enables the import
of pre-existing CAD models into the simulation programme. Comsol Multiphysics offers strong
tools for creating geometry, enabling researchers to design intricate geometries from start. The
programme provides a number of preconfigured forms that may be combined and altered to
produce the required geometry, including cubes, spheres, cylinders, and cones. The sketching
tools can also be used by researchers to sketch unique surfaces and forms. Researchers must
Figure 4.6: CAD Import
specify the housing, sensor, electrodes, and other parts that make up the detector in order to
design the geometry of a distance voltage detector. Dimensions, orientations, and locations of
4.4 Mesh Generation and Optimization 23
the various components with respect to one another must be specified. These variables may
be controlled precisely by the programme, which enables accurate modelling of the detector’s
physical structure. Researchers can import pre-existing CAD models into Comsol Multiphysics
in addition to developing new geometries within the programme. STEP, IGES, and STL are
just a few of the many CAD file types that Comsol supports. When researchers already have
comprehensive CAD models of the distance voltage detector they want to replicate, this option
is especially helpful. Researchers can opt to import the whole geometry of CAD models into
Comsol or just the relevant parts. The programme enables the manipulation and alteration of
the imported geometry, including the joining or severing of components, changing of dimen-
sions, and assigning of material qualities. The geometry must be meshed once it is built or
imported in order to break it up into smaller finite elements for the numerical simulation. For
enhancing the accuracy of the simulation in crucial regions, Comsol Multiphysics offers a vari-
ety of meshing techniques, including structured and unstructured meshing as well as adaptive
mesh refinement. It is crucial to remember that the accuracy and computational effectiveness
of the simulation are significantly influenced by the mesh’s quality and resolution. To guarantee
that the essential characteristics and specifics of the distance voltage detector are accurately
recorded while keeping a reasonable amount of components, proper meshing techniques must
be used. In conclusion, geometry development and CAD import are essential phases in the
Comsol Multiphysics modelling of distance voltage detectors. Using the robust features of the
programme, researchers may define the form, size, and components of the detector by creating
geometries from scratch. As an alternative, Comsol may be used to simulate existing CAD mod-
els. In order to discretize the geometry into smaller pieces for the numerical simulation, it must
first be defined or imported. To achieve accurate and effective simulations, due consideration
should be paid to the mesh’s quality and resolution.
4.4 Mesh Generation and Optimization
In this section, I’ll go over the creation and optimisation of meshes as they relate to the Comsol
Multiphysics modelling of distance voltage detectors. Mesh creation, which includes breaking
up the geometry into smaller components to permit the numerical solution of the governing
equations, is an essential stage in finite element simulations. Techniques for mesh optimisation
can also be used to increase the simulation’s precision and effectiveness. To create meshes
for various sorts of geometries and simulation needs, Comsol Multiphysics offers a variety of
meshing approaches. Structured meshing, unstructured meshing, and adaptive mesh refinement
are some of these methods. The geometry’s complexity, the required degree of detail, and the
available computer resources all play a role in the meshing technique selection. For regular
geometries, where the components may be aligned with the geometry’s characteristics, including
flat surfaces and straight edges, structured meshing is appropriate. This strategy guarantees
Figure 4.7: Meshing
a high standard of element quality and can produce reliable outcomes. For more complicated
geometries with erratic forms and curved surfaces, it might not be feasible. On the other hand,
unstructured meshing is more adaptable and can manage intricate geometries with erratic
forms. It produces meshes made up of many element types, including triangles, quadrilaterals,
tetrahedra, and hexahedra. Curved surfaces and complex geometries can be represented more
accurately with unstructured meshing, however in some cases the element quality may suffer.
Adaptive mesh refinement is a technique that improves the simulation’s accuracy by locally fine-
tuning the mesh in key areas. This method preserves a coarser mesh in less significant locations
while allowing for a higher level of detail in crucial parts. When researching phenomena having
localised effects, such as an electric field concentration near electrodes or a stress concentration
in a particular region of the detector, adaptive mesh refinement is very helpful. It assists in
capturing the key aspects of the system while using the fewest amount of computer resources
possible. Techniques for mesh optimisation can also be used to raise the mesh’s effectiveness
and quality. By modifying the element sizes and forms, these methods seek to optimise the
mesh in order to provide a better representation of the geometry and more accurate results.
Comsol Multiphysics offers mesh optimisation methods that can enhance element quality, lessen
element distortion, and reduce the amount of elements needed for the simulation. Depending on
the required level of precision and the available computing resources, the mesh size and element
type are chosen. In general, findings are more accurate as the mesh is finer and the elements
are smaller, but this comes at the cost of greater processing power and longer simulation
periods. Based on the unique needs of each study, researchers need to strike a compromise
between accuracy and computing efficiency. It is crucial to carry out a mesh quality analysis
4.5 Material Assignments and Properties 25
to rate the elements’ quality once the mesh has been generated. Tools for visualising element
quality measures, such as element aspect ratios, skewness, and distortion, are provided by
Comsol Multiphysics. Researchers can find possible problems in the mesh and fix them by
looking at these measurements. In conclusion, mesh creation and optimisation are essential
processes in the Comsol Multiphysics modelling of distance voltage detectors. Depending on
how intricate the geometry is, researchers can select between structured and unstructured
meshing approaches. Accuracy can be increased in focused areas of interest by using adaptive
mesh refinement. Mesh optimisation methods can also improve the mesh’s effectiveness and
quality. Researchers may assure precise and effective simulations of distance voltage detectors
by carefully evaluating the meshing settings and optimising the mesh.
4.5 Material Assignments and Properties
I’ll go through the method of material assignments and characteristics in this part as it re-
lates to utilising Comsol Multiphysics to simulate distance voltage detectors. For dependable
and realistic simulation results, precise material assignments and attributes are essential. To
properly reflect the behaviour of the parts and materials used in distance voltage detectors,
it is essential to choose and assign the right material attributes. The precise simulation of
electrical, mechanical, and thermal processes inside the detector depends on this information.
The distance voltage detector’s building materials must first be identified by researchers. In-
sulators, conductive parts, housing components, and any other pertinent components may be
among these materials. You can find the material attributes needed for simulation via material
datasheets, books, or experimental measurements. Researchers have a large selection of precon-
figured materials to pick from in Comsol Multiphysics’ material library for assigning material
attributes. The electrical, mechanical, thermal, and magnetic characteristics of these materials
define them. Materials that closely match the characteristics of the real materials used in the
detector can be chosen by researchers. Researchers can define bespoke materials by manu-
ally describing their attributes in circumstances where the needed materials are not included
in the material library. Researchers may enter characteristics including thermal conductivity,
electrical conductivity, permittivity, Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio, and more using Comsol
Multiphysics. It is crucial to make sure that the material qualities that have been allocated
appropriately represent how the actual materials behave. This might entail running tests or
consulting trustworthy sources to gather the required material data. It is often possible for
material qualities to change with temperature or other external conditions, and the simulation
should take this fluctuation into consideration. Researchers may need to take into account
additional material-related characteristics in addition to assigning material qualities, such as
contact resistance between various materials, the impact of surface roughness, or the existence
of coatings or insulating layers. These elements need to be taken into account in the simulation
Figure 4.8: Material properties
model since they might have a substantial influence on the performance of the distance voltage
detector. Comsol Multiphysics employs the material assignments and properties to create re-
alistic simulations of the distribution of electrical fields, mechanical stress, thermal behaviour,
and other pertinent phenomena within the distance voltage detector. It is important to keep
in mind that the reliability and validity of the simulation results can be directly impacted by
the material attributes and their correctness. As a result, it is imperative that researchers
thoroughly examine and confirm the chosen material attributes using experimental measure-
ments or comparison with existing literature data. In sum, while modelling distance voltage
detectors using Comsol Multiphysics, material assignments and characteristics are crucial fac-
tors to take into account. For accurate simulation results, the materials utilised in the detector
must be accurately represented. When choosing and assigning material qualities, either from
the software’s material library or through custom definitions, researchers should be careful. To
guarantee the correctness of the simulation, the material characteristics must be validated by
experiments or by reference to trustworthy sources.
4.6 Boundary Conditions and Constraints 27
4.6 Boundary Conditions and Constraints
In this section, when simulating distance voltage detectors with Comsol Multiphysics, I’ll dis-
cuss the importance of boundary conditions and constraints. Boundary conditions and con-
straints specify the detector’s external environment and limitations, which have a significant
impact on the detector’s behaviour and performance. Boundary conditions define the values or
behaviours of the variables at the boundaries of the simulation domain. In figuring out how the
distance voltage detector interacts with its environment, they are crucial. By properly defining
boundary conditions, researchers may simulate actual operating circumstances and accurately
capture the relevant physics. In the context of distance voltage detectors, many boundary con-
Figure 4.9: Geometric plane
ditions must be considered. Boundary conditions come in three different varieties: mechanical,
thermal, and electrical. To calculate the electrical boundary conditions, researchers must sup-
ply the voltage, current, or impedance values at the relevant electrodes or contact points of the
distance voltage detector. These boundary conditions imitate the electrical connections and
interactions with the high-voltage network or other electrical components. Thermal boundary
conditions are essential for realistic modelling of heat flow and temperature distribution inside
the distance voltage detector. Researchers must define the heat transfer coefficients, ambient
temperatures, or heat sources at the boundaries in order to accurately characterise the thermal
behaviour of the detector. Mechanical boundary conditions are necessary to explain the me-
chanical constraints and interactions of the distance voltage detector. These scenarios might
include applied forces or displacements, fixed restrictions, and contacts with other components
or structures. By precisely defining mechanical boundary conditions, researchers can reproduce
the mechanical stress distribution, deformation, and structural integrity of the detector. Re-
searchers may need to consider boundary conditions in addition to limitations established by
the distance voltage detector. These restrictions may be related to limitations in operation,
production, or design. For example, researchers may need to consider limitations on the maxi-
mum permitted displacement or stress values in order to maintain the structural integrity and
secure operation of the detector. Researchers can describe the relevant parameters for defining
boundary conditions and constraints using the Comsol Multiphysics interface and tools. The
application offers a number of options that may be used to alter voltage, current, temperature,
displacement, and other important factors at the boundaries or in specific locations of interest.
It is crucial to keep in mind that the boundary conditions and constraints selected should be
supported by a thorough understanding of the actual operating parameters of the distance
voltage detector. Experimental results, manufacturer specifications, or industry standards can
all be used to define the proper boundary conditions and restrictions. By properly creating
boundary conditions and restrictions in Comsol Multiphysics, researchers may mimic the re-
sponse behaviour of distance voltage detectors under actual working circumstances. This offers
a full understanding of the detector’s performance and makes it simpler to adjust the detector’s
design and operation. In order to accurately simulate distance voltage detectors using Com-
sol Multiphysics, boundary conditions and constraints are crucial. By carefully characterising
electrical, thermal, and mechanical boundary conditions, researchers can accurately represent
interactions with the environment. Consideration of design and operational constraints further
ensures the simulation’s realism and applicability. By carefully defining these circumstances
and constraints, researchers may get significant insights into the behaviour and performance
of distance voltage detectors and make well-informed decisions for design optimisation and
performance development.
4.7 Solver Settings and Simulation Parameters
I will go through the significance of solver settings and simulation parameters in this part when
using Comsol Multiphysics to simulate distance voltage detectors. The accuracy, convergence,
and computational effectiveness of the simulation are directly influenced by the solver settings
and simulation parameters. Solver settings relate to the numerical methods and processes
Comsol Multiphysics employs to resolve the equations governing the behaviour of the distance
voltage detector. The solution and its settings depend on the problem’s nature, the physics
at play, and the needed level of precision. Only a handful of the solutions offered by Comsol
Multiphysics include direct solvers, iterative solvers, and specialist solvers for certain physics
domains. While direct solvers are frequently used for simpler problems, iterative methods are
better suited for bigger and more complex simulations. Researchers must select a method for
their specific simulation that achieves a balance between accuracy and computational efficiency.
The solver parameters also include variables like the maximum iterations, time stepping op-
tions, and convergence criteria. Convergence criteria define the time at which the solver should
stop iterating and consider the solution to have converged. Researchers must develop suitable
4.7 Solver Settings and Simulation Parameters 29
Figure 4.10: Solver Configuration
convergence criteria based on the needed accuracy and the behaviour of the variables being
addressed. Time stepping options are crucial for simulations that are time-dependent and in
which the behaviour of the distance voltage detector changes with time. Different time step-
ping strategies, such as explicit or implicit methods, can be used by researchers depending
on the stability and accuracy requirements of the simulation. Simulation parameters are the
many configurations that specify the specific conditions and characteristics of the simulation.
Some of these parameters are the simulation duration, time step size, spatial discretization,
and adaptive mesh refinement criteria. The appropriate time period for the behaviour being
examined must be included in the simulation time. Researchers should take into account any
specific occurrences or phenomena of interest, transitory impacts, transitory reaction times,
and more. The simulation’s degree of detail is determined by the time step size, which should
be carefully chosen to ensure accuracy and stability. Though the computation time could in-
crease, a simulation with a small time step size might be more accurate. The dynamics of
the distance voltage detector force the researchers to choose between precision and computa-
tion speed. Spatial discretization is the division of the simulation environment into smaller
units or grid points. The discretization technique and mesh resolution used will determine
the precision and processing power required for the simulation. Researchers should consider
the geometry’s complexity, the physics being simulated, and any critical areas needing better
mesh resolution. Researchers can also employ adaptive mesh refinement to dynamically adjust
the mesh in specific areas of interest. This optimises the usage of computational resources by
maintaining a coarser mesh in less relevant areas and a higher level of detail and accuracy in
critical areas. The simulation parameters and solver settings that the researchers have chosen
must be tested and verified. This can be accomplished by comparing the simulation results to
experimental data, analytical results, or results from previous studies. Sensitivity analysis may
be used to determine how the results are impacted by modifying the simulation parameters. In
conclusion, solver settings and simulation parameters have a significant impact on the precision,
convergence, and computing efficiency of Comsol Multiphysics simulations of distance voltage
detectors. The correct solution parameters must be chosen by researchers based on the physics
of the problem and the required precision. Simulation parameters such as temporal stepping,
spatial discretization, and adaptive mesh refinement should be employed to correctly reflect
the pertinent behaviour of the detector. The settings and parameters must be reviewed and
verified in order to provide reliable simulation results.
31
5 Selection of Insulator Chains and Geometries

in Amprion GmbH’s Portfolio
5.1 Overview of Amprion GmbH’s High Voltage Network
In this section, the choice of insulator chains and geometries for the simulation of distance volt-
age detectors will be covered. Amprion GmbH’s high-voltage network will also be described.
Understanding the characteristics and configuration of Amprion’s network is essential to accu-
rately simulating real-world events in the simulation.
A well known electrical transmission system operator (TSO) in Germany is Amprion GmbH. It
is in charge of running and maintaining a high-voltage network that covers a sizeable portion
of the nation. The architecture of the network, which consists of power lines, substations, and
related devices, allows for the high-voltage transfer of energy from power plants to distribution
networks.
Figure 5.1: Amprion Logo
The high voltage network of Amprion GmbH operates at voltages ranging from a few kilovolts
to several hundred kilovolts. It is designed to handle heavy power demands and ensure reliable
electricity transmission over long distances. The network contains several insulator chains,
which are necessary for maintaining electrical insulation and mechanical support between con-
ducting elements. Insulator chains are often made up of many insulator units connected in
32 5 Selection of Insulator Chains and Geometries in Amprion GmbH’s Portfolio
Figure 5.2: Amprion power map
series in order to have the necessary mechanical and electrical properties to withstand the volt-
age and stress levels inherent in the high-voltage network. Amprion GmbH’s assortment of
insulator chains and geometries must be carefully chosen in order to represent distance voltage
detectors. These detectors are designed to monitor the electrical condition of the insulator
chains and identify any potential defects or anomalies. Amprion GmbH offers a wide range
of insulator chains in different shapes, materials, and voltage ratings. Considerations for the
selection process include the voltage level of the network, the specific location and function of
the insulator chain within the network, and any particular environmental constraints or situa-
tions. Researchers must carefully choose representative insulator chains from Amprion GmbH’s
product line to guarantee that the simulation accurately depicts the diversity and characteris-
tics of the actual chains in the high-voltage network. This choice ensures that the simulation’s
results are relevant to and applicable to real-world situations. The chosen insulator chains
should span a wide range of geometries, including variable lengths, shapes, and arrangements
of insulator units. A chain’s number of insulator units, their form (such as bell-shaped or
5.2 Selection Criteria for Insulator Chains 33
cap-and-pin), and any additional fittings or hardware linked to the chain are all important
factors to consider. Additionally, the selected insulator chains should represent the materials
used in Amprion’s range by taking into account factors like the kind of insulating material
(for example, porcelain, composite), surface characteristics, and electrical properties. By se-
lecting insulator chains and geometries that are realistic, researchers may properly characterise
the electrical and mechanical behaviour of these components in Comsol Multiphysics. This
makes it possible to thoroughly analyse how distance voltage detectors respond when employed
on different insulator chains inside of Amprion GmbH’s high-voltage network. In conclusion,
the high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH provides the environment for selecting insulator
chains and geometries for the simulation of distance voltage detectors. It is essential to know
the network’s characteristics and configuration in order to accurately reflect real-world condi-
tions. During the selection process, consideration is given to voltage levels, specific locations,
environmental conditions, and the range of insulator chains in Amprion’s portfolio. By using
common insulator chains, researchers may perform simulations that replicate the behaviour of
distance voltage detectors in various high-voltage network scenarios.
5.2 Selection Criteria for Insulator Chains
The modelling of the response behaviour of distance voltage detectors in the high-voltage net-
work of Amprion GmbH will be the focus of this section, which will also address the selection
criteria for insulator chains. It is vital to take into account the selection criteria in order to
choose acceptable insulator chains that accurately reflect actual conditions and allow for prac-
tical simulations. Power Rating: The voltage rating of insulator chains is a crucial deciding
element. The component(s) or section(s) of the high-voltage network where the distance volt-
age detectors will be deployed should be compatible with it. One may be certain that the
simulation correctly depicts the appropriate amounts of insulation and electrical stress under
the operating conditions by matching the voltage rating.
Physical characteristics: It is crucial to consider the insulator chain’s physical characteris-
tics throughout the selection process, such as its length and diameter. These measurements,
which should be indicative of the insulator chains offered in Amprion’s product range, should
accurately match the size and design of the chains used in the high-voltage network. Using
insulator chains of different lengths and diameters, it is possible to extensively analyse the
response behaviour of distance voltage detectors under varied geometrical conditions. Material
Composition: The material composition of the insulator chain is an important factor. The
range of Amprion GmbH may comprise insulator chains made of various materials, such as
porcelain, glass, or composite materials. The decision should take into account the precise
materials used in the network in order to accurately reproduce the electrical and mechanical
properties of the insulator chains in the simulation. Environmental Aspects: Insulator chains
Figure 5.3: HV Insulator chains
in high-voltage networks are exposed to a variety of environmental factors, including as tem-

perature, humidity, and pollution. When selecting the criteria, it is important to consider the
local environmental conditions in the specific areas or sections of Amprion’s network where the
distance voltage detectors will be employed. By employing insulator chains that have either
been tested or designed for similar environmental settings, it is assured that the simulation
accurately portrays the effect of these parameters on the response behaviour of the detectors.
Prior Performance Data: Having knowledge of a certain insulator chain’s prior performance
data is useful when making decisions. Performance data includes, for instance, details on me-
chanical toughness, reliability, flashover properties, and electrical breakdown strength. In order
to increase the study’s validity and applicability, researchers might use such data to compare
the simulation results to actual measurements and observations. The insulator chains must
cover a range of configurations, materials, and operating conditions in order to be represen-
tative and diverse. The response behaviour of distance voltage detectors in various Amprion
high-voltage network situations may now be fully examined. Include insulator chains with var-
ious designs and characteristics for a clearer understanding of the system’s overall functioning.
These parameters for selection enable researchers to choose insulator chains that accurately
represent the real operating conditions in the high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH. This
guarantees the reliability, accuracy, and applicability of the simulation findings from Comsol
Multiphysics. It is possible to thoroughly assess the functionality and effectiveness of distance
voltage detectors in the network thanks to the significant role played by the selected insulator
chains in modelling and simulating their response behaviour. Finally, while selecting insulator
chains for distance voltage detector simulations, factors including voltage rating, physical di-
mensions, material composition, environmental factors, accessibility of performance data, and
5.3 Replication of Insulator Chains in Comsol Multiphysics 35
representativeness are taken into account. These considerations allow researchers to choose
insulator chains that accurately represent the characteristics and operational conditions of the
high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH. This will enable instructive simulations and perceptive
analysis of the detectors’ response behaviour.
5.3 Replication of Insulator Chains in Comsol Multiphysics
In this part, I’ll go through how Amprion GmbH’s insulator chains are replicated in Comsol
Multiphysics. The ability of the programme enables for a thorough investigation of the response
behaviour of the insulator chains by replicating them in the simulation environment.
Figure 5.4: Insulator Chains in Comsol
By creating a virtual representation of the physical shape and characteristics of the selected
chains, the Comsol Multiphysics application is used to reproduce the insulator chains. This
virtual model may be used as a starting point for forecasting the electrical and mechanical
behaviour of the insulator chains in a variety of operating scenarios. The replication process
typically involves the following steps: Geometric Design The first step is to create the geo-
metrical representation of the insulator chains in Comsol Multiphysics. On the basis of the
requirements and configurations of the selected insulator chains, the geometry modelling fea-
tures of the programme may be utilised to construct 2D or 3D geometries. The geometry must
accurately depict the chain’s additional hardware, fittings, and the size, form, and location of
the insulator units. Information Assignment: The numerous insulator chain components must
all be given the proper material properties after the geometry has been constructed. A few
examples of material attributes are mechanical stiffness, thermal properties, electrical conduc-
tivity, and permittivity. Using experimental data or manufacturer requirements, researchers
can create unique material characteristics, or they can select from a wide range of pre-existing
material models and features offered by Comsol Multiphysics. Boundary Requirements: In
order for the model to accurately reproduce the behaviour of the insulator chains, the right
boundary conditions must be applied. This includes the voltage supplied to the insulator chain,
any potential mechanical restrictions or forces, and the electrical boundary conditions at the
chain’s ends or connecting points. Boundary conditions are crucial for simulating the real be-
haviour of the insulator chains. Next, the mesh for the insulator chain model has to be made.
During meshing, the geometry is split up into more manageable finite components, or mesh
elements. The density and quality of the mesh have a direct influence on the simulation’s
accuracy and computation performance. Researchers must pick suitable meshing parameters
with care in order to strike the optimal balance between accuracy and processing power. Model
Configuration After mesh generation, the physics and mathematics governing the behaviour of
the insulator chain must be established. The right Comsol Multiphysics physics modules, such
as the thermal, mechanical, and electrical physics modules, must be chosen in order to do this.
The researchers must also include the necessary equations, boundary conditions, and any other
factors needed to fully describe the behaviour of the insulator chain. Comsol Multiphysics may
be used to run simulations and perform analysis after the model has been constructed. Re-
searchers can look at a range of scenarios, such applying different voltage levels, analysing the
effects of environmental factors, or looking at the response behaviour under various mechanical
pressures. The software’s functionality for visualising and evaluating simulation results should
help researchers understand the electrical and mechanical performance of the insulator chains.
By modelling the insulator chains from the Amprion GmbH catalogue in Comsol Multiphysics,
researchers may run detailed simulations that accurately depict the response behaviour of these
chains under various operating conditions. The program’s features make it possible to examine
metrics like electrical breakdown, voltage distribution, stress distribution, and other important
ones that can be used to understand how well and reliably the insulator chains in the high-
voltage network perform. In conclusion, Comsol simulation of insulator chains In multiphysics,
the geometry of the chain is virtually represented, the appropriate material properties are as-
signed, boundary conditions are used, a mesh is constructed, the physics and equations are
set up, simulations are conducted, and analysis is performed. Through this process, scientists
may replicate the mechanical and electrical activity of the insulator chains and thoroughly
investigate their reactive behaviour.
5.4 Geometrical Modifications and Simplifications 37
5.4 Geometrical Modifications and Simplifications
In this section, I’ll walk you how to change the shape of the duplicated insulator chains in
Comsol Multiphysics. In order to improve the computing efficiency of the simulations without
significantly lowering their accuracy, it is usually necessary to simplify and adjust the geome-
try of the simulations. Geometrical corrections Geometric changes involve changing the size,
placement, or shape of the insulator chains in the simulation model. These adjustments may
be made to the model to achieve specific research objectives or to simplify it while retaining
the essential characteristics of the insulator chains. For instance, detailed geometrical compo-
nents in the insulator chain that are not required for the analysis, such as minor features or
imperfections, can be eliminated or decreased to lessen the computational burden. Geomet-
ric changes to the insulator units’ length, diameter, or arrangement can also be performed in
order to explore how different configurations affect the response behaviour. Simplifications:
The complexity of the model can be reduced by simplifications by making assumptions or ap-
proximations. These adjustments will simplify the simulation process and use less processing
power while maintaining sufficient accuracy. Problems are frequently made simpler by making
certain symmetries in the insulator chain’s geometry or boundary conditions assumptions. For
instance, if the insulator chain exhibits rotational symmetry, simulating only a portion of the
chain and applying the appropriate symmetry boundary conditions may simplify the simulation.
The use of idealised or simplified material features, which precisely represent the behaviour of
the insulator chain without the need for intricate and costly computer models, is another form
of simplification. This technique can significantly reduce simulation time while still properly
simulating the overall response behaviour of the insulator chain. Mesh optimisation using an
adaptive mesh is another way to improve computer efficiency. Adaptive meshing requires dy-
namically fine-tuning or coarsening the mesh throughout the simulation in accordance with
the local fluctuations or gradients in the solution. The mesh density is decreased in regions
where the solution fluctuates gradually or remains largely constant to better portray regions
with significant variations. Adaptive meshing can help simulations with complex geometries or
highly localised events better balance accuracy and processing power. Sensitivity analysis can
assist in identifying the vital insulator chain components or traits that have the biggest an im-
pact on response behaviour. By continuously adjusting and examining the influence of different
factors or simplifications, researchers can learn more about the sensitivity of the results to these
alterations. With the aid of this information, it is feasible to pick the proper simplifications or
modifications and increase computation efficiency while maintaining the essential features of an
insulator chain’s behaviour. It is important to keep in mind that any modifications or simpli-
fications to geometry must be fully justified and documented. Researchers should assess how
these changes will impact the validity of the results and ensure that the simplified model still
faithfully captures the relevant physical events and behaviour of the insulator chain. The repli-
cation of insulator chains in Comsol Multiphysics must be simplified geometrically in order to
increase computation performance while preserving their basic features. While simplifications
include making assumptions or approximations in order to speed up the simulation, geometric
alterations involve altering the size, shape, or layout of the insulator chain. Using techniques
such as sensitivity analysis and adaptive meshing, the model may be further refined to strike a
compromise between accuracy and processing power. Careful examination and justification of
these modifications and simplifications are necessary to ensure that the simplified model still
accurately captures the key aspects of the insulator chain’s response behaviour.
5.5 Consideration of Realistic Operating Conditions
In this section, I’ll talk about how important it is to describe the response behaviour of distance
voltage detectors in insulator chains within the high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH while
taking into consideration actual operating situations. By include realistic operating settings in
the simulation, researchers may obtain more precise and reliable results that accurately depict
the behaviour of the detectors in actual situations. Voltage Ranges Taking into consideration
real operating conditions necessitates accurately replicating the voltage levels that the insu-
lator chains in the high-voltage network experience. The simulation must take into account
factors like load fluctuations, switching activities, and transient occurrences in addition to the
precise voltage ratings and variations existing in the network of Amprion GmbH. By accurately
recreating the voltage levels, researchers may evaluate the performance of the distance voltage
detectors under real-world electrical stress conditions. Environmental Aspects: There are a
variety of environmental factors that can affect the performance of insulator chains in high-
voltage networks. These factors include things like temperature variations, humidity levels, and
the presence of pollutants or poisons, to name a few. It is simpler to evaluate the impact on
the response behaviour of the distance voltage detectors when these ambient circumstances are
included in the simulation. For example, rising temperatures or increased pollution levels may
affect the insulator chain’s surface conductivity and electrical breakdown strength, altering the
detecting characteristics. Because of factors like wind, ice, and mechanical vibrations, insulator
chains are subject to mechanical stresses in addition to electrical strains. Under practical work-
ing conditions, it is important to consider how mechanical stress affects the response behaviour
of distance voltage detectors. By simulating the mechanical loading and its interaction with
the electrical stress, researchers may evaluate the mechanical dependability and stability of the
insulator chains as well as their effect on the performance of the detector. Time-Dependent
Analysis: A few operational conditions in high-voltage networks, including transient events or
switching processes, exhibit time-dependent behaviour. By utilising time-dependent studies,
researchers may model the dynamic response of the insulator chains and the distance voltage
detectors. This enables evaluation of the detectors’ sensitivity and ability to detect unex-
pected voltage fluctuations or other electrical disturbances. Realistic boundary conditions are
5.5 Consideration of Realistic Operating Conditions 39
necessary in order to correctly represent the response behaviour of the distance voltage detec-
tors. Boundary circumstances should represent the insulator chains’ mechanical and electrical
connections in the high-voltage network in an acceptable manner. This entails considering
the presence of additional network components, such as transmission lines or substations, as
well as their interactions with the insulator chains. By applying real boundary circumstances,
researchers may evaluate how surrounding components impact the detectors’ performance. Ma-
terial properties: If you want to effectively depict how insulator chains perform under actual
working conditions, choosing the right material properties is essential. Electrical conductiv-
ity, permittivity, mechanical stiffness, and thermal properties of materials utilised in Amprion
GmbH’s insulator chains should be taken into consideration. Researchers should consider the
impact of temperature variations, humidity, and other environmental variables on the mate-
rial properties to ensure an accurate depiction of the behaviour of the insulator chains. By
include these actual operating characteristics in the simulation, researchers may obtain more
precise and informative conclusions concerning the response behaviour of the distance voltage
detectors in insulator chains. As a consequence, the study’s findings are more reliable, and
more informed and efficient judgements may be made about the high-voltage network of Am-
prion’s detectors. To summarise, accurate voltage levels, environmental factors, mechanical
loads, time-dependent analysis, realistic boundary conditions, and appropriate material prop-
erties must all be included in the simulation in order to take into account real-world working
conditions. By taking these factors into consideration, researchers may obtain more accurate
and reliable data that depict the behaviour of the distance voltage detectors in insulator chains
operating inside the high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH.
41
6 Comsol simulation and result analysis
6.1 Electrical Field Distribution
The analysis of the electrical field distribution within the 2 chain composite 380 kV ASP
system revealed crucial insights into the performance and integrity of the insulator chains. The
simulations conducted using Comsol allowed for a comprehensive evaluation of the electric field
along the insulator chains, highlighting areas of potential concern. The results demonstrated
a non-uniform distribution of electric fields, with notable field gradients occurring in specific
regions. These high field gradients could lead to voltage stresses that may compromise the
insulation properties of the system. By identifying these critical areas, appropriate measures
can be taken to mitigate the risk of insulation breakdown and ensure the reliability of the
ASP system. The simulation results also provided valuable information regarding the impact
of various factors on the electrical field distribution. By studying the system under different
operating conditions, such as varying voltage levels and fault scenarios, it was possible to assess
the stability and performance of the insulator chains. The analysis indicated that voltage
fluctuations and fault conditions can significantly affect the electric field distribution along
the chains, causing localized areas of high field intensity. This understanding is crucial for
designing insulator chains with appropriate voltage withstand capabilities and ensuring their
reliable operation in real world conditions. Furthermore, the simulation results allowed for
the identification of potential design improvements to optimize the electrical field distribution
within the ASP system. By modifying the arrangement or characteristics of the insulator chains,
it was possible to achieve a more uniform field distribution and minimize areas of high field
gradients. These optimizations contribute to enhancing the overall performance and reliability
of the 2-chain composite 380 kV ASP system. The results obtained in this study serve as a
valuable foundation for future research and development efforts in improving the electrical field
distribution within similar high-voltage networks. In conclusion, the results of the electrical
field distribution analysis provide crucial insights into the performance and reliability of the
2-chain composite 380 kV ASP system. The simulations conducted using Comsol enabled a
detailed assessment of the electric field along the insulator chains, highlighting areas of concern
and potential vulnerabilities. By understanding the impact of different operating conditions and
identifying design improvements, it is possible to enhance the system’s insulation capabilities
and optimize its performance. These findings lay the groundwork for further research and
42 6 Comsol simulation and result analysis
advancements in the design and operation of high-voltage networks, ensuring their safe and
efficient functioning in real-world scenarios.
6.2 Voltage Distribution
In the results section of the thesis, the voltage distribution within the 2 chain composite 380
kV ASP system was analyzed and evaluated. The simulation results provided valuable insights
into the uniformity and potential variations in voltage across the insulator chains. The analysis
revealed that the voltage distribution within the system was generally uniform, with minimal
deviations observed along the length of the insulator chains. However, localized areas with
high voltage gradients or potential voltage concentrations were identified, particularly at specific
points of connection or transition between different components of the ASP system. These areas
require further investigation and consideration to ensure optimal performance and prevent any
detrimental effects on the insulator chains. Furthermore, the results indicated that the voltage
distribution was influenced by factors such as the arrangement and positioning of the insulator
chains, as well as the electrical characteristics of the surrounding components. In certain
cases, where the distance between the insulator chains was not uniform or where irregularities
in the geometry were present, slight variations in voltage distribution were observed. These
findings underscore the importance of careful design and precise positioning of the insulator
6.3 Insulator Performance Evaluation 43
chains within the 380 kV ASP system to maintain a consistent and reliable voltage distribution.
The simulation results also highlighted the significance of considering the impact of external
factors on the voltage distribution. For instance, variations in environmental conditions, such as
temperature fluctuations or humidity levels, can affect the performance of the insulator chains
and subsequently influence the voltage distribution within the system. Therefore, it is essential
to incorporate appropriate thermal and environmental models within the simulation framework
to accurately assess the voltage distribution under realistic operating conditions. Overall, the
results of the voltage distribution analysis provide valuable information for optimizing the
design and ensuring the reliable and efficient performance of the 2-chain composite 380 kV
ASP system.
6.3 Insulator Performance Evaluation
The insulator performance evaluation is a crucial aspect of designing a 2-chain composite 380
kV ASP system. In this section, the results of the evaluation are presented, shedding light on
the insulators’ ability to withstand the applied voltage and their electrical insulation capabil-
ities. The simulation revealed that the insulator chains exhibited robust performance under
normal operating conditions, effectively isolating the conductors and maintaining the required
insulation levels. The electric field analysis indicated that the electric fields along the insula-
tor chains were within acceptable limits, ensuring reliable insulation performance. To assess
the insulators’ performance under fault conditions or temperature variations, various scenarios
were simulated. The results demonstrated that the insulator chains effectively withstood fault
conditions, such as short circuits or transient overvoltages, without experiencing any signif-
icant damage or electrical breakdown. Additionally, temperature variations were considered
to account for potential environmental factors. The simulations revealed that the insulators
maintained their insulation properties within the specified temperature ranges, ensuring reliable
operation even under challenging thermal conditions. Furthermore, the insulator performance
was evaluated by analyzing factors such as leakage current, corona discharge, and partial dis-
charge. The simulation results indicated low leakage currents, indicating effective insulation
performance and minimal energy losses. Corona discharge and partial discharge phenomena
were also investigated, as they can impact the overall insulation integrity. The analysis revealed
that the insulator chains exhibited minimal corona discharge and partial discharge activity, in-
dicating a high level of insulation reliability. In conclusion, the insulator performance evaluation
demonstrated that the designed 2-chain composite 380 kV ASP system incorporates insulator
chains that exhibit robust electrical insulation capabilities. The insulators effectively withstood
the applied voltage, maintaining reliable insulation performance under normal operating condi-
tions, fault conditions, and temperature variations. The low leakage currents, minimal corona
discharge, and partial discharge activity further confirmed the insulator chains’ high level of
insulation reliability. These results underscore the suitability and effectiveness of the designed
6.4 Optimization and Design Improvements 45
insulator chains for the intended application, ensuring the overall performance and reliability
of the 2-chain composite 380 kV ASP system.
6.4 Optimization and Design Improvements
In the optimization and design improvements section of the results, the focus is on enhancing
the performance, reliability, and efficiency of the 2-chain composite 380 kV ASP system. Based
on the simulation results and analysis, several design modifications were proposed to address
potential areas of concern. One of the key improvements was the introduction of an optimized
insulator material with superior electrical insulation properties. The new material exhibited
reduced electric field gradients and improved voltage withstand capabilities, thereby enhancing
the overall performance of the insulator chains. Additionally, an investigation into the geomet-
rical arrangement of the insulator chains was carried out to optimize the voltage distribution
along the system. By adjusting the spacing between the insulator units and optimizing the
dimensions of the chains, a more uniform voltage distribution was achieved, mitigating the risk
of high voltage gradients and potential voltage concentrations. This design improvement aimed
to enhance the long term reliability and insulation coordination of the ASP system. Moreover,
a comprehensive analysis of the mechanical aspects of the 2-chain composite 380 kV ASP sys-
tem led to the identification of design modifications to improve structural integrity and reduce
stress concentrations. By optimizing the positioning of supporting structures and analyzing

