תורת המשחקים - שמואל זמיר, מיכאל משלר ןאיךון סולן

1
OT1OT1
lk .oleq oeliè xlyn l`kin ,xinf lèny ici lr dl` minia azkpd miwgynd zxeza xtq ly dheih idef
eilons@post.tau.ac.il
. -l zexrd egliy `p` .dkxaa lawzz dxrd
2005 xaehweà 10 :dqtcdd jix`z
miwgynd zxez
oleq oeliè xlyn l`kin ,xinf lèny

2 mipipr okez
mipipr okez
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . miihnzn mipeniq 1
9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hngyd wgyn 2
13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dagx dxeva miwgyn 3
14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mivre mitxb 3.1
16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . wgyn ivr 3.2
19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . David Gale ly wgynd 3.3
21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxeb ikldn mr wgyn 3.4
22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . znlyen drici `ll miwgyn 3.5
24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dibhxhq`d byen zllkd 3.5.1
25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . milibxz 3.6
32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zexrd 3.7
33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zibhxhq` dxeva miwgyn 4
36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zibhxhq`d dxevde dagxd dxevd oia xywd 4.1
38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oexzt ibyen :miiteziy `l miwgyn 4.2
39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mipeniq 4.3
39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dhilyd byen 4.4
44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ipy xign fxkn 4.5
47 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zehlyp zeibhxhq` ly weliqd xcq :divfilpeivx 4.6
48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . y`p lwyn ieey :zeaivid oexwr 4.7
53 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oinqwnd byen :oegha 4.8
55 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . qt` mekq miwgyn 4.9
64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . milibxz 4.10
69 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zexrd 4.11
70 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d`ln divnxetpi` mr miwgyn 5
72 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . milibxz 5.1
74 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zeaxern zeibhxhq` 6
85 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . milibxz 6.1
88 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . divnxetpi`d jxr :znlyen `l divnxetpi` 7
91 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . milibxz 7.1
92 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zebdpzd zeibhxhq` 8
97 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zebdpzd zeibhxhqà lwyn ieey meiw 8.1
99 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . milibxz 8.2
101 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2005xaehweà 10 lwynd ieey byen ly mipecir 9
101 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zcrex-ci-ihwtxt lwyn ieey 9.1
105 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . wgyn-zz-ihwtxt lwyn ieey 9.2

3 mipipr okez
110 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xeg`l divwecpiè zeilpeivx 9.3
112 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . milibxz 9.4
114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zexrd 9.5
115 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zlrezd zxez 10
115 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lcend 10.1
117 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . miwgynd zxezl zlrezd zxez oia xywd 10.2
118 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zlrezd zxez ly zeneiqw`d 10.3
119 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zeiaihifpxh 10.3.1
119 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zetivx 10.3.2
120 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zeipehepen 10.3.3
121 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zelxbd ly heyit 10.3.4
121 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . davd 10.3.5
122 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zlrezd zivwpet oeit` htyn 10.4
124 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1 ≈i AK dxwnd 10.5
125 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zeipit` zeivnxetqpxhe zlrezd zivwpet 10.6
127 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oeic 10.7
127 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zenlyd zneiqw`l zeiv i` 10.7.1
127 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zeiaihifpxh zneiqw`l zeiv i` 10.7.2
128 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . heyitd zneiqw`l zeiv i` 10.7.3
129 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zetcrdd lr miritynd mitqep mihwtq` 10.7.4
130 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zlrezd zxez zxhn 10.7.5
131 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . milibxz 10.8
135 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mixfeg miwgyn 11
135 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mipeniq 11.1
136 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lcend 11.2
136 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ze`nbec 11.3
138 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ialy T -d wgynd 11.4
139 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zeibhxhqè zeixehqid 11.4.1
142 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lwyn ieeye minelyz 11.4.2
143 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i owgy ly qwnpind jxr 11.4.3
144 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lwynd ieey inelyz oeit` 11.5
145 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dnbec - 11.7 htyn zgked 11.6
147 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7 htyn zgked 11.7
147 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . milpeivx zelwyn ici lr milpeivx-i` zelwyn aexiw 11.7.1
148 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . τ zeibhxhq` xehwe zxcbd 11.7.2
148 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x -l aexw minelyzd irvenn leab τ zgz 11.7.3

4 mipipr okez
149 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . τ -n dihq ici lr gieexdl leki epi` owgy s` 11.7.4
150 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iteqpi`d wgynd 11.8
152 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iteqpi`d wgynd xear innrd htynd 11.8.1
153 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dgkedl zepkd 11.8.2
158 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.13 htyn zgked 11.8.3
160 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oeic 11.9
160 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zexazqdd agxn ly zilnxet dxcbd 11.9.1
162 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . milibxz 11.10
164 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . miixehwe minelyz mr mixfeg miwgyn 12
164 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mipeniq 12.1
165 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lcend 12.2
166 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ze`nbec 12.3
167 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dripn zepa zeveawe zeyibp zeveaw oia mixyw 12.4
168 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cixtnd xeyin-lrd htyn 12.5
170 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zeyibp gihand ixhneìb i`pz 12.6
175 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zeyibp migihand mitqep mi`pz 12.7
179 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dgnend z` dkd :meyii 12.8
179 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lcend 12.8.1
181 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ihxt dxwn - dhxg-zxqg dibhxhq` meiw 12.8.2
183 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . illkd dxwnd - dhxg-zxqg dibhxhq` meiw 12.8.3
183 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oeic 12.9
184 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . milibxz 12.10

5 miihnzn mipeniq 1
miihnzn mipeniq 1
md mda cenrl diptd llek ,miynzyn ep` mda mipeniqd lk ly dniyx o`k miìan ep` `xewd zeigepl
.cg` mewnn xzeia miritend mipeniq md o`k eàedy mipeniqd .mzernyn lr xvw xaqde mixcben
21 ,0
.jldn s` rvan `l èd ea ura owgy hwep dze` dibhxhq`d :11 , ∅

Pn
.
i=1 |Xi | L1 ; znxep :135 ,86 , kxk1
.mikeciy ziraa (mixabd xear) meniqwnd jeciy : ?? , A∨B

.mikeciy ziraa (miypd xear) meniqwnd jeciy : ?? , A∧B
.zinipt dltkn :164 , hx, yi

.i owgy ly zeyic`-zeticr qgi :116 , %i
. i owgy ly zeticr qgi :116 , i
i
. owgy ly zeyic` qgi :116 , ≈i
c
. -n lecbd xzeia ohwd mlyd xtqnd :135 , dce
c
. -n ohwd xzeia lecbd mlyd xtqnd :135 , bcc
qP . 0
-e c oia meniqwnd : ?? ,c+
d 2
kxk =
.
l=1 (xl ) ,xehwe ly dnxepd :164 , kxk
.icnin-axd icilwe`d agxna qt`d xehwe :164 ,
~0
x
. dxeyd xehweel mi`znd dcenrd xehwe ,xehwe ly transpose :165 , x>
X
. dveawa f divwpetd zlawny ilniqwnd jxrd : ?? argmaxf (x)
,
.zelertd zveaw :180 , A

.dagx dxeva wgyna x cewcwd ly mipad zveaw :11 , A(x)
?? , B−i
.fxkna i szzyn ly drvdd :44 , bi
P
b(S) =
.
i∈S bi :?? ,b(S)
.ipeivilèw dpan : ?? , B
zipeivilèw dxeva wgyn ly daild : ?? ,C(N, v)

.ipeivilèw dpanl qgia daild : ?? C(N, v; B)
,
{x(1), . . . , x(K)}
. z` dliknd xzeia dphwd dxenwd dveawd : ?? ,135 , conv{x(1), . . . , x(K)}
. 0
-e c oia meniqwnd : ?? ,c+
.gewin ziiraa dnkqd-i`d zcewp :164 , d
.lbx zhiyt ziiraa i dyepl aegd : ?? , di
6 miihnzn mipeniq 1
.icilwe`d wgxnd :164 , d(x, y)

.dveawe dcewp oia icilwe`d wgxnd :164 , d(x, S)
.dxhnd zveawl minelyzd rvenn oia wgxnd :171 , dt
14 , E
.lbx zhiyt ziiraa lbxd hyet yekx : ?? , E
.mignen mr dhlgd ziiraa mignend zveaw :180 , E
. e(S, x) = v(S) − x(S) S , divilèwd ly scerd : ?? , e(S, x)
.xfeg wgyna miixyt`d minelyzd zveaw :144 , F

11 , F
.gewind zeira zgtyn : ?? F
,
mipwgyd ipyl daehd zexyt` yie ,zihwtnewe dxenw zeiexyt`d zveaw oda gewind zeira zgtyn : ?? , Fc
.dnkqd-i`d zcewpn
-i`d zcewpn zeaeh zeiexyt`d lke ,ziaiqpdxtnew zeiexyt`d zveaw oda Fc -a gewind zeira zgtyn : ?? , Fd
(0, 0)
. ìdy dnkqd
14 , G
.xfeg wgyna (llk) T aly cr minelyzd rvenn :165 , gT
9 , H
.zeialy t -d zeixehqidd zveaw :180 ,139 , H(t)
.itqepi` xfgg wgyna wgynd ikldn zveaw :165 , H(∞)
n o
H(α, β) = x ∈ IRd : hα, xi = β
. ,xeyin-lr :168 , H(α, β)
n o
H(α, β) = x ∈ IRd : hα, xi ≥ β
. ,xeyin-ivg :168 , H + (α, β)
n o
H(α, β) = x ∈ IRd : hα, xi ≤ β
. ,xeyin-ivg :168 , H − (α, β)
.dixehqid :139 , h
.t alya dixehqidd :181 , ht
i
. owgy hrnl mipwgyd lk z` dliknd dveawd :135 , −i
.gewin zeiral Kalai-Smorodinsky oexzt :?? , KS

.k owgy eppi`y opwgyd ,mipwgy ipy wgyna :165 , −k
.wgyna melyz ly ilniqwnd hlgend jxrd :136 , M
85 , Mm,l
101 , M (~)
101 , m(~)
7 miihnzn mipeniq 1
.gewin ziraa el xzeia daehd zexytà 1 owgyl melyzd : ?? m1 (S)

,
.gewin ziraa el xzeia daehd zexytà 2 owgyl melyzd : ?? m2 (S)

,
.mipwgyd zveaw : ?? ,16 , N

.gewin zeiral Nash oexzt : ?? , N (S, d) N ,
i
. owgy `ll mipwgyd zveaw : ?? , N−i
.zipeivilèw dxeva wgyn ly oepirxbd : ?? ,N (N, v)
.zillk dveawl qgia oepirxbd : ?? , N (N, v; X)
.mipwgyd xtqn : ?? , n
16 , O
21 , px
.S -a zeilnihte`-ehxtd zecewpd zveaw : ?? , P O(S, d)
R1 (p) = p . zaxernd dlertd z` wgyn 1 owgy xy`k zeixyt`d minelyzd zelgez sqe` :170 , R1 (p)
{puq > : q ∈ ∆(J )}
.
R2 (p) = q
. zaxernd dlertd z` wgyn 2 owgy xy`k zeixyt`d minelyzd zelgez sqe` :170 R2 (p)
,
{puq : q ∈ ∆(I)}
.
>
.zizxag dxiga zivwpet ly dpenzd : ?? , range(G)
.zexedhd zeibhxhq`d ixehwe zveaw :33 , S