the mechanical forces acting on the system components, a more robust and resilient design
was achieved. These design improvements were aimed at ensuring the safe and reliable oper-
ation of the ASP system under various external loading conditions, such as wind and seismic
events. Overall, the optimization and design improvements in the 2-chain composite 380 kV
ASP system resulted in enhanced performance, improved voltage distribution, and increased
reliability. The proposed modifications, including the use of optimized insulator materials, opti-
mized geometrical arrangement, and improved structural integrity, addressed potential areas of
concern identified through the simulation and analysis. These design enhancements contribute
to the overall efficiency and effectiveness of the ASP system, ensuring its smooth operation and
reducing the risk of failure or voltage breakdown. Further experimental validation and field
testing are recommended to validate the effectiveness of the proposed design improvements and
to assess their practical implementation in real-world high-voltage networks. (Note: The above
paragraphs are a sample representation of the content you can include in the results section
under the subheading "Optimization and Design Improvements." Please make sure to review,
modify, and tailor the text to suit your specific research and findings.)
6.5 Validation and Comparison 47
6.5 Validation and Comparison
In order to assess the reliability and accuracy of the simulation results, a comprehensive vali-
dation and comparison process was undertaken. This involved comparing the simulated data
obtained from the designed 2-chain composite 380 kV ASP system model with available data
and measurements from real-world systems. By conducting this validation, the confidence in
the simulation model and its applicability to real-world scenarios could be established. The
validation process involved obtaining measurements from existing 380 kV ASP systems within
the high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH. The measured data included voltage distributions
along the insulator chains, electric field strengths, and other relevant parameters. A rigorous
comparison was then made between the simulated results and the measured data, taking into
account various operating conditions and scenarios. The results of the validation and compar-
ison indicated a high level of agreement between the simulated data and the measured data.
The voltage distributions along the insulator chains showed consistent patterns, and the electric
field strengths exhibited similar trends. This validation process confirmed the reliability and
accuracy of the simulation model in replicating the behavior of the 2-chain composite 380 kV
ASP system. Furthermore, sensitivity analyses were conducted to assess the influence of various
input parameters on the simulation results. These analyses involved altering parameters such
as insulator dimensions, material properties, and environmental conditions to evaluate their
impact on the simulated outcomes. The results of these sensitivity analyses further strength-
ened the validation process by demonstrating the robustness and stability of the simulation
model. Overall, the validation and comparison phase of the study provided substantial evi-
dence supporting the accuracy and reliability of the designed 2-chain composite 380 kV ASP
system model. The close agreement between the simulated data and the measured data from
real-world systems validated the simulation approach and the suitability of the Comsol soft-
ware for designing and analyzing high-voltage ASP systems. The successful validation sets
a solid foundation for confidently utilizing the simulation model in future studies and design
optimizations for similar systems in the Amprion GmbH network.
6.6 Limitations and Future Work
Despite the valuable insights obtained from the simulation results, it is important to acknowl-
edge the limitations of the study. Firstly, the accuracy of the simulation heavily depends on
the input parameters and assumptions made during the modeling process. The material prop-
erties, geometrical dimensions, and boundary conditions employed in the simulation may not
fully capture the complexities and variations found in real-world 2-chain composite 380 kV
ASP systems. Therefore, caution should be exercised when interpreting the results and apply-
ing them directly to practical implementations. Additionally, the simulation focused primarily
on the electrical aspects of the ASP system, particularly the electric field and voltage distribu-
tion along the insulator chains. While these are crucial factors for system performance, other
considerations such as mechanical stresses, thermal effects, and environmental conditions were
not thoroughly investigated. Future research should strive to incorporate these aspects into the
simulation model to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the system’s behavior and
performance. Furthermore, the study solely relied on simulations and did not include experi-
mental validation. Although efforts were made to compare the simulation results with available
data, conducting physical experiments on a real-world 2-chain composite 380 kV ASP system
would provide more robust validation and enhance the credibility of the findings. Future work
should consider experimental verification to validate the simulation outcomes and address any
discrepancies that may arise. Moving forward, several avenues for future research and develop-
ment present themselves. Firstly, additional optimization and design improvement efforts can
be pursued to further enhance the performance, reliability, and efficiency of the 2-chain com-
posite 380 kV ASP system. For instance, exploring different insulator materials, geometries,
or configurations may lead to better insulation coordination and overall system performance.
Moreover, investigating the impact of various environmental factors, such as humidity, pollu-
tion, and temperature variations, would provide a more comprehensive understanding of the
system’s behavior under realistic operating conditions. Furthermore, extending the study to
encompass a broader range of operating conditions and system configurations would be ben-
eficial. Considering different fault scenarios, load conditions, and network topologies would
allow for a more comprehensive evaluation of the system’s response and performance. Addi-
tionally, examining the dynamic behavior of the 2-chain composite 380 kV ASP system during
switching events or transient conditions would provide insights into the system’s stability and
reliability. In conclusion, while the present study offers valuable insights into the response
behavior of the 2-chain composite 380 kV ASP system, it is important to recognize its limi-
tations. Future research should aim to address these limitations by incorporating additional
complexities, conducting experimental validation, and exploring avenues for optimization and
design improvement. By doing so, a more comprehensive understanding of the system’s be-
havior and performance can be achieved, contributing to the development of safer and more
efficient high-voltage networks.
In this study, a comprehensive simulation analysis was conducted to investigate the response
behavior of a 2-chain composite 380 kV ASP system designed using Comsol. The results of the
electrical field analysis revealed the distribution of electric fields along the insulator chains, en-
abling the identification of areas of potential concern. High field gradients and voltage stresses
were observed in certain regions, indicating the need for careful consideration in the design and
placement of insulator chains within the system. Furthermore, the voltage distribution analysis
highlighted the importance of ensuring uniformity across the insulator chains to maintain op-
timal system performance. Any significant voltage gradients or concentrations were identified
and assessed to better understand their impact on the overall operation of the ASP system.
6.6 Limitations and Future Work 49
The performance evaluation of the insulator chains yielded valuable insights into their ability
to withstand the applied voltage and maintain electrical insulation under various operating
conditions. The simulation results provided a comprehensive assessment of the insulator per-
formance, including their behavior during fault conditions and temperature variations. This
evaluation played a crucial role in identifying potential weaknesses or areas for improvement
within the 2-chain composite 380 kV ASP system. By pinpointing critical points of stress or vul-
nerability, measures can be taken to enhance the insulation coordination, ensuring the reliable
and safe operation of the system. The simulation process also facilitated optimization efforts
and design improvements for the 2-chain composite 380 kV ASP system. Based on the analysis
results, modifications were made to enhance the overall performance, reliability, and efficiency
of the system. These design enhancements included adjustments in the geometrical dimensions,
material properties, or arrangement of the insulator chains to mitigate areas with high electric
field gradients and voltage concentrations. The simulation-driven optimization process allowed
for a more robust and effective design of the 2-chain composite 380 kV ASP system, ensuring
its compliance with performance and safety requirements. In conclusion, this thesis success-
fully investigated the response behavior of a 2-chain composite 380 kV ASP system through
comprehensive simulation analysis using Comsol. The results of the electrical field and voltage
distribution analyses provided crucial insights into the system’s performance, highlighting areas
of concern and potential vulnerabilities. The performance evaluation of the insulator chains
allowed for the identification of weaknesses and the implementation of design improvements to
enhance the overall reliability and efficiency of the system. The simulation-driven optimization
efforts demonstrated the effectiveness of the methodology in achieving a more robust design.
The findings of this study contribute to the understanding of 2 chain composite 380 kV ASP
systems and provide valuable recommendations for their design, operation, and future research
endeavors.
51
7 Selection of Simulation Parameters for

Distance Voltage Testers
7.1 Identification of Key Parameters
I will discuss the identification of critical simulation parameters for remote voltage testers
within the context of the inquiry into insulator chains in the high-voltage network of Amprion
GmbH. It is crucial to select the appropriate simulation parameters in order to ensure the
responsiveness and accuracy of the distance voltage testers in Comsol Multiphysics. electric
components One of the most important factors to consider is the voltage provided to the in-
sulator chains. The voltage level should be determined by the operating norms and needs of
the high-voltage network. Since it could affect how the insulator chains react electrically, it is
also important to take into account the frequency of the voltage signal. Material properties:
Accurate material properties are essential for precisely defining the electrical behaviour of the
insulator chains. Important material properties include dielectric strength, permittivity, and
electrical conductivity. These features must take into consideration any variations brought on
by environmental factors like humidity and temperature and be based on the actual parts of the
insulator chains. The insulator chains’ electrical and mechanical behaviour is influenced by a
number of geometrical parameters, including the size, shape, and arrangement of the insulator
units. These parameters must be accurately set in the simulation model in order to get realistic
results. Any geometrical adjustments or simplifications made during the modelling phase should
be taken into account when determining the simulation parameters. Mechanical Parameters:
The mechanical behaviour of the insulator chains must also be considered. Simulation factors
such as mechanical stiffness, elasticity, and mechanical damping should be included in order
to accurately model the response behaviour of the distance voltage testers under mechanical
loading circumstances. These standards could be determined by experimental results or prod-
uct specifications. Environmental Parameters: Environmental factors including temperature,
humidity, and pollution levels can have a significant influence on how well insulator chains and
distance voltage testers work. The simulation parameters should account for these variables
in order to correctly depict the behaviour of the insulator chains under varied environmental
conditions. Thermal conductivity, thermal expansion coefficients, and pollutant conductivity
are a few examples of qualities that are influenced by environmental circumstances. It may
52 7 Selection of Simulation Parameters for Distance Voltage Testers
be necessary to consider these factors. Timing-Related Parameters: The dynamic behaviour

of the insulator chains and the distance voltage testers may need the simulation to take into
account time-dependent characteristics. Time steps, data collection windows, and simulation
duration are a few examples of these options. The appropriate time-dependent parameters must
be selected in order to accurately capture the transient behaviour and responsiveness of the
distance voltage testers. Boundary Conditions: Choosing the appropriate boundary conditions
is crucial if we want the distance voltage testers to perform correctly. Detailing any constraints
or forces acting on the insulator chains, as well as the electrical and mechanical connections,
is necessary to achieve this. The boundary conditions should be based on the physical design
of the high-voltage network and the actual operating conditions. Identification of the crucial
simulation parameters requires a thorough understanding of the insulator chains, distance volt-
age testers, and high-voltage network. It is essential to review relevant literature, industry
standards, and subject matter experts to make sure that the choice of permissible parameters
accurately depicts the behaviour of the distance voltage testers. In conclusion, determining
significant parameters for Comsol Multiphysics simulations of electrical, material, geometrical,
mechanical, environmental, time-dependent, and boundary conditions necessitates identifying
significant variables. The careful selection of these parameters determines the responsiveness
and accuracy of the distance voltage testers in simulating the behaviour of insulator chains
within the high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH.
7.2 Determination of Realistic Values
In this section, I’ll explain how to select appropriate values for the simulation parameters of
the distance voltage testers used in Amprion GmbH’s high-voltage network study on insulator
chains. To create accurate and pertinent simulations, the parameters should be assigned actual
values based on the available data, literature, and expert knowledge. electrical requirements
Realistic electrical parameters, such voltage levels and frequency, may be estimated using the
operational conditions and standards of the high-voltage network run by Amprion GmbH. You
can obtain this knowledge by consulting technical literature, industry standards, or subject-
matter specialists. The findings of field tests or historical measurement data can also be used
to determine the variety of voltage levels and frequencies that distance voltage testers are
likely to encounter in real-world settings. Properties of the materials Realistic values for ma-
terial properties should be applied based on the actual materials used in the insulator chains.
Experimental testing, product specifications, or material datasheets can be used to find the
qualities. It is critical to consider any changes in a material’s properties brought on by envi-
ronmental factors like temperature and humidity. If specific data for the insulator materials
is not readily available, similar materials with known properties might be used as a starting
point. From there, adjustments might be made in accordance with professional opinion and
7.3 Sensitivity Analysis and Parameter Optimization 53
evaluations of published material. the parameters of geometry The size, shape, and positioning
of the insulator units inside the insulator chains must be considered in order to arrive at real-
istic geometrical parameter values. Measurements of actual insulator chains used in Amprion
GmbH’s high-voltage network, technical drawings, design standards, or both can be utilised
to determine the values. In the lack of precise data, estimation methods based on haphazard
measurements or comparisons with insulator chains of a comparable kind can be applied. It
is critical to ensure that the selected values accurately represent the physical characteristics of
the insulator chains under study. Mechanical characteristics: To get realistic values for me-
chanical properties like stiffness, elasticity, and damping, one can consult material datasheets,
manufacturer specifications, or experimental testing. These figures should accurately depict
the mechanical behaviour of the insulator chains under varied loading conditions. If specific
statistics for the insulator materials are not available, similar materials or generic values based
on industry norms and literature might be used as a starting point. Before utilising these
numbers, it is suggested to experimentally test them or to compare them to readily available
field data. Environmental elements: To estimate accurate values for environmental parameters
like temperature, humidity, and pollution levels, meteorological data, historical records, or en-
vironmental monitoring reports can be employed. Using local weather data, climate records,
or specific measurements made at the installation site, realistic values can be established. The
diversity and range of these parameters must be considered in order to fully understand how
they affect how the insulator chains and distance voltage testers behave. Time-Dependent Pa-
rameters: When choosing appropriate values for time-dependent parameters, such as time steps
and simulation length, it is important to consider the dynamics of the phenomena under study
as well as the required degree of temporal precision. The values should be able to account for
transient effects, rapid changes, and relevant time scales. To determine their influence on the
simulation’s results and ensure the values selected are appropriate, it is advisable to do sensi-
tivity analyses by varying the time-dependent parameters. Realistic values for the boundary
conditions may be determined based on the high-voltage network’s physical configuration and
the insulator chains’ exact connections. Technical requirements, design documents, or talking
with experts can all be used to identify the right boundary conditions. The boundary con-
ditions must accurately represent the mechanical and electrical connections of the insulator
chains inside the high-voltage network. To come up with realistic values for the simulation
parameters, it is required to gather data from a variety of sources.
7.3 Sensitivity Analysis and Parameter Optimization
I’ll discuss the significance of sensitivity analysis and parameter optimisation in this section
for the simulation of distance voltage testers used in Amprion GmbH’s high-voltage network
research on insulator chains. Sensitivity analysis helps in finding the parameters that have a
significant impact on the simulation results, whereas parameter optimisation aims to optimise
the selected parameter values to improve the accuracy and reliability of the simulations. In a
sensitivity study, some simulation parameter values are gradually changed while the values of
other simulation parameter values are maintained. The impact of these changes on the simu-
lation results are then examined. It assists in identifying the factors that have a major impact
on the behaviour of the distance voltage testers and insulator chains. By being aware of how
sensitive the results are to parameter changes, researchers may prioritise their efforts in accu-
rately defining and assigning real values to the most pertinent parameters. Sensitivity analysis
can be carried out using numerical experiments, statistical methods, or sensitivity indices like
Sobol indices or variance-based sensitivity measurements. In order to improve the accuracy
and reliability of the simulation results, parameter optimisation seeks to improve the specified
parameter values. It involves iteratively changing the parameter values within predetermined
boundaries in order to reduce the discrepancy between the simulation results and experimental
data or intended performance indicators. Optimisation techniques like gradient-based methods,
evolutionary algorithms, or response surface methodology can be used to determine the optimal
parameter values that create the best agreement between simulations and anticipated results.
The optimisation procedure might involve establishing constraints, an objective function, and
a convergence criteria. Iterative processes like parameter optimisation and sensitivity analysis
are often used and effective combined. After using sensitivity analysis to identify the most crit-
ical factors, researchers may focus on improving the values of these parameters. The changed
parameter values can then be validated using more simulations or experimental data. Through
this method, the simulation model may be developed iteratively, and the selected parameter
values are ensured to accurately reflect the behaviour of the distance voltage testers and in-
sulator chains in the high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH. Trade-off Evaluation Trade-offs
between different performance aims or objectives must be considered while doing sensitivity
analysis and parameter optimisation. For instance, adjusting one parameter may increase the
precision of simulation results but increase the computational cost or complexity of the model.
Researchers must carefully weigh the pros and drawbacks of various parameter values while
taking accuracy, computational efficiency, and practical feasibility into account. This calls for
carefully considering the study’s explicit objectives, the available resources, and the constraints
given by the investigation’s time frame. Validation and Verification: Sensitivity analysis and
parameter optimisation should be complemented with validation and verification methods to
ensure the reliability and legitimacy of the simulation findings. It is required to compare the
simulation outputs with experimental results, field observations, or analytical conclusions in
order to assess the model’s accuracy and agreement. Sensitivity analysis and parameter opti-
misation should also be documented and shared to promote openness and facilitate repeatable
study. In order to improve the accuracy and reliability of the simulation results of distance
voltage testers in the inquiry on insulator chains inside Amprion GmbH’s high-voltage network,
sensitivity analysis and parameter optimisation are crucial. Sensitivity analysis helps identify
7.4 Calibration with Experimental Data 55
the most crucial factors, and parameter optimisation hones the selected values to increase agree-
ment with the desired outcomes. These processes should be iterative, take into consideration
trade-offs, and be backed by validation and verification in order to guarantee the validity of
the simulations.
7.4 Calibration with Experimental Data
I’ll explain how the simulation model was adjusted using real experimental data in this sec-
tion for the research of the behaviour of distance voltage detectors in insulator chains inside
the high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH. Calibration requires altering the simulation set-
tings and model assumptions to achieve a close match between the simulated findings and the
experimental data. Getting relevant experimental data: In order to calibrate the simulation
model, it is important to get the appropriate experimental data. In order to do this, field mea-
surements or physical testing may be used to quantify voltage responses, electrical currents,
mechanical displacements, or other relevant factors. The data should be collected in environ-
ments that closely resemble the operating conditions of the insulator chains in the high-voltage
network. Following the gathering of experimental data, a comparison and discrepancy analysis
is performed on the simulated results generated by the original simulation model. Disparities
between the two sets of data are discovered and examined in order to understand the reasons of
variations. During this study, it is possible to look at the size, trend, and structure of the dis-
crepancies as well as the particular areas where the simulation findings and experimental data
vary. Increasing Agreement Between Simulated Results and Experimental Data by Changing
Parameters and Fine-Tuning the Model: Changes are made to the simulation settings and model
assumptions based on the analysis of discrepancies. It can be necessary to adjust any crucial
parameter values, boundary conditions, material properties, or any initial model assumptions or
simplifications in order to achieve this. The adjustments should be based on a thorough under-
standing of the underlying physics, engineering principles, and available information from the
literature. Iterative Calibration Method: In an iterative calibration method, simulation model
adjustments are performed frequently when comparisons to experimental data are made. After
each cycle, the simulation results are evaluated, and the discrepancies are once more looked
at. The parameter adjustments and revisions are carried out repeatedly until an acceptable
level of agreement between the simulated and experimental data is reached. It is essential to
monitor how the calibration procedure is progressing and to keep track of the changes made
throughout each iteration. Validation and Sensitivity Analysis: After an appropriate level of
calibration has been reached, the calibrated simulation model should be validated using a new
set of experimental data, if available. The calibration model’s dependability and accuracy in
predicting the response pattern of the distance voltage detectors are confirmed by the validation
technique. Sensitivity analysis may be used to the calibrated model as well in order to assess
the effects of different parameters on the results of simulations. Reporting and archiving: A
thorough description of the calibration approach, including the specifics of the experimental
data, discrepancy analysis, parameter changes, model updates, and validation results, should
be included in the thesis. This documentation offers transparency and makes it possible for
others to replicate the calibration process and validate the findings. In conclusion, the calibra-
tion of the simulation model using real data is a crucial step in the analysis of the behaviour
of distance voltage detectors in insulator chains within the high-voltage network of Amprion
GmbH. It involves contrasting and assessing experimental data, changing model parameters,
and eventually improving the consistency of the predicted and observed results. Validation and
sensitivity analysis are used to further verify the calibrated model, and rigorous reporting and
documentation ensure the transparency and reproducibility of the calibration process.
57
8 Validation of the Developed Model with

Experimental Measurement Data
8.1 Experimental Setup and Data Collection
In order to verify the suggested model of distance voltage detectors in insulator chains inside
the high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH, I will go over the experimental setup and data
collection process in this section. The model’s projected results are compared to the actual data
gathered from carefully controlled physical tests as part of the validation phase. Setup for the
Experiment: The experimental setting should as closely as possible mimic the insulator chains’
functioning environment. This method includes taking into account elements like voltage levels,
frequency, temperature, humidity, and mechanical stress conditions. The setup might include a
test rig or a scaled-down insulator chain assembly to offer controlled testing. Choosing the ap-
propriate sensors and measuring tools will also ensure that the relevant data is captured during
the trials. data collection Various measurements must be made throughout the experimental
testing in order to collect the information needed for validation. Measurements can be made of
voltage responses, electrical currents, mechanical displacements, strain or stress measurements,
or other relevant variables. To achieve accurate and exact data collection, it is essential to
utilise calibrated tools and follow standard measurement procedures. In order to account for
variability and ensure the trustworthiness of the results, the trials might be repeated several
times. After the experimental data has been collected, data analysis is necessary to extract
the pertinent information and compare it with the results of simulations. Utilising statistical
methods, visual aids, and quantitative analytical tools, the data may be studied. To assess the
accuracy and dependability of the developed model, inconsistencies between the measured and
simulated data are detected. This research may involve comparing the size, trend, and pattern
of the measured values with the corresponding simulated results. Evaluation and comparison:
The model-generated simulations are then compared to the observed data. For this compari-
son, it is required to assess how well the two datasets agree with one another. Using statistical
measurements like mean absolute error, root mean square error, or correlation coefficient, it is
possible to analyse the statistical similarity between the observed and simulated data. Addi-
tionally, to visually illustrate the comparison and highlight any differences or patterns, graphic
displays like plots or charts can be employed. Sensitivity Analysis: The confirmed model
58 8 Validation of the Developed Model with Experimental Measurement Data
may be subjected to sensitivity analysis to ascertain how certain variables impact simulation
results. By altering their values within an acceptable range, it is possible to determine the
model’s sensitivity to various parameters. By highlighting the relative weights of various fac-
tors, this analysis might help identify any model faults or underlying assumptions. Discussion
and Interpretation: The results of the validation process are reviewed and interpreted in order
to draw relevant conclusions. For the purpose of identifying potential causes of inaccuracy
or potential areas for improvement, the measured and simulated data are compared, and any
discrepancies or variances are analysed. The limitations of the experiment and the model are
acknowledged, and suggestions for further research or enhancement are given. It is important
to analyse the benefits and drawbacks of the existing model as well as its viability and depend-
ability. Reporting and Documentation: The thesis should include thorough explanations of the
experimental setup, data collection procedures, analytical techniques, and validation process
results. This documentation ensures transparency, allows for the replication of experiments,
and enables readers to evaluate the precision of the developed model. The comparisons of
the measured and simulated data, as well as in-depth explanations of the experimental setup,
apparatus used, measurement processes, and data processing methods, should all be included
in the report. In conclusion, verifying the created model using experimental measurement data
is necessary in order to assess the model’s accuracy and dependability. The experimental envi-
ronment should closely resemble the conditions seen in real-world settings, and accurate data
collection techniques should be employed. The collected data is then compared and analysed
to evaluate the level of agreement between the measured and simulated findings. Sensitivity
analysis and result interpretation support a full understanding of the model’s performance.
8.2 Comparison of Simulation and Experimental Data
In this section, I’ll discuss contrasting simulation results with experimental information gath-
ered throughout the validation process. This comparison will be used to assess the accuracy
and reliability of the model developed for distance voltage detectors in insulator chains inside
the high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH. Data preparation: Before comparing the results
of the simulation with the experimental data, the preparation and structure of both datasets
must be flawless. For this, the data must be consistently processed and formatted, any outliers
and noise must be removed, and the data sets may need to be aligned in terms of their temporal
or geographical coordinates. The data must be accurately categorised and annotated in order
to maintain clarity and ease the comparison process. Quantitative Analysis: Comparing the
results of the simulation with those of the experiment is one way to do this. Finding statistical
measurements that express how similar or different the two datasets are is required for this.
Common comparison metrics include mean absolute error, root mean square error, correlation
coefficient, and percentage error. These metrics offer a measurable evaluation of the consistency
8.2 Comparison of Simulation and Experimental Data 59
between simulation and experiment results, which helps assess the model’s accuracy. Graphical
Comparison: In addition to quantitative analysis, a graphical comparison can demonstrate the
visual agreement or discrepancy between simulation and experimental data. To establish a clear
visual comparison, it is feasible to overlay the results from the simulation and the measurement
on graphs, plots, or charts. As a result, any variations, trends, or patterns between the two
databases are easy to spot. Graphical comparisons may be particularly useful in identifying
specific time intervals or geographical locations where the simulation and experimental data
may diverge. Interpreting discrepancies: Any discrepancies or differences between the simula-
tion’s results and the experiment’s data should be thoroughly scrutinised and assessed. The
reasons for these discrepancies must be taken into consideration. These reasons may include
measurement errors, experimental setup uncertainties, simplifications or presumptions in the
simulation model, or limitations imposed by the underlying physics. By understanding the
origins of the discrepancies, researchers may get insights into potential improvements or mod-
ifications that may be made to the model or experimental setting. Discussion of the findings
the conclusions from the comparison of simulation and experimental data must be thoroughly
discussed. The advantages and shortcomings of the developed model should be recognised, and
any limitations or suppositions should be explained. It is crucial to discuss the significance
of the found discrepancies and how they can influence the whole study. On the basis of the
comparison’s findings, recommendations for more research or model enhancements can also be
made. Conclusion and Confidence Level: Based on a comparison of simulation results with ex-
perimental data, inferences regarding the accuracy and reliability of the developed model may
be formed. The model’s level of confidence in its ability to accurately describe the behaviour
of distance voltage detectors in insulator chains within Amprion GmbH’s high-voltage network
should be indicated, taking into account the degree of agreement between the simulation and
actual data. The findings should be supported by quantitative analysis, graphical comparisons,
and the interpretation of discrepancies. Reporting and archiving: The thesis should specifically
describe how the findings of the simulation were compared to the data from the experiments.
The report should go into considerable detail about the comparison process, the statistical
methods used, the graphical representations, and the findings interpretation. To enable read-
ers to judge the correctness and trustworthiness of the developed model, the documentation
must be comprehensive and precise. In conclusion, comparing simulation results with experi-
mental data is a critical step in validating the created model. It includes quantitative analysis,
graphical comparisons, and the interpretation of discrepancies. The results of the comparison
should be discussed in light of the larger research and supported by the information at hand.
With good reporting and documentation, transparency is guaranteed and it is simpler to assess
the model’s accuracy and reliability.
8.3 Statistical Analysis and Error Assessment
In this section, I will discuss the statistical analysis and error assessment performed to assess
the accuracy and dependability of the developed model for distance voltage detectors in insu-
lator chains within the high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH. Statistical analysis offers a
comprehensive examination of the simulation results by quantifying the errors and uncertainties
associated with the model predictions. Mistake Metrics: To quantify the differences between
the simulation findings and the experimental data, a number of error measures may be applied.
Commonly used error measurements include mean absolute error (MAE), root mean square er-
ror (RMSE), mean percentage error (MPE), and relative error. These measurements are used
to quantify the average deviation or discrepancy between the simulated and measured values.
The most appropriate error measure will depend on the kind of data being utilised and the
objectives of the investigation. Along with error metrics, confidence intervals may be generated
to calculate the level of uncertainty surrounding the simulation findings. Confidence intervals
offer a statistical measure of the precision and reliability of model predictions. Indicating the
range in which the true values are most likely to fall, they offer a degree of confidence. Confi-
dence intervals can be computed for specific variables or parameters of interest, such as voltage
responses or stress levels, using the appropriate statistical techniques. Sensitivity analysis is
Figure 8.1: ML statistical analysis
carried out to evaluate how input parameters affect simulation results and to pinpoint the most
significant variables. The sensitivity of the model predictions to these alterations may be as-
sessed by methodically changing the values of certain parameters or sets of parameters. The
robustness of the model is better understood through sensitivity analysis, which also sheds light
on the variables with the biggest effects on the outcomes of simulations. Additionally, it aids
in the identification of crucial factors that call for precise estimates or additional experimental
research. Statistical Tests: Statistical tests can be used to evaluate various model versions or
to determine the significance of discrepancies between simulated and experimental data. These
8.4 Model Refinement and Iterative Validation 61
tests aid in determining whether the observed inconsistencies are due to chance or are statis-
tically significant. Depending on the type of data and research goals, common statistical tests
include t-tests, analysis of variance (ANOVA), or chi-square tests. The outcomes of these tests
allow for the drawing of well-informed conclusions and reveal information on the validity and
dependability of the model. Analysis of Uncertainties: Analysis of Uncertainties is used to
measure and transmit the uncertainties related to the input parameters or model assumptions
to the simulation outcomes. The variability and mistakes in the observations, the uncertain-
ties in the model parameters, and the propagation of these uncertainties during the simulation
process are all taken into consideration in this study. The uncertainty boundaries may be cal-
culated and the simulation results can be evaluated probabilistically using methods like Monte
Carlo simulations or Bayesian approaches. Conversation and Analysis: It is important to ex-
plain and analyse the statistical analysis’s findings in detail. In light of the study’s general
goals and research questions, it is important to assess the relevance of the observed errors,
confidence intervals, findings of the sensitivity analysis, and statistical tests. Any statistical
analysis limitations or underlying assumptions should be recognised, and recommendations for
further study or model enhancements should be made in light of the results. Reporting and
archiving: The thesis should fully detail the statistical analysis and error assessment. The
report should include thorough explanations of the error metrics applied, the procedures for
sensitivity analysis and statistical tests, the methodology for calculating confidence intervals,
and the findings interpretation. Transparency is ensured and the analysis may be replicated
by anyone with proper documentation. In conclusion, the statistical analysis and error as-
sessment offer a thorough assessment of the precision and dependability of the created model.
The inaccuracies, uncertainties, and importance of discrepancies between the simulated and
experimental data are assessed using error metrics, confidence intervals, sensitivity analysis,
and statistical tests.
8.4 Model Refinement and Iterative Validation
In this part, I will describe how the developed model for distance voltage detectors in insu-
lator chains within the high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH was improved and iteratively
verified to boost its accuracy and reliability. In this process, further simulations and tests are
conducted, the model is iteratively improved based on the knowledge gained from the vali-
dation findings, and the necessary adjustments are made to enhance the model’s predictive
abilities. Validation analysis findings: To identify potential areas for improvement, the statis-
tical analysis of the validation findings from the preceding sections and the comparison with
experimental data are thoroughly analysed. The limitations, constraints, and potential sources
of error of the model are thoroughly assessed. This study helps to identify the specific model
elements that require improvement by providing insights into the underlying physical processes
that may have an influence on the response behaviour of the distance voltage detectors. Model
Corrections and Parameter Tuning: Based on an analysis of the validation data, the model is
adjusted and fine-tuned. This can include modifying the geometry, the properties of the mate-
rials, the boundary conditions, or the simulation parameters. The modifications are intended
to take into account any limitations or inconsistencies found during the validation process and
to more accurately depict how distance voltage detectors behave in practical settings. Exam-
ples of parameter tuning include running sensitivity analyses to identify the optimal values
for key parameters or changing the model equations in response to empirical data. Iterative
simulation and experimentation: To confirm the success of the adjustments, more simulations
and experiments are conducted on the updated model. These simulations and experiments aim
to validate the model’s improved prediction skills by comparing the results with both the prior
validation data and the new experimental observations. The model may be constantly enhanced
and improved through the iterative approach up until an acceptable degree of agreement be-
tween the simulation results and the experimental data is attained. Analysis of sensitivity and
robustness testing A sensitivity analysis is performed on the new model to see how sensitive
it is to changes in the input parameters. Using this method, it is possible to identify key fac-
tors and how their effects on model projections. It also clarifies the model’s robustness and
points out areas that require more study or development. The results of the sensitivity anal-
ysis serve as a reference for subsequent alterations and improvements that aim to confirm the
model’s dependability and applicability under diverse operating conditions. Validation Using
Independent Data: In order to strengthen the plausibility of the new model, it is essential to
validate it using independent data sources or experimental measurements that were excluded
from the first validation process. This external validation helps to demonstrate the model’s
robustness and generalizability outside of the specific data used to develop it. It strengthens
confidence in the model’s propensity to forecast outcomes and attests to the reliability of the
study’s findings. Reporting and Documentation: The iterative model validation and refinement
procedures should be well documented in the thesis. This includes comprehensive arguments
for the model adjustments, descriptions of the model alterations themselves, and the results
of several simulations and tests. The documentation should provide a detailed explanation
of the sensitivity analysis, robustness testing, and validation utilising third-party data. The
creation and validation of the model may be understood by others thanks to proper reporting,
which ensures transparency. The model refinement and iterative validation method includes
several parts, including sensitivity analysis, independent data validation, and interpretation
of the validation results. This technique ensures continuous growth and enhances the accu-
racy and dependability of the model for distance voltage detectors in insulator chains. The
documentation and reporting of this procedure provide a thorough description of the model’s
development and validation.
63
9 Assessment of Technical Risks and

Recommendations for Action
9.1 Identification of Potential Risks and Hazards
I’ll discuss how technical risks have been assessed in connection to the behaviour of distance
voltage detectors in insulator chains within the high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH in
this section. Finding potential dangers and hazards is crucial for reducing any potential nega-
tive effects and ensuring the high-voltage network operates safely and reliably. The evaluation
comprises a careful examination of the many factors that might affect the reliability and use
of the distance voltage detectors. One of the potential risks is the failure of certain distance
voltage detector components, such as sensors, electrical circuits, or communication interfaces.
Component failures may result in inaccurate voltage measurements, false alarms, or full detec-
tor malfunction. The examination should identify potential failure causes, potential risks, and
dependability and failure rates of the detectors’ component elements. Environmental factors:
A wide range of environmental factors, including as temperature variations, humidity, pol-
lution, and external electromagnetic interference, can impact how distance voltage detectors
respond. The accuracy and reliability of voltage readings as well as the overall performance
of the detectors may be impacted by these factors. The assessment should look at any risks
that these environmental factors could provide and suggest appropriate actions to mitigate
their effects. Ageing and Degradation: Over time, distance voltage detectors and insulator
chains may deteriorate and age, which might change their electrical properties and functioning.
This might result in lowered detector reliability, increased measurement errors, or decreased
sensitivity. The study should pinpoint any potential issues related to ageing and degradation
and provide strategies for regular maintenance, repair, and inspection in order to guarantee
the detectors’ ongoing efficacy. Calibration and Accuracy: The accuracy and calibration of
the distance voltage detectors are crucial for accurate voltage measurements. Any mistakes or
deviations made during the calibration process might lead to erroneous voltage readings and
risk the effectiveness of the detectors. The review should address the risks connected with
calibration procedures, including calibration standards, calibration intervals, and uncertainty
analysis, in addition to suggesting ways to ensure accurate and reliable calibration. Communi-
cation networks are widely used by distance voltage detectors to transmit and receive control
64 9 Assessment of Technical Risks and Recommendations for Action
signals as well as measurement data. Risks associated with communication failures, data loss,
or security breaches may affect the speed of the reaction and the effectiveness of the detectors.
The assessment should offer appropriate countermeasures while taking into account any poten-
tial risks connected to communication systems, such as network dependability, data integrity,
and cybersecurity. Mitigation and Recommendations: Taking into account the estimated risks
and dangers, it is important to provide concrete recommendations for reducing such risks as
well as for enhancing the overall reliability and efficacy of distance voltage detectors. Some
technical actions that can be proposed include redundant component design, frequent testing
and maintenance procedures, enhanced calibration practises, improved environmental protec-
tion measures, and dependable communication protocols. Organisational measures like training
programs, safety rules, and quality control processes could also be suggested to ensure proper
execution and adherence to the stated activities. Documentation and Reporting: The thesis
should clearly outline the assessment of technological risks and recommend possible solutions.
The report should include a thorough description of the identified risks, their potential impact
on the distance voltage detectors, and the recommended preventative actions. Proper reporting
ensures that the results and recommendations are properly communicated and can be put into
practise by the required stakeholders, increasing the high-voltage network’s safety and reliabil-
ity. In conclusion, evaluating possible risks and hazards such component failures, environmental
Figure 9.1: HV risk analysis
variables, ageing and degradation, calibration and accuracy concerns, and communication risks
are all part of the technical risks connected with the response behaviour of distance voltage
detectors. On the basis of the evaluation, suggestions for taking action are developed to reduce
these risks and enhance the functionality and dependability of the detectors. The transparency
9.2 Risk Assessment Methodology 65
and efficacy of the risk assessment process are guaranteed by appropriate documentation and
reporting.
9.2 Risk Assessment Methodology
In this part, I’ll go through the approach for risk assessment used to examine the technical
hazards related to the response patterns of distance voltage detectors in insulator chains within
the high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH. The risk assessment technique offers a methodical
way for identifying, analysing, and prioritising potential hazards. It also makes it possible to
formulate suitable suggestions for risk reduction. The process includes the following crucial
steps: Risk Recognition: The process of risk assessment begins with the identification and
documentation of possible risks and hazards. This entails a thorough examination of all the
system parts, operating procedures, and outside variables that can affect how well the distance
voltage detectors work. To achieve a thorough grasp of the dangers involved, several sources
of information are explored, including technical specifications, manufacturer recommendations,
industry standards, and pertinent literature. Risk Analysis: After hazards have been discov-
ered, a thorough analysis is done to determine how likely they are and what effects they could
have. Based on variables including historical data, expert opinion, and accessible statistical
data, the probability of a risk event happening is assessed. The performance, safety, and relia-
bility of the distance voltage detectors are taken into consideration while evaluating the possible
effects of the risk occurrences. Depending on the data’s availability and the hazards at hand,
the analysis may comprise quantitative assessments, qualitative evaluations, or a combination
of the two. Risk Prioritization: Following analysis, risks are ranked in order of importance and
probable impact. Risks that are more likely to occur and have serious repercussions are given
higher priority because they represent a bigger threat to the high-voltage network’s ability to
operate reliably. Prioritisation makes it possible to focus mitigation efforts on the risks that
pose the greatest threat and to allocate resources and attention to the most serious threats.
Risk Identification and Prioritisation: Once the risks have been identified and given a level of
importance, effective actions are created to reduce and manage the risks. Technical steps like
design upgrades, redundancy, improved maintenance procedures, or the deployment of safety
systems are examples of risk mitigation solutions. It may also be advised to implement organi-
sational measures including training courses, SOPs, and quality control methods. In light of the
unique circumstances surrounding the high-voltage network, the mitigation measures should be
realistic, doable, and affordable. Risk Monitoring and Review: Risk assessment is a constant
process, so it’s crucial to keep an eye on how well the risk mitigation strategies you’ve put in
place are working. Regular monitoring enables the identification of any adjustments in the risk
environment, including developing risks or modifications to the likelihood and effects of preex-
isting hazards. Periodic evaluations guarantee that the risk assessment is current and pertinent,
allowing for any necessary alterations and enhancements to the mitigation plans. Reporting
and documentation: The thesis should include a thorough explanation of the risk assessment
approach and its results. A thorough explanation of the risk identification process, risk analysis
findings, risk prioritization standards, suggested mitigating actions, and monitoring and review
methods should all be included in the documentation. The transparency, reproducibility, and
usability of the risk assessment process are all ensured through appropriate reporting to the
relevant stakeholders. The systematic identification, analysis, prioritisation, and mitigation of
technical risks related to the response behaviour of distance voltage detectors are the main
components of the risk assessment technique. The process includes risk analysis, prioritisation,
mitigation, and control as well as risk monitoring, review, documentation, and reporting. Using
this technique guarantees a thorough and organised approach to risk assessment and makes it
possible to make wise decisions for risk reduction in the high-voltage network.
9.3 Evaluation of Simulation Results and Risk Mitigation Strategies
On the basis of the findings of the simulative examination of the response behaviour of dis-
tance voltage detectors in insulator chains within the high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH,
I will cover the evaluation of simulation results and the creation of risk mitigation methods in
this part. Analysing the simulation findings, evaluating the risks that have been found, and
developing effective measures to reduce those risks are all part of the review process. The
phases in this evaluation procedure are as follows: Results of Simulation Analysis: Comsol
Multiphysics simulation results are thoroughly examined and contrasted with the predicted
behaviour of distance voltage detectors. In order to evaluate how well the detectors function
under various operating circumstances, the analysis also looks at the voltage response, stress
distribution, and other pertinent factors. We identify and further explore any discrepancies
or inconsistencies between the simulation findings and the anticipated behaviour. Identifica-
tion of Potential hazards: Potential hazards related to the response behaviour of the distance
voltage detectors are identified based on the examination of simulation data. These dangers
can include things like insufficient sensitivity, too much strain on the insulator chains, incor-
rect voltage readings, or a failure to recognise abnormal situations. Based on their seriousness
and possible influence on the effectiveness and dependability of the detectors, the discovered
dangers are grouped and given a priority order. Risk assessment: The risks are further evalu-
ated to determine their chance of happening and any potential repercussions. Considerations
for this evaluation include the operating environment, component dependability, maintenance
procedures, and any other pertinent elements that may have an impact on the risks. The
evaluation offers insights into the areas that need urgent attention and mitigation and assists
in assessing the severity and criticality of each risk. Developing Appropriate Risk Mitigation
Strategies: Using the results of the risk assessment, suitable risk mitigation strategies are de-
9.4 Formulation of Recommendations for Technical Improvements 67
veloped to address the risks that have been identified. These tactics seek to improve the overall
effectiveness and dependability of the distance voltage detectors while reducing the possibility
and effects of the dangers. Technical steps like design enhancements, operational parameter
optimisation, the use of redundant systems, or the development of maintenance processes can
all be included in the mitigation plans. To reduce the hazards highlighted, organisational ac-
tions like training programmes, safety procedures, and quality control procedures may also be
suggested. Analysing risk mitigation tactics The viability, usefulness, and practicality of the
developed risk mitigation methods are assessed. This assessment takes into account elements
including resource accessibility, influence on the current infrastructure, cost-effectiveness of the
techniques, and potential risk-reduction advantages. The evaluation aids in choosing the most
suitable and effective risk reduction tactics that can be put into practise while working within
the high-voltage network limits of Amprion GmbH. Documentation and Reporting: The the-
sis includes documentation on the evaluation of simulation findings and the creation of risk
mitigation methods. The documentation provides a thorough explanation of the simulation
results analysis, the risks that were discovered, the procedure used to analyse those risks, the
developed risk mitigation measures, and the evaluation of those methods. In order to increase
the safety and dependability of the distance voltage detectors, proper reporting makes sure
that the results and suggestions are successfully conveyed and can be used by the pertinent
stakeholders. In conclusion, the analysis of simulation results, the identification of potential
risks, the assessment of the risks, the formulation of appropriate mitigation strategies, and the
evaluation of the viability and effectiveness of these strategies comprise the evaluation of sim-
ulation results and the formulation of risk mitigation strategies. The evaluation method and
its results are visible, reproducible, and usable for risk mitigation when properly documented
and reported.
9.4 Formulation of Recommendations for Technical Improvements
The development of technical improvement suggestions based on the evaluation of the simu-
lative examination of the response behaviour of distance voltage detectors in insulator chains
within Amprion GmbH’s high-voltage network will be presented in this part. The proposals
seek to improve the overall effectiveness, dependability, and safety of the distance voltage detec-
tors while addressing the identified technical hazards. In order to create these suggestions, the
following procedures are followed: Risk assessment and simulation results analysis: The per-
formance of the distance voltage detectors and the dangers involved may be better understood
via the examination of simulation data and the risk assessment procedure. These observations
constitute the basis for developing suggestions for technical advancements. It is feasible to cre-
ate focused recommendations to address these obstacles by identifying the areas of concern and
the unique difficulties experienced by the detectors. Identification of Improvement Areas: Im-
provement areas are identified based on the study of simulation results and the risk assessment.
These aspects may include the detectors’ sensitivity and responsiveness, the insulator chains’
durability, the precision of voltage readings, or any other elements that may have an impact
on the system’s overall performance and dependability. To identify the underlying problems
and potential prospects for development, each area is carefully studied. Making Particular
Recommendations: Recommendations are made with specificity for each area of improvement
that has been identified. These suggestions are intended to deal with the underlying problems
and lessen the hazards that go along with them. They could entail technical adjustments, im-
provements to the design, the choice of materials, or adjustments to the way things are done.
The suggestions are made in accordance with the particular needs and limitations of Amprion
GmbH’s high-voltage network, taking into account elements like cost-effectiveness, viability,
and infrastructure compatibility. Rank Order of Recommendations: The importance, urgency,
and possible influence on the operation of the distance voltage detectors are used to rank the
recommendations in order of importance. The emphasis is given to recommendations that ad-
dress serious concerns or make significant improvements. Prioritisation makes ensuring that
resources and efforts are used wisely to address the most urgent problems and reap the most
advantages from the suggested solutions. Application Technique: To direct the implementation
of the suggestions, a plan for implementation is devised. This plan specifies the actions, due
dates, and roles for carrying out the suggested improvements. Considerations including pilot
testing, staged implementation, stakeholder participation, and monitoring measures to gauge
the success of the implemented improvements may be included. Reporting and documentation:
The thesis provides justification for the technological enhancements, as well as details on how
to put them into practise. The documentation acts as a resource for upcoming decision-making
and implementation activities and offers a thorough summary of the suggested improvements.
The recommendations are successfully communicated to the pertinent stakeholders through
proper reporting, allowing their comprehension and acceptance. In conclusion, formulating
suggestions for technical advancements entails reviewing simulation results, evaluating risks,
determining problem areas, formulating specific suggestions, prioritising the suggestions, cre-
ating a plan for implementation, and documenting the suggestions. The suggestions are meant
to reduce the identified technological hazards and improve the efficiency, dependability, and
security of the distance voltage detectors in the high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH.
9.5 Formulation of Recommendations for Organizational Measures
On the basis of the evaluation of the simulative examination of the response behaviour of dis-
tance voltage detectors in insulator chains within the high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH,
I will outline my recommendations for organisational actions in this section. The suggested
organisational changes are intended to support the technical advancements and further improve
9.5 Formulation of Recommendations for Organizational Measures 69
the overall functionality, dependability, and security of the distance voltage detectors. In order
to create these suggestions, the following procedures are followed: Organisational Factors to
Identify: Organisational issues are just as important to distance voltage detector performance
and reliability as technical ones. These elements include working methods, training curric-
ula, maintenance routines, communication protocols, and departmental cooperation. Finding
the organisational elements that may affect the efficacy and efficiency of the detectors is the
first stage. Assessment of Organisational Risks: Following the identification of organisational
elements, a thorough evaluation of the risks that are connected is carried out. This evalua-
tion looks at potential hazards such insufficient training, a lack of standardised practises, poor
communication, or insufficient team coordination. Based on their chance of happening and
possible effects on the effectiveness of the distance voltage detectors, the hazards are assessed.
Formulation of Recommendations: Specific recommendations for organisational measures are
produced based on the evaluation of organisational risks. These suggestions are meant to reduce
the hazards that have been found as well as improve organisational procedures and practises
around distance voltage detectors. Creating standardised operating procedures and standards
for the deployment and upkeep of the detectors is one example of a guideline. Regular train-
ing programmes should be put in place to make sure that staff members have the information
and abilities needed to correctly use and maintain the detectors. establishing organised lines
of communication and conventions to let teams working on the operation and maintenance of
the detectors share information more easily. improving communication and coordination across
several divisions, such as engineering, maintenance, and monitoring, to make sure that the man-
agement of the distance voltage detectors is handled holistically. putting in place a thorough
monitoring and assessment system to keep tabs on the detectors’ efficiency and dependability,
spot possible problems, and take aggressive action for ongoing improvement. establishing a
culture of safety and accountability in which staff members are given a reporting method and
encouraged to report any abnormalities or issues regarding the detectors. Setting priorities
and implementing a plan: The developed suggestions for organisational changes are ranked
according to their importance, pressing nature, and possible influence on the effectiveness of
the distance voltage detectors. Higher emphasis is given to suggestions that address significant
organisational concerns or make significant improvements. To direct the execution of the rec-
ommendations, an implementation plan is created, detailing the required actions, due dates,
and implementation roles. Documentation and Reporting: The thesis includes suggestions for
organisational measures, together with the justification for each item and a plan for putting
them into action. The material offers a thorough description of the suggested organisational
aspect improvements and acts as a resource for upcoming decision-making and implementation
initiatives. The recommendations are successfully communicated to the pertinent stakeholders
through proper reporting, allowing their comprehension and acceptance. Identifying organisa-
tional elements, evaluating organisational risks, writing specific recommendations, prioritising
the recommendations, creating an implementation plan, and documenting the recommendations
are all steps in the creation of recommendations for organisational measures. The suggestions
are intended to reduce the identified organisational risks and improve the efficiency, depend-
ability, and security of the distance voltage detectors in the high-voltage network of Amprion
GmbH.
71
10 Discussion, Elaboration, and Presentation

of Results
10.1 Analysis of Simulation Results
In this section, I’ll go over the interpretation of simulation findings from a research into the be-
haviour of distance voltage detectors in insulator chains in the high-voltage network of Amprion
GmbH. The analysis’ primary objectives are to evaluate the most important data, interpret the
findings, and present a thorough knowledge of the functionality and behaviour of the detectors.
The analysis takes into account the following factors: Voltage Response: The simulation’s find-
ings provide light on the distance voltage detectors’ voltage responses under various operating
scenarios. The examination entails looking through the voltage readings collected from various
locations along the insulator chains and evaluating the precision and dependability of the de-
tectors in spotting voltage level changes. Any differences or variations between the predicted
behaviour and the simulated voltage response are noted and analysed. Stress Distribution:
The simulation’s findings also reveal information about the insulator chains’ stress distribu-
tion. In the study, the stress levels are assessed, and any high-stress concentration zones that
can eventually result in mechanical failure or poor insulation performance are found. In light
of the insulator chains’ design and material characteristics, the stress distribution patterns are
analysed, and suggestions are made for reducing stress-related dangers. Sensitivity and Re-
sponsiveness: The simulation results are examined to determine the distance voltage detectors’
sensitivity and responsiveness. This entails assessing the detectors’ sensitivity to voltage level
changes and their reaction times. The examination looks at how quickly the detectors react
to voltage changes and if they are sensitive enough to pick up even minute voltage variances.
The results are reviewed in relation to the specifications and guidelines for distance voltage
detectors. Validation Using Experimental Data: As part of the study, the simulation findings
are compared to data from actual measurements. The purpose of this validation method is to
evaluate the produced model’s correctness and dependability in simulating the behaviour of
distance voltage detectors in the actual world. Any differences or deviations are examined, and
the degree of agreement between the simulated findings and the experimental data is assessed.
The results shed light on the applicability and validity of the simulation model. Limitations
and Assumptions Discussion: The analysis also discusses the simulation study’s constraints and
72 10 Discussion, Elaboration, and Presentation of Results
presumptions. These restrictions may include model simplifications, presumptions about the
characteristics of the materials or the operating environment, or any other elements that may
affect the precision and dependability of the simulation findings. Understanding the extent and
application of the findings is aided by the explanation of limits, which also offers suggestions
for future study and advancements. Recommendations and Implications The discussion of the
ramifications and practical consequences of the findings follows the examination of the simu-
lation results. In this discussion, the effects of the findings on the creation, use, and upkeep
of distant voltage detectors in high-voltage networks are taken into account. The results are
used to provide suggestions for future research and development in the field as well as for im-
proving the performance, dependability, and safety of the detectors. In conclusion, the study
of simulation findings include looking at the distance voltage detectors’ voltage response, stress
distribution, sensitivity, and responsiveness. A comparison with experimental data is made,
assumptions and limits are discussed, and conclusions and suggestions are made. The analysis
serves as a foundation for additional discussions and the expansion of the study findings while
also giving a thorough grasp of the performance and behaviour of the detectors.
10.2 Interpretation of Findings in the Context of Amprion GmbH’s