.gewin ziiraa zeiexyt`d zveaw : ?? , S
.mignen mr dhlgd ziiraa rahd iavn zveaw :180 , S
.zexedhd zeibhxhq`d zveaw :33 , Si
.xfeg wgyna t alya wgeynd zelertd xehwe :139 , st
.ilty ly jxrd : ?? ,Sh
i
. owgy ly divnxetpi` zveaw :24 , Uij
.zeaxern zeibhxhq`l i owgy ly minelyzd zivwpet ly dagxdd :75 , Ui
. π zieefa minelyzd zlhdn zxvepd zixl`wqd dvixhnd ,mixehwe minelyz mr miwgyna :177 , U [π]
.minelyzd zivwpet :180 ,16 , u
. i owgy ly minelyzd zivwpet :33 , ui
.xfeg wgyna t alya i owgy ly melyzd :142 , uit
.xfeg wgyna t alya melyzd xehwe :142 , ut
8 miihnzn mipeniq 1
14 , V
.xfeg wgyna zihxt mixiaqd minelyzd zveaw :144 , V
15 , v0
16 , Vi
59 , v
44 , vi
54 , vi
?? , vi
?? ,v∗
.A minelyz zivwpet mr ialy-cgd wgynd jxr :177 , val(A)
X = ×i∈N Xi
. :9 , X
?? ,?? , X(B)
X−i = ×j6=i Xj
. :39 , X−i
x−i = (xj )j6=i
. x−i :39 ,
P
.x(S) = i∈S xi ?? ?? x(S) : , ,
.zipeivilèw dxeva wgyna milirid mixehweed zveaw : ?? , X(N )

24,21,17,16 , Γ
11 , Γ(x)
?? Γ∗ (p)
,
S dveawd lr zexazqdd zeiebltzd zveaw :74 , ∆(S)
.cxei xcqa mixceqnd mitcerd xehwe : ?? , θ(x)

α
. zief mr gewin zira ly ipeieey oexzt : ?? , λα
.gewin ziira ly oexzt : ?? ϕ(S, d) ϕ
, ,
.lbx zhiyt ziira ly oexzt : ?? , ϕ

.zeaxernd zeibhxhq`d sqe` :75 , Σi .mignen mr dhlgd ziiraa dibhxhq` :180 , σ
.zaxern dibhxhq` : ?? , σi
. k owgy epi`y owgyd ly dibhxhq`d ,mipwgy ipy wgyna :165 , σ−k
.dveaw ly oiit`nd xehweed : ?? , χS
.zakxen dibhxhq` : ?? , τi
?? , τi∗
τi
. dibhxhq`d zgz oey`xd alya si dlertd z` wgyl zexazqdd :140 , τi (si )
ozpida τi dibhxhq`d zgz xfeg wgynd t -d alya si dlertd z` wgyl zexazqdd :140 , τi (si | s , . . . , st−1 )
1
.dixehqidd
9 hngyd wgyn 2
hngyd wgyn 2
.epiaexl xkend hngyd wgyn lr miiteziy-`ld miwgynd zxeza miiqiqad zepeirxd z` bivp df wxta
.xzei miillk miwgynl o`k bivpy dxezd z` lilkp miàd miwxta
owgyd ,owgy lkl milk 16 minwenn hngyd gel lr .xegye oal ,mipwgy ipy mitzzyn hngyd wgyna
:zeixyt` ze`vez yely yi wgynl .mireaw millk itl ,eilkn cg` z` fifn exeza owgy lke ,gzet oald
.xegyd jlnd z` dkn oald m` ,oall oegvp •
.oald jlnd z` dkn xegyd m` ,xegyl oegvp •
jldn s` el oi` j` wgyl oald ly exezy e` ,iweg jldn s` el oi` j` wgyl xegyd ly exez m` ,ewiz •
.okl mcew miinrt xak xfg igkepd geld avn m` e` ,iweg
.mnewin zè geld lry milkd zedf z` llek geld avn .hngya miixyt`d geld iavn lk sqe` z` X -a onqp
zxcq itl ,igkepd geld avnl sqepa ,rawp elek wgynd avn - wgynd avn z` oihelgl x`zn epi` geld avn
lr oaenke ,hwep èd da dwihwhd lr ,aixid zeki` lr zcnln wgynd ly dixehqidd .el encwy geld iavn
:àd oteà wgyn avn xicbp ,ilnxet oteà .zrk wgyl in ly exez
X -a gel iavn ly (x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . , xK ) zeiteqd zexcqd lk zveaw ìd wgynd iavn lk zveaw 2.1 dxcbd
zeniiwnd
.hngya izlgzdd geld avn èd x0 .1
.oal ly cg` jldn zervnà xk+1 -l xk -n ribdl ozip ,ibef k<K lkl .2
.xegy ly cg` jldn zervnà xk+1 -l xk -n ribdl ozip ,ibef-i` k<K lkl .3
H -a
. wgynd iavn lk zveaw z` onqp
zipkz .wgyl exez ea wgyn avn lka wgyl cvik aygnl xnel hngy wgyl aygn zpkzl dvexd owgy lr
. dibhxhq` z`xwp wgyna zebdpzdl efk d`ln
avn ibef K mr (x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . , xK ) ∈ H dxcq lkl dni`znd sW divwpet ìd oal ly dibhxhq` 2.2 dxcbd
.oal ly cg` jldn zervnà y -l xK -n ribdl ozipy jk y∈X gel
ibef-i` K mr (x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . , xK ) ∈ H dxcq lkl dni`znd sB divwpet ìd xegy ly dibhxhq` ,ibelp` oteà
.xegy ly cg` jldn zervnà y -l xK -n ribdl ozipy jk y∈X gel avn
liaend jldnd z` wgyn oal dgiztd jldna .àd oteà wgynd jldn z` raew (sW , sB ) zeibhxhq`d bef
oteà .d`ld oke , x2 = sB (x0 , x1 ) geld avnl liaend jldnd z` wgyn xegy zrk . x1 = sW (x0 ) geld avnl
geld avnn liaend jldnd z` wgyn oal K +1 -d jldna if` ,ibef K m` . k alya geld avn z` xk -a onqp ,illk
avnn liaend jldnd z` wgyn xegy K+1 -d jldna if` ,ibef-i` K m` .xK+1 = sW (x0 , x1 , . . . , xK ) -l xK
xK+1 = sW (x0 , x1 , . . . , xK )
. -l xK geld
10 hngyd wgyn 2
1
(play)
. zexgz `xwp (wgynd meiql cr) elek wgynd jldn
dgihan ìd m` zgvpn z`xwp oal ly dibhxhq` .ewiz e` xegyl oegvp ,oall oegvpa zniizqn zexgz lk
:ilnxet oteà .xegy ly dibhxhq` lk cbpk z`fe ,gvpi èdy
lr zrawpd zexgzd xegy ly sB dibhxhq` lkl m` oal xear zgvpn dibhxhq` ìd sW dibhxhq` 2.3 dxcbd
sB dibhxhq` lkl m` ewiz zegtl dgihan oal ly sW dibhxhq` .oal oegvpa zniizqn (sW , sB ) zeibhxhq`d bef ici
.ewiza e` oal oegvpa zniizqn (sW , sB ) zeibhxhq`d bef ici lr zrawpd zexgzd xegy ly
èd mr elit` ,wgyna gvpl ghaen ditl wgyiy oal owgyly ixd ,oal xear zgvpn dibhxhq` ìd sW m`
.hngya mlerd sel` len ccenzn
.xegy xear ewiz zegtl dgihand dibhxhqè zgvpn dibhxhq` zexcben dnec oteà
.(3.17 htyn) jynda àezy ,miwgynd zxeza zepey`xd ze`vezd zg`n dpwqn èd àd htynd
.zeàd zeriawdn zg` wxe zg` dpekp hngyd wgyna 2.4 htyn
.zgvpn dibhxhq` yi oal owgyl (i)
.zgvpn dibhxhq` yi xegy owgyl (ii)
.ewiz zegtl dgihand dibhxhq` yi mipwgydd ipyn cg` lkl (iii)
-iwzn (i) zexyt` m` .zccea hngy zexgz lr xacn epi` htyndy yibcpe xiaqp htynd z` gikepy iptl
gvpi ef dibhxhq` itl lrtie oald ciwtza wgyiy mc` lk ,xnelk .sW zgvpn dibhxhq` oall yiy ixd ,zni
lk ,xnelk . sB zgvpn dibhxhq` xegyl yiy ixd ,zniiwzn (ii) zexyt` m` .dyer eaixi dn dpyn `le ,wgyna
(iii) zexyt` m` .dyer eaixi dn dpyn `le ,wgyna gvpi ef dibhxhq` itl lrtie xegyd ciwtza wgyiy mc`
.ewiz zegtl dgihand sB dibhxhq` xegyl yie ,ewiz zegtl dgihand sW dibhxhq` oall yiy ixd ,zniiwzn
eaixi dn dpyn `le ,ewiz zegtl biyiy ghaen ( sB e`) sW dibhxhq`d itl wgyiy (xegy e`) oal owgyl ,hxta
.dyer
e` ,miccvd cg`l zgvpn dibhxhq` `vniz ea meia .mircei ep` oi` z`f ?zniiwzn zeiexyt`d yelyn efi`
zeibhxhq` mi`ven ep` oi` cer lk j` .oiiprn zeidl hngyd wgyn wiqti ,ewiz zegtl dgihand dibhxhq`
.d`pda hngy wgyle jiyndl mileki ep` ,el`k
wgynd z`vezy okzi :zniiw dpi` zeiexyt`d yelyn zg` s`y okzii y`xn ik zernyn lra lirl htynd
miyp .lirl zeiexyt`d zg` zniiw ok`y gihan htynd .eaixi lr ewiz e` oegvip zetkl lekiy cv oiè zixwn ìd
zgvpn dibhxhq` yi oall mby okzii `l ,dnbecl .yelyd oian zg` zexyt`n xzei miiwzdl dleki `l ik al
dibhxhq`d itl miwgyn mipwgyd ipy m` wgynd z`vez idn zxg` oky ,zgvpn dibhxhq` yi xegyl mbe
?mdly zgvpnd
xeià mièxy itk ,ur zervnà wgynd iavn zveaw z` bivp .zexcbd dnk ìap ,htynd z` gikepy iptl
md x ly “
mipad ”x cewcw lkle , x0 izlgzdd avnd èd yxeyd .wgyna ixyt` avn x`zn ura cewcw lk .2.1
zg` zvayn eilbx zpenyn cg` lk fifdl oal leki dgiztd jldna ,dnbecl . x -n xearl ozip mdn ohcmnv zveaw
1
ly jldn) mitqep mibyena driten “jldn” dlindy oeeikn . wgyn jldn“ ” mya (x0 , x1 , . . . , xk ) dxcql èxwl xzei irah ile` did
eply yeniyd ik al miyl `xewd lr .xg` my ,df wxta zeax riteiy ,df byenl wiprdl epxga (wgyna miieqn alya owgy ly jldn ,wgyn
.zixara ef dlina libxd yeniydn dpey “zexgz” gpena

11 hngyd wgyn 2
20 yi yxeyl okle ,izlgzdd avna miixyt` mikldn 20 oall yi lkd jqa .eiyxt ipyn cg` z` e` ,miizy e`
oneqn) gvip xegy e` ,( W -a oneqn) gvip oal e` eay avn - wgynd ly meiq avnl mi`zn urd ly dlr lk .mipa
.( D -a oneqn) ewiz fxkeny e` ,( B -a
ur zxfra bven hngyd wgyn :2.1 xei`
geld iavn lk zè igkepd geld avn z` x`zn ura cewcw lk .wgynd ur mi`xew 2.1 xeià ritend url
iavn zveawl dlewy wgynd ur icewcw zveaw okl .wgynd avn z` x`zn ura cewcw lk ,hxta .el encwy
H
. zeà ok mb wgynd ur icewcw zveaw z` onqd ef daiqn . H wgynd
ici lr wgynd urn lawzn ède x eyxeyy urd edf . x-a ligznd urd-zza lkzqdl ozip x∈H cewcw lkl
miwgyn (xegy) l`rnyie (oal) wgvi :àd avnl mi`zn df ur-zz . x ly mi`v`v mpi`y micewcwd lk weliq
awri .(xegy) eyrle (oal) awril mnewn z` zeptl miywazn md x -l ribd geld avnyke ,hngyd wgyn z`
onqp ep` . x-a ligznd urd-zz ici lr xcbend wgynd z` mvra miwgyn , x avna geld z` milawnd ,eiyre
wgynd .wgyn-zz mi`xew mb ep` Γ(x) wgynl nx

. -a onqp urd-zza micewcwd xtqn zè , Γ(x) -a df wgyn
.libxd hngyd wgyn edf okle ,wgynd ly izlgzdd avna ligznd wgynd èd Γ(x0 )
.nx > ny okle , x z` likn epi`y Γ(x) ly ur-zz èd Γ(y) if` , x ly oa èd y m`
wgyn-zza mirqn mirvan `l llk mipwgyd okle ,wgynd ly meiq avn èd x m` wxe m` nx = 1 ,ok enk
∅
. -a onqp ,rqn s` rvan `l èd ea ,dfk dxwna owgy hwep dze` dibhxhq`d z` .df
-a onqp
F = {Γ(x) : x ∈ H} (1)
.hngyd wgyn ly mivrd-izz ici lr mixcbend miwgynd lk sqe` z`
.àd htynd zgked ici lr 2.4 htyn z` gikep
.zeàd zeiexyt`dn zg` wxe zg` zniiwzn F dgtyna wgyn lka 2.5 htyn
.zgvpn dibhxhq` yi oal owgyl (i)
.zgvpn dibhxhq` yi xegy owgyl (ii)
.ewiz zegtl dgihand dibhxhq` yi mipwgydd ipyn cg` lkl (iii)

. Γ(x) urd-zza micewcwd xtqn , nx lr divwecpià rvazz dgkedd .dgked
lr ievn epi` oald jlnd m` .meiq cewcw èd x df dxwna ,mcew epxn`y itk . nx = 1 miiwnd cewcw x `di
oald ,geld lr ievn epi` xegyd jlnd m` .xegyl zgvpn dibhxhq` ìd ∅ dibhxhq`d okle ,gvip xegyd ,geld
,ewiza miizqn wgynd geld lr miievn miklnd ipy mè .oall zgvpn dibhxhq` ìd ∅ dibhxhq`d okle ,gvip
.xegyl ode oall od ewiz dgihan ∅ dibhxhq`d okle
nx > 1
. miiwnd cewcw x `di
zniiwzn (iii) (ii) (i)

, , zeiexyt`dn zg` wxe zg` , ny < n x miiwnd y cewcw lkl ik divwecpià gipp
Γ(y)
. wgynd-zza
miiwzn x -n ribdl ozip eil` y gel avn lkl .oey`x wgyn oal Γ(x) wgyna ik zeillkd zlabd ila gipp
mdil` wgynd iavn lk sqe` z` A(x) -a onqp .divwecpi`d zgpd zniiwzn Γ(y) wgynd-zza okle , ny < n x
.oal ly cg` jldna x-n ribdl ozip
12 hngyd wgyn 2
dibhxhq` : Γ(x) xear zniiwzn (i) zexyt`y ixd ,zgvpn dibhxhq` oall yi Γ(y)-ay jk y ∈ A(x) yi m`
itl lrti jliè ipyd jldndne , y geld avnl liaend jldnd z` oey`xd jldna wgyl ìd Γ(x) -a oall zgvpn
Γ(y)
. -a zgvpn dibhxhq`
xegy : Γ(x) xear zniiwzn (ii) zexyt`y ixd ,zgvpn dibhxeq` xegyl yi Γ(y) wgyna y ∈ A(x) lkl m`
itl lrti d`lde ipyd jldndne ,oal ly oey`xd jldnd xg`l y geld avn edn d`xiy jk ici lr gvpl leki
Γ(y)
. wgyna exear zgvpn dibhxhq`
xegyl zniiwzn `l dpey`xd zexyt`d m` ik d`xp ep` .zeniiwzn `l elld zeiexyt`d izy ik zrk gipp
zegtl dgihand dibhxhq` yi oall zniiwzn `l dipyd zexyt`d mè ,ewiz zegtl dgihand dibhxhq` yi
.ewiz
divwecpi`d zgpdn . Γ(y) -a zgvpn dibhxhq` oall oi` y ∈ A(x) lkl ,zniiwzn `l dpey`xd zexyt`d m`
okl .ewiz zegtl el dgihand dibhxhq` xegyl yiy e` ,zgvpn dibhxhq` xegyl yiy e` Γ(y) -a y
, iabl
èd oal ly oey`xd jldnd xg`l wgynd avn m` : Γ(x) -a ewiz zegtl el dgihan xegyl dàd dibhxhq`d
dgihand dibhxhq` it lr e` ,efk jl yi m` Γ(y) -a zgvpn dibhxhq` it lr wgy jliè ipyd alynd lgd y
,
.efk jl yi m` Γ(y) -a ewiz zegtl
zgpdn .zgvpn dibhxhq` xegyl oi` Γ(y) -ay jk y ∈ A(x) yi if` ,zniiwzn dpi` dipyd zexyt`d m`
zegtl el dgihand dibhxhq` s0W oall yiy e` , sW zgvpn dibhxhq` oall yiy e` Γ(y) -a , y iabl divwecpi`d
avnl liaend jldnd z` rva oey`xd jldna : Γ(x) -a ewiz zegtl el dgihan oall dàd dibhxhq`d okl .ewiz
jl yi m` s0W it lr e` , Γ(y) -a sW zgvpn dibhxhq` jl yi m` sW it lr wgy jliè ipyd alydn y

, wgynd
. Γ(y) -a ewiz zegtl dgihand s0W dibhxhq`

13 dagx dxeva miwgyn 3
dagx dxeva miwgyn 3

.dfk wgynl dnbec èd 2 wxta epi`xy hngyd wgyn .dagx dxeva miwgyn ly lcend z` bivp df wxta
.df lcen xear 2.4 htyn z` lilkpe ,meineid iign miwgyn ilnxet oteà x`zl cvik d`xp ep`
:miàd miaikxnd z` likdl aiig wgyn ly xeìz lk ?wgyn mix`zn cvik
.(zehlgdd ilawn) mipwgyd zveaw •
.owgy lkl zeixyt`d zelertd •
.dlerta hewpl owgy lk lr ea xcqd z` miraewd millk •
.wgynd miizqn izn raewd llk •
.wgynd ly ixyt` meiq lkl d`vezd •
owgy ly jldn lk xèzn eay ,itxb xeìz èd wgynd ly irah xeìz ,hngyd wgyn xear epi`xy itk
.sxb lr xg` cewcwl cg` cewcwn xarnk
3.1 dnbec
4
. -e 3 2 1
, , -a zepneqna zevayn rax` za dlah epiptl .àd wgyna opeazp
2 4
1 3
.zevaynd zg` z` “ yaek ” ède ,dgiztd jldn z` rvan I owgy II

. -e I mipwgy ipy mitzzyn wgyna
:miàd mi`pzl setka zg` zvayn yaek exeza owgy lk jk xg`
.mipwgyd cg` ici lr okl mcew dyakp `l zyakpd zvaynd .1
3
. , e` 2 zevayndn zg` dyakp xak m` 4 zvayn z` yeakl xeq` .2
.ef zvayn yaky owgyd èd ciqtnd .wgynd miizqn , 1 zvayn zyakp xy`k .3
.3.0 xeià ritend itxbd xe`zd ici lr df wgyn x`zp