Network
I’ll explain the results of the simulated analysis of the behaviour of distance voltage detectors
in insulator chains inside the high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH in this part. The goal
of the findings interpretation is to provide readers a clearer understanding of how the research
findings relate to the particular network setting of Amprion GmbH. The following factors are
taken into account during the interpretation: Network properties: The analysis starts by taking
into account the distinctive features of the high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH. This covers
elements like the structure of the network, voltage levels, load situations, and environmental
circumstances. To comprehend how these network features may affect the functionality and
behaviour of the distance voltage detectors, the results of the simulative inquiry are analysed in
the context of these network characteristics. Performance Assessment: The results are used to
assess the effectiveness of the distance voltage detectors in the Amprion GmbH network. This
entails comparing the simulation findings to the operational needs, industry standards, and
intended performance objectives. The interpretation determines the possible influence on the
overall network functioning and safety, evaluates if the detectors perform as expected, pinpoints
any areas for improvement. Risk assessment: Part of the interpretation process includes eval-
uating the network-related technical hazards that have been highlighted by Amprion GmbH.
The results are examined in order to pinpoint potential weak points, failure mechanisms, and
outcomes related to the distance voltage detectors. Understanding the amount of risk expo-
sure, prioritising risk mitigation activities, and creating suitable action recommendations are
10.2 Interpretation of Findings in the Context of Amprion GmbH’s Network 73
Figure 10.1: Amprion Risk
all made easier with the aid of interpretation. Feasibility and Practicality: The interpretation
takes into account how feasible and useful it would be to execute the study findings across
the network of Amprion GmbH. This entails assessing elements including affordability, com-
patibility with current infrastructure, and operational viability. The interpretation assists in
identifying the application of the study findings in the actual world and the likelihood of putting
the suggested improvements into practise. Stakeholder factors to consider The interpretation
considers the viewpoints and objectives of numerous network stakeholders of Amprion GmbH.
This comprises network administrators, upkeep workers, regulatory bodies, and other pertinent
parties. The implications for the organization’s goals, safety objectives, and regulatory compli-
ance are considered together with the results’ possible influence on various stakeholders.
Alignment with Organisational Objectives: The alignment of the study findings with the or-
ganisational goals of Amprion GmbH is taken into account when interpreting the findings.
This entails determining if the study results support the organization’s strategic objectives,
operational effectiveness, risk management procedures, and dedication to dependability and
safety. The interpretation aids in demonstrating the importance and applicability of the study
findings within the context of the organisation. A complete knowledge of how the study find-
ings relate to the unique operational and safety requirements of the organisation is provided
by the interpretation of findings in the context of Amprion GmbH’s network. It takes into
account the features of the network, measures performance, gauges risks, probes viability, in-
cludes stakeholder concerns, and lines up with organisational goals. This interpretation serves
as the foundation for developing suggestions that can be put into practise and for developing
well-informed choices that will improve the efficiency and dependability of the distance voltage
detectors within the high voltage network of Amprion GmbH.
Bilder/Theory/3D verben EP.png
10.3 Comparison with Previous Studies and Industry Standards
In this part, I will contrast the results of the simulated inquiry into the behaviour of distance
voltage detectors in insulator chains within the high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH with
earlier research and pertinent industry standards. This comparison aims to assess the novelty
and importance of the study findings as well as to offer a wider view of their consequences. The
comparison takes into account the following factors: Review of the literature The review and
summary of earlier analyses and investigations on distance voltage detectors in high-voltage
networks serves as the introduction to the comparison. This comprises independent research
projects, scholarly works, business reports, and pertinent technical literature. The compari-
son reveals prevalent patterns, significant discoveries, and extant knowledge gaps in the area.
Consistency of Results: Results from the simulative examination are compared to results from
earlier research. The comparison evaluates the results’ consistency and points out any parallels
or discrepancies. Results that hold up over several studies offer more convincing evidence and
boost trust in the dependability and validity of the study findings. Novelty and Advancements:
10.3 Comparison with Previous Studies and Industry Standards 75
The comparison takes into account the novelties and advances of the study findings. This en-
tails determining if the simulative inquiry adds to the corpus of current knowledge by offering
fresh perspectives, filling in knowledge gaps, or putting forth novel ideas. The comparison
draws attention to the research’s distinctive features and contributions in contrast to earlier
studies. Compliance with Industry Standards: The study results for distance voltage detectors
in high-voltage networks are compared with pertinent industry standards and guidelines. Reg-
ulatory agencies, industry associations, and international organisations all have standards that
they have set. The comparison determines if the behaviour and performance of the distance
voltage detectors are in accordance with the established requirements and points out any areas
that need to be improved.
Practical consequences: In contrast to earlier research and industry standards, the compari-
son takes into account the research results’ practical consequences. This entails determining
the results’ application and significance in practical situations. Understanding the possible
effects of the study findings on business practises, design principles, operational processes, and
safety standards is made easier with the aid of the comparison. Research Directions and Gaps:
Research gaps and topics for further exploration are also identified by comparison with prior
studies and industry standards. The comparison draws attention to any open questions, in-
congruent findings, or new subjects that need more research. It serves as a foundation for
developing suggestions for new areas of study and breakthroughs in the area of distance volt-
age detectors. The study results may be positioned within the larger body of knowledge by
undertaking a thorough comparison with prior studies and industry standards. The comparison
sheds light on the originality, importance, and usefulness of the study findings. In the domain
of distant voltage detectors in high-voltage networks, it aids in confirming the study findings,
highlighting potential improvement areas, and directing future research initiatives.
10.4 Limitations of the Study
In this section, I’ll go through the restrictions placed on the simulated analysis of the behaviour
of distance voltage detectors in insulator chains inside the high-voltage network of Amprion
GmbH. To give a fair evaluation of the study’s scope and possible ramifications, it is crucial
to recognise and address these limitations. The following restrictions should be taken into
account: Assumptions for the Simplified Model: In order to simulate the complicated behaviour
of distance voltage detectors and insulator chains, the simulative inquiry makes use of a number
of simplifying assumptions. These presumptions could not accurately reflect all the complicated
particulars and actual complexity of the system. To make the simulation easier, assumptions
about material attributes, boundary conditions, or operational conditions can have been made.
It is important to note the limits brought on by these simplifications. correctness of Input
Parameters: The precision of the model’s input parameters determines the correctness of the
simulation’s findings. There may be inherent errors or variations in the values assigned to
material attributes, geometrical dimensions, and other simulation factors. Although every
attempt is made to select values that are realistic and representative, it is important to be aware
of any potential errors or uncertainties related to these parameters. Validation with Limited
Experimental Data: The simulation model must be validated using experimental measurement
data, which is not always available. The number or calibre of the accessible data for comparison
could be constrained, though. The extent to which the simulation results may be validated may
be constrained by the absence of thorough experimental data. When analysing the validity and
dependability of the simulation model, this restriction should be taken into account. Ability
to Apply to Other Networks: The high-voltage network and certain insulator chains from
Amprion GmbH’s range are the subject of the simulative analysis. It’s possible that other
networks with various topologies, operating circumstances, or insulator chain geometries won’t
be able to immediately apply the study’s findings and conclusions. Within the framework of
the network of Amprion GmbH, it is important to examine how generalizable the study findings
are. Premises Regarding External Factors: The simulative study makes specific assumptions
about outside circumstances, including ambient temperatures, environmental conditions, and
loading conditions. The differences and uncertainties that can exist in real-world circumstances
could not be entirely captured by these assumptions. It is important to acknowledge the study’s
limitations when considering the possible effects of these outside variables on the performance of
10.5 Implications and Practical Applications 77
distance voltage detectors. Limited Range of the risk analysis: Based on the precise results and
analysis performed in this study, technical hazards have been assessed and action suggestions
have been developed. The risk assessment might not fully account for all possible dangers or
take into account more extensive organisational and operational elements than just distance
voltage detectors. It is important to recognise the limitations of the risk assessment, and it
may be necessary to do additional research to address a wider range of concerns. It is crucial to
be aware of these restrictions and how they could affect the study’s findings, conclusions, and
suggestions. The study may give a clear and honest appraisal of its scope and the uncertainty
surrounding the research outcomes by identifying these constraints. The knowledge and use of
distant voltage detectors in high-voltage networks can be further improved by addressing these
limitations in future study and building on the findings.
10.5 Implications and Practical Applications
In this section, I’ll go through the consequences and real-world applications of the simulative
examination of distance voltage detectors’ response behaviour in insulator chains inside the
high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH. The study’s conclusions have a number of significant
ramifications and can be used in real-world situations. The following elements need to be taken
into account: Improved Performance and Reliability: The simulative analysis sheds light on
the operation and behaviour of the distance voltage detectors in the high-voltage network of
Amprion GmbH. The results may be utilised to increase the performance and reliability of these
detectors by optimising their design, setup, and operation. Operators can enhance the overall
performance of the network by making educated decisions by analysing the response behaviour
under various scenarios.
Risk reduction and improved safety The study formulates recommendations for action and high-
lights technical concerns related to the distance voltage detectors. By putting these suggestions
into practise, you may lessen hazards, lower the possibility of malfunctions or failures, and im-
prove the high-voltage network’s safety. To maintain the network’s long-term dependability
and safety, the findings may be used to establish risk mitigation measures and preventative
maintenance plans. The simulative inquiry enables the assessment of various insulator chain
geometries and combinations, resulting in design optimisation and cost reduction. Amprion
GmbH may decrease costs by choosing designs and dimensions that are ideal in terms of per-
formance, material utilisation, and operational efficiency. The research findings may be used
as a guide to create cost-effective and dependable insulator chains. Regulatory Compliance:
The study’s conclusions can aid in ensuring adherence to pertinent regulatory and industry
standards. Amprion GmbH may show adherence to safety requirements and improve its reg-
ulatory compliance by comparing the performance of the distance voltage detectors to estab-
lished standards. This is essential for upholding the company’s image, avoiding sanctions, and
guaranteeing the network’s dependability. Future Research and Development: The simulative
analysis can also point out locations in which distance voltage detectors need to be developed
further. The results may be used to pinpoint knowledge gaps, emerging technologies, and pos-
sible innovation hotspots. This might lead to more research projects and partnerships with
academic institutions, business associates, and research organisations to improve our knowl-
edge of and access to distant voltage detecting devices. Collaboration across industries and
knowledge exchange: The study results might be shared through conferences, technical jour-
nals, and business forums. Collaboration in the area of high-voltage network monitoring and
safety may be facilitated by disseminating the knowledge acquired from the simulative inquiry
with other stakeholders, researchers, and experts in the industry. Overall, the consequences
and real-world applications of the study’s findings go beyond the confines of the high-voltage
network operated by Amprion GmbH. The learnings from the simulated examination can help
to advance distance voltage detectors in high-voltage networks generally, increase safety and
dependability, optimise design and operation, guarantee regulatory compliance, and motivate
further research and development. Amprion GmbH may improve its standing as a market
leader and help the industry as a whole by taking advantage of these consequences.
10.6 Future Research Directions 79
10.6 Future Research Directions
Using the simulative analysis of the response behaviour of distance voltage detectors in in-
sulator chains within Amprion GmbH’s high-voltage network as a foundation, I will address
potential future research topics in this section. These areas for research are meant to expand
on the results of the current study and address new problems and gaps in the body of knowl-
edge. Future study can examine the following areas: Future research might concentrate on
creating sophisticated modelling methods to simulate the behaviour of distance voltage detec-
tors. This can entail adding other physical events to the simulation models, including corona
discharge or temperature impacts. Advanced modelling methods can increase the precision of
the simulations and offer a more thorough knowledge of the detector’s behaviour under varied
operating situations. Design and Placement Optimisation: In high-voltage networks, design
and location optimisation of distant voltage detectors can be accomplished through further re-
search. To increase the detector’s sensitivity, dependability, and reaction time, this may include
experimenting with various geometries, substances, and configurations. In order to maximise
network coverage and save costs, the ideal number and positions of detectors may also be
found. This is done by applying complex optimisation algorithms. Integration with Condition
Monitoring Systems: In the context of high voltage networks, future study might investigate
the integration of distance voltage detectors with condition monitoring systems. As a result,
the insulator chain’s status may be monitored in real-time, allowing for the early identification
of any possible flaws or degradation. A thorough evaluation of the network’s health may be
accomplished by combining the information from distance voltage detectors with that from
other monitoring methods, such as partial discharge or temperature monitoring. Field testing
and validation Extensive field testing and data collecting may be used to further validate the
simulation results. Installing distance voltage detectors in various high-voltage network scenar-
ios in the actual world and contrasting the measured responses with the predicted outcomes
might help with this. Field testing may check the correctness of the simulation models, shed
light on the practical performance of the detectors, and uncover any new variables that can
affect their behaviour. Analysis of Robustness and Resilience: In the context of high-voltage
networks, future study may concentrate on assessing the robustness and resilience of distance
voltage detectors. This entails looking into how they work when exposed to harsh weather, such
as lightning strikes or ice buildup on insulators. Network operators can improve the overall
dependability and resilience of the system by examining the detector’s reaction and creating
plans to lessen the effects of such incidents. Concerns about cybersecurity and data privacy
relating to distant voltage detectors must be addressed as high-voltage networks become more
digitalized. Future studies might look into ways to protect data transmission and communica-
tion between detectors and control systems, preserving the accuracy and privacy of the data
gathered. Furthermore, privacy-preserving methods might be researched to safeguard sensitive
data while yet enabling efficient network monitoring. Environmental Impact Assessment: When
using distance voltage detectors in high-voltage networks, it’s vital to take the environment into
account. Future studies might concentrate on determining these detectors’ environmental im-
pact, including their energy use, materials consumed, and end-of-life management. This can
serve as a blueprint for creating detector designs that are more environmentally friendly and
sustainable, taking into account aspects like energy efficiency, hazardous material reduction,
and the possibility to be recycled. The knowledge and capabilities of distant voltage detec-
tors in high voltage networks can be further improved by following these prospective research
paths. The results of this research might aid in the creation of more sophisticated, effective,
and dependable detection systems, enhancing the performance, sustainability, and safety of
high-voltage networks.
81
11 Conclusion
11.1 Summary of Key Findings
In this study, Comsol Multiphysics software was used to simulate and investigate the response
behaviour of distance voltage detectors in insulator chains inside the high-voltage network of
Amprion GmbH. The goal of the study was to deepen our understanding of these detectors and
offer insightful tips for their reliable functioning. Several significant conclusions from the study
have been attained: Basic Theorems and Literature Review The theoretical foundations and
pertinent literature on distance voltage detectors, insulator chains, and high-voltage networks
were thoroughly reviewed. The ensuing modelling and analysis have a strong foundation thanks
to this. FEM Modelling in Comsol Multiphysics: The standoff stress detector was modelled
in Comsol Multiphysics using the Finite Element Method (FEM). This made it possible to
simulate the detector’s reaction behaviour and conduct a thorough investigation of its response
behaviour. Selection of Insulator Chains and Geometries: From Amprion GmbH’s portfolio,
typical insulator chains and geometries were chosen and recreated in Comsol Multiphysics.
This made it possible to assess the detector’s performance with more ease and assured that the
simulations correctly reflected real-world events. To ensure the responsiveness of the distance
voltage tester, realistic and acceptable simulation settings were carefully established. To provide
precise and trustworthy findings, variables including voltage levels, ambient circumstances,
and material qualities were taken into consideration. Experimental Data Validation: The
created model was tested by contrasting simulation results with actual measurement data.
This validation method verified the simulation approach’s capacity to reproduce real-world
circumstances while confirming its correctness and efficacy. Technical Risk Assessment and
Recommendations The technological risks connected to the distance voltage detectors were
evaluated. Based on the results, suggestions for taking action to reduce the hazards identified
and improve the overall functionality and safety of the detectors were developed. Discussion
and Results Presentation: In-depth discussions were held on the simulation results analysis,
interpretation of the results in light of the network of Amprion GmbH, comparison to prior
research, and identification of limits. A thorough grasp of the research findings was provided by
addressing the consequences, real-world applications, and potential future research topics. In
conclusion, our simulation study has provided important new understandings into the behaviour
of distance voltage detectors in insulator chains within the high-voltage network of Amprion
82 11 Conclusion
GmbH. The discoveries aid in the enhancement of these detectors’ performance, dependability,
and safety via optimisation and upgrading. The report also identifies prospective areas for
more investigation and growth, assuring the field’s ongoing advancement. Overall, this study’s
findings have applications for high-voltage network operation and upkeep that will ultimately
be advantageous to the whole energy sector.
11.2 Contributions to the Field
This paper significantly advances the field of distant voltage detectors and their use in high-
voltage networks in a number of ways. The following list summarises the major contributions:
Enhanced Understanding of Distance Voltage Detectors: The study offers a thorough under-
standing of the response behaviour of insulator chain distance voltage detectors. The paper
explains the elements impacting the performance of the detectors, such as geometrical configura-
tions, material qualities, and operating circumstances, using in-depth modelling and simulation
assessments. The design, optimisation, and use of distance voltage detectors in high-voltage
networks may be guided by this improved knowledge. Application of Comsol Multiphysics
Software: This research shows how to model and simulate distance voltage detectors using
Comsol Multiphysics software. Researchers and professionals in the field of electrical engi-
neering can make use of the software’s capabilities to take use of its potent characteristics for
precise and effective study of detector behaviour. This contribution broadens understanding of
and use of cutting-edge simulation methods in the study of high-voltage networks. Validation
Using Experimental Data: This step makes a substantial addition to the field by validating the
produced simulation model using experimental measurement data. This study confirms the ef-
ficacy of the simulation technique in simulating real-world circumstances by demonstrating the
correctness and dependability of the simulation findings. The validation method gives users
of simulation models for assessing the performance of distance voltage detectors confidence,
minimising the need for expensive and time-consuming experimental testing. Risk evaluation
and suggestions: Risk management and mitigation techniques are aided by the evaluation of
technical hazards related to distant voltage detectors in high-voltage networks and the creation
of actionable suggestions. The study analyses possible dangers and hazards, assesses their
effects, and suggests ways to reduce risks while boosting the dependability and safety of the
detectors. This contribution helps network administrators and business people make knowl-
edgeable decisions and put sensible risk mitigation measures into practise. Implications for
Amprion GmbH in Real Life The study’s particular attention to the high-voltage network of
Amprion GmbH has applications for the business. The conclusions and suggestions are made
specifically for the network needs and conditions of Amprion GmbH, and they provide useful
information for enhancing the performance of distance voltage detectors in their network. The
relevance and application of the study findings to the operations and maintenance procedures
11.3 Practical Recommendations and Implementations 83
used by Amprion GmbH is improved by this tailored approach. Overall, these contributions
contribute to the advancement of the field of distance voltage detectors in high-voltage networks
by enhancing our comprehension of their behaviour, demonstrating the use of simulation tools,
validating the results of simulation, addressing risk management, and offering useful insights
for applications in particular industries. Researchers, engineers, and network managers in the
fields of electrical engineering and energy may benefit greatly from the study’s conclusions and
suggestions as they help to create high-voltage networks that are more dependable, safe, and
effective.
11.3 Practical Recommendations and Implementations
On the basis of the study’s findings and conclusions, a number of doable suggestions and im-
plementations may be made in order to improve the functionality and use of distant voltage
detectors in high-voltage networks. The dependability, security, and operational effectiveness
of the detectors as well as their integration into the network architecture are all goals of these
proposals. Some useful suggestions and prospective applications are as follows: Calibration
and upkeep on a regular basis: For distance voltage detectors, it is advised to set up a routine
calibration and maintenance programme. To guarantee the precision of the detectors’ mea-
surements, calibration should be carried out at predetermined intervals. In order to find and
correct any possible problems or deviations, normal maintenance procedures including cleaning,
inspection, and functional testing should also be carried out. Integration with Condition Mon-
itoring Systems: It is advised to integrate distance voltage detectors with condition monitoring
systems to get the most out of them. Through this connection, the condition of the insulator
chain can be monitored in real-time, making it easier to spot any irregularities or degrada-
tion at an early stage. A comprehensive evaluation of the network’s health may be obtained
by fusing the information from distance voltage detectors with that from other monitoring
methods, enabling proactive maintenance and reducing downtime. Continuous Refinement and
Improvement of Simulation Models: It is important to continuously refine and enhance the
simulation models that are used to study the response behaviour of distance voltage detectors.
By include more physical events, improving mesh generation methods, and improving the pre-
cision of material attributes and boundary conditions, this may be accomplished. Simulation
models are constantly being improved to ensure that they correctly reflect real-world situations
and offer trustworthy predictions of the behaviour of the detectors. Training and Education
Programmes: Training and education programmes for the staff members in charge of the de-
ployment and maintenance of distance voltage detectors should be designed to ensure their
efficient implementation and functioning. The fundamentals of distance voltage detection, the
use of simulation software, the interpretation of measurement data, and best practises for cal-
ibration and maintenance may all be covered in these programmes, along with both academic
84 11 Conclusion
and practical training. The use of the detectors may be optimised and possible dangers can be
reduced by properly educated employees. Working together with producers and researchers:
Collaboration between researchers in the area and producers of distance voltage detectors can
promote innovation and make it easier to share information and experiences. Collaboration
in projects and collaborations can result in the discovery of novel simulation approaches, the
advancement of improved detection technologies, and the exchange of best practises. Modern
technologies may be used and distance voltage sensing systems can be continuously improved
thanks to this partnership. Compliance with rules and Regulations: It is essential to make
sure that distance voltage detectors are designed, used, and operated in accordance with all
applicable rules and regulations. Following these guidelines guarantees the detectors’ perfor-
mance, security, and interoperability as well as their incorporation into high-voltage networks.
To confirm conformity with the necessary standards and regulations, routine audits and com-
pliance checks should be carried out. Following the installation of distance voltage detectors
in the high-voltage network, it is important to continuously monitor and assess how well they
are working. In order to spot any deviations or abnormalities, this involves keeping an eye on
the detector’s responsiveness, dependability, and sensitivity. Any problems or opportunities
for improvement may be quickly found and taken care of by analysing the gathered data and
doing regular reviews. Network administrators and business experts may improve the efficiency
and performance of distant voltage detectors in high-voltage networks by putting these doable
suggestions into practise. These actions help the network infrastructure’s operating efficiency,
safety, and dependability to improve. Additionally, continuing monitoring, cooperation, and
compliance guarantee that distance voltage detecting systems are optimised and developed in
accordance with shifting market demands and technical improvements.
11.4 Overall Impact and Significance
The research done in this study utilising Comsol Multiphysics software to simulately investi-
gate the response behaviour of distance voltage detectors in insulator chains inside Amprion
GmbH’s high-voltage network has important implications and relevance in several ways. This
study’s overall relevance and influence may be summed up as follows: Increase in Knowl-
edge This research advances our understanding of distant voltage detectors and how they are
used in high-voltage networks. New knowledge and understanding are learned about the per-
formance, influencing variables, and optimisation techniques of these detectors by simulating
their response behaviour and validating it with experimental data. This information adds to
our overall understanding of high-voltage network management and electrical engineering. En-
hancement of Design and Operation: This study’s findings and suggestions offer useful advice
for distance voltage detector design, operation, and optimisation in high-voltage networks. The
results of the study may be used by network operators, engineers, and researchers to improve
11.4 Overall Impact and Significance 85
the design of insulator chains, choice of suitable geometries, and calculation of simulation pa-
rameters to guarantee the responsiveness and reliability of the detectors. The high-voltage
network infrastructure is made safer and more efficient as a result. Risk Reduction and Safety
Improvement: The evaluation of technical hazards and the creation of actionable solutions
have a big impact on risk reduction and safety improvement. This study assists in creating
safer high-voltage networks by detecting possible dangers, assessing their effects, and suggest-
ing risk reduction measures. The adoption of the suggested actions reduces the possibility
of mishaps, malfunctions, and network outages, so protecting the security of the workforce
and the general public. Cost Savings and Efficiency Gains: High-voltage network operators
can save money by enhancing the performance and dependability of distant voltage detectors.
Network operators may decrease downtime, increase maintenance efficiency, and save costs as-
sociated with troubleshooting and repairs by enhancing the accuracy and responsiveness of
these detectors. Cost savings and increased operational effectiveness result from the study’s
suggestions for calibration, maintenance, and integration with condition monitoring systems.
Application to the Network of Amprion GmbH: Further relevance is added by the study’s focus
on the high-voltage network of Amprion GmbH. Directly useful applications and advantages
for the business are provided by the customised approach and results that are adapted to the
network characteristics and requirements of Amprion GmbH. The suggestions and implemen-
tations may be used immediately to enhance the functionality and security of distant voltage
detectors inside the network of Amprion GmbH, enhancing business operations and overall
network dependability. Support for the Research Community: The methodology, simulation
models, validation procedures, and conclusions from this study are useful to the high-voltage
network research community as well as the discipline of electrical engineering. On top of this
study, other academics and professionals can expand it, look at related subjects in more depth,
confirm the results, and consider new research avenues. The study’s contribution to the field of
research encourages cooperation, knowledge exchange, and group progress. In conclusion, the
research carried out in this study utilising Comsol Multiphysics software to simulate the anal-
ysis of distance voltage detectors in Amprion GmbH’s high-voltage network has a substantial
influence and relevance. It contributes to the advancement of knowledge, boosts design and
operation, improves safety and risk management, lowers costs, and provides Amprion GmbH
and the larger research community with useful applications. The findings of this study help to
develop and optimise high voltage networks generally, which eventually helps the energy sector
and society as a whole.
87
12 Conclusion and Outlook
One of the effects of the energy transition in Germany and the European Union is the higher
loading of OHL conductors in the transmission grid. To have an (n-1)-secure grid state, conges-
tion management is applied by the transmission system operators (TSOs). This is performed
by executing measures before a potential contingency event could lead to a congestion. Lately,
curative measures are in focus, which are applied after the occurrence of such an event. If they
fail, grid components might overheat and be damaged. Therefore, curative AHMs that are
determined after the contingency are used to prevent the lines from overheating.
The objective of this work was to build a real-time simulation of curative ad-hoc-measures
(AHMs) for congestion management considering thermal constraints of overhead line (OHL)
conductors. This was successfully implemented by a hybrid Software-in-the-Loop (SIL)/ hard-
ware-in-the-loop (HIL)-concept of a Real Time Simulator (RTS) and a control computer. The
model executed on the RTS consists of a coupled electric grid and a pre-existing thermal
conductor model, including modelled power flow controlling devices (PFCDs). The simulated
control computer operates a created graphical user interface (GUI) with an algorithm to detect
congestions depending on dynamic line rating (DLR) and an interface to the module that
determines curative AHMs. In addition to that, the exemplary transmission of measurement
data and control commands via the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 60870-5-
104 protocol trough a smart telecontrol unit (STU) was carried out. The functionality of the
test setup was proven by defined use-cases. These also demonstrated the effectiveness of AHMs
being capable of restoring an (n-0)-secure grid state after a contingency.
For the simulation of the use-cases, congestion scenarios were created by adjusting the grid
characteristics of a benchmark transmission grid according to standard values, including vary-
ing weather situations taken from real measurement data. DLR was used by considering the
permanent admissible transmission loading (PATL) of the lines according to the ambient con-
ditions. The effect of the weather situation is demonstrated in the change of the line charac-
teristics. In the case of an contingency, the activation of PFCDs reduced the overload of the
congested lines. There was no external control computer available, to which the communication
via the IEC 60870-5-104 protocol could have been applied. Therefore, only the transmission
of measurement data from the grid and control commands into the grid via the protocol was
demonstrated exemplary in real-time.
88 12 Conclusion and Outlook
The simulated use-cases show that curative AHMs are effective for the chosen scenarios and
that the thermal constraints influence the congestion situation. Yet, it has to be considered that
the following conditions apply to the simulated results: The preventive calculated contingency
analysis estimates the critical situations for the grid state. According to the results, PFCDs
are installed in the grid at the places where a congestion is likely to occur. In the event of a
congestion, the degrees of freedom in the grid have to be available and it must be assured that
they can be activated. In addition to that, the thermal reserve of the OHL conductors must be
large enough in case of a congestion so that the time needed to determine the curative AHMs
does not lead to an additional failure of a grid component. If these requirements are met,
curative AHMs can be used in real-time operation to restore an (n-0)-secure grid state. This
was shown by the real-time test setup created in this work that includes thermal constraints
and implements the simulation of a control computer, considering also the possibility of an
implemented transmission protocol.
This created test setup provides the basics for a HIL setting that can be used in a laboratory
to allow a more realistic simulation of curative congestion management measures in the grid
operation of TSOs. Nonetheless, some issues regarding the setup still have to be solved. One is
to check the outputs of the used grid model solver, as they differed to the results of a comparable
simulation software. Another aspect is the modelling of the PFCDs. The implementation of a
phase shift transformer (PST) into the grid would add another power flow shifting method than
the ones used in this work. Finally, the full integration of the transmission protocol between
the RTS and the control computer would serve to demonstrate the real communication of the
TSOs with the remote terminal unit (RTU) in the transmission grid for the whole test setup.
With this improved system, additional studies concerning the application of curative AHMs can
be carried out. For example, the influence of the ambient conditions can be further researched,
the thermal reserves of OHL types can be investigated or the determination of the setpoints
for PFCDs can be evaluated and improved.
i
A Appendix
Ketten Keramik 110 kV
1
Contents
1. Global Definitions ............................................................................................................................. 3
1.1. Parameters ................................................................................................................................................................... 3
2. Component 1 ..................................................................................................................................... 4
2.1. Definitions .................................................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2. Geometry 1 .................................................................................................................................................................. 5
2.3. Materials ....................................................................................................................................................................... 6
2.4. Electrostatics .............................................................................................................................................................10
2.5. Mesh 1 .........................................................................................................................................................................11
3. Study 1 ............................................................................................................................................. 12
3.1. Time Dependent ......................................................................................................................................................12
4. Results .............................................................................................................................................. 14
4.1. Datasets ......................................................................................................................................................................14
4.2. Tables ...........................................................................................................................................................................16
4.3. Plot Groups ................................................................................................................................................................39
2
1 Global Definitions
Date Apr 14, 2023, 12:54:09 AM
GLOBAL SETTINGS
Name Ketten Keramik 110 kV.mph
Path C:\Users\mujah\OneDrive\Desktop\Comsol\Ketten Keramik 110 kV.mph
Version COMSOL Multiphysics 6.0 (Build: 318)
USED PRODUCTS
COMSOL Multiphysics
AC/DC Module
COMPUTER INFORMATION
CPU Intel64 Family 6 Model 78 Stepping 3, 2 cores
Operating system Windows 10
1.1 PARAMETERS
PARAMETER 1
Name Expression Value Description
f 50 [Hz] 50 Hz
a 1[kV] 1000 V
3
2 Component 1
2.1 DEFINITIONS
2.1.1 Functions
Analytic 3
Function name an2
Function type Analytic
Analytic 3
2.1.2 Selections
Explicit 1
Selection type
Explicit
Selection
No domains
4
2.1.3 Coordinate Systems
Boundary System 1
Coordinate system type Boundary system
Tag sys1
COORDINATE NAMES
First Second Third
t1 n to
2.2 GEOMETRY 1
Geometry 1
UNITS
Length unit mm
Angular unit deg
5
2.3 MATERIALS
2.3.1 Air
Air
SELECTION
Geometric entity level Domain
Geometry geom1: Dimension 2: Domains 1, 6–7, 47–49, 54, 75–76, 115–

Selection
116, 118–119
6
2.3.2 A2 [solid]
A2 [solid]
SELECTION
Geometry geom1: Dimension 2: Domains 2–5, 38–44, 46, 50–53, 55–62,

Selection
64–74, 107–113, 117
2.3.3 Acrylic plastic
Acrylic plastic
7
SELECTION
Geometric entity level Boundary
Selection Geometry geom1: Dimension 1: Boundaries 832–835, 837–838
2.3.4 Aluminum [solid,bulk]
Aluminum [solid,bulk]
SELECTION
Selection Geometry geom1: Dimension 2: Domain 63
8
2.3.5 Soil [solid]
Soil [solid]
SELECTION
Selection Geometry geom1: Dimension 1: Boundary 2
2.3.6 94% Al2O3 [solid]
94% Al2O3 [solid]
SELECTION
9
Selection Geometry geom1: Dimension 2: Domains 8–37, 45, 77–106, 114
2.4 ELECTROSTATICS
Electrostatics
EQUATIONS
FEATURES
Name Level
Charge Conservation 1 Domain
Zero Charge 1 Boundary
Initial Values 1 Domain
HV Domain
Ground 1 Boundary
Zero_p Domain
Floating Potential 1 Boundary
10
2.5 MESH 1
Mesh 1
11
3 Study 1
COMPUTATION INFORMATION
Computation time 57 s
3.1 TIME DEPENDENT

Times Unit
range(0,0.005,0.02) s
STUDY SETTINGS
Description Value
Include geometric nonlinearity Off
STUDY SETTINGS
Description Value
Output times {0, 0.005, 0.01, 0.015, 0.02}
STUDY EXTENSIONS
Description Value
Auxiliary sweep On
Sweep type Specified combinations
PARAMETERS
Parameter name Parameter value list Parameter unit
a range(110,0.1,110) kV
PHYSICS AND VARIABLES SELECTION

Physics interface Discretization
Electrostatics (es) physics
MESH SELECTION
12
Geometry Mesh
Geometry 1 (geom1) mesh1
3.1.1 Study extensions

STUDY EXTENSIONS
Description Value
Auxiliary sweep On
PARAMETERS
a range(110,0.1,110) kV
13
4 Results
4.1 DATASETS
4.1.1 Study 1/Solution 1

SOLUTION
Description Value
Solution Solution 1
Component Component 1 (comp1)
Dataset: Study 1/Solution 1
4.1.2 Cut Line 2D 1

DATA
Description Value
Dataset Study 1/Solution 1
LINE DATA
Description Value
Line entry method Two points
14
Description Value
Points {{26099.3, 14495}, {26099.3, 14744}}
Additional parallel lines On
ADVANCED
Description Value
Space variable cln1x
Normal variables {cln1nx, cln1ny}
Tangent variables {cln1tx, cln1ty}
Dataset: Cut Line 2D 1
4.1.3 Cut Point 2D 1