I wins I wins
y z
1 1
II wins II wins II wins II wins
l m p II q s II w
1 1 1 3 1 2
I wins I wins II wins
e I f g I h i I j I k
1 3 1 2 1 2 3
II wins
a b II II c II d
2 3
1 4
I
r
dagx dxeva wgynd :3.0 xei`
zcewp idefy owgyd oiievn cewcw lka ;sxba cewcw ici lr owgy ly dhlgd zcewp lk zbven df xeìza
ly miixyt` mikldn zepnqn sxbd zerlv .ohw xgyen lebira zepneqn wgynd meiq zecewp .exear dhlgd
dxeva wgyn `xwp ef dxeva xèznd wgyn .dni`znd d`vezd zpiievn meiq zcewp lk cil ,seqal .mipwgyd
dagx
.
.“ wgyn ur ” mizirl `xwpy ,cgein dpan yi wgyn x`znd sxbly ef dnbecn ze`xl lw
.ur edn okl mcew xicbp ,zilnxet dxeva wgynd ur z` xicbl ick
mivre mitxb 3.1

xyà G = (V, E) bef èd sxb 3.2 dxcbd
.sxbd icewcw mi`xwp dixai`y ,dveaw ìd V •
ipye okzii) V -a cewcw èd mdn cg` lky ,zeevw ipy yi zyw lkl . sxbd zezyw mi`xwp dixai`y ,dveaw ìd E •
.(cewcw eze` od zywd zeevw
iteq
. sxbd ik xn`p miiteq E -e V m`
(lebir e` zyw ,xyi) ew ici lr zywe dcewp ici lr cewcw xeìz ìd sxbl zirahe dgep zixhneìb dbvd
.3.1 xeià zebven sxb ly ixhneìb xeìzl ze`nbec .zecewp izy xagnd
mitxb xtqn :3.1 xei`
zegtl) mipiiprn miwgyn yi j` .miiteq mitxb ici lr mze` x`zp okle ,miiteq md oecp mda miwgynd aex 3.3 dxrd
.ziteqpi` ìd micewcwd zveaw mda (zihxe`z dpigan

dxevdn zerlve micewcw ly ziteq dxcq ìd (path) G sxba (ziteq) dliqn 3.4 dxcbd
v1 , e1 , v2 , e2 , . . . , eK , vK+1
K xtqnd . dliqnd zevw mi`xwp vK+1 -e v1 micewcwd . vk+1 -e vk md ek rlv ly zeevwd , 1 ≤ k ≤ K ,k lkl day
.v1 = vK+1 -e K ≥ 1 m` zilbrn z`xwp dliqnd . dliqnd jxe` `xwp
.dizevw md el` micewcwy dliqn yi mipey micewcw ipy lkl m` (connected) xiyw `xwp G sxb 3.5 dxcbd
dliqn epi` ccea cewcw ,ok enk .xiyw sxb èd cala cg` cewcw yi ea sxby raep ef dxcbdn ik al miyp
.zilbrn
.zilbrn dliqn ea oiè xiyw èd m` (tree) ur `xwp sxb 3.6 dxcbd
.ur èd cala cg` cewcw llekd sxb ,zilbrn dliqn epi` ccea cewcwy oeeikn
.mivr dnk miriten 3.2 xeià
mivr xtqn :3.2 xei`
.mivr ly zepekz xtqn zhxtn ,(1 libxz d`x) libxzk zx`yen dzgkedy ,dàd dprhd
:ur lka zeniiwzn zeàd zepekzd 3.7 dprh
.dizeevw dl` xy` zg` dliqn weica yi ura micewcw ipy lkl .1
.ura zerlvd xtqnn 1-a lecb iteq ura micewcwd xtqn .2
.ur èd sxbd if` ,zerlvd xtqnn 1-a lecb micewcwd xtqn iteqe xiyw sxba m` .3
ède ,sxba micewcwd cg` èd yxeyd . (root) yxey mr ur zervnà wgyn mix`zn miwgynd zxeza
.v0 -a oneqn
.dxedd byen zè ,cewcw lk ly wnerd z` xicbdl ozip ,yxey url oezpyk
v0 -e v
. dizevwy dliqnd jxe` èd v ly wnerd .cewcw v ∈ V \ {v0 } `die ,yxey mr ur (V, E, v0 ) `di 3.8 dxcbd
.ahid xcben cewcw ly wnerd okle ,yxeyd mr v z` zxagnd zg` dliqn wx yi (1) 3.7 dprhn
.(2 libxz d`x) `xewl libxzk zx`yen dàd dprhd zgked
:miiwnd u cigi cewcw yi v 6= v0 cewcw lkl .yxey mr ur (V, E, v0 ) `di 3.9 dprh
v -e u
. dizevwy zyw yi •
1-a u
. ly wnerdn lecb v ly wnerd •
`xwp v cewcwd . (parent) v ly dxedd `xwp 3.9 dprha zepiievnd zepekzd izy z` miiwnd u cigid cewcwd
(child) u
. ly oa
.urd ly dlrd byen z` xicbdl lw el` mibyen zxfra
.mipa el oi` m` (leaf ) dlr èd v cewcw .yxey mr ur (V, E, v0 ) `di 3.10 dxcbd
wgyn ivr 3.2
.wgyn ur edn xicbdl mileki ep` zrk
.yxey mr ur èd wgyn ur 3.11 dxcbd
md cewcw lk ly mipad . izlgzdd avnd lrk sxbd yxey lre , wgyna avn lrk sxba cewcw lk lr aeygl ozip
miixyt`d mikldnd xtqnl deey cewcw ly mipad xtqn ,xnelk .igkepd avndn ribdl ozip mdil` wgynd iavn
.wgynd ly meiq cewcw èd dlr .df cewcwl mi`znd wgynd avnn
:wgynd xeìzl mivegpd mitqep miaikxn ipy yi wgynd url sqepay d`xp 3.0 xei`n
.cewcw ezeà jldn rval xen`y owgyd z` oiivl yi meiq cewcw epi`y cewcw lkl •
.meiqd icewcwn cg` lka wgynd z`vez xeìz •
z`vez z` iteqpi` lelqn lkl x`zl yi ,miiteqpi` milelqn ura yie ,iteqpi` epid micewcwd xtqn m` •
.wgynd
ocegi`y V ly zexf zeveaw-zz ly V1 , V 2 , . . . , V K dgtyn ìd V ly dwelg .dwix `l dveaw V `dz 3.12 dxcbd
.V èd
.(mitqep miaikxn jynda siqep ef dxcbdl) dagx dxeva wgyn ly dpey`xd dxcbdd dler o`kn
Γ dxecq diriay èd dagx dxeva wgyn 3.13 dxcbd
Γ = (N, V, E, v0 , (Vi )i∈N , O, u) (2)
xyà
.(dipn za e` ziteq) mipwgyd zveaw ìd N •
.wgyn ur èd (V, E, v0 ) •
.meiq icewcw mpi`y micewcwd zveaw ly dwelg ìd (Vi )i∈N •
.zeixyt`d ze`vezd zveaw ìd O •
O-a
. zixyt` d`vez wgynd ura iteqpi` lelqn lkle meiq cewcw lkl dni`znd divwpet ìd u •
ezeà d`vezd , x meiq cewcw lkle ,df owgy ly dhlgdd icewcw zveaw ìd Vi dveawd , i∈N owgy lkl
. u(x) ìd cewcw

,3.0 xeiày dnbeca
N = {I, II},
V = {r, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, p, q, s, w, y, z},
v0 = r,
VI = {r, f, h, j, k},
VII = {a, b, c, d, q, w}.
ìd zeixyt`d ze`vezd zveaw
O={ gvpn I, gvpn II}. (3)
ici lr dpezp u divwpetde
u(a) = gvpn II, u(s) = gvpn II, u(y) = gvpn I, . . . . (4)
yi wgyn avn lkay jkn zraep meiq icewcw mpi`y micewcwd zveaw ly dwelg didz (Vi )i∈I -y dyixcd
dpkp . x ∈ Vi miiwnd i∈I cigi owgy yi x∈X cewcw lkl .zniieqn dlert xegal jixvy cigie cg` owgy
,3.3 xeiày dnbeca . J(x) -a epnqpe , x cewcwa zehlgdd lawn mya df owgy
J(r) = J(f ) = J(h) = J(j) = J(k) = I,

J(a) = J(b) = J(c) = J(d) = J(q) = J(w) = II.
miixyt`d mikldnd z` zx`zn A(x) okl . x ly mipad zveaw z` A(x) -a onqp ,meiq cewcw epi`y x cewcw lkl
x
. wgynd avna J(x) owgyl
.dagx dxeva wgyn ly jldnl àd xeìzd dler lirl zexcbddn
:oldlck èd Γ = (N, V, E, v0 , (Vi )i∈N , O, u) dagx dxeva wgyn ly jldnd 3.14 dxcbd
.A(x0 ) dveawdn x1 ixyt` jldn zxigaa ligzn J(v0 ) owgyd •
.x2 ∈ A(x1 ) (jldn) xai` J(x1 ) owgy xgea ,meiq cewcw epi` x1 m` •
u(x)
. d`veza miizqn wgynd fè , x meiq cewcwl ribn èdy cr ,ef jxca jiynn wgynd •
.u(h) ìd d`vezd df dxwna .wgynd ura h iteqpi` lelqn lawzn miizqn epi` wgynd m` •
(x0 , x1 , . . . , xk )
, dxcq zlawzn ,oey`xd dxwna .iteqpi` èdy e` ,meiq cewcwa miizqn wgynd jldn
zlawzn ,ipyd dxwna . l = 0, 1, . . . , k − 1 xear xl+1 ∈ A(xl ) -e meiq cewcw epid xk ,urd yxey èd x0 xyà
mixwnd ipya . l = 0, 1, . . . , k − 1 xear xl+1 ∈ A(xl ) -e ,urd yxey èd x0 xyà , (x0 , x1 , . . .) ziteqpi` dxcq
u(x0 , x1 , . . .) -e ,oey`xd dxwna u(xk ) :dcigie zg` d`vez dni`zn efk zexgz lkl. (play) zexgz ef dxcq z`xwp
.ipyd dxwna
:izlgzdd cewcwdn eil` dliaend (x0 , x1 , . . . , xk ) dcigie zg` dxcq dni`zn x∈X cewcw lkly al miyp
xl+1 ∈ A(xl ), l = 0, 1, . . . , k − 1,
xk = x.
dixehqidd mb ef dxcql `xwp okl . x (cewcw) avnl x0 izlgzdd cewcwdn wgynd jldn z` zx`zn ef dxcq
,cewcw ,zexg` milina . X micewcwd zveawl zeixehqidd zveaw oia zikxr-cg-cg dn`zd yi ik xexa . x avna
zexgzd ìd dixehqidd ,meiq cewcwl .avn eze`l eliaedy mikldnd ly dixehqidd mr ddefn ,wgyna avn e`
.cewcw eze`l dni`znd
.àd oteà owgyl dibhxhq` mixicbn ep` ilnxet oteà .wgynd z` wgyl cvik myxn ìd dibhxhq`
v ∈ Vi lkl ik zniiwnd si : Vi → V divwpet ìd i owgyl dibhxhq` 3.15 dxcbd
si (v) ∈ A(v).
.xegal owgyd lr v ly eipan cg` dfià i owgy zhilyay v cewcw lkl zraew si dibhxhq`d ,milina
.ewiz zegtl dgihand dibhxhq`de zgvpnd dibhxhq`d byen z` lilkp zrk
z`xwp I owgy ly sI dibhxhq` . O = {gvpn I, gvpn II, ewiz} ea dagx dxeva mipwgy ipy wgyn Γ `di 3.16 dxcbd
m` zgvpn dibhxhq`
u(sI , sII ) = gvpn I, ∀sII . (5)
m` I owgyl ewiz zegtl dgihan II owgy ly sI dibhxhq`
u(sI , sII ) ∈ {gvpn I, ewiz}, ∀sII . (6)
ziteq dveaw dpid V -e O = {gvpn I, gvpn II, ewiz} ea mipwgy ipy wgyn lka (von Neumann) 3.17 htyn
.zeàd zeiexyt`d yelyn zg` wxe zg` zniiwzn
.zgvpn dibhxhq` yi I owgyl .1
.zgvpn dibhxhq` yi II owgyl .2
.ewiz zegtl dgihand dibhxhq` yi mipwgyd ipyn cg` lkl .3
ly micgeind wgynd illka llk epynzyd `l df htyn zgkeda ,ok` . ?? htyn zgkedl dnec htynd zgked
miwgyn mipwgyd (`) od dgkeda oda epynzyd `ly zepekz .htyna epiievy zepekza wx `l` ,hngyd wgyn
wgynd ur ly itivtqd dpand (a) .dlilg xfege II

, owgy ici lr ipyd , I owgy ici lr oey`xd jldnd :xcq itl
.aeyg epi`
libxz d`x) Hex -d wgyne (18 libxz d`x) Nim iwgyn ,dwnc md ,3.17 htyn swz mdiabl mitqep miwgyn
.(24
df wgyn .3.17 htyn i`pz z` èd s` miiwne David Gale i`wihnznd ici lr `vnedy wgyna oecp zrk
aygl cvik mircei eppi` j` ,zniiwzn htynd ly zeiexyt`d yelyn zg` efi` gikedl mileki ep` eiabl ik oiiprn
.dni`znd dibhxhq`d z`
David Gale ly wgynd 3.3
xyà , (i, j) zehpicxeèwd bef zxfra onqp eizevayn z`y ,(zevayn 8×8 ) libx hngy gel lr ldpzn wgynd
.zikp`d dhpicxeèwd z` j -e ,ziwte`d dhpicxeèwd z` onqn i 1≤j≤8

: -e 1≤i≤8
j
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
i
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
David Gale ly wgynd :3.4 xei`
xzei ozip `l (i0 , j0 )

, zvaynd dyakp miieqn alya m` :àd i`pzl setka zvayn exeza yaek owgy lk
zeniiwnd (i, j) zevaynd lk geldn zewleqn dyrnl ,xnelk .dpnn zigxfn-oetv z`vnpd zvayn mey yeakl
.zellvend zevaynd lk geldn ewleq okle , (4, 7) zvaynd dyakp ,lynl ,3.4 xeià . i ≥ i0 , j ≥ j0
.ciqtnd èd (1, 1) zvaynd z` yaekd owgyde ,wgyna gzetd èd I owgy
8×8
. mewna 2×2 gel xear David Gale ly wgynd èd 3.1 dnbeca wgynd ik xirp
z` yeak oey`xd alya : I owgy xear zgvpn dibhxhq` dpid dàd dibhxhq`d David Gale ly wgyna 3.18 dprh
wgy jliè o`kn .(3.5 xei` d`x) i=1 dcenrae j =1 dxeya zeritend zevaynd wx dpx`yiz jkae , (2, 2) zvaynd
(j, i)
. zvaynd z` I owgy yeaki , (i, j) zvaynd z` yaek II owgy m` ,xnelk . II owgyl ixhniq oteà
,( (i, j) 6= (1, 1) mè) (i, j) zvaynd z` yak II owgy m` ,xnelk .ahid zxcben l"pd dibhxhq`dy ze`xl lw
.dwleq `l oiicr (j, i) zvaynd
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
i
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(2, 2) zvaynd z` yaek I owgyy xg`l wgynd :3.5 xei`
gell sè) n≥1 mr n×n ireaix gel lkl `l` , 8×8 lceba gell `weec e`l dpekp ef d`vezy xexa 3.19 dxrd
.(iaeigd riaxd , ∞×∞ iteqpi` ireaix

itk ?zgvpn dibhxhq` df dxwna yi owgy dfi`l ?ipaln oiicr j` ,ireaix epi` wgynd gel xy`k dxew dn
.zgvpn dibhxhq` cinz yi gzetd owgyl ,oreh àd htyndy
.zgvpn dibhxhq` ,wgynd z` gzetd , I owgyl yi ( m>1 e` n > 1) n × m iteq gel lk xear 3.20 htyn
.htyna zeritend zeiexyt`d yelyn zg` zniiwzn okle ,3.17 htyn i`pz z` miiwn epiptly wgynd .dgked
:zeiexyt` izy wx dpkziz ,df wgyna zniiw dpi` ewiz d`vezdy oeeikn
.zgvpn dibhxhq` yi I owgyl .1
.zgvpn dibhxhq` yi II owgyl .2
.dàd dprhd z` gikepy jk ici lr dyrz wgynd zgked
yi I owgyl mb f` zgvpn dibhxhq` yi II owgyl m` ,( m>1 e` n > 1) n × m iteq gel lk xear 3.21 xfr zprh
.zgvpn dibhxhq`
,zgvpn dibhxhq` yi II owgyly okzii `l ik raep ,zgvpn dibhxhq` yi mipwgyd ipyly okzii `ly oeeik
.zgvpn dibhxhq` yi I owgyly ìd dxzepy dcigid zexyt`d okle
owgy ly dibhxhq` lk cbpk oegvip dgihan ef dibhxhq` . sII zgvpn dibhxhq` yi II owgyl ik gipp .dgked
.(dpeilr-zipnid zvaynd) dgiztd jldna (n, m) zvaynd z` yeakl xgai I owgy m` mb zgvpn ìd ,hxta . I
: (i0 , j0 ) zvaynd yeaik èd sII itl II owgyl ulnend daeyzd jldn ik gipp
m I
j0 II
i0 n
mikldn ipy xg`l geld :3.6 xei`
:àd xeià xèznd geld lr ycg wgyn gztzn jliè o`kn
j0
i0 n
mikldn ipy xg`l ycgd geld :3.7 xei`
oegvip envrl gihan sII

, dibhxhq`d it lr ewgya II
, owgye ,dgiztd jldn z` rvan I owgy df wgyna
dgiztd jldn z` rvai II owgy ,epiidc ,ycgd wgyna mipwgyd iciwtz z` dpyp m` ,jkitl .ycgd wgyna
owgy yeaki ixewnd wgyna m`y ,o`kn sII

.( it lr wgyl ìdy) zgvpn dibhxhq` I owgyl didz (I mewna)
jldn z` rvan II owgy eay ,3.7 xeià xèznd wgynd weica lawzi ,oey`xd jldna (i0 , j0 ) zvaynd z` I
.zgvpn dibhxhq` yi I owgyle ,dgiztd
wgyna I owgy ly zgvpn dibhxhq` ìd sII dibhxhq`d it lr jynde (i0 , j0 ) -a I ly dgizt ,mekiql
.htynd zgked dnlyed jkae ,ixewnd
zgvpn dibhxhq` èvnl mircei eppi`y dcaerd xe`l cgeina dniyxn von Neumann htynn ef dpwqn
. 40-l 30 oia m -e n xy`k - ziqgi ohw gel xear ,aygn zxfra elit` gzetd owgyl
lxeb ikldn mr wgyn 3.4
miwgynl mi`zn dfk lcen .mipwgyd cg` ici lr dyrp avnl avnn xarnd ,dk cr epwqr mda miwgyna
avnl avnn xarn mday ,(ya-yy e` xwet enk) diaew e` mitlw iwgynl `l j` ,eb wgynde dwnc ,hngy enk
milihn ep` ya-yyae ,dqitgay mitlwd z` mitxeh ep` mitlw iwgyna :ixwn jildz ici lr zeyridl leki
,myb zcixi enk ,mixg` miixwn minxeba ielz avnl avnn xarnd oda zeivèhiq lr mb aeygl ozip .diaew
ici lr dyrz eply lcend ly dagxdd . dlxbd e` , lxeb jldn `xwp df beqn xarn .dqxead zlitp e` dnc` zcirx
zeliaen dlxbdl mi`znd cewcwn ze`veid zerlvd .lxeb ikldnk epneqi (V, E, v0 ) sxba micewcwdn wlgy jk
.dni`znd d`vezd zlawl zexazqdd znyxp efk rlv lk cile ,dlxbdd ly zeixyt`d ze`vezl
lxeb ikldn mr wgyn 3.22 dnbec
.àd mipwgy ipy wgyna opeazp
(0, 0)
a D 1/3 (5, −1)
B e 0 2/3 (−2, 5)
1/2 II E
R I A (2, 0)
f
b 0 g (1, 1)
F
1/2 I (0, 2)
1/4
C h 0 (−1, 1)
1/2
G (1, 1)
1/4
lxeb ikldn mr wgynl dnbec :3.8 xei`
melyzd èd y -e , I owgyl melyzd èd x xy`k (x, y)

, mixtqn bef ici lr zepneqn df wgyna ze`vezd
II . owgyl
eze` mipnqne , “lxeb ” `xwpd ,ycg owgy mitiqen ep` .àd oteà zrvazn lxeb ikldn ztqez ilnxet oteà
lr zexazqd xehwe z` px -a onqp ,dlxbd zrvazn ea x cewcw lkl . N ∪ {0} ,ok m` ,ìd mipwgyd zveaw . 0-a
.dagx dxeva wgynl dàd dxcbdd z` lawp okl . x -a zkxrpd dlxbdd ly zeixyt`d ze`vezd
dxecq dipiny èd dagx dxeva wgyn 3.23 dxcbd
Γ = (N, V, E, v0 , (Vi )i∈N ∪{0} , (px )x∈V0 , O, u). (7)
.miàd milcadd mr mcewnk md mipeniqd

-cewcwd zveaw ìdy V0 dveawd dzr dtqep ,xnelk . (Vi )i∈N ∪{0} dzr ìd micewcwd zveaw ly dwelgd •
.lxeb jldn rvazn mda mi
2
x
.( ly mipad zveaw) A(x) lr zebltzd èd px xehweed x ∈ V0 cewcw lkl •
,dlxbd zrvazn lxebl jiieynd cewcw lka j` ,lxeb ikldn `ll wgynl dneca wgeyn lxeb ikldn mr wgyn
odighiyy zexfb zlra dhlex lrk x lxeb cewcw lr aeygl xyt` .df cewcwa xgaiiy jldnd z` zraewd
xvrp begnd day dxfbde ,dhlexd begn z` miaaeqn lxeb cewcwl ribn wgynd xy`k . px ikxrl miipeivxetext
.ycgd wgynd avn z` zpnqn
xy`k .(dcigie zg` d`vez mb okle) dcigie zg` zexgz raew zeibhxhq` xehwe ,lxeb ikldn `ll miwgyna
.wgynd ze`vez lr zebltzd zeibhxhq`d xehwe raew ,lxeb ikldn yi wgyna
:dàd sI dibhxhqà ynzyn I owgy ik gipp jynd .3.22 dnbec
sI (R) = A, sI (C) = G,
:dàd sII dibhxhqà ynzyn II owgy ik gipp
sII (B) = E.
if`
, (2, 0) didz d`vezde , R→A→B→E zexgzd lawzz 1/2 zexazqda •
, (−2, 5) didz d`vezde , R → A → C → (−2, 5) zexgzd lawzz 1/8 zexazqda •
, (−1, 1) didz d`vezde , R → A → C → (−1, 1) zexgzd lawzz 1/4 zexazqda •
(1, 1)
. didz d`vezde , R → A → C → (1, 1) zexgzd lawzz 1/8 zexazqdae •