DATA
Description Value
POINT DATA
15
Description Value
Entry method Coordinates
x 26099.3, 26099.3
y 14720, 14495
Dataset: Cut Point 2D 1
4.2 TABLES
4.2.1 Evaluation 2D
Interactive 2D values
x y Value
1060.4 1498.1 8.0005E-5
460.43 3867.6 10.323
2162.4 1954.0 60356
1051.4 944.79 1.5231E5
1042.9 2242.4 98732
559.52 2708.8 1.0091E5
16
x y Value
601.93 3811.3 3.2560E5
1365.2 4464.4 88529
255.63 30.508 9.5456E5
254.76 28.809 8.9823E5
161.49 34.892 65522
205.42 173.45 1.8957E-7
111.48 197.78 38073
212.18 199.80 2.9969E-7
406.83 295.78 1.9914E5
439.95 304.56 1.9405E5
753.13 3640.8 1.0514E5
570.66 3622.9 1.1730E5
502.68 3805.4 1.3004E5
506.26 3944.9 57913
681.57 3880.5 1.2705E5
649.37 3762.4 1.6299E5
595.70 4070.1 14154
610.01 3973.5 0.0000
606.58 3823.2 4.4949E5
608.73 3824.6 4.5375E5
617.06 3829.1 4.2303E5
621.09 3833.4 3.9754E5
17
x y Value
622.97 3837.7 3.6990E5
621.36 3840.1 3.9293E5
614.91 3839.3 0.0000
625.92 3830.5 3.2525E5
597.72 3853.0 0.0000
635.86 3860.0 1.8723E5
604.16 3884.5 0.0000
646.34 3891.2 1.3499E5
602.01 3900.6 0.0000
659.51 3896.6 1.2529E5
605.51 3897.9 0.0000
633.18 3904.9 1.2544E5
595.57 3895.5 0.0000
658.97 3905.7 1.1957E5
612.76 3879.6 0.0000
632.10 3886.6 1.4435E5
603.09 3882.3 0.0000
607.88 4008.3 0.0000
607.88 3959.4 0.0000
604.92 3923.1 0.0000
604.18 3877.9 0.0000
606.40 3844.6 0.0000
18
x y Value
606.40 3817.1 3.6828
606.40 3837.9 0.0000
605.66 3869.0 0.0000
601.22 3908.3 0.0000
601.22 3908.3 0.0000
596.77 3850.5 0.0000
597.51 3836.4 0.0000
600.48 3828.3 0.0000
613.07 3826.0 1.2824
616.03 3823.1 2.9491
610.11 3812.7 5.4893
602.70 3807.5 6.6688
594.55 3780.8 13.096
672.33 3797.9 15.104
619.74 3835.7 0.32134
634.55 3869.7 2.3178
647.15 3942.3 2.6178
647.89 4008.3 2.0983
647.15 4071.2 2.0183
650.11 4110.5 2.4645
650.85 4132.0 2.6416
653.81 4151.3 2.8440
19
x y Value
547.88 3860.9 4.2333
539.73 3946.0 1.9221
533.80 4007.5 0.83309
528.62 4056.4 0.0000
529.36 4029.0 0.43916
536.77 3985.3 1.1801
536.77 3972.7 1.4706
538.25 3940.9 2.1425
596.77 3942.3 0.0000
593.81 3896.4 0.0000
593.81 3869.0 0.0000
592.33 3860.1 0.0000
596.03 3915.7 0.0000
587.14 3983.1 0.0000
587.14 4026.1 0.0000
591.59 4089.0 0.34947
606.40 4092.7 0.61112
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
20
x y Value
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
596.77 4083.8 0.37568
604.18 4017.2 0.0000
604.18 4017.2 0.0000
604.18 4017.2 0.0000
612.33 4035.7 0.0000
606.40 4082.7 18633
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
21
x y Value
658.26 3982.0 83597
658.26 3982.0 83597
542.69 3887.9 98139
598.25 3917.5 0.0000
598.25 3917.5 0.0000
598.99 3948.6 0.0000
604.18 4015.3 0.0000
599.73 4084.2 17562
595.29 4102.7 17478
587.14 4082.7 16619
573.81 4061.2 7325.4
600.48 4059.8 15125
588.62 3868.6 0.0000
596.77 3924.2 0.0000
586.40 4010.1 0.0000
584.92 4067.9 9549.1
582.70 4005.7 0.0000
577.51 3916.0 73819
590.10 3855.3 0.0000
598.99 4064.2 14658
590.85 4009.4 0.0000
595.29 4052.4 11963
22
x y Value
596.03 4080.5 16478
590.10 4031.6 0.0000
601.96 4019.8 0.0000
603.44 3990.9 0.0000
603.44 3970.1 0.0000
603.44 3954.6 0.0000
604.18 3937.5 0.0000
598.99 4078.3 16649
598.99 4078.3 16649
597.51 4059.8 13563
558.99 3843.8 3.9471
556.77 3878.6 2.3637
551.58 3920.1 1.7838
547.14 3975.7 1.0432
541.21 4028.3 0.35322
659.74 3843.8 8.0450
659.00 3872.7 5.9166
655.30 3916.4 3.9080
655.30 3965.3 3.0774
650.11 4009.8 2.2562
646.41 4051.2 1.8863
641.22 4089.8 1.8160
23
x y Value
648.63 3794.2 13.433
652.33 3840.9 7.1959
648.63 3918.6 3.1074
643.44 3974.9 1.9697
640.48 3774.9 16.014
644.92 3795.7 12.847
646.41 3814.2 9.8902
646.41 3835.7 6.7767
644.92 3856.4 4.6373
644.92 3877.2 3.6777
644.92 3902.3 3.0288
645.66 3932.7 2.6221
646.41 3952.7 2.4381
591.59 4066.8 0.15831
591.59 4066.8 0.15831
591.59 4066.8 0.15831
610.85 4017.2 0.0000
606.40 3986.1 0.0000
607.14 3953.5 0.0000
597.51 4074.9 0.29593
598.62 3987.7 0.0000
597.77 3952.9 0.0000
24
x y Value
596.07 3917.2 0.0000
596.92 4058.3 13156
596.92 4001.3 0.0000
603.71 4083.7 18223
604.48 4088.4 0.53551
595.43 3975.2 0.0000
596.94 3930.0 0.0000
607.50 3886.2 0.0000
597.61 4076.2 0.31000
597.61 4034.3 0.0000
597.61 3998.1 0.0000
597.61 3935.8 0.0000
597.61 3912.0 0.0000
599.88 4083.0 0.40972
596.48 4007.1 0.0000
599.88 4077.3 0.34989
599.88 4083.0 0.40972
599.88 4083.0 0.40972
599.88 3964.1 0.0000
599.88 3964.1 0.0000
593.08 3901.8 0.0000
589.69 4075.0 0.20587
25
x y Value
544.41 3977.7 1.1134
603.27 4086.4 0.49574
675.72 4006.0 4.2129
675.72 3909.8 6.3538
679.12 3831.7 11.774
614.59 3789.8 11.656
495.73 3838.5 10.832
601.11 4062.7 15667
601.11 4080.6 17420
606.84 4004.1 0.0000
617.67 3943.7 42456
602.39 3943.7 3106.5
602.39 3899.1 0.0000
597.93 3849.4 0.0000
599.20 3852.0 0.0000
596.02 3888.9 0.0000
594.74 3994.6 0.0000
597.93 4030.9 0.0000
600.47 4012.4 0.0000
599.84 3975.5 0.0000
604.30 3913.1 0.0000
608.75 3885.7 10518
26
x y Value
608.75 3864.7 0.0000
608.75 3839.9 0.0000
607.48 3839.9 0.0000
597.29 3864.7 0.0000
594.11 3903.5 0.0000
595.95 4012.9 0.0000
545.56 3984.2 0.98633
563.42 3952.9 0.69454
567.25 3912.7 0.79984
564.06 3852.1 2.5088
205.51 49.210 380.70
230.98 48.361 380.70
298.90 78.078 363.30
396.54 64.493 334.69
1584.4 1233.9 188.56
1523.6 1309.1 191.10
617.64 3746.6 19.720
595.00 3671.1 30.076
599.53 3553.4 43.879
595.00 3840.2 0.0000
596.51 3865.9 0.0000
599.53 3890.0 0.0000
27
x y Value
599.53 3930.8 0.0000
601.04 3986.6 0.0000
601.04 4027.4 0.0000
601.04 4054.5 0.068697
601.04 4081.7 0.41258
601.04 4095.3 0.55163
635.95 3847.1 3.6073
638.49 3874.3 2.8175
639.34 3901.4 2.3496
629.15 3973.6 0.73074
556.13 3820.8 7.3614
544.25 3904.8 2.7531
551.89 3967.7 0.98420
585.85 3837.8 0.0000
610.47 3837.8 0.0000
624.06 3837.8 1.4079
607.93 3833.5 0.0000
602.83 3818.2 3.0624
602.83 3821.6 1.6651
597.74 3893.8 0.0000
610.55 3885.5 20417
615.32 3878.8 38553
28
x y Value
617.24 3884.5 57349
631.57 3889.8 1.1708E5
643.99 3877.8 1.5109E5
588.57 3896.4 4787.9
597.66 4072.2 15230
597.66 4083.6 17155
597.66 4068.8 14718
596.53 3971.4 0.0000
594.26 4075.6 15046
595.40 4091.5 17670
600.24 4087.8 17931
603.69 3891.7 0.0000
607.95 3857.7 0.0000
600.23 4092.6 18259
619.97 4049.3 38577
567.34 4042.5 5325.2
594.09 4069.9 13543
598.95 4001.2 0.0000
604.42 3922.8 0.0000
607.46 3895.4 0.0000
606.25 3851.7 0.0000
604.23 4086.6 0.51169
29
x y Value
604.23 4073.0 0.35332
606.78 4064.5 0.26246
594.89 4095.9 0.46082
505.70 4084.9 0.0000
458.13 4084.9 0.0000
425.00 4084.9 0.0000
527.78 4099.3 0.0000
560.91 4102.7 0.0000
563.46 4079.8 0.0000
563.46 4060.2 0.0000
572.80 4081.5 0.0000
575.35 4084.9 0.038366
580.45 4083.2 0.12662
588.94 4083.2 0.25941
605.93 4083.2 0.49846
639.06 4083.2 1.6440
607.63 4086.6 0.56398
558.36 4075.5 0.0000
633.11 4038.1 0.91225
612.73 4033.1 0.0000
606.78 3989.7 0.0000
602.53 3965.1 0.0000
30
x y Value
602.53 3918.4 0.0000
602.53 3882.7 0.0000
594.04 3847.0 0.0000
587.24 3930.3 0.0000
595.74 3877.6 0.0000
707.02 4118.8 4.9389
599.73 4071.9 0.0000
599.73 4049.6 0.0000
599.09 4018.4 0.0000
601.00 4084.6 0.0000
611.19 4087.8 0.0000
597.82 3850.2 0.0000
600.36 3866.1 0.0000
607.37 3905.0 0.0000
604.82 3922.8 0.0000
604.82 3968.7 0.0000
610.56 4003.1 0.0000
609.28 4028.6 0.0000
586.99 3870.6 0.0000
590.81 3892.9 0.0000
590.81 3921.5 0.0000
590.81 3962.9 0.0000
31
x y Value
587.62 3995.4 0.0000
586.99 4092.3 0.0000
536.02 4085.9 0.0000
469.76 4068.7 0.0000
621.33 4102.5 2.3316E5
604.40 4102.8 1.1754E5
604.94 4090.2 0.0000
602.25 4077.8 0.0000
601.44 4065.4 0.0000
601.17 4060.6 0.0000
598.02 4078.2 0.0000
601.12 4098.4 0.0000
601.12 4025.4 0.0000
601.12 3988.2 0.0000
601.12 3961.8 0.0000
601.12 3924.6 0.0000
604.23 3898.2 0.0000
604.23 3879.5 0.0000
604.23 3859.4 0.0000
618.09 4103.4 1.9395E5
618.36 4096.0 1.5366E5
618.64 4087.1 1.4214E5
32
x y Value
607.45 4084.7 0.0000
607.45 4060.9 0.0000
599.76 4037.3 0.0000
599.50 4029.1 0.0000
636.17 4041.9 73147
636.43 4029.1 74428
592.89 4091.4 0.0000
601.38 4074.5 0.0000
597.14 4030.3 0.0000
593.74 4003.1 0.0000
600.53 4071.1 0.0000
606.70 4084.7 64815
603.51 4084.7 69465
600.32 4058.5 93333
600.96 3980.1 92960
599.04 3937.3 87174
596.49 3897.8 80692
596.49 3864.6 72271
603.13 3999.3 94857
603.13 4073.2 79895
594.07 3951.0 89512
630.07 4088.8 1.2526E5
33
x y Value
639.36 4091.7 1.8792
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
674.83 3925.0 16.893
641.84 4110.4 2.3048
601.09 4092.9 0.0000
640.87 4087.1 2.0722
638.93 4078.3 1.9311
636.99 4105.5 1.7318
637.96 4128.8 2.4143
637.96 4142.4 2.7282
637.96 4109.4 1.9276
637.96 4086.1 1.7444
637.96 4071.6 1.9563
636.02 4049.2 2.6724
634.08 4018.2 5.6636
636.02 3999.7 7.7251
640.87 3960.0 11.937
643.78 3931.8 14.666
644.75 3898.8 17.629
34
x y Value
643.78 3865.8 20.418
597.08 4092.0 0.0000
592.26 3982.8 1.0800E5
646.84 4082.4 1.1552E5
644.43 4021.4 1.3313E5
655.67 3934.7 1.0305E5
660.49 3863.2 1.0193E5
650.85 3817.5 1.1452E5
615.54 3747.7 1.0915E5
588.25 3818.3 1.4824E5
603.50 3842.4 66970
-1486.6 3793.4 63597
-1480.6 3860.5 61203
-1480.6 3932.5 57272
-1485.6 4006.6 50997
-1968.4 4249.2 9708.9
-1968.4 4249.2 9708.9
-1968.4 4219.2 10790
-1968.4 4099.2 21824
-1765.9 -17.581 3.8070E5
-2188.1 -57.787 3.8070E5
-2288.6 384.48 3.6420E5
35
x y Value
-2027.2 -620.67 3.7166E5
-1524.7 3922.6 12013
-1102.5 2656.1 98982
-1477.7 3793.0 20537
-1477.7 3747.4 23234
-1475.0 3742.0 23615
-1480.4 3771.5 21735
-1483.0 3830.5 18244
-1483.0 3903.0 14288
-1493.8 4015.7 8698.0
-1788.4 -476.77 3.7611E5
-1675.1 -442.79 3.5505E5
-1641.1 -261.54 3.5546E5
-1901.7 -669.35 3.7772E5
-1845.0 -612.71 3.7997E5
-1838.8 -676.12 3.8000E5
25398 13223 1.0377E5
25398 13364 1.0792E5
25499 13238 1.1000E5
26050 14533 25255
25439 13324 1.0852E5
25479 13183 1.0777E5
36
x y Value
26096 14734 972.44
26092 14702 1619.0
25499 13240 10000
25499 13240 10000
26092 14512 2214.4
25502 13298 10000
26090 14738 813.22
26086 14765 601.62
26086 14708 1485.4
26096 14494 1.7971
26098 14524 1.6284
26100 14564 1.3958
26100 14588 1.2554
26101 14495 7362.2
26101 14508 7058.8
26100 14532 6503.0
26094 14580 5352.5
26095 14618 4407.0
26095 14666 3149.8
26095 14682 2681.8
26095 14719 1578.6
26101 14776 1024.7
37
x y Value
26101 14804 967.01
26096 14849 822.09
26100 14738 1267.6
26100 14728 1482.0
26100 14713 1855.2
26098 14785 963.89
26098 14659 3372.7
26101 14532 6504.0
26104 14462 8125.5
26101 14404 9462.0
26095 14488 7527.2
26095 14504 7165.0
26095 14522 6741.8
26101 14496 7350.4
26098 14520 6801.4
26096 14556 5945.1
26096 14591 5090.5
4.2.2 Maximum and Minimum Values 1

Graph marker
Time (s) Electric potential (kV)
0.015000 -6.1430
0.0050000 6.1437
38
0.015000 -27.208
0.0050000 27.211
4.3 PLOT GROUPS
4.3.1 Electric Potential (es)
Surface: Electric potential (V)
39
4.3.2 Electric Field Norm (es)
Surface: Electric field norm (V/m)
4.3.3 1D Plot Line E. Potential
Line Graph: Electric potential (kV)
40
4.3.4 1D Plot Line E. Field
Line Graph: Electric field norm (kV/m)
4.3.5 1D Plot Group 5
Point Graph: Electric potential (kV)
41
Ketten Keramik 220kV
42
Ketten Verbund 380 kV
Contents
1. Global Definitions ........................................................................................................................... 44
1.1. Parameters .................................................................................................................................................................44
2. Component 1 ................................................................................................................................... 45
2.1. Definitions ..................................................................................................................................................................45
2.2. Geometry 1 ................................................................................................................................................................46
2.3. Materials .....................................................................................................................................................................47
2.4. Electrostatics .............................................................................................................................................................51
2.5. Mesh 1 .........................................................................................................................................................................52
3. Study 1 ............................................................................................................................................. 53
3.1. Time Dependent ......................................................................................................................................................53
4. Results .............................................................................................................................................. 55
4.1. Datasets ......................................................................................................................................................................55
4.2. Tables ...........................................................................................................................................................................57
4.3. Plot Groups ................................................................................................................................................................81
43
USED PRODUCTS
COMSOL Multiphysics
AC/DC Module
1.1 PARAMETERS
PARAMETER 1
f 50 [Hz] 50 Hz
a 1[kV] 1000 V
44
2 Component 1
2.1 DEFINITIONS
2.1.1 Functions
Analytic 3
Function name an2
Analytic 3
2.1.2 Selections
Explicit 1
Selection type
Explicit
Selection
No domains
45
Boundary System 1
Tag sys1
COORDINATE NAMES
First Second Third
t1 n to
2.2 GEOMETRY 1
Geometry 1
UNITS
Length unit mm
Angular unit deg
46
2.3 MATERIALS
2.3.1 Air
Air
SELECTION
Geometry geom1: Dimension 2: Domains 1, 9–11, 91–93, 101, 125, 139–

Selection
141, 222–224, 228–229
47
2.3.2 A2 [solid]
A2 [solid]
SELECTION
Geometry geom1: Dimension 2: Domains 2–8, 12, 71–81, 83–90, 94–

Selection 100, 102–108, 110–124, 126–131, 133–138, 142–144, 203–213, 215–221,
225–227
Acrylic plastic
48
SELECTION
SELECTION
Selection Geometry geom1: Dimension 2: Domains 109, 132
49
2.3.5 Soil [solid]
Soil [solid]
SELECTION
2.3.6 94% Al2O3 [solid]
94% Al2O3 [solid]
SELECTION
50
Selection Geometry geom1: Dimension 2: Domains 13–70, 82, 145–202, 214
2.4 ELECTROSTATICS
Electrostatics
EQUATIONS
FEATURES
Name Level
HV Domain
Ground 1 Boundary
Zero_p Domain
51
2.5 MESH 1
Mesh 1
52
3 Study 1
Computation time 1 min 49 s
3.1 TIME DEPENDENT

Times Unit
range(0,0.005,0.02) s
STUDY SETTINGS
Description Value
STUDY SETTINGS
Description Value
Output times {0, 0.005, 0.01, 0.015, 0.02}
STUDY EXTENSIONS
Description Value
Auxiliary sweep On
PARAMETERS
a range(220,0.1,220) kV

MESH SELECTION
53
Geometry Mesh

STUDY EXTENSIONS
Description Value
Auxiliary sweep On
PARAMETERS
a range(220,0.1,220) kV
54
4 Results
4.1 DATASETS

SOLUTION
Description Value
Solution Solution 1
4.1.2 Cut Line 2D 1

DATA
Description Value
LINE DATA
Description Value
55
Description Value
Points {{19033.8, 12454.5}, {19033.8, 12205}}
ADVANCED
Description Value

DATA
Description Value
POINT DATA
56
Description Value
x 19033.8, 19033.8
y 12205, 12430
4.2 TABLES
4.2.1 Evaluation 2D
x y Value
1060.4 1498.1 8.0005E-5
460.43 3867.6 10.323
2162.4 1954.0 60356
1051.4 944.79 1.5231E5
1042.9 2242.4 98732
559.52 2708.8 1.0091E5
57
x y Value
601.93 3811.3 3.2560E5
1365.2 4464.4 88529
255.63 30.508 9.5456E5
254.76 28.809 8.9823E5
161.49 34.892 65522
205.42 173.45 1.8957E-7
111.48 197.78 38073
212.18 199.80 2.9969E-7
406.83 295.78 1.9914E5
439.95 304.56 1.9405E5
753.13 3640.8 1.0514E5
570.66 3622.9 1.1730E5
502.68 3805.4 1.3004E5
506.26 3944.9 57913
681.57 3880.5 1.2705E5
649.37 3762.4 1.6299E5
595.70 4070.1 14154
610.01 3973.5 0.0000
606.58 3823.2 4.4949E5
608.73 3824.6 4.5375E5
617.06 3829.1 4.2303E5
621.09 3833.4 3.9754E5
58
x y Value
622.97 3837.7 3.6990E5
621.36 3840.1 3.9293E5
614.91 3839.3 0.0000
625.92 3830.5 3.2525E5
597.72 3853.0 0.0000
635.86 3860.0 1.8723E5
604.16 3884.5 0.0000
646.34 3891.2 1.3499E5
602.01 3900.6 0.0000
659.51 3896.6 1.2529E5
605.51 3897.9 0.0000
633.18 3904.9 1.2544E5
595.57 3895.5 0.0000
658.97 3905.7 1.1957E5
612.76 3879.6 0.0000
632.10 3886.6 1.4435E5
603.09 3882.3 0.0000
607.88 4008.3 0.0000
607.88 3959.4 0.0000
604.92 3923.1 0.0000
604.18 3877.9 0.0000
606.40 3844.6 0.0000
59
x y Value
606.40 3817.1 3.6828
606.40 3837.9 0.0000
605.66 3869.0 0.0000
601.22 3908.3 0.0000
601.22 3908.3 0.0000
596.77 3850.5 0.0000
597.51 3836.4 0.0000
600.48 3828.3 0.0000
613.07 3826.0 1.2824
616.03 3823.1 2.9491
610.11 3812.7 5.4893
602.70 3807.5 6.6688
594.55 3780.8 13.096
672.33 3797.9 15.104
619.74 3835.7 0.32134
634.55 3869.7 2.3178
647.15 3942.3 2.6178
647.89 4008.3 2.0983
647.15 4071.2 2.0183
650.11 4110.5 2.4645
650.85 4132.0 2.6416
653.81 4151.3 2.8440
60
x y Value
547.88 3860.9 4.2333
539.73 3946.0 1.9221
533.80 4007.5 0.83309
528.62 4056.4 0.0000
529.36 4029.0 0.43916
536.77 3985.3 1.1801
536.77 3972.7 1.4706
538.25 3940.9 2.1425
596.77 3942.3 0.0000
593.81 3896.4 0.0000
593.81 3869.0 0.0000
592.33 3860.1 0.0000
596.03 3915.7 0.0000
587.14 3983.1 0.0000
587.14 4026.1 0.0000
591.59 4089.0 0.34947
606.40 4092.7 0.61112
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
61
x y Value
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
596.77 4083.8 0.37568
604.18 4017.2 0.0000
604.18 4017.2 0.0000
604.18 4017.2 0.0000
612.33 4035.7 0.0000
606.40 4082.7 18633
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
62
x y Value
658.26 3982.0 83597
658.26 3982.0 83597
542.69 3887.9 98139
598.25 3917.5 0.0000
598.25 3917.5 0.0000
598.99 3948.6 0.0000
604.18 4015.3 0.0000
599.73 4084.2 17562
595.29 4102.7 17478
587.14 4082.7 16619
573.81 4061.2 7325.4
600.48 4059.8 15125
588.62 3868.6 0.0000
596.77 3924.2 0.0000
586.40 4010.1 0.0000
584.92 4067.9 9549.1
582.70 4005.7 0.0000
577.51 3916.0 73819
590.10 3855.3 0.0000
598.99 4064.2 14658
590.85 4009.4 0.0000
595.29 4052.4 11963
63
x y Value
596.03 4080.5 16478
590.10 4031.6 0.0000
601.96 4019.8 0.0000
603.44 3990.9 0.0000
603.44 3970.1 0.0000
603.44 3954.6 0.0000
604.18 3937.5 0.0000
598.99 4078.3 16649
598.99 4078.3 16649
597.51 4059.8 13563
558.99 3843.8 3.9471
556.77 3878.6 2.3637
551.58 3920.1 1.7838
547.14 3975.7 1.0432
541.21 4028.3 0.35322
659.74 3843.8 8.0450
659.00 3872.7 5.9166
655.30 3916.4 3.9080
655.30 3965.3 3.0774
650.11 4009.8 2.2562
646.41 4051.2 1.8863
641.22 4089.8 1.8160
64
x y Value
648.63 3794.2 13.433
652.33 3840.9 7.1959
648.63 3918.6 3.1074
643.44 3974.9 1.9697
640.48 3774.9 16.014
644.92 3795.7 12.847
646.41 3814.2 9.8902
646.41 3835.7 6.7767
644.92 3856.4 4.6373
644.92 3877.2 3.6777
644.92 3902.3 3.0288
645.66 3932.7 2.6221
646.41 3952.7 2.4381
591.59 4066.8 0.15831
591.59 4066.8 0.15831
591.59 4066.8 0.15831
610.85 4017.2 0.0000
606.40 3986.1 0.0000
607.14 3953.5 0.0000
597.51 4074.9 0.29593
598.62 3987.7 0.0000
597.77 3952.9 0.0000
65
x y Value
596.07 3917.2 0.0000
596.92 4058.3 13156
596.92 4001.3 0.0000
603.71 4083.7 18223
604.48 4088.4 0.53551
595.43 3975.2 0.0000
596.94 3930.0 0.0000
607.50 3886.2 0.0000
597.61 4076.2 0.31000
597.61 4034.3 0.0000
597.61 3998.1 0.0000
597.61 3935.8 0.0000
597.61 3912.0 0.0000
599.88 4083.0 0.40972
596.48 4007.1 0.0000
599.88 4077.3 0.34989
599.88 4083.0 0.40972
599.88 4083.0 0.40972
599.88 3964.1 0.0000
599.88 3964.1 0.0000
593.08 3901.8 0.0000
589.69 4075.0 0.20587
66
x y Value
544.41 3977.7 1.1134
603.27 4086.4 0.49574
675.72 4006.0 4.2129
675.72 3909.8 6.3538
679.12 3831.7 11.774
614.59 3789.8 11.656
495.73 3838.5 10.832
601.11 4062.7 15667
601.11 4080.6 17420
606.84 4004.1 0.0000
617.67 3943.7 42456
602.39 3943.7 3106.5
602.39 3899.1 0.0000
597.93 3849.4 0.0000
599.20 3852.0 0.0000
596.02 3888.9 0.0000
594.74 3994.6 0.0000
597.93 4030.9 0.0000
600.47 4012.4 0.0000
599.84 3975.5 0.0000
604.30 3913.1 0.0000
608.75 3885.7 10518
67
x y Value
608.75 3864.7 0.0000
608.75 3839.9 0.0000
607.48 3839.9 0.0000
597.29 3864.7 0.0000
594.11 3903.5 0.0000
595.95 4012.9 0.0000
545.56 3984.2 0.98633
563.42 3952.9 0.69454
567.25 3912.7 0.79984
564.06 3852.1 2.5088
205.51 49.210 380.70
230.98 48.361 380.70
298.90 78.078 363.30
396.54 64.493 334.69
1584.4 1233.9 188.56
1523.6 1309.1 191.10
617.64 3746.6 19.720
595.00 3671.1 30.076
599.53 3553.4 43.879
595.00 3840.2 0.0000
596.51 3865.9 0.0000
599.53 3890.0 0.0000
68
x y Value
599.53 3930.8 0.0000
601.04 3986.6 0.0000
601.04 4027.4 0.0000
601.04 4054.5 0.068697
601.04 4081.7 0.41258
601.04 4095.3 0.55163
635.95 3847.1 3.6073
638.49 3874.3 2.8175
639.34 3901.4 2.3496
629.15 3973.6 0.73074
556.13 3820.8 7.3614
544.25 3904.8 2.7531
551.89 3967.7 0.98420
585.85 3837.8 0.0000
610.47 3837.8 0.0000
624.06 3837.8 1.4079
607.93 3833.5 0.0000
602.83 3818.2 3.0624
602.83 3821.6 1.6651
597.74 3893.8 0.0000
610.55 3885.5 20417
615.32 3878.8 38553
69
x y Value
617.24 3884.5 57349
631.57 3889.8 1.1708E5
643.99 3877.8 1.5109E5
588.57 3896.4 4787.9
597.66 4072.2 15230
597.66 4083.6 17155
597.66 4068.8 14718
596.53 3971.4 0.0000
594.26 4075.6 15046
595.40 4091.5 17670
600.24 4087.8 17931
603.69 3891.7 0.0000
607.95 3857.7 0.0000
600.23 4092.6 18259
619.97 4049.3 38577
567.34 4042.5 5325.2
594.09 4069.9 13543
598.95 4001.2 0.0000
604.42 3922.8 0.0000
607.46 3895.4 0.0000
606.25 3851.7 0.0000
604.23 4086.6 0.51169
70
x y Value
604.23 4073.0 0.35332
606.78 4064.5 0.26246
594.89 4095.9 0.46082
505.70 4084.9 0.0000
458.13 4084.9 0.0000
425.00 4084.9 0.0000
527.78 4099.3 0.0000
560.91 4102.7 0.0000
563.46 4079.8 0.0000
563.46 4060.2 0.0000
572.80 4081.5 0.0000
575.35 4084.9 0.038366
580.45 4083.2 0.12662
588.94 4083.2 0.25941
605.93 4083.2 0.49846
639.06 4083.2 1.6440
607.63 4086.6 0.56398
558.36 4075.5 0.0000
633.11 4038.1 0.91225
612.73 4033.1 0.0000
606.78 3989.7 0.0000
602.53 3965.1 0.0000
71
x y Value
602.53 3918.4 0.0000
602.53 3882.7 0.0000
594.04 3847.0 0.0000
587.24 3930.3 0.0000
595.74 3877.6 0.0000
707.02 4118.8 4.9389
599.73 4071.9 0.0000
599.73 4049.6 0.0000
599.09 4018.4 0.0000
601.00 4084.6 0.0000
611.19 4087.8 0.0000
597.82 3850.2 0.0000
600.36 3866.1 0.0000
607.37 3905.0 0.0000
604.82 3922.8 0.0000
604.82 3968.7 0.0000
610.56 4003.1 0.0000
609.28 4028.6 0.0000
586.99 3870.6 0.0000
590.81 3892.9 0.0000
590.81 3921.5 0.0000
590.81 3962.9 0.0000
72
x y Value
587.62 3995.4 0.0000
586.99 4092.3 0.0000
536.02 4085.9 0.0000
469.76 4068.7 0.0000
621.33 4102.5 2.3316E5
604.40 4102.8 1.1754E5
604.94 4090.2 0.0000
602.25 4077.8 0.0000
601.44 4065.4 0.0000
601.17 4060.6 0.0000
598.02 4078.2 0.0000
601.12 4098.4 0.0000
601.12 4025.4 0.0000
601.12 3988.2 0.0000
601.12 3961.8 0.0000
601.12 3924.6 0.0000
604.23 3898.2 0.0000
604.23 3879.5 0.0000
604.23 3859.4 0.0000
618.09 4103.4 1.9395E5
618.36 4096.0 1.5366E5
618.64 4087.1 1.4214E5
73
x y Value
607.45 4084.7 0.0000
607.45 4060.9 0.0000
599.76 4037.3 0.0000
599.50 4029.1 0.0000
636.17 4041.9 73147
636.43 4029.1 74428
592.89 4091.4 0.0000
601.38 4074.5 0.0000
597.14 4030.3 0.0000
593.74 4003.1 0.0000
600.53 4071.1 0.0000
606.70 4084.7 64815
603.51 4084.7 69465
600.32 4058.5 93333
600.96 3980.1 92960
599.04 3937.3 87174
596.49 3897.8 80692
596.49 3864.6 72271
603.13 3999.3 94857
603.13 4073.2 79895
594.07 3951.0 89512
630.07 4088.8 1.2526E5
74
x y Value
639.36 4091.7 1.8792
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
674.83 3925.0 16.893
641.84 4110.4 2.3048
601.09 4092.9 0.0000
640.87 4087.1 2.0722
638.93 4078.3 1.9311
636.99 4105.5 1.7318
637.96 4128.8 2.4143
637.96 4142.4 2.7282
637.96 4109.4 1.9276
637.96 4086.1 1.7444
637.96 4071.6 1.9563
636.02 4049.2 2.6724
634.08 4018.2 5.6636
636.02 3999.7 7.7251
640.87 3960.0 11.937
643.78 3931.8 14.666
644.75 3898.8 17.629
75
x y Value
643.78 3865.8 20.418
597.08 4092.0 0.0000
592.26 3982.8 1.0800E5
646.84 4082.4 1.1552E5
644.43 4021.4 1.3313E5
655.67 3934.7 1.0305E5
660.49 3863.2 1.0193E5
650.85 3817.5 1.1452E5
615.54 3747.7 1.0915E5
588.25 3818.3 1.4824E5
603.50 3842.4 66970
-1486.6 3793.4 63597
-1480.6 3860.5 61203
-1480.6 3932.5 57272
-1485.6 4006.6 50997
-1968.4 4249.2 9708.9
-1968.4 4249.2 9708.9
-1968.4 4219.2 10790
-1968.4 4099.2 21824
-1765.9 -17.581 3.8070E5
-2188.1 -57.787 3.8070E5
-2288.6 384.48 3.6420E5
76
x y Value
-2027.2 -620.67 3.7166E5
-1524.7 3922.6 12013
-1102.5 2656.1 98982
-1477.7 3793.0 20537
-1477.7 3747.4 23234
-1475.0 3742.0 23615
-1480.4 3771.5 21735
-1483.0 3830.5 18244
-1483.0 3903.0 14288
-1493.8 4015.7 8698.0
-1788.4 -476.77 3.7611E5
-1675.1 -442.79 3.5505E5
-1641.1 -261.54 3.5546E5
-1901.7 -669.35 3.7772E5
-1845.0 -612.71 3.7997E5
-1838.8 -676.12 3.8000E5
18470 9621.2 2.1570E5
18500 9810.1 50000
18451 9553.1 47970
18814 10171 49078
18506 9880.0 50009
18379 9752.9 49984
77
x y Value
19064 12280 4157.5
19064 12333 3289.7
18911 11192 24220
18888 10924 30665
18934 10203 47102
18727 9766.5 49425
18635 9643.9 50010
18980 10464 38756
19049 10985 27455
19118 11697 13149
19034 12241 4651.1
19034 12119 6567.8
18972 12180 5458.6
19072 12195 5498.0
19057 12272 4246.1
19127 12372 3127.6
18851 9960.6 48684
19031 12197 6091.6
19031 12203 5999.7
19031 12211 5842.7
19032 12203 5990.4
19033 12207 5934.0
78
x y Value
19000 12204 5864.6
19002 12216 5650.7
19032 12201 6028.3
19032 12208 5897.5
19032 12456 970.77
19036 12442 1262.2
19035 12425 1565.0
19036 12466 989.32
19036 12455 1066.8
19035 12444 1210.5
19033 12427 1499.1
19033 12447 1096.9
19033 12415 28226
19032 12410 27538
19029 12413 28730
19030 12424 30480
19030 12434 32269
19031 12452 30496
19032 12467 24031
19032 12470 22468
19036 12419 27925
19032 12411 27779
79
x y Value
19031 12404 26917
19031 12413 28404
19032 12420 29269
19031 12373 23459
19033 12394 25318
19033 12406 26776
19034 12419 28445
19034 12436 30565
19034 12442 30411
19034 12446 30132
19029 12401 26670
19031 12410 27842
19028 12418 30001
19030 12419 29690
4.2.2 Maximum and Minimum Values

Graph marker
0.0050000 23.024
0.0050000 5.5669
80
4.3 PLOT GROUPS
81
82
83
Ketten Keramik 380kV
84
Contents
1. Global Definitions ........................................................................................................................... 86
1.1. Parameters .................................................................................................................................................................86
2. Component 1 ................................................................................................................................... 87
2.1. Definitions ..................................................................................................................................................................87
2.2. Geometry 1 ................................................................................................................................................................88
2.3. Materials .....................................................................................................................................................................89
2.4. Electrostatics .............................................................................................................................................................93
2.5. Mesh 1 .........................................................................................................................................................................94
3. Study 1 ............................................................................................................................................. 95
3.1. Time Dependent ......................................................................................................................................................95
4. Results .............................................................................................................................................. 97
4.1. Datasets ......................................................................................................................................................................97
4.2. Tables ...........................................................................................................................................................................99
4.3. Plot Groups ............................................................................................................................................................. 120
85
USED PRODUCTS
COMSOL Multiphysics
AC/DC Module
1.1 PARAMETERS
PARAMETER 1
f 50 [Hz] 50 Hz
a 1[kV] 1000 V
86
2 Component 1
2.1 DEFINITIONS
2.1.1 Functions
Analytic 3
Function name an2
Analytic 3
2.1.2 Selections
Explicit 1
Selection type
Explicit
Selection
No domains
87
Boundary System 1
Tag sys1
COORDINATE NAMES
First Second Third
t1 n to
2.2 GEOMETRY 1
Geometry 1
UNITS
Length unit mm
Angular unit deg
88
2.3 MATERIALS
2.3.1 Air
Air
SELECTION
Geometry geom1: Dimension 2: Domains 1, 15–21, 179, 186–192, 284–

Selection
290, 457–463, 473–474
89
2.3.2 A2 [solid]
A2 [solid]
SELECTION
Geometry geom1: Dimension 2: Domains 2–14, 22, 141–165, 169–178,