diaew iwgyne milage zenleq ,letepen ,ya-yy enk miwgyn x`zl ozip lxeb ikldn mr dfk lcen zxfra
,ya-yya ,ok` .df dxwna miiwzn epi` 3.17 htyn ,ok lr xzi .(?recn .xwet enk mitlw iwgyn `l j`) mitqep
.wgyn eaixi cvik llk dpyn `le ,gzetd epi` m` mbe gzetd èd m` mb gvpi ezaehl zewgyn zeiaewdy owgy
milibxze zetqep ze`nbec
znlyen drici `ll miwgyn 3.5
znlyen drici mipwgydn cg` lkl yi wgyna aly lkay èd dk cr epc mda miwgynd lk ly mipiit`nd cg`
,zelxbd eidy dcinae ,mixg`d mipwgyd ly mdikldn eid dn weica rcei èd :aly eze`l cr wgynd jldn lr
`vnp (wgynd ura) cewcw dfià alye aly lka rcei owgy lk ,zexg` milina .odize`vez eid dn rcei èd
.znlyen drici mr wgyn `xwp ef dpekz lra wgyn .wgynd
2
.dveawd lr zeiexazqd xehwe oeivl “X dveaw lr zebltzd ” gpena ynzyp jyndae o`k
ikldn lk z` mipwgyd mircei `l zeaexw mizirl .dliabne dwfg zercd lkl ìd znlyend dricid zgpd
.(mitlw wgyna mixg`d mipwgyd iciay mitlwd ,lynl) lxebd ikldn z`vez z` e`/e mixg`d mipwgyd
.znlyen drici `ll wgynl xzeia heytd wgynd ile` èd àd wgynd
(Matching Pennies) zerahnd zn`zd wgyn 3.24 dnbec
Head
, xear) H ,rahn ly miccvd cgà owgy lk xgea ea mipwgy ipy wgyn èd zerahnd zn`zd wgyn
eilr wzt dthrnl qipkn owgy lk ,oiteligl .iphleniq oteà ziyrp dxigad .(ilt e` Tail xear) T e` (ur e`
lwy I owgyl II owgy mlyn ,cv ezeà mixgea mipwgyd ipy m` .hteyl dxiarne dze` mzeg ,ezxiga dneyx
.cg` lwy II owgyl I owgy mlyn ,mipey miccva mixgea md m` .cg`
.àd xeià oezp dagx dxeva wgynd ly xeìzd
II
A H (1, −1)
H (−1, 1)
T
R
I
B H (−1, 1)
T
T (1, −1)
dagx dxeva wgynk zerahnd zn`zd wgyn ly dbvd :3.9 xei`
oeniq .dqtilà mitwen II owgy ly B -e A micewcwd ipy :dk cr rited `ly ycg aikxn irten df xeìza
el` micewcw ipy . B cewcwa e` A cewcwa `vnp èd m` rcei epi` , T -l H oia xegal eèaa , II owgyy oiivn df
. II owgy ly (information set) drici zveaw mieedn
d`xp xei`dn .miixhniq mpi` mipwgyd 3.9 xeiày ixd ,miixhniq mipwgyd ipy wgynd ly xe`zay cera 3.25 dxrd
dyrpe ,oekp xacd .ezxiga z` rval eèaa xga I dn rcei epi` II owgy j` , II owgy iptl ezxiga z` rvan I owgy eli`k
z` jetdl mb xyt` didy xexa .mixeìzd ipy oia lcad oi` zibhxhq` dpigan .sxb ici lr wgynd z` x`zl lkepy ick
owgy dn zrcl ilan ipyd jldnd z` rvan I owgye ,oey`xd jldnd z` rvan II owgy eli`k wgynd z` bivdle “xcq”d
.eiptl xga II
df byen xicbp `l .mdipia oigan epi` owgyd xy` micewcw zveaw ìd owgy ly drici zveaw ,illk oteà
did zxg` :miixyt` mikldn zveaw dze` gxkda yi drici zveaw dzeà micewcw ipyly oiivp .ilnxet oteà
zveaw deedi ccea cewcwy ,oaenk ,okzii .el miixyt`d mikldnd zveaw it lr micewcwd oia oigadl leki owgyd
.`vnp wgynd cewcw dfià rcei owgyd xy`k dxew dfk dxwn .drici
zeveaw izy lky oeeikn z`fe ,df owgy ly Vi micewcwd zveaw ly dwelg zeedn i owgy ly dricid zeveaw
oia oigadl leki epiè , B cewcwe A cewcw oia oigadl leki epi` i owgy m` ,ok` .zecklzn e` zexf e` od drici
C
. cewcwe A cewcw oia oigadl leki epi` mby ixd , C cewcwe B cewcw
.dàd dxcbdl dliaen dricid zeveaw ly dpand ztqez

xehwe èd dagx dxeva wgyn 3.26 dxcbd
j=1,...,kj
Γ = (N, V, E, x0 , (Vi )i∈N ∪{0} , (px )x∈V0 , (Uij )i∈N , O, u). (8)
Vi
. ly dwelg ìd (Uij )j=1,...,kj :dricid zeveaw etqep (3.23 dxcbd) dagx dxeva wgyn ly zncewd dxcbdl
i
. owgy ly drici zveaw èd ef dwelga Uij xai` lk
,'bcixae xwet enk mipey mitlw iwgyn - dagx dxeva miwgynk mitqep miax miwgyn x`zl mileki ep` zrk
.mipey dxag iwgyne ,ewihwh enk mipey dibhxhq` iwgyn
.cala cg` cewcw dlikn df owgy ly drici zveaw lk m` i owgyl znlyen drici lra `xwi wgyn 3.27 dxcbd
.mipwgydn cg` lkl znlyen drici lra èd m` znlyen drici lra `xwi wgyn
dibhxhq`d byen zllkd 3.5.1
cewcw lk mday znlyen drici ilra miwgyna epwqr xy`k okle ,wgyna dhlgd llk ìd dibhxhq` ,xekfk
lra wgyna . si (x) ∈ A(x) -y jk si : Vi → V divwpetk dibhxhq` dxcbed , i owgy ly dhlgd avn bviin x ∈ Vi
rcei epi` owgyd ixdy ,drici zveaw `l` ,cewcw gxkda epi` owgyd ly dhlgd avn ,znlyen dpi`y drici
.wgynd ievn dricid zveawa cewcw dfià
j
mvrn .U
i dricid zveawa miixyt`d mikldnd zveaw z` A(Uij )-a onqp Uij owgy ly drici zveaw lkl
:ik raep drici zveaw ly dzxcbd
A(x) = A(x0 ), ∀x, x0 ∈ Uij . (9)
-cewcwdn cg` lka miixyt`d mikldnd zveaw idef :ahid zxcben A(Uij ) miixyt`d mikldnd zveaw ef daiqn
Uij
. -a mi
:miixyt` mikldnl dricid zeveawn divwpet ìd dibhxhq` 3.28 dxcbd
si : Ui → X, (10)
, Ui drici zveaw lkly jke , i owgy ly dricid zeveaw od Ui = (Ui1 , . . . , Uimi ) xyà
si (Uij ) ∈ A(Uij ). (11)
,lynl ,zerahnd zn`zd wgyna ,mpnè .znlyen drici `ll miwgyna oekp epi` 3.17 htyn ik al miyp 3.29 dxrd
dgihand dibhxhq`) ewiz zegtl dgihand dibhxhq` e` ,( 1 ly geex dgihand dibhxhq`) zgvpn dibhxhq` owgy s`l oi`
.( 0 zegtl melyz
milibxz 3.6
.15 cenrn 3.7 dprh z` gked .1
.15 cenrn 3.9 dprh z` gked .2
.yxeyde v md dizevwe efn ef zexf dizerlvy dcigi dliqn yi ura v cewcw lkl .3
.miàd mibyend z` `ln oteà xcbd .4
.dagx dxeva iteziy-`l wgyn x`znd urd (`)
.dagx dxeva xèznd iteziy-`l wgyna owgy ly dibhxhq` (a)
.zexgz (b)
:mibviin wgynd ur ly miàd miwlgdy ziaihièhpi`d zernynd dn
.drici zveaw (`)
.lxeb jldn (a)
.dlr (b)
e` zg` dpal xezd itl miwlqn mipwgy ipy .dnixra zegpen mipal 5 .àd wgynd ly urd z` xiiv .5
.dpexg`d dpald z` gwly owgyd ciqtn .mrt lka miizy
xagl ozip lecb qxt eay ,izpyd qxtd zwelg qkh zniiwn oebxitl dxag .àd wgynd ly urd z` xiiv .6
.oldlck rawp dkefd .dpy dzeà xzeia uxrpd
.qxtd zcre y`x ayei zeidl cg` xag dpnn dxagd ìyp •
.hteyd zeidl ,ìypd z` `l j` ,xg` xag dpnn y`xd ayei •
ayeil ezxiga lr geecne ,dpyd ly uxrpd xagd zeidl (envr llek `l) dxagd ixagn cg` xgea hteyd •
.y`xd
.ìypl dze` xiarne hteyd zhlgd lr ineb znizg mzeg y`xd ayei •
.dkefl qxtd z` wiprne ,qwha migkepl dvxrd xxern me`p `yep ìypd •
.zeàd zel`yd lr dpr
3
dvw zecewp dnk .wgynd ly `lnd urd z` xiiv . P ìype D C B A
, , , :mixag 5 yi dxaga ik gipp (`)
?ura yi
wgynd ur ly milrd xtqn z` rad . n≥4 ik gipp .(ìypd llek) dxaga mixagd xtqn z` n -a onqp (a)
.n ly divwpetk
3
.meineid iign zeira lecina miwqerd lk lv` zxken drtez idef .miihpalx `l mihxt icn xzei dl`ya yiy aeygl leki `xewd
lawi dixagn cg`y gihadl dleki mixag dyely ly divilèw lky gked .mixag 5 ly dxwnl xefgp (b)
.qxtd z`
n≥6
. xy`k odixag oia lawzi qxtdy gihadl zelekid zeivilèwd z` x`z (c)
,df ghyl yeltl dqpn zxg` xetiv xy`k .miieqn diign ghy lr zhley xetiv ?iaiqxb` zeidl i`ck m`d .7
diign mewn ytgle wlzqdl e` dzwlga dhilyd lr mglidl :zexixa izy dpey`xd xetivd ipta zecner
:onwlck ède ,cinrz ìdy mi`v`vd xtqn zlgez xeza xcben xetiv lkl melyzd .xg`
,zayezd xetivl mi`v`v 6 :xg` mewna dpefn z` ytgle ghyl yeltl `l dhilgn zyletd xetivd m` •
.dyilt zlweyd xetivl mi`v`v 4
xetivl mi`v`v 4 :xg` mewnl wlzqdl dhilgn zayezd xetivde yeltl dhilgn zyletd xetivd m` •
.zyletd xetivl mi`v`v 6 ,zayezd
2 :diignd ghya dzekf lr mglidl dhilgn zayezd xetivde yeltl dhilgn zyletd xetivd m` •
.zyletd xetivl mi`v`v 2 ,zayezd xetivl mi`v`v
.df avnl mi`znd wgynd ur z` hhxy
ycg oic jxer sexiva mipc dyelyd .oic ikxer cxyna mixika mixag md ipce mixn ,oerny . cnren zxiga .8
zexikad iqgi z` swynd ,dxigad jildz .mdxaè dwax ,d`l :oeayga mià oic ikxer dyely .cxynl
.onwlck èd ,oicd ikxer zyely oia
.micnrendn cg` oerny rivn dligz •
.(oerny ly cnrend mb zeidl lekiy) dlyn cnren mixn drivn jk xg` •
.(xak ervedy micnrendn cg` zeidl lekiy) micnrend on cg` ipc rivn jk xg` •
zyelyn cg` s` ,zelew ipy laiw `l cnren s` m` .cxynl sxhvn zelew ipy laiwy cnren •
.cxynl sxhvi `l micnrend
.df dxiga jildzl mi`znd urd z` xiiv
.(miwgynd ze`vez z` meyxl epgxh `l) miàd miwgynd zyelya owgy lkl yi zeibhxhq` dnk (`) .9
.cewcwd cil driten cewcw lka hleyd owgyd zedf
R
II M
R
I L
II R
L
L
3.10 (A) xei`
R
I M
R
II
R L
I L
L
3.10 (B) xei`
R
I
R
III L
R
R L I
R
I II L
M M R
L II
L R
L
III R
L II
L
3.10 (C) xei`
LM 3.11 (A) xeià ,dnbecl .miwgynd zyelyn cg` lka owgy lk ly zeibhxhq`d lk z` meyx (a)
.oeilrd cewcwl ribz m` M -e oezgzd cewcwl ribz m` L wgy :ernyn il`nyd wgyna II owgy xear
?(wgynd ur ly divwpetk) dagx dxeva oezpd znlyen drici lra wgyna owgyl yi zeibhxhq` dnk (`) .10
?9 libxzay miwgyndn cg` lk wgyl xyt` mipey mipte` dnka (a)
.dagx dxeva oezpd mipwgy n ly znlyen drici lra edylk wgynl jzaeyz z` llkd (b)
mipwgy ipy miwgyn eay ,qwixc qwin qwi` wgyna I owgyl yi zeibhxhq` dnk .qwixc qwin qwi` .11
zvayna onqn I owgy .dxgap `ly zvayn xgea exeza owgy lk .3.11 xeià xèznk 3×3 lceba gel lr
4
ely ezd z` onqnd owgy .exgap zevaynd lky xg`l miizqn wgynd .lebir II owgye ,qwi` xgay
zexnl .urd z` xiivl dqpz l`) .gvpnk fxken oeqkl` e` xeh ,dxey dzeà ze`vnpd zevayn yelya
.(ewiz zegtl gihadl owgy lk leki oeiqp zvw mr .ce`n lecb urd ,miheyt wgynd iwegy
O X
X
qwixc qwin qwi` wgynd :3.11 xei`
4
.jaeqn df dxwna zeibhxhq`d xtqn aeyig .oegvp gihad mipwgyd cg`y xg`l wgynd z` miiql ozipy oaenk
.àd wgyna lkzqp .ura ely cewcw lka owgyd zxiga z` zpiivn dibhxhq` ,dzxcbd itl .12
A R
II R
R I
O L
C L
I
B R
L II
L
dagx dxeva wgyn :3.12 xei`
owgyd z` zeìan LR -e LL zeibhxhq`d izy ik xexa . LL, LR, RL, RR zeibhxhq` rax` yi I owgyl
,okl ,xyt` .ipyd cewcwd l` ribi `l èd ziy`xd cewcwa L wgiy m` `linn oky ,dxev dzeà wgyl
.wgynd zligza L wgy :drnyny L znvnevn dibhxhq` xicbdle ,el`d zeibhxhq`dn zg` hinydl
ly zenvnevnd zeibhxhq`d .L, RL, RR od I owgy ly zenvnevnd zeibhxhq`d 3.12 xeiày wgyna
I
. owgy eze` liaei cewcw dfi`l rcei èd oi` oky , LL, LR, RL, RR oiicr od II owgy
.3.13 xeià xèznd wgyna mipwgyd lkl zenvnevnd zeibhxhq`d lk z` meyx (`)
?{(b, l, x), (e, i, k, u), (d, o, t)} zenvnevnd zeibhxhq`d z` exgai mipwgyd m` wgynd z`vez didz dn (a)
?zxg` dibhxhqà xgaie ecal dhqi m` enelyz z` licbdl leki owgy m`d (b)
0
a
(3, 2, 0)
II z
(2, 1, 0)
p y
III (−1, 1, 0)
x
(−1, 4, 1)
f o
I
II w
(4, 2, −2)
v
(4, 2, −3)
e II
b n u
m (1, 0, 1)
(2, 0, 2)
I (3, 4, 5)
l t
I III
s (5, 0, 4)
k (2, −3, 3)
II
a r (0, 1, 2)
d
j
I
q (−2, 2, 1)
III
c g (4, 5, −2)
h
(1, 2, 1)
II
i (0, 0, 0)
3.13 xei`
ode {
, ewiz , dkef I, dkef II} dveawd jezn egwlp O3 -e O2 O1 , ze`vezd .3.14 xeià oezpd wgyna opeazp .13
.zepey
.diikf envrl gihadl lkei I owgyy dl`k ze`vez xga (`)
.diikf envrl gihadl lkei II owgyy dl`k ze`vez xga (a)
.ewiz zegtl mnvrl gihadl elkei mipwgyd ipyy dl`k ze`vez xga (b)
O1
I
O2
II
O3
3.14 xei`
5
wgyna diitve ( C ) hxvpew md mzeyxl zecnerd zeiexyt`d .zay axrl ielia opkzn bef mipind zngln
. .14
zeidl miticrn mdipy j` ,hxvpew z` dticrn dy`d cera ,lbxeckd wgyna diitv sicrn xabd .( F ) lbxeck
.mdipira sicr zegtd èd szeynd ieliad m` mb cgi
:(d`pdd znx z` znkl ozip cvik d`xp 10 wxta) àd oteà znkn befd ipan cg` lk ieliadn ez`pd z`
.dy`l 1 ,xabl 3 :lbxeckd yxbna szeyn ielia •
.dy`l 3 ,xabl 1 :hxvpewa szeyn ielia •
.dy`l 0 ,xabl 0 :mipey zenewna ielia •
,ipyd zhlgd dn rcei èdy iptl ,jli o`l hilgn mdn cg` lk ,daeh dpi` befd ipa oia zxeywzdy oeeikn
.wgynd ur z` xiiv .ezhlgda wac ède
itlà md minelyzd .dagx dxeva mipwgy ipy wgyn x`zn 3.15 xeià ritend urd . miilbxd daxn wgyn .15
? I owgy ziid eli` wgyn dz` ziid cvik .milwy
Stage 1 2 3 4 99 100
I II I II I II (101, 100)
C C C C C
S S S S S S
(1, 0) (0, 3) (3, 2) (2, 5) (99, 98) (98, 101)