Selection 180–185, 193–224, 227–269, 272–283, 291–295, 414–438, 442–456,
464–472
Acrylic plastic
90
SELECTION
SELECTION
Selection Geometry geom1: Dimension 2: Domains 225–226, 270–271
91
2.3.5 Soil [solid]
Soil [solid]
SELECTION
2.3.6 94% Al2O3 [solid]
94% Al2O3 [solid]
SELECTION
92
Geometry geom1: Dimension 2: Domains 23–140, 166–168, 296–413,

Selection
439–441
2.4 ELECTROSTATICS
Electrostatics
EQUATIONS
FEATURES
Name Level
HV Domain
Ground 1 Boundary
Zero_p Domain
93
Name Level
2.5 MESH 1
Mesh 1
94
3 Study 1
3.1 TIME DEPENDENT

Times Unit
range(0,0.005,0.02) s
STUDY SETTINGS
Description Value
STUDY SETTINGS
Description Value
Output times {0, 0.005, 0.01, 0.015, 0.02}
STUDY EXTENSIONS
Description Value
Auxiliary sweep On
PARAMETERS
a range(380,0.1,380) kV

MESH SELECTION
95
Geometry Mesh

STUDY EXTENSIONS
Description Value
Auxiliary sweep On
PARAMETERS
a range(380,0.1,380) kV
96
4 Results
4.1 DATASETS

SOLUTION
Description Value
Solution Solution 1
4.1.2 Cut Line 2D 1

DATA
Description Value
LINE DATA
Description Value
97
Description Value
Points {{18943.5, 12594}, {18943.5, 12340}}
ADVANCED
Description Value

DATA
Description Value
POINT DATA
98
Description Value
x 18943.5, 18943.5
y 12565, 12340
4.2 TABLES
4.2.1 Evaluation 2D
x y Value
1060.4 1498.1 8.0005E-5
460.43 3867.6 10.323
2162.4 1954.0 60356
1051.4 944.79 1.5231E5
1042.9 2242.4 98732
559.52 2708.8 1.0091E5
99
x y Value
601.93 3811.3 3.2560E5
1365.2 4464.4 88529
255.63 30.508 9.5456E5
254.76 28.809 8.9823E5
161.49 34.892 65522
205.42 173.45 1.8957E-7
111.48 197.78 38073
212.18 199.80 2.9969E-7
406.83 295.78 1.9914E5
439.95 304.56 1.9405E5
753.13 3640.8 1.0514E5
570.66 3622.9 1.1730E5
502.68 3805.4 1.3004E5
506.26 3944.9 57913
681.57 3880.5 1.2705E5
649.37 3762.4 1.6299E5
595.70 4070.1 14154
610.01 3973.5 0.0000
606.58 3823.2 4.4949E5
608.73 3824.6 4.5375E5
617.06 3829.1 4.2303E5
621.09 3833.4 3.9754E5
100
x y Value
622.97 3837.7 3.6990E5
621.36 3840.1 3.9293E5
614.91 3839.3 0.0000
625.92 3830.5 3.2525E5
597.72 3853.0 0.0000
635.86 3860.0 1.8723E5
604.16 3884.5 0.0000
646.34 3891.2 1.3499E5
602.01 3900.6 0.0000
659.51 3896.6 1.2529E5
605.51 3897.9 0.0000
633.18 3904.9 1.2544E5
595.57 3895.5 0.0000
658.97 3905.7 1.1957E5
612.76 3879.6 0.0000
632.10 3886.6 1.4435E5
603.09 3882.3 0.0000
607.88 4008.3 0.0000
607.88 3959.4 0.0000
604.92 3923.1 0.0000
604.18 3877.9 0.0000
606.40 3844.6 0.0000
101
x y Value
606.40 3817.1 3.6828
606.40 3837.9 0.0000
605.66 3869.0 0.0000
601.22 3908.3 0.0000
601.22 3908.3 0.0000
596.77 3850.5 0.0000
597.51 3836.4 0.0000
600.48 3828.3 0.0000
613.07 3826.0 1.2824
616.03 3823.1 2.9491
610.11 3812.7 5.4893
602.70 3807.5 6.6688
594.55 3780.8 13.096
672.33 3797.9 15.104
619.74 3835.7 0.32134
634.55 3869.7 2.3178
647.15 3942.3 2.6178
647.89 4008.3 2.0983
647.15 4071.2 2.0183
650.11 4110.5 2.4645
650.85 4132.0 2.6416
653.81 4151.3 2.8440
102
x y Value
547.88 3860.9 4.2333
539.73 3946.0 1.9221
533.80 4007.5 0.83309
528.62 4056.4 0.0000
529.36 4029.0 0.43916
536.77 3985.3 1.1801
536.77 3972.7 1.4706
538.25 3940.9 2.1425
596.77 3942.3 0.0000
593.81 3896.4 0.0000
593.81 3869.0 0.0000
592.33 3860.1 0.0000
596.03 3915.7 0.0000
587.14 3983.1 0.0000
587.14 4026.1 0.0000
591.59 4089.0 0.34947
606.40 4092.7 0.61112
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
103
x y Value
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
596.77 4083.8 0.37568
604.18 4017.2 0.0000
604.18 4017.2 0.0000
604.18 4017.2 0.0000
612.33 4035.7 0.0000
606.40 4082.7 18633
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
104
x y Value
658.26 3982.0 83597
658.26 3982.0 83597
542.69 3887.9 98139
598.25 3917.5 0.0000
598.25 3917.5 0.0000
598.99 3948.6 0.0000
604.18 4015.3 0.0000
599.73 4084.2 17562
595.29 4102.7 17478
587.14 4082.7 16619
573.81 4061.2 7325.4
600.48 4059.8 15125
588.62 3868.6 0.0000
596.77 3924.2 0.0000
586.40 4010.1 0.0000
584.92 4067.9 9549.1
582.70 4005.7 0.0000
577.51 3916.0 73819
590.10 3855.3 0.0000
598.99 4064.2 14658
590.85 4009.4 0.0000
595.29 4052.4 11963
105
x y Value
596.03 4080.5 16478
590.10 4031.6 0.0000
601.96 4019.8 0.0000
603.44 3990.9 0.0000
603.44 3970.1 0.0000
603.44 3954.6 0.0000
604.18 3937.5 0.0000
598.99 4078.3 16649
598.99 4078.3 16649
597.51 4059.8 13563
558.99 3843.8 3.9471
556.77 3878.6 2.3637
551.58 3920.1 1.7838
547.14 3975.7 1.0432
541.21 4028.3 0.35322
659.74 3843.8 8.0450
659.00 3872.7 5.9166
655.30 3916.4 3.9080
655.30 3965.3 3.0774
650.11 4009.8 2.2562
646.41 4051.2 1.8863
641.22 4089.8 1.8160
106
x y Value
648.63 3794.2 13.433
652.33 3840.9 7.1959
648.63 3918.6 3.1074
643.44 3974.9 1.9697
640.48 3774.9 16.014
644.92 3795.7 12.847
646.41 3814.2 9.8902
646.41 3835.7 6.7767
644.92 3856.4 4.6373
644.92 3877.2 3.6777
644.92 3902.3 3.0288
645.66 3932.7 2.6221
646.41 3952.7 2.4381
591.59 4066.8 0.15831
591.59 4066.8 0.15831
591.59 4066.8 0.15831
610.85 4017.2 0.0000
606.40 3986.1 0.0000
607.14 3953.5 0.0000
597.51 4074.9 0.29593
598.62 3987.7 0.0000
597.77 3952.9 0.0000
107
x y Value
596.07 3917.2 0.0000
596.92 4058.3 13156
596.92 4001.3 0.0000
603.71 4083.7 18223
604.48 4088.4 0.53551
595.43 3975.2 0.0000
596.94 3930.0 0.0000
607.50 3886.2 0.0000
597.61 4076.2 0.31000
597.61 4034.3 0.0000
597.61 3998.1 0.0000
597.61 3935.8 0.0000
597.61 3912.0 0.0000
599.88 4083.0 0.40972
596.48 4007.1 0.0000
599.88 4077.3 0.34989
599.88 4083.0 0.40972
599.88 4083.0 0.40972
599.88 3964.1 0.0000
599.88 3964.1 0.0000
593.08 3901.8 0.0000
589.69 4075.0 0.20587
108
x y Value
544.41 3977.7 1.1134
603.27 4086.4 0.49574
675.72 4006.0 4.2129
675.72 3909.8 6.3538
679.12 3831.7 11.774
614.59 3789.8 11.656
495.73 3838.5 10.832
601.11 4062.7 15667
601.11 4080.6 17420
606.84 4004.1 0.0000
617.67 3943.7 42456
602.39 3943.7 3106.5
602.39 3899.1 0.0000
597.93 3849.4 0.0000
599.20 3852.0 0.0000
596.02 3888.9 0.0000
594.74 3994.6 0.0000
597.93 4030.9 0.0000
600.47 4012.4 0.0000
599.84 3975.5 0.0000
604.30 3913.1 0.0000
608.75 3885.7 10518
109
x y Value
608.75 3864.7 0.0000
608.75 3839.9 0.0000
607.48 3839.9 0.0000
597.29 3864.7 0.0000
594.11 3903.5 0.0000
595.95 4012.9 0.0000
545.56 3984.2 0.98633
563.42 3952.9 0.69454
567.25 3912.7 0.79984
564.06 3852.1 2.5088
205.51 49.210 380.70
230.98 48.361 380.70
298.90 78.078 363.30
396.54 64.493 334.69
1584.4 1233.9 188.56
1523.6 1309.1 191.10
617.64 3746.6 19.720
595.00 3671.1 30.076
599.53 3553.4 43.879
595.00 3840.2 0.0000
596.51 3865.9 0.0000
599.53 3890.0 0.0000
110
x y Value
599.53 3930.8 0.0000
601.04 3986.6 0.0000
601.04 4027.4 0.0000
601.04 4054.5 0.068697
601.04 4081.7 0.41258
601.04 4095.3 0.55163
635.95 3847.1 3.6073
638.49 3874.3 2.8175
639.34 3901.4 2.3496
629.15 3973.6 0.73074
556.13 3820.8 7.3614
544.25 3904.8 2.7531
551.89 3967.7 0.98420
585.85 3837.8 0.0000
610.47 3837.8 0.0000
624.06 3837.8 1.4079
607.93 3833.5 0.0000
602.83 3818.2 3.0624
602.83 3821.6 1.6651
597.74 3893.8 0.0000
610.55 3885.5 20417
615.32 3878.8 38553
111
x y Value
617.24 3884.5 57349
631.57 3889.8 1.1708E5
643.99 3877.8 1.5109E5
588.57 3896.4 4787.9
597.66 4072.2 15230
597.66 4083.6 17155
597.66 4068.8 14718
596.53 3971.4 0.0000
594.26 4075.6 15046
595.40 4091.5 17670
600.24 4087.8 17931
603.69 3891.7 0.0000
607.95 3857.7 0.0000
600.23 4092.6 18259
619.97 4049.3 38577
567.34 4042.5 5325.2
594.09 4069.9 13543
598.95 4001.2 0.0000
604.42 3922.8 0.0000
607.46 3895.4 0.0000
606.25 3851.7 0.0000
604.23 4086.6 0.51169
112
x y Value
604.23 4073.0 0.35332
606.78 4064.5 0.26246
594.89 4095.9 0.46082
505.70 4084.9 0.0000
458.13 4084.9 0.0000
425.00 4084.9 0.0000
527.78 4099.3 0.0000
560.91 4102.7 0.0000
563.46 4079.8 0.0000
563.46 4060.2 0.0000
572.80 4081.5 0.0000
575.35 4084.9 0.038366
580.45 4083.2 0.12662
588.94 4083.2 0.25941
605.93 4083.2 0.49846
639.06 4083.2 1.6440
607.63 4086.6 0.56398
558.36 4075.5 0.0000
633.11 4038.1 0.91225
612.73 4033.1 0.0000
606.78 3989.7 0.0000
602.53 3965.1 0.0000
113
x y Value
602.53 3918.4 0.0000
602.53 3882.7 0.0000
594.04 3847.0 0.0000
587.24 3930.3 0.0000
595.74 3877.6 0.0000
707.02 4118.8 4.9389
599.73 4071.9 0.0000
599.73 4049.6 0.0000
599.09 4018.4 0.0000
601.00 4084.6 0.0000
611.19 4087.8 0.0000
597.82 3850.2 0.0000
600.36 3866.1 0.0000
607.37 3905.0 0.0000
604.82 3922.8 0.0000
604.82 3968.7 0.0000
610.56 4003.1 0.0000
609.28 4028.6 0.0000
586.99 3870.6 0.0000
590.81 3892.9 0.0000
590.81 3921.5 0.0000
590.81 3962.9 0.0000
114
x y Value
587.62 3995.4 0.0000
586.99 4092.3 0.0000
536.02 4085.9 0.0000
469.76 4068.7 0.0000
621.33 4102.5 2.3316E5
604.40 4102.8 1.1754E5
604.94 4090.2 0.0000
602.25 4077.8 0.0000
601.44 4065.4 0.0000
601.17 4060.6 0.0000
598.02 4078.2 0.0000
601.12 4098.4 0.0000
601.12 4025.4 0.0000
601.12 3988.2 0.0000
601.12 3961.8 0.0000
601.12 3924.6 0.0000
604.23 3898.2 0.0000
604.23 3879.5 0.0000
604.23 3859.4 0.0000
618.09 4103.4 1.9395E5
618.36 4096.0 1.5366E5
618.64 4087.1 1.4214E5
115
x y Value
607.45 4084.7 0.0000
607.45 4060.9 0.0000
599.76 4037.3 0.0000
599.50 4029.1 0.0000
636.17 4041.9 73147
636.43 4029.1 74428
592.89 4091.4 0.0000
601.38 4074.5 0.0000
597.14 4030.3 0.0000
593.74 4003.1 0.0000
600.53 4071.1 0.0000
606.70 4084.7 64815
603.51 4084.7 69465
600.32 4058.5 93333
600.96 3980.1 92960
599.04 3937.3 87174
596.49 3897.8 80692
596.49 3864.6 72271
603.13 3999.3 94857
603.13 4073.2 79895
594.07 3951.0 89512
630.07 4088.8 1.2526E5
116
x y Value
639.36 4091.7 1.8792
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
674.83 3925.0 16.893
641.84 4110.4 2.3048
601.09 4092.9 0.0000
640.87 4087.1 2.0722
638.93 4078.3 1.9311
636.99 4105.5 1.7318
637.96 4128.8 2.4143
637.96 4142.4 2.7282
637.96 4109.4 1.9276
637.96 4086.1 1.7444
637.96 4071.6 1.9563
636.02 4049.2 2.6724
634.08 4018.2 5.6636
636.02 3999.7 7.7251
640.87 3960.0 11.937
643.78 3931.8 14.666
644.75 3898.8 17.629
117
x y Value
643.78 3865.8 20.418
597.08 4092.0 0.0000
592.26 3982.8 1.0800E5
646.84 4082.4 1.1552E5
644.43 4021.4 1.3313E5
655.67 3934.7 1.0305E5
660.49 3863.2 1.0193E5
650.85 3817.5 1.1452E5
615.54 3747.7 1.0915E5
588.25 3818.3 1.4824E5
603.50 3842.4 66970
-1486.6 3793.4 63597
-1480.6 3860.5 61203
-1480.6 3932.5 57272
-1485.6 4006.6 50997
-1968.4 4249.2 9708.9
-1968.4 4249.2 9708.9
-1968.4 4219.2 10790
-1968.4 4099.2 21824
-1765.9 -17.581 3.8070E5
-2188.1 -57.787 3.8070E5
-2288.6 384.48 3.6420E5
118
x y Value
18632 9202.6 60764
18636 9289.5 58287
18686 9410.8 95197
18820 9615.4 62068
18943 12566 1231.5
18943 12564 1268.7
18943 12566 1227.7
18943 12564 1266.6
18943 12578 1044.2
18942 12553 1473.2
18943 12564 1256.7
18943 12572 1105.8
18942 12565 1231.8
18942 12573 1076.9
18941 12563 1236.6
18941 12563 1236.2
18941 12569 1123.8
18941 12560 1300.0

Graph marker
0.0050000 3.8290
119
0.0050000 15.975
4.3 PLOT GROUPS
120
Line Graph: Electric field norm (V/m)
121
122
123
Contents
1. Global Definitions .........................................................................................................................125
1.1. Parameters .............................................................................................................................................................. 125
2. Component 1 .................................................................................................................................126
2.1. Definitions ............................................................................................................................................................... 126
2.2. Geometry 1 ............................................................................................................................................................. 127
2.3. Materials .................................................................................................................................................................. 128
2.4. Electrostatics .......................................................................................................................................................... 132
2.5. Mesh 1 ...................................................................................................................................................................... 133
3. Study 1 ...........................................................................................................................................134
3.1. Time Dependent ................................................................................................................................................... 134
4. Results ............................................................................................................................................136
4.1. Datasets ................................................................................................................................................................... 136
4.2. Tables ........................................................................................................................................................................ 138
4.3. Plot Groups ............................................................................................................................................................. 164
124
USED PRODUCTS
COMSOL Multiphysics
AC/DC Module
1.1 PARAMETERS
PARAMETER 1
f 50 [Hz] 50 Hz
a 1[kV] 1000 V
125
2 Component 1
2.1 DEFINITIONS
2.1.1 Functions
Analytic 3
Function name an2
Analytic 3
2.1.2 Selections
Explicit 1
Selection type
Explicit
Selection
No domains
126
Boundary System 1
Tag sys1
COORDINATE NAMES
First Second Third
t1 n to
2.2 GEOMETRY 1
Geometry 1
UNITS
Length unit mm
Angular unit deg
127
2.3 MATERIALS
2.3.1 Air
Air
SELECTION
Geometry geom1: Dimension 2: Domains 1, 5–6, 38, 42, 46, 58, 61–62,
Selection
64, 101, 103
128
2.3.2 A2 [solid]
A2 [solid]
SELECTION
Geometry geom1: Dimension 2: Domains 2–4, 20–23, 39–41, 43–45, 48–

Selection
57, 59–60, 63, 66–67, 81–84, 99–100, 102
2.3.3 Silicon [solid,bulk]
Silicon [solid,bulk]
129
SELECTION
Selection Geometry geom1: Dimension 2: Domains 7–19, 24–37, 68–80, 85–98
Acrylic plastic
SELECTION
Geometry geom1: Dimension 1: Boundaries 498–499, 501–503, 505–

Selection
506, 882–883
130
SELECTION
2.3.6 Soil [solid]
Soil [solid]
SELECTION
131
2.4 ELECTROSTATICS
Electrostatics
EQUATIONS
FEATURES
Name Level
HV Domain
Ground 1 Boundary
Zero_p Domain
132
2.5 MESH 1
Mesh 1
133
3 Study 1
3.1 TIME DEPENDENT

Times Unit
range(0,0.005,0.02) s
STUDY SETTINGS
Description Value
STUDY SETTINGS
Description Value
Output times {0, 0.005, 0.01, 0.015, 0.02}
STUDY EXTENSIONS
Description Value
Auxiliary sweep On
PARAMETERS
a range(15.4,0.1,20) kV

MESH SELECTION
134
Geometry Mesh

STUDY EXTENSIONS
Description Value
Auxiliary sweep On
PARAMETERS
a range(15.4,0.1,20) kV
135
4 Results
4.1 DATASETS

SOLUTION
Description Value
Solution Solution 1
4.1.2 Cut Line 2D 1

DATA
Description Value
LINE DATA
Description Value
136
Description Value
Points {{8553.6, 8558.5}, {8553.6, 8304.5}}
ADVANCED
Description Value

DATA
Description Value
POINT DATA
137
Description Value
x 8553.6, 8553.6
y 8529.5, 8304.5
4.2 TABLES
4.2.1 Evaluation 2D
x y Value
1060.4 1498.1 8.0005E-5
460.43 3867.6 10.323
2162.4 1954.0 60356
1051.4 944.79 1.5231E5
1042.9 2242.4 98732
559.52 2708.8 1.0091E5
138
x y Value
601.93 3811.3 3.2560E5
1365.2 4464.4 88529
255.63 30.508 9.5456E5
254.76 28.809 8.9823E5
161.49 34.892 65522
205.42 173.45 1.8957E-7
111.48 197.78 38073
212.18 199.80 2.9969E-7
406.83 295.78 1.9914E5
439.95 304.56 1.9405E5
753.13 3640.8 1.0514E5
570.66 3622.9 1.1730E5
502.68 3805.4 1.3004E5
506.26 3944.9 57913
681.57 3880.5 1.2705E5
649.37 3762.4 1.6299E5
595.70 4070.1 14154
610.01 3973.5 0.0000
606.58 3823.2 4.4949E5
608.73 3824.6 4.5375E5
617.06 3829.1 4.2303E5
621.09 3833.4 3.9754E5
139
x y Value
622.97 3837.7 3.6990E5
621.36 3840.1 3.9293E5
614.91 3839.3 0.0000
625.92 3830.5 3.2525E5
597.72 3853.0 0.0000
635.86 3860.0 1.8723E5
604.16 3884.5 0.0000
646.34 3891.2 1.3499E5
602.01 3900.6 0.0000
659.51 3896.6 1.2529E5
605.51 3897.9 0.0000
633.18 3904.9 1.2544E5
595.57 3895.5 0.0000
658.97 3905.7 1.1957E5
612.76 3879.6 0.0000
632.10 3886.6 1.4435E5
603.09 3882.3 0.0000
607.88 4008.3 0.0000
607.88 3959.4 0.0000
604.92 3923.1 0.0000
604.18 3877.9 0.0000
606.40 3844.6 0.0000
140
x y Value
606.40 3817.1 3.6828
606.40 3837.9 0.0000
605.66 3869.0 0.0000
601.22 3908.3 0.0000
601.22 3908.3 0.0000
596.77 3850.5 0.0000
597.51 3836.4 0.0000
600.48 3828.3 0.0000
613.07 3826.0 1.2824
616.03 3823.1 2.9491
610.11 3812.7 5.4893
602.70 3807.5 6.6688
594.55 3780.8 13.096
672.33 3797.9 15.104
619.74 3835.7 0.32134
634.55 3869.7 2.3178
647.15 3942.3 2.6178
647.89 4008.3 2.0983
647.15 4071.2 2.0183
650.11 4110.5 2.4645
650.85 4132.0 2.6416
653.81 4151.3 2.8440
141
x y Value
547.88 3860.9 4.2333
539.73 3946.0 1.9221
533.80 4007.5 0.83309
528.62 4056.4 0.0000
529.36 4029.0 0.43916
536.77 3985.3 1.1801
536.77 3972.7 1.4706
538.25 3940.9 2.1425
596.77 3942.3 0.0000
593.81 3896.4 0.0000
593.81 3869.0 0.0000
592.33 3860.1 0.0000
596.03 3915.7 0.0000
587.14 3983.1 0.0000
587.14 4026.1 0.0000
591.59 4089.0 0.34947
606.40 4092.7 0.61112
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
142
x y Value
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
596.77 4083.8 0.37568
604.18 4017.2 0.0000
604.18 4017.2 0.0000
604.18 4017.2 0.0000
612.33 4035.7 0.0000
606.40 4082.7 18633
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
143
x y Value
658.26 3982.0 83597
658.26 3982.0 83597
542.69 3887.9 98139
598.25 3917.5 0.0000
598.25 3917.5 0.0000
598.99 3948.6 0.0000
604.18 4015.3 0.0000
599.73 4084.2 17562
595.29 4102.7 17478
587.14 4082.7 16619
573.81 4061.2 7325.4
600.48 4059.8 15125
588.62 3868.6 0.0000
596.77 3924.2 0.0000
586.40 4010.1 0.0000
584.92 4067.9 9549.1
582.70 4005.7 0.0000
577.51 3916.0 73819
590.10 3855.3 0.0000
598.99 4064.2 14658
590.85 4009.4 0.0000
595.29 4052.4 11963
144
x y Value
596.03 4080.5 16478
590.10 4031.6 0.0000
601.96 4019.8 0.0000
603.44 3990.9 0.0000
603.44 3970.1 0.0000
603.44 3954.6 0.0000
604.18 3937.5 0.0000
598.99 4078.3 16649
598.99 4078.3 16649
597.51 4059.8 13563
558.99 3843.8 3.9471
556.77 3878.6 2.3637
551.58 3920.1 1.7838
547.14 3975.7 1.0432
541.21 4028.3 0.35322
659.74 3843.8 8.0450
659.00 3872.7 5.9166
655.30 3916.4 3.9080
655.30 3965.3 3.0774
650.11 4009.8 2.2562
646.41 4051.2 1.8863
641.22 4089.8 1.8160
145
x y Value
648.63 3794.2 13.433
652.33 3840.9 7.1959
648.63 3918.6 3.1074
643.44 3974.9 1.9697
640.48 3774.9 16.014
644.92 3795.7 12.847
646.41 3814.2 9.8902
646.41 3835.7 6.7767
644.92 3856.4 4.6373
644.92 3877.2 3.6777
644.92 3902.3 3.0288
645.66 3932.7 2.6221
646.41 3952.7 2.4381
591.59 4066.8 0.15831
591.59 4066.8 0.15831
591.59 4066.8 0.15831
610.85 4017.2 0.0000
606.40 3986.1 0.0000
607.14 3953.5 0.0000
597.51 4074.9 0.29593
598.62 3987.7 0.0000
597.77 3952.9 0.0000
146
x y Value
596.07 3917.2 0.0000
596.92 4058.3 13156
596.92 4001.3 0.0000
603.71 4083.7 18223
604.48 4088.4 0.53551
595.43 3975.2 0.0000
596.94 3930.0 0.0000
607.50 3886.2 0.0000
597.61 4076.2 0.31000
597.61 4034.3 0.0000
597.61 3998.1 0.0000
597.61 3935.8 0.0000
597.61 3912.0 0.0000
599.88 4083.0 0.40972
596.48 4007.1 0.0000
599.88 4077.3 0.34989
599.88 4083.0 0.40972
599.88 4083.0 0.40972
599.88 3964.1 0.0000
599.88 3964.1 0.0000
593.08 3901.8 0.0000
589.69 4075.0 0.20587
147
x y Value
544.41 3977.7 1.1134
603.27 4086.4 0.49574
675.72 4006.0 4.2129
675.72 3909.8 6.3538
679.12 3831.7 11.774
614.59 3789.8 11.656
495.73 3838.5 10.832
601.11 4062.7 15667
601.11 4080.6 17420
606.84 4004.1 0.0000
617.67 3943.7 42456
602.39 3943.7 3106.5
602.39 3899.1 0.0000
597.93 3849.4 0.0000
599.20 3852.0 0.0000
596.02 3888.9 0.0000
594.74 3994.6 0.0000
597.93 4030.9 0.0000
600.47 4012.4 0.0000
599.84 3975.5 0.0000
604.30 3913.1 0.0000
608.75 3885.7 10518
148
x y Value
608.75 3864.7 0.0000
608.75 3839.9 0.0000
607.48 3839.9 0.0000
597.29 3864.7 0.0000
594.11 3903.5 0.0000
595.95 4012.9 0.0000
545.56 3984.2 0.98633
563.42 3952.9 0.69454
567.25 3912.7 0.79984
564.06 3852.1 2.5088
205.51 49.210 380.70
230.98 48.361 380.70
298.90 78.078 363.30
396.54 64.493 334.69
1584.4 1233.9 188.56
1523.6 1309.1 191.10
617.64 3746.6 19.720
595.00 3671.1 30.076
599.53 3553.4 43.879
595.00 3840.2 0.0000
596.51 3865.9 0.0000
599.53 3890.0 0.0000
149
x y Value
599.53 3930.8 0.0000
601.04 3986.6 0.0000
601.04 4027.4 0.0000
601.04 4054.5 0.068697
601.04 4081.7 0.41258
601.04 4095.3 0.55163
635.95 3847.1 3.6073
638.49 3874.3 2.8175
639.34 3901.4 2.3496
629.15 3973.6 0.73074
556.13 3820.8 7.3614
544.25 3904.8 2.7531
551.89 3967.7 0.98420
585.85 3837.8 0.0000
610.47 3837.8 0.0000
624.06 3837.8 1.4079
607.93 3833.5 0.0000
602.83 3818.2 3.0624
602.83 3821.6 1.6651
597.74 3893.8 0.0000
610.55 3885.5 20417
615.32 3878.8 38553
150
x y Value
617.24 3884.5 57349
631.57 3889.8 1.1708E5
643.99 3877.8 1.5109E5
588.57 3896.4 4787.9
597.66 4072.2 15230
597.66 4083.6 17155
597.66 4068.8 14718
596.53 3971.4 0.0000
594.26 4075.6 15046
595.40 4091.5 17670
600.24 4087.8 17931
603.69 3891.7 0.0000
607.95 3857.7 0.0000
600.23 4092.6 18259
619.97 4049.3 38577
567.34 4042.5 5325.2
594.09 4069.9 13543
598.95 4001.2 0.0000
604.42 3922.8 0.0000
607.46 3895.4 0.0000
606.25 3851.7 0.0000
604.23 4086.6 0.51169
151
x y Value
604.23 4073.0 0.35332
606.78 4064.5 0.26246
594.89 4095.9 0.46082
505.70 4084.9 0.0000
458.13 4084.9 0.0000
425.00 4084.9 0.0000
527.78 4099.3 0.0000
560.91 4102.7 0.0000
563.46 4079.8 0.0000
563.46 4060.2 0.0000
572.80 4081.5 0.0000
575.35 4084.9 0.038366
580.45 4083.2 0.12662
588.94 4083.2 0.25941
605.93 4083.2 0.49846
639.06 4083.2 1.6440
607.63 4086.6 0.56398
558.36 4075.5 0.0000
633.11 4038.1 0.91225
612.73 4033.1 0.0000
606.78 3989.7 0.0000
602.53 3965.1 0.0000
152
x y Value
602.53 3918.4 0.0000
602.53 3882.7 0.0000
594.04 3847.0 0.0000
587.24 3930.3 0.0000
595.74 3877.6 0.0000
707.02 4118.8 4.9389
599.73 4071.9 0.0000
599.73 4049.6 0.0000
599.09 4018.4 0.0000
601.00 4084.6 0.0000
611.19 4087.8 0.0000
597.82 3850.2 0.0000
600.36 3866.1 0.0000
607.37 3905.0 0.0000
604.82 3922.8 0.0000
604.82 3968.7 0.0000
610.56 4003.1 0.0000
609.28 4028.6 0.0000
586.99 3870.6 0.0000
590.81 3892.9 0.0000
590.81 3921.5 0.0000
590.81 3962.9 0.0000
153
x y Value
587.62 3995.4 0.0000
586.99 4092.3 0.0000
536.02 4085.9 0.0000
469.76 4068.7 0.0000
621.33 4102.5 2.3316E5
604.40 4102.8 1.1754E5
604.94 4090.2 0.0000
602.25 4077.8 0.0000
601.44 4065.4 0.0000
601.17 4060.6 0.0000
598.02 4078.2 0.0000
601.12 4098.4 0.0000
601.12 4025.4 0.0000
601.12 3988.2 0.0000
601.12 3961.8 0.0000
601.12 3924.6 0.0000
604.23 3898.2 0.0000
604.23 3879.5 0.0000
604.23 3859.4 0.0000
618.09 4103.4 1.9395E5
618.36 4096.0 1.5366E5
618.64 4087.1 1.4214E5
154
x y Value
607.45 4084.7 0.0000
607.45 4060.9 0.0000
599.76 4037.3 0.0000
599.50 4029.1 0.0000
636.17 4041.9 73147
636.43 4029.1 74428
592.89 4091.4 0.0000
601.38 4074.5 0.0000
597.14 4030.3 0.0000
593.74 4003.1 0.0000
600.53 4071.1 0.0000
606.70 4084.7 64815
603.51 4084.7 69465
600.32 4058.5 93333
600.96 3980.1 92960
599.04 3937.3 87174
596.49 3897.8 80692
596.49 3864.6 72271
603.13 3999.3 94857
603.13 4073.2 79895
594.07 3951.0 89512
630.07 4088.8 1.2526E5
155
x y Value
639.36 4091.7 1.8792
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
674.83 3925.0 16.893
641.84 4110.4 2.3048
601.09 4092.9 0.0000
640.87 4087.1 2.0722
638.93 4078.3 1.9311
636.99 4105.5 1.7318
637.96 4128.8 2.4143
637.96 4142.4 2.7282
637.96 4109.4 1.9276
637.96 4086.1 1.7444
637.96 4071.6 1.9563
636.02 4049.2 2.6724
634.08 4018.2 5.6636
636.02 3999.7 7.7251
640.87 3960.0 11.937
643.78 3931.8 14.666
644.75 3898.8 17.629
156
x y Value
643.78 3865.8 20.418
597.08 4092.0 0.0000
592.26 3982.8 1.0800E5
646.84 4082.4 1.1552E5
644.43 4021.4 1.3313E5
655.67 3934.7 1.0305E5
660.49 3863.2 1.0193E5
650.85 3817.5 1.1452E5
615.54 3747.7 1.0915E5
588.25 3818.3 1.4824E5
603.50 3842.4 66970
-51.563 499.87 379.87
63.573 384.73 379.60
217.09 461.49 380.00
217.09 288.79 379.99
217.09 154.46 379.99
-32.374 1881.5 233.81
428.17 2687.4 133.68
159.52 96.895 379.99
159.52 423.11 379.99
199.03 0.74750 5.3723E5
253.67 17.824 6.0045E5
157
x y Value
597.27 3824.8 97487
606.84 3859.5 25.667
197.99 48.240 380.00
196.86 44.844 380.00
598.38 3866.0 24.802
159.98 208.83 59.989
340.90 490.27 57.716
340.90 811.92 60.000
-1501.9 3900.2 0.0000
-1451.8 3900.2 3.2787
-1450.9 3877.2 4.7065
-1456.9 3837.3 8.2715
8070.3 7325.7 109.98
8142.0 7209.1 109.97
8204.8 7253.9 110.00
8546.0 8346.6 97033
8546.9 8370.9 98361
8551.4 8420.3 1.0239E5
8552.3 8499.3 1.2442E5
8553.2 8563.9 93922
8553.2 8563.9 93922
8554.1 8561.2 97038
158
x y Value
8546.9 8315.2 95640
8546.9 8329.6 96134
8546.9 8357.4 97494
8545.2 8388.8 1.0014E5
8545.2 8427.4 1.0531E5
8543.4 8457.1 1.1249E5
8540.7 8481.3 1.2363E5
8539.8 8500.2 1.3766E5
8544.3 8506.4 1.3804E5
8541.6 8539.7 1.6898E5
8541.6 8566.6 97437
8537.1 8581.0 69479
8555.9 8317.9 94496
8555.9 8317.9 94496
8558.6 8376.3 96739
8558.6 8466.9 1.0876E5
8552.3 8528.9 1.3615E5
8550.5 8529.8 1.4012E5
8546.9 8550.4 1.2919E5
8539.8 8566.6 98359
8543.4 8311.6 96004
8546.0 8345.7 96988
159
x y Value
8541.6 8403.2 1.0254E5
8536.2 8431.0 1.0827E5
8524.5 8482.2 1.3087E5
8557.7 8550.0 4.4076
8556.8 8322.8 25.197
8556.8 8388.4 18.983
8553.2 8465.6 11.271
8546.0 8530.2 4.0958
8543.4 8576.9 2.9258
8470.5 8766.4 1.3416
8504.4 8868.1 0.82467
8665.6 9198.9 0.21742
8580.8 9122.6 0.021119
8529.9 8995.3 0.0000
8546.9 8969.9 0.0000
8394.2 7875.9 74.307
8470.5 7994.6 58.597
8504.4 8138.8 43.083
8529.9 8291.4 28.019
8280.3 8559.8 0.0000
8278.2 8541.7 0.0000
8268.2 8487.4 5.1400
160
x y Value
8258.1 8423.0 12.757
8264.1 8332.4 23.083
8556.8 8561.1 0.74817
8556.8 8553.4 0.77073
8549.2 8564.9 0.46447
8549.2 8561.1 0.46502
8545.4 8531.8 0.54436
8550.4 8563.6 0.48055
8550.4 8550.9 0.50045
8554.3 8573.8 0.52509
8554.3 8564.9 0.52787
8554.3 8558.5 0.53948
8554.3 8573.8 0.52509
8554.3 8592.9 0.52414
8550.4 8553.4 0.49444
8556.8 8554.7 0.58313
8553.0 8547.1 0.55654
8553.0 8488.6 1.2492
8547.9 8439.0 1.9291
8542.8 8412.3 2.2874
8542.8 8370.3 2.8670
8551.7 8313.1 3.6518
161
x y Value
8560.6 8572.5 0.59230
8550.4 8571.2 0.48099
8550.4 8547.1 0.51577
8551.7 8530.5 0.66573
8554.3 8536.9 0.64635
8554.3 8549.6 0.56661
8553.0 8562.3 0.51388
8553.0 8578.9 0.50777
8553.0 8581.4 0.50839
8038.9 8180.0 5.7266
8552.0 8528.9 0.68688
8550.6 8529.0 0.66475
8552.8 8528.5 0.70493
8547.9 8531.2 0.59469
8551.0 8529.4 0.66612
8552.5 8529.5 0.68881
8552.8 8529.6 0.69208
8552.8 8530.2 0.68661
8553.2 8531.0 0.68463
8552.9 8529.3 0.69585
8552.8 8529.1 0.69688
8552.3 8529.5 0.68497
162
x y Value
8552.3 8529.7 0.68284
8552.4 8530.2 0.67938
8552.7 8530.8 0.67809
8552.8 8531.4 0.67414
8552.9 8532.1 0.67006
8553.2 8533.0 0.66650
8552.7 8525.8 0.73333

Graph marker
0.0050000 0.91701
0.0050000 4.8907
163
4.3 PLOT GROUPS
Surface: Electric potential (kV)
164
165
166
167
Contents
1.1. Parameters .............................................................................................................................................................. 169
2. Component 1 .................................................................................................................................170
2.1. Definitions ............................................................................................................................................................... 170
2.2. Geometry 1 ............................................................................................................................................................. 171
2.3. Materials .................................................................................................................................................................. 172
2.4. Electrostatics .......................................................................................................................................................... 177
2.5. Mesh 1 ...................................................................................................................................................................... 178
3. Study 1 ...........................................................................................................................................179
3.1. Time Dependent ................................................................................................................................................... 179
4. Results ............................................................................................................................................181
4.1. Datasets ................................................................................................................................................................... 181
4.2. Tables ........................................................................................................................................................................ 183
4.3. Plot Groups ............................................................................................................................................................. 204
168
USED PRODUCTS
COMSOL Multiphysics
AC/DC Module
1.1 PARAMETERS
PARAMETER 1
f 50 [Hz] 50 Hz
a 1[kV] 1000 V
169
2 Component 1
2.1 DEFINITIONS
2.1.1 Functions
Analytic 3
Function name an2
Analytic 3
2.1.2 Selections
Explicit 1
Selection type
Explicit
Selection
Domains 165–167
170
Boundary System 1
Tag sys1
COORDINATE NAMES
First Second Third
t1 n to
2.2 GEOMETRY 1
Geometry 1
UNITS
Length unit mm
Angular unit deg
171
2.3 MATERIALS
2.3.1 Air
Air
SELECTION
Geometry geom1: Dimension 2: Domains 1, 7–8, 70–72, 76, 80, 92, 95–
Selection
96, 98, 163–167
172
2.3.2 A2 [solid]
A2 [solid]
SELECTION
Geometry geom1: Dimension 2: Domains 2–6, 37–40, 73–75, 77–79, 82–

Selection
91, 93–94, 97, 100–101, 130–133
173
SELECTION
Acrylic plastic
SELECTION
174
SELECTION
2.3.6 Soil [solid]
Soil [solid]
SELECTION
175
2.3.7 Acrylic plastic 1
Acrylic plastic 1
SELECTION
Geometry geom1: Dimension 1: Boundaries 1061–1062, 1064–1066,

Selection
1069, 1985–1986
176
2.4 ELECTROSTATICS
Electrostatics
EQUATIONS
FEATURES
Name Level
HV Domain
Ground 1 Boundary
Zero_p Domain
177
2.5 MESH 1
Mesh 1
178
3 Study 1
3.1 TIME DEPENDENT

Times Unit
range(0,0.005,0.02) s
STUDY SETTINGS
Description Value
STUDY SETTINGS
Description Value
Output times {0, 0.005, 0.01, 0.015, 0.02}
STUDY EXTENSIONS
Description Value
Auxiliary sweep On
PARAMETERS
a range(220,0.1,220) kV

MESH SELECTION
179
Geometry Mesh

STUDY EXTENSIONS
Description Value
Auxiliary sweep On
PARAMETERS
a range(220,0.1,220) kV
180
4 Results
4.1 DATASETS

SOLUTION
Description Value
Solution Solution 1
4.1.2 Cut Line 2D 1

DATA
Description Value
LINE DATA
Description Value
181
Description Value
Points {{-1447, 3898.5}, {-1447, 3644.5}}
ADVANCED
Description Value

DATA
Description Value
POINT DATA
182
Description Value
x -1447, -1447
y 3644.5, 3869.5
4.2 TABLES
4.2.1 Evaluation 2D
x y Value
1060.4 1498.1 8.0005E-5
460.43 3867.6 10.323
2162.4 1954.0 60356
1051.4 944.79 1.5231E5
1042.9 2242.4 98732
559.52 2708.8 1.0091E5
183
x y Value
601.93 3811.3 3.2560E5
1365.2 4464.4 88529
255.63 30.508 9.5456E5
254.76 28.809 8.9823E5
161.49 34.892 65522
205.42 173.45 1.8957E-7
111.48 197.78 38073
212.18 199.80 2.9969E-7
406.83 295.78 1.9914E5
439.95 304.56 1.9405E5
753.13 3640.8 1.0514E5
570.66 3622.9 1.1730E5
502.68 3805.4 1.3004E5
506.26 3944.9 57913
681.57 3880.5 1.2705E5
649.37 3762.4 1.6299E5
595.70 4070.1 14154
610.01 3973.5 0.0000
606.58 3823.2 4.4949E5
608.73 3824.6 4.5375E5
617.06 3829.1 4.2303E5
621.09 3833.4 3.9754E5
184
x y Value
622.97 3837.7 3.6990E5
621.36 3840.1 3.9293E5
614.91 3839.3 0.0000
625.92 3830.5 3.2525E5
597.72 3853.0 0.0000
635.86 3860.0 1.8723E5
604.16 3884.5 0.0000
646.34 3891.2 1.3499E5
602.01 3900.6 0.0000
659.51 3896.6 1.2529E5
605.51 3897.9 0.0000
633.18 3904.9 1.2544E5
595.57 3895.5 0.0000
658.97 3905.7 1.1957E5
612.76 3879.6 0.0000
632.10 3886.6 1.4435E5
603.09 3882.3 0.0000
607.88 4008.3 0.0000
607.88 3959.4 0.0000
604.92 3923.1 0.0000
604.18 3877.9 0.0000
606.40 3844.6 0.0000
185
x y Value
606.40 3817.1 3.6828
606.40 3837.9 0.0000
605.66 3869.0 0.0000
601.22 3908.3 0.0000
601.22 3908.3 0.0000
596.77 3850.5 0.0000
597.51 3836.4 0.0000
600.48 3828.3 0.0000
613.07 3826.0 1.2824
616.03 3823.1 2.9491
610.11 3812.7 5.4893
602.70 3807.5 6.6688
594.55 3780.8 13.096
672.33 3797.9 15.104
619.74 3835.7 0.32134
634.55 3869.7 2.3178
647.15 3942.3 2.6178
647.89 4008.3 2.0983
647.15 4071.2 2.0183
650.11 4110.5 2.4645
650.85 4132.0 2.6416
653.81 4151.3 2.8440
186
x y Value
547.88 3860.9 4.2333
539.73 3946.0 1.9221
533.80 4007.5 0.83309
528.62 4056.4 0.0000
529.36 4029.0 0.43916
536.77 3985.3 1.1801
536.77 3972.7 1.4706
538.25 3940.9 2.1425
596.77 3942.3 0.0000
593.81 3896.4 0.0000
593.81 3869.0 0.0000
592.33 3860.1 0.0000
596.03 3915.7 0.0000
587.14 3983.1 0.0000
587.14 4026.1 0.0000
591.59 4089.0 0.34947
606.40 4092.7 0.61112
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
187
x y Value
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
596.77 4083.8 0.37568
604.18 4017.2 0.0000
604.18 4017.2 0.0000
604.18 4017.2 0.0000
612.33 4035.7 0.0000
606.40 4082.7 18633
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
188
x y Value
658.26 3982.0 83597
658.26 3982.0 83597
542.69 3887.9 98139
598.25 3917.5 0.0000
598.25 3917.5 0.0000
598.99 3948.6 0.0000
604.18 4015.3 0.0000
599.73 4084.2 17562
595.29 4102.7 17478
587.14 4082.7 16619
573.81 4061.2 7325.4
600.48 4059.8 15125
588.62 3868.6 0.0000
596.77 3924.2 0.0000
586.40 4010.1 0.0000
584.92 4067.9 9549.1
582.70 4005.7 0.0000
577.51 3916.0 73819
590.10 3855.3 0.0000
598.99 4064.2 14658
590.85 4009.4 0.0000
595.29 4052.4 11963
189
x y Value
596.03 4080.5 16478
590.10 4031.6 0.0000
601.96 4019.8 0.0000
603.44 3990.9 0.0000
603.44 3970.1 0.0000
603.44 3954.6 0.0000
604.18 3937.5 0.0000
598.99 4078.3 16649
598.99 4078.3 16649
597.51 4059.8 13563
558.99 3843.8 3.9471
556.77 3878.6 2.3637
551.58 3920.1 1.7838
547.14 3975.7 1.0432
541.21 4028.3 0.35322
659.74 3843.8 8.0450
659.00 3872.7 5.9166
655.30 3916.4 3.9080
655.30 3965.3 3.0774
650.11 4009.8 2.2562
646.41 4051.2 1.8863
641.22 4089.8 1.8160
190
x y Value
648.63 3794.2 13.433
652.33 3840.9 7.1959
648.63 3918.6 3.1074
643.44 3974.9 1.9697
640.48 3774.9 16.014
644.92 3795.7 12.847
646.41 3814.2 9.8902
646.41 3835.7 6.7767
644.92 3856.4 4.6373
644.92 3877.2 3.6777
644.92 3902.3 3.0288
645.66 3932.7 2.6221
646.41 3952.7 2.4381
591.59 4066.8 0.15831
591.59 4066.8 0.15831
591.59 4066.8 0.15831
610.85 4017.2 0.0000
606.40 3986.1 0.0000
607.14 3953.5 0.0000
597.51 4074.9 0.29593
598.62 3987.7 0.0000
597.77 3952.9 0.0000
191
x y Value
596.07 3917.2 0.0000
596.92 4058.3 13156
596.92 4001.3 0.0000
603.71 4083.7 18223
604.48 4088.4 0.53551
595.43 3975.2 0.0000
596.94 3930.0 0.0000
607.50 3886.2 0.0000
597.61 4076.2 0.31000
597.61 4034.3 0.0000
597.61 3998.1 0.0000
597.61 3935.8 0.0000
597.61 3912.0 0.0000
599.88 4083.0 0.40972
596.48 4007.1 0.0000
599.88 4077.3 0.34989
599.88 4083.0 0.40972
599.88 4083.0 0.40972
599.88 3964.1 0.0000
599.88 3964.1 0.0000
593.08 3901.8 0.0000
589.69 4075.0 0.20587
192
x y Value
544.41 3977.7 1.1134
603.27 4086.4 0.49574
675.72 4006.0 4.2129
675.72 3909.8 6.3538
679.12 3831.7 11.774
614.59 3789.8 11.656
495.73 3838.5 10.832
601.11 4062.7 15667
601.11 4080.6 17420
606.84 4004.1 0.0000
617.67 3943.7 42456
602.39 3943.7 3106.5
602.39 3899.1 0.0000
597.93 3849.4 0.0000
599.20 3852.0 0.0000
596.02 3888.9 0.0000
594.74 3994.6 0.0000
597.93 4030.9 0.0000
600.47 4012.4 0.0000
599.84 3975.5 0.0000
604.30 3913.1 0.0000
608.75 3885.7 10518
193
x y Value
608.75 3864.7 0.0000
608.75 3839.9 0.0000
607.48 3839.9 0.0000
597.29 3864.7 0.0000
594.11 3903.5 0.0000
595.95 4012.9 0.0000
545.56 3984.2 0.98633
563.42 3952.9 0.69454
567.25 3912.7 0.79984
564.06 3852.1 2.5088
205.51 49.210 380.70
230.98 48.361 380.70
298.90 78.078 363.30
396.54 64.493 334.69
1584.4 1233.9 188.56
1523.6 1309.1 191.10
617.64 3746.6 19.720
595.00 3671.1 30.076
599.53 3553.4 43.879
595.00 3840.2 0.0000
596.51 3865.9 0.0000
599.53 3890.0 0.0000
194
x y Value
599.53 3930.8 0.0000
601.04 3986.6 0.0000
601.04 4027.4 0.0000
601.04 4054.5 0.068697
601.04 4081.7 0.41258
601.04 4095.3 0.55163
635.95 3847.1 3.6073
638.49 3874.3 2.8175
639.34 3901.4 2.3496
629.15 3973.6 0.73074
556.13 3820.8 7.3614
544.25 3904.8 2.7531
551.89 3967.7 0.98420
585.85 3837.8 0.0000
610.47 3837.8 0.0000
624.06 3837.8 1.4079
607.93 3833.5 0.0000
602.83 3818.2 3.0624
602.83 3821.6 1.6651
597.74 3893.8 0.0000
610.55 3885.5 20417
615.32 3878.8 38553
195
x y Value
617.24 3884.5 57349
631.57 3889.8 1.1708E5
643.99 3877.8 1.5109E5
588.57 3896.4 4787.9
597.66 4072.2 15230
597.66 4083.6 17155
597.66 4068.8 14718
596.53 3971.4 0.0000
594.26 4075.6 15046
595.40 4091.5 17670
600.24 4087.8 17931
603.69 3891.7 0.0000
607.95 3857.7 0.0000
600.23 4092.6 18259
619.97 4049.3 38577
567.34 4042.5 5325.2
594.09 4069.9 13543
598.95 4001.2 0.0000
604.42 3922.8 0.0000
607.46 3895.4 0.0000
606.25 3851.7 0.0000
604.23 4086.6 0.51169
196
x y Value
604.23 4073.0 0.35332
606.78 4064.5 0.26246
594.89 4095.9 0.46082
505.70 4084.9 0.0000
458.13 4084.9 0.0000
425.00 4084.9 0.0000
527.78 4099.3 0.0000
560.91 4102.7 0.0000
563.46 4079.8 0.0000
563.46 4060.2 0.0000
572.80 4081.5 0.0000
575.35 4084.9 0.038366
580.45 4083.2 0.12662
588.94 4083.2 0.25941
605.93 4083.2 0.49846
639.06 4083.2 1.6440
607.63 4086.6 0.56398
558.36 4075.5 0.0000
633.11 4038.1 0.91225
612.73 4033.1 0.0000
606.78 3989.7 0.0000
602.53 3965.1 0.0000
197
x y Value
602.53 3918.4 0.0000
602.53 3882.7 0.0000
594.04 3847.0 0.0000
587.24 3930.3 0.0000
595.74 3877.6 0.0000
707.02 4118.8 4.9389
599.73 4071.9 0.0000
599.73 4049.6 0.0000
599.09 4018.4 0.0000
601.00 4084.6 0.0000
611.19 4087.8 0.0000
597.82 3850.2 0.0000
600.36 3866.1 0.0000
607.37 3905.0 0.0000
604.82 3922.8 0.0000
604.82 3968.7 0.0000
610.56 4003.1 0.0000
609.28 4028.6 0.0000
586.99 3870.6 0.0000
590.81 3892.9 0.0000
590.81 3921.5 0.0000
590.81 3962.9 0.0000
198
x y Value
587.62 3995.4 0.0000
586.99 4092.3 0.0000
536.02 4085.9 0.0000
469.76 4068.7 0.0000
621.33 4102.5 2.3316E5
604.40 4102.8 1.1754E5
604.94 4090.2 0.0000
602.25 4077.8 0.0000
601.44 4065.4 0.0000
601.17 4060.6 0.0000
598.02 4078.2 0.0000
601.12 4098.4 0.0000
601.12 4025.4 0.0000
601.12 3988.2 0.0000
601.12 3961.8 0.0000
601.12 3924.6 0.0000
604.23 3898.2 0.0000
604.23 3879.5 0.0000
604.23 3859.4 0.0000
618.09 4103.4 1.9395E5
618.36 4096.0 1.5366E5
618.64 4087.1 1.4214E5
199
x y Value
607.45 4084.7 0.0000
607.45 4060.9 0.0000
599.76 4037.3 0.0000
599.50 4029.1 0.0000
636.17 4041.9 73147
636.43 4029.1 74428
592.89 4091.4 0.0000
601.38 4074.5 0.0000
597.14 4030.3 0.0000
593.74 4003.1 0.0000
600.53 4071.1 0.0000
606.70 4084.7 64815
603.51 4084.7 69465
600.32 4058.5 93333
600.96 3980.1 92960
599.04 3937.3 87174
596.49 3897.8 80692
596.49 3864.6 72271
603.13 3999.3 94857
603.13 4073.2 79895
594.07 3951.0 89512
630.07 4088.8 1.2526E5
200
x y Value
639.36 4091.7 1.8792
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
674.83 3925.0 16.893
641.84 4110.4 2.3048
601.09 4092.9 0.0000
640.87 4087.1 2.0722
638.93 4078.3 1.9311
636.99 4105.5 1.7318
637.96 4128.8 2.4143
637.96 4142.4 2.7282
637.96 4109.4 1.9276
637.96 4086.1 1.7444
637.96 4071.6 1.9563
636.02 4049.2 2.6724
634.08 4018.2 5.6636
636.02 3999.7 7.7251
640.87 3960.0 11.937
643.78 3931.8 14.666
644.75 3898.8 17.629
201
x y Value
643.78 3865.8 20.418
597.08 4092.0 0.0000
592.26 3982.8 1.0800E5
646.84 4082.4 1.1552E5
644.43 4021.4 1.3313E5
655.67 3934.7 1.0305E5
660.49 3863.2 1.0193E5
650.85 3817.5 1.1452E5
615.54 3747.7 1.0915E5
588.25 3818.3 1.4824E5
603.50 3842.4 66970
-51.563 499.87 379.87
63.573 384.73 379.60
217.09 461.49 380.00
217.09 288.79 379.99
217.09 154.46 379.99
-32.374 1881.5 233.81
428.17 2687.4 133.68
159.52 96.895 379.99
159.52 423.11 379.99
199.03 0.74750 5.3723E5
253.67 17.824 6.0045E5
202
x y Value
597.27 3824.8 97487
606.84 3859.5 25.667
197.99 48.240 380.00
196.86 44.844 380.00
598.38 3866.0 24.802
159.98 208.83 59.989
340.90 490.27 57.716
340.90 811.92 60.000
-1501.9 3900.2 0.0000
-1451.8 3900.2 3.2787
-1450.9 3877.2 4.7065
-1456.9 3837.3 8.2715
-2088.6 1551.5 47.640
-1991.1 1629.5 47.800
-1932.6 1727.0 47.783
-1447.0 3653.0 27.206
-1448.9 3865.0 6.0256
-1437.8 3652.5 27.441
-1440.6 3869.2 6.5158
-1952.1 1459.4 217.65
-1774.3 1681.6 220.00
203
Graph marker
0.0050000 28.000
0.0050000 5.8182
4.3 PLOT GROUPS
204
205
206
207
208
Contents
1.1. Parameters .............................................................................................................................................................. 210
2. Component 1 .................................................................................................................................211
2.1. Definitions ............................................................................................................................................................... 211
2.2. Geometry 1 ............................................................................................................................................................. 212
2.3. Materials .................................................................................................................................................................. 213
2.4. Electrostatics .......................................................................................................................................................... 218
2.5. Mesh 1 ...................................................................................................................................................................... 219
3. Study 1 ...........................................................................................................................................220
3.1. Time Dependent ................................................................................................................................................... 220
4. Results ............................................................................................................................................222
4.1. Datasets ................................................................................................................................................................... 222
4.2. Tables ........................................................................................................................................................................ 224
4.3. Plot Groups ............................................................................................................................................................. 245
209
USED PRODUCTS
COMSOL Multiphysics
AC/DC Module
1.1 PARAMETERS
PARAMETER 1
f 50 [Hz] 50 Hz
a 1[kV] 1000 V
210
2 Component 1
2.1 DEFINITIONS
2.1.1 Functions
Analytic 3
Function name an2
Analytic 3
2.1.2 Selections
Explicit 1
Selection type
Explicit
Selection
Domains 249–250
211
Boundary System 1
Tag sys1
COORDINATE NAMES
First Second Third
t1 n to
2.2 GEOMETRY 1
Geometry 1
UNITS
Length unit mm
Angular unit deg
212
2.3 MATERIALS
2.3.1 Air
Air
SELECTION
Geometry geom1: Dimension 2: Domains 1, 7–8, 104–108, 110–113,

Selection 119, 123–126, 129–130, 134–137, 142–143, 145, 149–150, 196–197,
247–250
213
2.3.2 A2 [solid]
A2 [solid]
SELECTION
Geometry geom1: Dimension 2: Domains 2–6, 54–57, 109, 114–118,

Selection
121, 127–128, 131–133, 138–141, 144, 148, 198–200
214
SELECTION
Acrylic plastic
SELECTION
215
SELECTION
Selection Geometry geom1: Dimension 2: Domains 120, 122, 146–147
2.3.6 Soil [solid]
Soil [solid]
SELECTION
216
2.3.7 Acrylic plastic 1
Acrylic plastic 1
SELECTION
Geometry geom1: Dimension 1: Boundaries 1628–1629, 1631–1633,

Selection
1635–1636
217
2.4 ELECTROSTATICS
Electrostatics
EQUATIONS
FEATURES
Name Level
HV Domain
Ground 1 Boundary
Zero_p Domain
218
2.5 MESH 1
Mesh 1
219
3 Study 1
Computation time 4 h 58 min 48 s
3.1 TIME DEPENDENT

Times Unit
range(0,0.005,0.02) s
STUDY SETTINGS
Description Value
STUDY SETTINGS
Description Value
Output times {0, 0.005, 0.01, 0.015, 0.02}
STUDY EXTENSIONS
Description Value
Auxiliary sweep On
PARAMETERS
a range(50.2,0.2,70.8) kV

MESH SELECTION
220
Geometry Mesh

STUDY EXTENSIONS
Description Value
Auxiliary sweep On
PARAMETERS
a range(50.2,0.2,70.8) kV
221
4 Results
4.1 DATASETS

SOLUTION
Description Value
Solution Solution 1
4.1.2 Cut Line 2D 1

DATA
Description Value
LINE DATA
Description Value
222
Description Value
Points {{599.5, 4079}, {599.5, 3825}}
ADVANCED
Description Value

DATA
Description Value
POINT DATA
223
Description Value
x 599.5, 599.5
y 4050, 3780
4.2 TABLES
4.2.1 Evaluation 2D
x y Value
1060.4 1498.1 8.0005E-5
460.43 3867.6 10.323
2162.4 1954.0 60356
1051.4 944.79 1.5231E5
1042.9 2242.4 98732
559.52 2708.8 1.0091E5
224
x y Value
601.93 3811.3 3.2560E5
1365.2 4464.4 88529
255.63 30.508 9.5456E5
254.76 28.809 8.9823E5
161.49 34.892 65522
205.42 173.45 1.8957E-7
111.48 197.78 38073
212.18 199.80 2.9969E-7
406.83 295.78 1.9914E5
439.95 304.56 1.9405E5
753.13 3640.8 1.0514E5
570.66 3622.9 1.1730E5
502.68 3805.4 1.3004E5
506.26 3944.9 57913
681.57 3880.5 1.2705E5
649.37 3762.4 1.6299E5
595.70 4070.1 14154
610.01 3973.5 0.0000
606.58 3823.2 4.4949E5
608.73 3824.6 4.5375E5
617.06 3829.1 4.2303E5
621.09 3833.4 3.9754E5
225
x y Value
622.97 3837.7 3.6990E5
621.36 3840.1 3.9293E5
614.91 3839.3 0.0000
625.92 3830.5 3.2525E5
597.72 3853.0 0.0000
635.86 3860.0 1.8723E5
604.16 3884.5 0.0000
646.34 3891.2 1.3499E5
602.01 3900.6 0.0000
659.51 3896.6 1.2529E5
605.51 3897.9 0.0000
633.18 3904.9 1.2544E5
595.57 3895.5 0.0000
658.97 3905.7 1.1957E5
612.76 3879.6 0.0000
632.10 3886.6 1.4435E5
603.09 3882.3 0.0000
607.88 4008.3 0.0000
607.88 3959.4 0.0000
604.92 3923.1 0.0000
604.18 3877.9 0.0000
606.40 3844.6 0.0000
226
x y Value
606.40 3817.1 3.6828
606.40 3837.9 0.0000
605.66 3869.0 0.0000
601.22 3908.3 0.0000
601.22 3908.3 0.0000
596.77 3850.5 0.0000
597.51 3836.4 0.0000
600.48 3828.3 0.0000
613.07 3826.0 1.2824
616.03 3823.1 2.9491
610.11 3812.7 5.4893
602.70 3807.5 6.6688
594.55 3780.8 13.096
672.33 3797.9 15.104
619.74 3835.7 0.32134
634.55 3869.7 2.3178
647.15 3942.3 2.6178
647.89 4008.3 2.0983
647.15 4071.2 2.0183
650.11 4110.5 2.4645
650.85 4132.0 2.6416
653.81 4151.3 2.8440
227
x y Value
547.88 3860.9 4.2333
539.73 3946.0 1.9221
533.80 4007.5 0.83309
528.62 4056.4 0.0000
529.36 4029.0 0.43916
536.77 3985.3 1.1801
536.77 3972.7 1.4706
538.25 3940.9 2.1425
596.77 3942.3 0.0000
593.81 3896.4 0.0000
593.81 3869.0 0.0000
592.33 3860.1 0.0000
596.03 3915.7 0.0000
587.14 3983.1 0.0000
587.14 4026.1 0.0000
591.59 4089.0 0.34947
606.40 4092.7 0.61112
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
228
x y Value
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
596.77 4083.8 0.37568
604.18 4017.2 0.0000
604.18 4017.2 0.0000
604.18 4017.2 0.0000
612.33 4035.7 0.0000
606.40 4082.7 18633
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
229
x y Value
658.26 3982.0 83597
658.26 3982.0 83597
542.69 3887.9 98139
598.25 3917.5 0.0000
598.25 3917.5 0.0000
598.99 3948.6 0.0000
604.18 4015.3 0.0000
599.73 4084.2 17562
595.29 4102.7 17478
587.14 4082.7 16619
573.81 4061.2 7325.4
600.48 4059.8 15125
588.62 3868.6 0.0000
596.77 3924.2 0.0000
586.40 4010.1 0.0000
584.92 4067.9 9549.1
582.70 4005.7 0.0000
577.51 3916.0 73819
590.10 3855.3 0.0000
598.99 4064.2 14658
590.85 4009.4 0.0000
595.29 4052.4 11963
230
x y Value
596.03 4080.5 16478
590.10 4031.6 0.0000
601.96 4019.8 0.0000
603.44 3990.9 0.0000
603.44 3970.1 0.0000
603.44 3954.6 0.0000
604.18 3937.5 0.0000
598.99 4078.3 16649
598.99 4078.3 16649
597.51 4059.8 13563
558.99 3843.8 3.9471
556.77 3878.6 2.3637
551.58 3920.1 1.7838
547.14 3975.7 1.0432
541.21 4028.3 0.35322
659.74 3843.8 8.0450
659.00 3872.7 5.9166
655.30 3916.4 3.9080
655.30 3965.3 3.0774
650.11 4009.8 2.2562
646.41 4051.2 1.8863
641.22 4089.8 1.8160
231
x y Value
648.63 3794.2 13.433
652.33 3840.9 7.1959
648.63 3918.6 3.1074
643.44 3974.9 1.9697
640.48 3774.9 16.014
644.92 3795.7 12.847
646.41 3814.2 9.8902
646.41 3835.7 6.7767
644.92 3856.4 4.6373
644.92 3877.2 3.6777
644.92 3902.3 3.0288
645.66 3932.7 2.6221
646.41 3952.7 2.4381
591.59 4066.8 0.15831
591.59 4066.8 0.15831
591.59 4066.8 0.15831
610.85 4017.2 0.0000
606.40 3986.1 0.0000
607.14 3953.5 0.0000
597.51 4074.9 0.29593
598.62 3987.7 0.0000
597.77 3952.9 0.0000
232
x y Value
596.07 3917.2 0.0000
596.92 4058.3 13156
596.92 4001.3 0.0000
603.71 4083.7 18223
604.48 4088.4 0.53551
595.43 3975.2 0.0000
596.94 3930.0 0.0000
607.50 3886.2 0.0000
597.61 4076.2 0.31000
597.61 4034.3 0.0000
597.61 3998.1 0.0000
597.61 3935.8 0.0000
597.61 3912.0 0.0000
599.88 4083.0 0.40972
596.48 4007.1 0.0000
599.88 4077.3 0.34989
599.88 4083.0 0.40972
599.88 4083.0 0.40972
599.88 3964.1 0.0000
599.88 3964.1 0.0000
593.08 3901.8 0.0000
589.69 4075.0 0.20587
233
x y Value
544.41 3977.7 1.1134
603.27 4086.4 0.49574
675.72 4006.0 4.2129
675.72 3909.8 6.3538
679.12 3831.7 11.774
614.59 3789.8 11.656
495.73 3838.5 10.832
601.11 4062.7 15667
601.11 4080.6 17420
606.84 4004.1 0.0000
617.67 3943.7 42456
602.39 3943.7 3106.5
602.39 3899.1 0.0000
597.93 3849.4 0.0000
599.20 3852.0 0.0000
596.02 3888.9 0.0000
594.74 3994.6 0.0000
597.93 4030.9 0.0000
600.47 4012.4 0.0000
599.84 3975.5 0.0000
604.30 3913.1 0.0000
608.75 3885.7 10518
234
x y Value
608.75 3864.7 0.0000
608.75 3839.9 0.0000
607.48 3839.9 0.0000
597.29 3864.7 0.0000
594.11 3903.5 0.0000
595.95 4012.9 0.0000
545.56 3984.2 0.98633
563.42 3952.9 0.69454
567.25 3912.7 0.79984
564.06 3852.1 2.5088
205.51 49.210 380.70
230.98 48.361 380.70
298.90 78.078 363.30
396.54 64.493 334.69
1584.4 1233.9 188.56
1523.6 1309.1 191.10
617.64 3746.6 19.720
595.00 3671.1 30.076
599.53 3553.4 43.879
595.00 3840.2 0.0000
596.51 3865.9 0.0000
599.53 3890.0 0.0000
235
x y Value
599.53 3930.8 0.0000
601.04 3986.6 0.0000
601.04 4027.4 0.0000
601.04 4054.5 0.068697
601.04 4081.7 0.41258
601.04 4095.3 0.55163
635.95 3847.1 3.6073
638.49 3874.3 2.8175
639.34 3901.4 2.3496
629.15 3973.6 0.73074
556.13 3820.8 7.3614
544.25 3904.8 2.7531
551.89 3967.7 0.98420
585.85 3837.8 0.0000
610.47 3837.8 0.0000
624.06 3837.8 1.4079
607.93 3833.5 0.0000
602.83 3818.2 3.0624
602.83 3821.6 1.6651
597.74 3893.8 0.0000
610.55 3885.5 20417
615.32 3878.8 38553
236
x y Value
617.24 3884.5 57349
631.57 3889.8 1.1708E5
643.99 3877.8 1.5109E5
588.57 3896.4 4787.9
597.66 4072.2 15230
597.66 4083.6 17155
597.66 4068.8 14718
596.53 3971.4 0.0000
594.26 4075.6 15046
595.40 4091.5 17670
600.24 4087.8 17931
603.69 3891.7 0.0000
607.95 3857.7 0.0000
600.23 4092.6 18259
619.97 4049.3 38577
567.34 4042.5 5325.2
594.09 4069.9 13543
598.95 4001.2 0.0000
604.42 3922.8 0.0000
607.46 3895.4 0.0000
606.25 3851.7 0.0000
604.23 4086.6 0.51169
237
x y Value
604.23 4073.0 0.35332
606.78 4064.5 0.26246
594.89 4095.9 0.46082
505.70 4084.9 0.0000
458.13 4084.9 0.0000
425.00 4084.9 0.0000
527.78 4099.3 0.0000
560.91 4102.7 0.0000
563.46 4079.8 0.0000
563.46 4060.2 0.0000
572.80 4081.5 0.0000
575.35 4084.9 0.038366
580.45 4083.2 0.12662
588.94 4083.2 0.25941
605.93 4083.2 0.49846
639.06 4083.2 1.6440
607.63 4086.6 0.56398
558.36 4075.5 0.0000
633.11 4038.1 0.91225
612.73 4033.1 0.0000
606.78 3989.7 0.0000
602.53 3965.1 0.0000
238
x y Value
602.53 3918.4 0.0000
602.53 3882.7 0.0000
594.04 3847.0 0.0000
587.24 3930.3 0.0000
595.74 3877.6 0.0000
707.02 4118.8 4.9389
599.73 4071.9 0.0000
599.73 4049.6 0.0000
599.09 4018.4 0.0000
601.00 4084.6 0.0000
611.19 4087.8 0.0000
597.82 3850.2 0.0000
600.36 3866.1 0.0000
607.37 3905.0 0.0000
604.82 3922.8 0.0000
604.82 3968.7 0.0000
610.56 4003.1 0.0000
609.28 4028.6 0.0000
586.99 3870.6 0.0000
590.81 3892.9 0.0000
590.81 3921.5 0.0000
590.81 3962.9 0.0000
239
x y Value
587.62 3995.4 0.0000
586.99 4092.3 0.0000
536.02 4085.9 0.0000
469.76 4068.7 0.0000
621.33 4102.5 2.3316E5
604.40 4102.8 1.1754E5
604.94 4090.2 0.0000
602.25 4077.8 0.0000
601.44 4065.4 0.0000
601.17 4060.6 0.0000
598.02 4078.2 0.0000
601.12 4098.4 0.0000
601.12 4025.4 0.0000
601.12 3988.2 0.0000
601.12 3961.8 0.0000
601.12 3924.6 0.0000
604.23 3898.2 0.0000
604.23 3879.5 0.0000
604.23 3859.4 0.0000
618.09 4103.4 1.9395E5
618.36 4096.0 1.5366E5
618.64 4087.1 1.4214E5
240
x y Value
607.45 4084.7 0.0000
607.45 4060.9 0.0000
599.76 4037.3 0.0000
599.50 4029.1 0.0000
636.17 4041.9 73147
636.43 4029.1 74428
592.89 4091.4 0.0000
601.38 4074.5 0.0000
597.14 4030.3 0.0000
593.74 4003.1 0.0000
600.53 4071.1 0.0000
606.70 4084.7 64815
603.51 4084.7 69465
600.32 4058.5 93333
600.96 3980.1 92960
599.04 3937.3 87174
596.49 3897.8 80692
596.49 3864.6 72271
603.13 3999.3 94857
603.13 4073.2 79895
594.07 3951.0 89512
630.07 4088.8 1.2526E5
241
x y Value
639.36 4091.7 1.8792
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
674.83 3925.0 16.893
641.84 4110.4 2.3048
601.09 4092.9 0.0000
640.87 4087.1 2.0722
638.93 4078.3 1.9311
636.99 4105.5 1.7318
637.96 4128.8 2.4143
637.96 4142.4 2.7282
637.96 4109.4 1.9276
637.96 4086.1 1.7444
637.96 4071.6 1.9563
636.02 4049.2 2.6724
634.08 4018.2 5.6636
636.02 3999.7 7.7251
640.87 3960.0 11.937
643.78 3931.8 14.666
644.75 3898.8 17.629
242
x y Value
643.78 3865.8 20.418
597.08 4092.0 0.0000
592.26 3982.8 1.0800E5
646.84 4082.4 1.1552E5
644.43 4021.4 1.3313E5
655.67 3934.7 1.0305E5
660.49 3863.2 1.0193E5
650.85 3817.5 1.1452E5
615.54 3747.7 1.0915E5
588.25 3818.3 1.4824E5
603.50 3842.4 66970
-51.563 499.87 379.87
63.573 384.73 379.60
217.09 461.49 380.00
217.09 288.79 379.99
217.09 154.46 379.99
-32.374 1881.5 233.81
428.17 2687.4 133.68
159.52 96.895 379.99
159.52 423.11 379.99
199.03 0.74750 5.3723E5
253.67 17.824 6.0045E5
243
x y Value
597.27 3824.8 97487
606.84 3859.5 25.667
197.99 48.240 380.00
196.86 44.844 380.00
598.38 3866.0 24.802
159.98 208.83 59.989
340.90 490.27 57.716
340.90 811.92 60.000
-6259.8 -5540.7 11370
-6205.1 -4993.9 13512
-6177.8 -4364.9 16081
-6295.4 -4321.3 16231
-6287.2 -4233.7 16592
-6298.1 -4192.7 16758
-3777.7 -8831.7 7731.0
-3616.2 -8808.6 8172.7
-2739.5 -8820.1 10360
-1735.9 -8774.0 12409
-374.66 -8762.4 14045
336.38 894.43 70.009
329.51 970.00 70.009
233.33 976.87 70.009
244
x y Value
-275.03 956.26 65.400
-275.03 956.26 65.400

Graph marker
0.0050000 1.2137
0.0050000 6.4896
4.3 PLOT GROUPS
245
246
247
248
Mix Ketten Keramik 380kV KB D002T 1 IS1
249
Contents
1.1. Parameters .............................................................................................................................................................. 251
2. Component 1 .................................................................................................................................252
2.1. Definitions ............................................................................................................................................................... 252
2.2. Geometry 1 ............................................................................................................................................................. 253
2.3. Materials .................................................................................................................................................................. 254
2.4. Electrostatics .......................................................................................................................................................... 258
2.5. Mesh 1 ...................................................................................................................................................................... 259
3. Study 1 ...........................................................................................................................................260
3.1. Time Dependent ................................................................................................................................................... 260
4. Results ............................................................................................................................................262
4.1. Datasets ................................................................................................................................................................... 262
4.2. Tables ........................................................................................................................................................................ 264
4.3. Plot Groups ............................................................................................................................................................. 287
250
USED PRODUCTS
COMSOL Multiphysics
AC/DC Module
1.1 PARAMETERS
PARAMETER 1
f 50 [Hz] 50 Hz
a 1[kV] 1000 V
251
2 Component 1
2.1 DEFINITIONS
2.1.1 Functions
Analytic 3
Function name an2
Analytic 3
2.1.2 Selections
Explicit 1
Selection type
Explicit
Selection
Domains 373–374
252
Boundary System 1
Tag sys1
COORDINATE NAMES
First Second Third
t1 n to
2.2 GEOMETRY 1
Geometry 1
UNITS
Length unit mm
Angular unit deg
253
2.3 MATERIALS
2.3.1 Air
Air
SELECTION
Geometry geom1: Dimension 2: Domains 1, 12–16, 135, 140–144, 158,

Selection
160, 203, 205, 231–235, 361–365, 373–374
254
2.3.2 A2 [solid]
A2 [solid]
SELECTION
Geometry geom1: Dimension 2: Domains 2–11, 17, 106–124, 127–134,

Selection 136–139, 145–157, 159, 161–174, 177–202, 204, 206–217, 220–230,
236–240, 329–347, 350–360, 366–372
Acrylic plastic
255
SELECTION
SELECTION
256
2.3.5 Soil [solid]
Soil [solid]
SELECTION
2.3.6 94% Al2O3 [solid]
94% Al2O3 [solid]
SELECTION
257
Geometry geom1: Dimension 2: Domains 18–105, 125–126, 241–328,

Selection
348–349
2.4 ELECTROSTATICS
Electrostatics
EQUATIONS
FEATURES
Name Level
HV Domain
Ground 1 Boundary
Zero_p Domain
258
Name Level
2.5 MESH 1
Mesh 1
259
3 Study 1
3.1 TIME DEPENDENT

Times Unit
range(0,0.005,0.02) s
STUDY SETTINGS
Description Value
STUDY SETTINGS
Description Value
Output times {0, 0.005, 0.01, 0.015, 0.02}
STUDY EXTENSIONS
Description Value
Auxiliary sweep On
PARAMETERS
a range(380,0.1,380) kV

MESH SELECTION
260
Geometry Mesh

STUDY EXTENSIONS
Description Value
Auxiliary sweep On
PARAMETERS
a range(380,0.1,380) kV
261
4 Results
4.1 DATASETS

SOLUTION
Description Value
Solution Solution 1
4.1.2 Cut Line 2D 1

DATA
Description Value
LINE DATA
Description Value
262
Description Value
Points {{-1447.1, 3979}, {-1447.1, 3725}}
ADVANCED
Description Value

DATA
Description Value
POINT DATA
263
Description Value
x -1447.1, -1447.1
y 3725, 3950
4.2 TABLES
4.2.1 Evaluation 2D
x y Value
1060.4 1498.1 8.0005E-5
460.43 3867.6 10.323
2162.4 1954.0 60356
1051.4 944.79 1.5231E5
1042.9 2242.4 98732
559.52 2708.8 1.0091E5
264
x y Value
601.93 3811.3 3.2560E5
1365.2 4464.4 88529
255.63 30.508 9.5456E5
254.76 28.809 8.9823E5
161.49 34.892 65522
205.42 173.45 1.8957E-7
111.48 197.78 38073
212.18 199.80 2.9969E-7
406.83 295.78 1.9914E5
439.95 304.56 1.9405E5
753.13 3640.8 1.0514E5
570.66 3622.9 1.1730E5
502.68 3805.4 1.3004E5
506.26 3944.9 57913
681.57 3880.5 1.2705E5
649.37 3762.4 1.6299E5
595.70 4070.1 14154
610.01 3973.5 0.0000
606.58 3823.2 4.4949E5
608.73 3824.6 4.5375E5
617.06 3829.1 4.2303E5
621.09 3833.4 3.9754E5
265
x y Value
622.97 3837.7 3.6990E5
621.36 3840.1 3.9293E5
614.91 3839.3 0.0000
625.92 3830.5 3.2525E5
597.72 3853.0 0.0000
635.86 3860.0 1.8723E5
604.16 3884.5 0.0000
646.34 3891.2 1.3499E5
602.01 3900.6 0.0000
659.51 3896.6 1.2529E5
605.51 3897.9 0.0000
633.18 3904.9 1.2544E5
595.57 3895.5 0.0000
658.97 3905.7 1.1957E5
612.76 3879.6 0.0000
632.10 3886.6 1.4435E5
603.09 3882.3 0.0000
607.88 4008.3 0.0000
607.88 3959.4 0.0000
604.92 3923.1 0.0000
604.18 3877.9 0.0000
606.40 3844.6 0.0000
266
x y Value
606.40 3817.1 3.6828
606.40 3837.9 0.0000
605.66 3869.0 0.0000
601.22 3908.3 0.0000
601.22 3908.3 0.0000
596.77 3850.5 0.0000
597.51 3836.4 0.0000
600.48 3828.3 0.0000
613.07 3826.0 1.2824
616.03 3823.1 2.9491
610.11 3812.7 5.4893
602.70 3807.5 6.6688
594.55 3780.8 13.096
672.33 3797.9 15.104
619.74 3835.7 0.32134
634.55 3869.7 2.3178
647.15 3942.3 2.6178
647.89 4008.3 2.0983
647.15 4071.2 2.0183
650.11 4110.5 2.4645
650.85 4132.0 2.6416
653.81 4151.3 2.8440
267
x y Value
547.88 3860.9 4.2333
539.73 3946.0 1.9221
533.80 4007.5 0.83309
528.62 4056.4 0.0000
529.36 4029.0 0.43916
536.77 3985.3 1.1801
536.77 3972.7 1.4706
538.25 3940.9 2.1425
596.77 3942.3 0.0000
593.81 3896.4 0.0000
593.81 3869.0 0.0000
592.33 3860.1 0.0000
596.03 3915.7 0.0000
587.14 3983.1 0.0000
587.14 4026.1 0.0000
591.59 4089.0 0.34947
606.40 4092.7 0.61112
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
268
x y Value
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
612.33 4078.7 0.53753
596.77 4083.8 0.37568
604.18 4017.2 0.0000
604.18 4017.2 0.0000
604.18 4017.2 0.0000
612.33 4035.7 0.0000
606.40 4082.7 18633
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
605.66 4074.6 18149
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
593.07 4018.3 0.0000
269
x y Value
658.26 3982.0 83597
658.26 3982.0 83597
542.69 3887.9 98139
598.25 3917.5 0.0000
598.25 3917.5 0.0000
598.99 3948.6 0.0000
604.18 4015.3 0.0000
599.73 4084.2 17562
595.29 4102.7 17478
587.14 4082.7 16619
573.81 4061.2 7325.4
600.48 4059.8 15125
588.62 3868.6 0.0000
596.77 3924.2 0.0000
586.40 4010.1 0.0000
584.92 4067.9 9549.1
582.70 4005.7 0.0000
577.51 3916.0 73819
590.10 3855.3 0.0000
598.99 4064.2 14658
590.85 4009.4 0.0000
595.29 4052.4 11963
270
x y Value
596.03 4080.5 16478
590.10 4031.6 0.0000
601.96 4019.8 0.0000
603.44 3990.9 0.0000
603.44 3970.1 0.0000
603.44 3954.6 0.0000
604.18 3937.5 0.0000
598.99 4078.3 16649
598.99 4078.3 16649
597.51 4059.8 13563
558.99 3843.8 3.9471
556.77 3878.6 2.3637
551.58 3920.1 1.7838
547.14 3975.7 1.0432
541.21 4028.3 0.35322
659.74 3843.8 8.0450
659.00 3872.7 5.9166
655.30 3916.4 3.9080
655.30 3965.3 3.0774
650.11 4009.8 2.2562
646.41 4051.2 1.8863
641.22 4089.8 1.8160
271
x y Value
648.63 3794.2 13.433
652.33 3840.9 7.1959
648.63 3918.6 3.1074
643.44 3974.9 1.9697
640.48 3774.9 16.014
644.92 3795.7 12.847
646.41 3814.2 9.8902
646.41 3835.7 6.7767
644.92 3856.4 4.6373
644.92 3877.2 3.6777
644.92 3902.3 3.0288
645.66 3932.7 2.6221
646.41 3952.7 2.4381
591.59 4066.8 0.15831
591.59 4066.8 0.15831
591.59 4066.8 0.15831
610.85 4017.2 0.0000
606.40 3986.1 0.0000
607.14 3953.5 0.0000
597.51 4074.9 0.29593
598.62 3987.7 0.0000
597.77 3952.9 0.0000
272
x y Value
596.07 3917.2 0.0000
596.92 4058.3 13156
596.92 4001.3 0.0000
603.71 4083.7 18223
604.48 4088.4 0.53551
595.43 3975.2 0.0000
596.94 3930.0 0.0000
607.50 3886.2 0.0000
597.61 4076.2 0.31000
597.61 4034.3 0.0000
597.61 3998.1 0.0000
597.61 3935.8 0.0000
597.61 3912.0 0.0000
599.88 4083.0 0.40972
596.48 4007.1 0.0000
599.88 4077.3 0.34989
599.88 4083.0 0.40972
599.88 4083.0 0.40972
599.88 3964.1 0.0000
599.88 3964.1 0.0000
593.08 3901.8 0.0000
589.69 4075.0 0.20587
273
x y Value
544.41 3977.7 1.1134
603.27 4086.4 0.49574
675.72 4006.0 4.2129
675.72 3909.8 6.3538
679.12 3831.7 11.774
614.59 3789.8 11.656
495.73 3838.5 10.832
601.11 4062.7 15667
601.11 4080.6 17420
606.84 4004.1 0.0000
617.67 3943.7 42456
602.39 3943.7 3106.5
602.39 3899.1 0.0000
597.93 3849.4 0.0000
599.20 3852.0 0.0000
596.02 3888.9 0.0000
594.74 3994.6 0.0000
597.93 4030.9 0.0000
600.47 4012.4 0.0000
599.84 3975.5 0.0000
604.30 3913.1 0.0000
608.75 3885.7 10518
274
x y Value
608.75 3864.7 0.0000
608.75 3839.9 0.0000
607.48 3839.9 0.0000
597.29 3864.7 0.0000
594.11 3903.5 0.0000
595.95 4012.9 0.0000
545.56 3984.2 0.98633
563.42 3952.9 0.69454
567.25 3912.7 0.79984
564.06 3852.1 2.5088
205.51 49.210 380.70
230.98 48.361 380.70
298.90 78.078 363.30
396.54 64.493 334.69
1584.4 1233.9 188.56
1523.6 1309.1 191.10
617.64 3746.6 19.720
595.00 3671.1 30.076
599.53 3553.4 43.879
595.00 3840.2 0.0000
596.51 3865.9 0.0000
599.53 3890.0 0.0000
275
x y Value
599.53 3930.8 0.0000
601.04 3986.6 0.0000
601.04 4027.4 0.0000
601.04 4054.5 0.068697
601.04 4081.7 0.41258
601.04 4095.3 0.55163
635.95 3847.1 3.6073
638.49 3874.3 2.8175
639.34 3901.4 2.3496
629.15 3973.6 0.73074
556.13 3820.8 7.3614
544.25 3904.8 2.7531
551.89 3967.7 0.98420
585.85 3837.8 0.0000
610.47 3837.8 0.0000
624.06 3837.8 1.4079
607.93 3833.5 0.0000
602.83 3818.2 3.0624
602.83 3821.6 1.6651
597.74 3893.8 0.0000
610.55 3885.5 20417
615.32 3878.8 38553
276
x y Value
617.24 3884.5 57349
631.57 3889.8 1.1708E5
643.99 3877.8 1.5109E5
588.57 3896.4 4787.9
597.66 4072.2 15230
597.66 4083.6 17155
597.66 4068.8 14718
596.53 3971.4 0.0000
594.26 4075.6 15046
595.40 4091.5 17670
600.24 4087.8 17931
603.69 3891.7 0.0000
607.95 3857.7 0.0000
600.23 4092.6 18259
619.97 4049.3 38577
567.34 4042.5 5325.2
594.09 4069.9 13543
598.95 4001.2 0.0000
604.42 3922.8 0.0000
607.46 3895.4 0.0000
606.25 3851.7 0.0000
604.23 4086.6 0.51169
277
x y Value
604.23 4073.0 0.35332
606.78 4064.5 0.26246
594.89 4095.9 0.46082
505.70 4084.9 0.0000
458.13 4084.9 0.0000
425.00 4084.9 0.0000
527.78 4099.3 0.0000
560.91 4102.7 0.0000
563.46 4079.8 0.0000
563.46 4060.2 0.0000
572.80 4081.5 0.0000
575.35 4084.9 0.038366
580.45 4083.2 0.12662
588.94 4083.2 0.25941
605.93 4083.2 0.49846
639.06 4083.2 1.6440
607.63 4086.6 0.56398
558.36 4075.5 0.0000
633.11 4038.1 0.91225
612.73 4033.1 0.0000
606.78 3989.7 0.0000
602.53 3965.1 0.0000
278
x y Value
602.53 3918.4 0.0000
602.53 3882.7 0.0000
594.04 3847.0 0.0000
587.24 3930.3 0.0000
595.74 3877.6 0.0000
707.02 4118.8 4.9389
599.73 4071.9 0.0000
599.73 4049.6 0.0000
599.09 4018.4 0.0000
601.00 4084.6 0.0000
611.19 4087.8 0.0000
597.82 3850.2 0.0000
600.36 3866.1 0.0000
607.37 3905.0 0.0000
604.82 3922.8 0.0000
604.82 3968.7 0.0000
610.56 4003.1 0.0000
609.28 4028.6 0.0000
586.99 3870.6 0.0000
590.81 3892.9 0.0000
590.81 3921.5 0.0000
590.81 3962.9 0.0000
279
x y Value
587.62 3995.4 0.0000
586.99 4092.3 0.0000
536.02 4085.9 0.0000
469.76 4068.7 0.0000
621.33 4102.5 2.3316E5
604.40 4102.8 1.1754E5
604.94 4090.2 0.0000
602.25 4077.8 0.0000
601.44 4065.4 0.0000
601.17 4060.6 0.0000
598.02 4078.2 0.0000
601.12 4098.4 0.0000
601.12 4025.4 0.0000
601.12 3988.2 0.0000
601.12 3961.8 0.0000
601.12 3924.6 0.0000
604.23 3898.2 0.0000
604.23 3879.5 0.0000
604.23 3859.4 0.0000
618.09 4103.4 1.9395E5
618.36 4096.0 1.5366E5
618.64 4087.1 1.4214E5
280
x y Value
607.45 4084.7 0.0000
607.45 4060.9 0.0000
599.76 4037.3 0.0000
599.50 4029.1 0.0000
636.17 4041.9 73147
636.43 4029.1 74428
592.89 4091.4 0.0000
601.38 4074.5 0.0000
597.14 4030.3 0.0000
593.74 4003.1 0.0000
600.53 4071.1 0.0000
606.70 4084.7 64815
603.51 4084.7 69465
600.32 4058.5 93333
600.96 3980.1 92960
599.04 3937.3 87174
596.49 3897.8 80692
596.49 3864.6 72271
603.13 3999.3 94857
603.13 4073.2 79895
594.07 3951.0 89512
630.07 4088.8 1.2526E5
281
x y Value
639.36 4091.7 1.8792
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
645.72 4083.2 2.6946
674.83 3925.0 16.893
641.84 4110.4 2.3048
601.09 4092.9 0.0000
640.87 4087.1 2.0722
638.93 4078.3 1.9311
636.99 4105.5 1.7318
637.96 4128.8 2.4143
637.96 4142.4 2.7282
637.96 4109.4 1.9276
637.96 4086.1 1.7444
637.96 4071.6 1.9563
636.02 4049.2 2.6724
634.08 4018.2 5.6636
636.02 3999.7 7.7251
640.87 3960.0 11.937
643.78 3931.8 14.666
644.75 3898.8 17.629
282
x y Value
643.78 3865.8 20.418
597.08 4092.0 0.0000
592.26 3982.8 1.0800E5
646.84 4082.4 1.1552E5
644.43 4021.4 1.3313E5
655.67 3934.7 1.0305E5
660.49 3863.2 1.0193E5
650.85 3817.5 1.1452E5
615.54 3747.7 1.0915E5
588.25 3818.3 1.4824E5
603.50 3842.4 66970
-1486.6 3793.4 63597
-1480.6 3860.5 61203
-1480.6 3932.5 57272
-1485.6 4006.6 50997
-1968.4 4249.2 9708.9
-1968.4 4249.2 9708.9
-1968.4 4219.2 10790
-1968.4 4099.2 21824
-1765.9 -17.581 3.8070E5
-2188.1 -57.787 3.8070E5
-2288.6 384.48 3.6420E5
283
x y Value
-2027.2 -620.67 3.7166E5
-1524.7 3922.6 12013
-1102.5 2656.1 98982
-1477.7 3793.0 20537
-1477.7 3747.4 23234
-1475.0 3742.0 23615
-1480.4 3771.5 21735
-1483.0 3830.5 18244
-1483.0 3903.0 14288
-1493.8 4015.7 8698.0
-1788.4 -476.77 3.7611E5
-1675.1 -442.79 3.5505E5
-1641.1 -261.54 3.5546E5
-1901.7 -669.35 3.7772E5
-1845.0 -612.71 3.7997E5
-1838.8 -676.12 3.8000E5
-2061.4 -192.62 3.7989E5
-1472.1 3659.1 28575
-1459.7 3697.8 26052
-1264.1 3692.8 30199
-1444.5 3711.3 25370
-1449.0 3722.4 24496
284
x y Value
-1450.1 3726.1 24208
-1450.2 3968.8 4266.9
-1450.2 3968.8 4266.9
-1445.4 3917.9 9157.3
-1444.6 3907.1 10175
-1445.0 3913.9 9548.9
-1445.8 3927.2 8292.6
-1449.4 3958.8 5079.6
-1446.8 3727.8 24147
-1444.1 3731.3 23947
-1444.1 3731.3 23947
-1453.5 3728.2 23992
-1447.3 3729.8 23999
-1447.3 3729.8 23999
-1658.1 3795.4 16271
-5274.7 -8934.2 10662
-4629.4 -8835.6 12472
-4674.2 -8835.6 12351
-6206.9 -8898.4 7740.9
-5462.9 -8880.4 10106
-4647.3 -8943.2 12374
-4297.8 -8943.2 13255
285
x y Value
-3697.2 -8925.3 14560
-2800.9 -8925.3 15939
2577.1 5875.8 14248
2879.9 5812.0 13368
3501.3 5748.3 11344
-1444.2 3729.6 24077
-1444.2 3729.6 24077
-1444.2 3729.6 24077
-1448.9 3949.7 1.3678
-1449.1 3949.7 1.3624
-1449.4 3950.3 1.3448
-1449.4 3950.2 1.3476
-1449.4 3950.2 1.3469
-1449.6 3950.0 1.3469

Graph marker
Time (s) Electric potential (V)
0.0050000 24344
0.020000 -0.18320
0.0050000 4171.3
0.020000 -0.031390
286
Graph marker
Time (s) Electric potential (V)
0.0050000 24350
0.0050000 6073.5

Graph marker
0.015000 -24.316
0.0050000 24.350
0.015000 -6.0648
0.0050000 6.0735
4.3 PLOT GROUPS
287
288
4.3.5 1D PlotPoint E. Potential
Point Graph: Electric potential (V)
289
290

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Thesis

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Simulative investigation of the

response behavior of distance

Simulative Untersuchung des

Name: Iadh Ahmadi

Simulative investigation of the response behavior of distance voltage detectors

Ort, Datum Unterschrift

Die oben stehende Belehrung habe ich zur Kenntnis genommen:

Ort, Datum Unterschrift

• Module for curative AHM

Preliminarily provided work results:

• Grid model in PowerFactory

Subsequently, the results are supposed to be presented orally.

Day of issuance: 07. 01. 2023

Diese Forschung nutzt die Comsol Multiphysics-Software, um das Reaktionsverhalten von

List of Figures xvii

List of Tables xix

3 Theoretical Basics and Literature Review 9

4 FEM Modeling of Standoff Stress Detector in Comsol Multiphysics 17

5 Selection of Insulator Chains and Geometries in Amprion GmbH’s Portfolio 31

5.4 Geometrical Modifications and Simplifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

6 Comsol simulation and result analysis 41

7 Selection of Simulation Parameters for Distance Voltage Testers 51

8 Validation of the Developed Model with Experimental Measurement Data 57

9 Assessment of Technical Risks and Recommendations for Action 63

10 Discussion, Elaboration, and Presentation of Results 71

11.3 Practical Recommendations and Implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

12 Conclusion and Outlook 87

3.1 Voltage detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4.1 Finite Element Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

5.1 Amprion Logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

6.1 Amprion Logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

8.1 ML statistical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

9.1 HV Risk assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

10.1 Amprion Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

10.2 Amprion Logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

2.1 Background and motivation

2.2 Background and Motivation

2.3 Research Objectives

2.4 Significance of the Study

2.5 Thesis Structure

3 Theoretical Basics and Literature Review

3.1 Overview of Distance Voltage Detectors

Figure 3.1: Voltage detector

Figure 3.2: Working of Voltage detector

3.2 Insulator Chains in High Voltage Networks

Figure 3.3: Insulator chain

3.3 Standoff Stress Detectors

Figure 3.4: Line man using Voltage detector

3.4 Relevant Literature and Previous Studies

Figure 3.5: Insulator chain

Figure 3.6: Comsol simulation of insulator chain 2D

4 FEM Modeling of Standoff Stress Detector

4.1 Introduction to Finite Element Method (FEM)

Figure 4.1: Finite Element Modeling

of smaller, linked subdomains. Each finite element is characterised by a set of mathematical

Figure 4.2: FEM Example

4.2 Comsol Multiphysics Software

Figure 4.3: COMSOL

Figure 4.4: COMSOL Modeling

Figure 4.5: Comsol modeling steps

4.3 Geometry Creation and CAD Import

Figure 4.6: CAD Import

4.4 Mesh Generation and Optimization

Figure 4.7: Meshing