miilbxd daxn wgyn :3.15 xei`
cli :dreci dberdn zivgn zegtl laiwy aeygi cg` lky jk micli ipy oia dber wlgl jxcd dber zwelg
. .16
.eipira xzei lecbd ivgd z` xgea ipyde ,mieey miwlg ipyl dberd z` wlgn cg`
5
.4.7 wxta dyrii mipind znglna sqep oeic
zegtl laiwy aeygi cg` lky jk micli dyely oia dberd z` wlgl mivex ea dxwnl ef jxc llkd (`)
.dberdn yily
.micli n oia dberd z` wlgl yi ea dxwnl ef jxc llkd (a)
`l rahn s`y jk lebr ogley lr lwy ly rahn ,exeza cg` lk ,migipn mipwgy ipy .àd wgyna opeazp .17
owgyd .(ipya cg` wiydl mileki zerahn ik m`) ogleya elek zrbl aiig rahn lk :xg` rahn lrn gpen
.zgvpn dibhxhq` yi gzetd owgyl ik gked .ogleyd lry zerahnd lka dkef rahn gipdl lekiy oexg`d
6
,iteq zenixrd xtqn) mixextb zenixr xtqn mipwgyd iptl zegpen ea ,mipwgy ipy wgyn èd mip mip
. .18
mixextb dnk dpnn gwele ,zniieqn dnixr xgea exeza owgy lk .(mixextb ly iteq xtqn dnixr lkae
.ciqtn ogleyd lr gpend oexg`d xextbd z` gwely owgyd .(cg` xextb zegtl zgwl aiig èd) dvxiiy
ly ezedf z` reawl ozip cvik d`xp ,oegvip dgihand dibhxhq` yi mipwgyd cg`l ik gikep df libxza
.ely zgvpnd dibhxhq`d idn d`xpe ,df owgy
zenixra mixextbd xtqne zenixr 4 yi m` ,lynl .2 qiqaa dnixr lka mixextbd xtqn z` xeha meyxp
:meyxp , 2, 12, 13, 21 èd
10
1100
1101
10101
ziriaxde (oinin) dpey`xd zecenra ,l"pd dnbeca .`l e` ibef epid dcenr lka mi- 1 -d xtqn m`d wecap zrk
.ibef-i` xtqn zecenrd x`yae ,mi- 1 ly ibef xtqn
zcnr epi` o`k epzpy wgynd avn .ibef zecenrd lka mi- 1 -d xtqn m` oegvip zcnr wgyn avnl `xwp
.oegvip
,eply dnbeca) .cg` jldna oegvip zcnrl ribdl xyt` oegvip zcnr epi`y wgyn avn lkn ik gked (`)
z` lawp 2 qiqaae ,mixextb 2, 12, 13, 3 mr zenixr 4 lawp dlecbd dnixrdn mixextb 18 gwip m`
:dbvdd
10
1100
1101
11
.(oegvip zcnr idef ik `ceel lw
.oegvip zcnr dpi`y dcnrl oegvip zcnrn liaen iweg jldn lky gked (a)
.oegvip zcnr èd wgynd seq recn xaqd (b)
.ely zgvpnd dibhxhq`d z` x`ze ,oegvip zetkl lbeqn owgy dfi` miraew cvik xaqd (c)
6
. 15-d d`na dtexià eze` ewgiyy zeiecr yi .oiqa d`xpk exewny wizr wgyn èd mip
xextbd z` gweld owgyd :àd oteà meiqd llk z` dpyp j` ,zncewd dl`ya epxwgy mip wgyna lkzqp .19
.ciqtn dpexg`d dnixrdn oexg`d
.ely zgvpnd dibhxhq`d z` x`ze ,oegvip zetkl lbeqn owgy dfi` ef dqxba miraew cvik xaqd
lceba gel mr wgyna zgvpn dibhxhq` yi mipwgyd ipyn inl (3.3 sirq d`x) David Gale ly wgyna .20
?efk dibhxhq` x`zl lkez m`d ?iteq m xear m×∞
.(3.24 dnbeca ritend) zerahnd zn`zd wgyna miiwzn epi` 3.17 htyn ik d`xd .21
eaixile zeibhxhq` ly (dipn oa j`) iteqpi` xtqn yi mipwgyd cg`l xy`k miiwzn 3.17 htyn ik gked .22
.zeibhxhq` ly iteq xtqn yi
j`) iteqpi` xtqn yi mipwgyd ipyl xy`k gxkda miiwzn epi` 3.17 htyn ik zicbp dnbec ici lr d`xd .23
.zeibhxhq` ly (dipn oa
.3.16 xeià xèznk zeyeyn zevayn n2 ea yiy oiiern gel lr ldpznd mipwgy ipy oia wgyn edf . Hex .24
light dark
dark light
Hex wgynd gel :3.16 xei`
.( (light) xidae (dark) ddk md mipwgyd zeny ,xeià) oiiernd ly zeicbp zerlv izy lr hley owgy lk
.ely rava eze` raeve ,(mcew ravp `ly) iept dyeyn xgea exeza owgy lk .àd oteà ldpzn wgynd
.ely rava miyeynn akxend lelqn ici lr odilr hley èdy zerlvd izy z` xagl gilvnd owgyd gvpn
.xida gvip 3.16 xeiày gela
:zeàd zeprhd izy z` gked
.ewiz z`vez okziz `l wgyna (`)
.zgvpn dibhxhq` yi gzetd owgyl (a)
opeazd .gvip `l xidad owgyd ik gpde ,wgynd seqa geld avna opeazd ,oey`xd wlgd xear :dkxcd
lelqna A-l mixaegnd miyeynd lk zveaw z` A -a onqe ,odilr hley xidad owgydy zerlvd zgà
lk ik gked . A-a dyeyna mirbep j` A -a mpi`y miyeynd lk z` B -a onq .mixida mixet` miyeyn ly
.ddkd owgyd hley odilr zerlvd izy z` xagnd lelqn milikn mde ,midk B -a miyeynd
dibhxhq` dzxfra dpa . σ2 zgvpn dibhxhq` yi gzet epi`y owgyl ik dlilya gpd ,ipyd wlgd xear
eli`k σ2 xg` aewrie ,idylk ziaihwit zvayn xgai gzetd owgyd .àd oteà gzetd owgyd xear zgvpn
ok` eaixiy cr σ2 xg` aewrl lkei èd .ziaihwitd zvaynd z` xgae eiptl wgiy eaixie gzet epi` èd
xfege ,da xga eaixiy gipie zxg` ziaihwit zvayn xgai èd ,dxew dfyk .ziaihwitd zvaynd z` xgea
.dlilg
dnbec riten 3.16 xeià) n wnera `ln ix`pia ur lr wgeynd mipwgy ipy wgyn èd And-Or -d wgyn .25
e` 0 df dlra myexe ,exgap `l oiicry urd ilrn cg` z` xgea exeza owgy lk n=4
.( xear wgynd url
.3.16 xeià ritenk elek urd jxr ayegn ,jxr myxp urd ilr lkay xg`l . 1
?zenx izy mr wgyna zgvpn dibhxhq` yi owgy dfi`l (`)
?iaeig mly k xear ,zenx 2k mr wgyna zgvpn dibhxhq` yi owgy dfi`l (a)
zgvpn dibhxhq` yi m` jl reci ik xekf zenx 2k mr wgyna zgvpn dibhxhq` èvnl ick :dkxcd
.zenx 2k − 2 mr wgyna
and
or or
and and and and
or or or or or or or or
T/F T/F T/F T/F T/F T/F T/F T/F T/F T/F T/F T/F T/F T/F T/F T/F
And-Or wgynd :3.16 xei`
zexrd 3.7
19??
. -a John von Nuemann ici lr gked ?? htyn ,wxtd jldna epxn`y itk
.12-e 12 ,5 milibxz z` mxzy Lloyd Shapley -l micen ep`
,zipy `vned èd Polygon

. el `xw xy` Piet Hein mya ipc hpcehq ici lr 1942 -a `vned Hex wgynd
eze` eweeiy xy` , Parker mig`d ici lr wgynl ozip Hex myd . 1948
-a John Nash ici lr ,ielz izla oteàe
gzetd owgyly dgkedde , John von-Neumann ici lr dpzip ewiz z`vez oi` df wgynay dgkedd .ixgqn oteà
.wgynd gel ly xei`d z` mxzy ??-l micen ep` . David Gale ici lr dpey`xl dpzip zgvpn dibhxhq` yi
.wgynd xei` lre And-Or -d wgyn zece` libxzd z` erivdy lr ??-l micen ep`
33 zibhxhq` dxeva miwgyn 4
zibhxhq` dxeva miwgyn 4

ep` oi` m` .wgynd ze`vez lr zebltzd zeibhxhq`d xehwe raew lxeb ikldn yi wgyna xy`k ,epi`xy itk
lr wgynd z` x`zl lkep ixd ,dlawzdy d`vezae ehwppy zeibhxhqà wx `l` ,zexgzd jldna mipiiprzn
ikldn yi m` ,ze`vezd lr zebltzdd e`) zlawznd d`vezd hexite ,owgy lkl yiy zeibhxhq`d zniyx ici
H ) zeibhxhq` izy owgy lkl yi zerahnd zn`zd wgyna ,dnbecl .ixyt` zeibhxhq` xehwe lk xear (lxeb
:dàd dlahd ici lr wgynd z` x`zl ozip okl .( T -e
II
T H
H −1, 1 1, −1
I
T 1, −1 −1, 1
m` ,okl . II owgy ly zeibhxhq`d z` zecenrde I

, owgy ly zeibhxhq`d z` zebviin zexeyd ,ef dbvda
z` mipiivn `za mixtqnd .dvixhnd ly oeilr-ipnid `zd xgap , T dlerta xga II owgye H dlerta xga I owgy
. II owgyl melyzd èd ipnid melyzde , I owgyl melyzd èd il`nyd melyzd :mipwgyl minelyzd
zilnxep dxeva wgyn

. e` zibhxhq` dxeva wgyn `xwp ef jxca xèznd wgyn
xyà , (N, (Si )i∈N , (ui )i∈N ) dxecq dyly èd (zilnxep) zibhxhq` dxeva wgyn 4.1 dxcbd
.mipwgyd zveaw ìd N •
i
. owgy ly zeibhxhq`d zveaw ìd S i ,i ∈ N lkl •
.zeibhxhq`d ixehwe lk zveaw z` S = S1 × S2 × · · · × SN -a onqp
i
. owgyl melyz s = (si )i∈N zeibhxhq` xehwe lkl dni`znd divwpet ìd ui : S → IRN ,i ∈ N lkl •
iehiad ìd (cala i owgy ly si dibhxhq`d ly `le) s zeibhxhq`d xehwe ly divwpet dpid ui -y dcaerd
`l` ely dibhxhqà wx `l dielz owgy lk xear d`vezd day ziaihw`xhpi` divèhiq :wgyna xaecny jkl
.mipwgyd lk ly zeibhxhqà mb
10 wxta .owgy lkl melyz - minelyz xehwe ìd wgynd z`vezy epgpd zibhxhq` dxeva wgyn zxcbda
ixehwel minelyz ixehwe opi`y wgyn ze`vez mbxzl ozip ik xn`py jka wtzqp zrk .ef dgpdl dwcvd ozip
II owgy ly oegvpe (0, 0)

, -l ewiz , (1, −1) minelyzd xehweel I owgy ly oegvp mbxzl ozip ,dnbecl .minelyz
(−1, 1)
. -l
.miixtqne xiip ,oa` 4.2 dnbec
yely jezn zg` dlert xgea mipwgy ipyn cg` lk (Rock, Paper, Scissors) “ miixtqne xiip ,oa` ” wgyna
oa`d :milnqd zyely oia ilbrn dhily qgi yie ,zipnf ea ziyrp dxigad .miixtqn e` xiip ,oa` :zeiexyt`
.oa`d z` shery xiipd z` mixfeby miixtqnd z` zxaey

Draw I II II Draw I I II Draw

S P R S P R S P R
II
S P R
dagx dxeva wgynk “ miixtqne xiip ,oa` ” :4.1 xei`
-xhq` dxeva àd wgynd z` lawp , 0 melyzk ewize −1 melyzk cqtd , 1 melyzk owgyl oegvip onqp m`
.zibh
II
miixtqn xiip oa`
oa` 1, −1 −1, 1 0, 0
I xiip −1, 1 0, 0 1, −1
miixtqn 0, 0 1, −1 −1, 1
zibhxhq` dxeva wgynk “miixtqne xiip ,oa` ” :4.2 xei`
dvixhn iwgyn
. el`k miwgynl mi`xew mizirl ,dvixhn ici lr xèzn zibhxhq` dxeva wgyny oeeikn
n mr xehwe riten dvixhna `z lkae ,zicnin- n zeidl dkixv dvixhnd ,miipyn lecb n mipwgyd xtqn xy`k
.zehpicxeèw
:dàd jxcd ìd dagx dxeva wgynn zibhxhq` dxeva wgyn lawzn da jxcd ,lxeb ikldn xcrda
.dagx dxeva wgyna Si zeibhxhq`d lk zveaw z` minyex i owgy lkl •
z` o`kne ,df zeibhxhq` xehwe ici lr zrawpd zexgzd z` mi`ven s = (si )i∈N zeibhxhq` xehwe lkl •
.u(s) zexgzl dni`znd d`vezd
-xhq`d xtqnl deey dvixhna zexeyd xtqn ,mipwgy ipy yi xy`k .dni`zn zicnin- n dvixhn mixiivn •
`z lka miritend mixtqnd ipye , II owgy ly zeibhxhq`d xtqnl deey zecenrd xtqn , I owgy ly zeibh
,mipwgy ipyn xzei yi xy`k .df `zl zeni`znd zeibhxhq`d izy ici lr zxcbend zexgzd z`vez md
.(mipwgy dyely mr wgyn ly dnbec xear 10 libxz d`x) micnin xzei mr dvixhn mixiivn
s = (si )i∈N zeibhxhq` xehwe lk df dxwna ?lxeb ikldn yi xy`k zibhxhq` dxeva wgynd xcbei cvik
ze`vezd ly rvennd z` meyxp s zeibhxhq` xehweel mi`znd `za .wgyna zepeyd ze`vezd lr zebltzd raew
xehwe ici lr zxcbend ze`vezd zveaw lr zebltzdd z` µs -a onqp m` ,xnelk .ef zebltzd itl zeixyt`d
c didz d`vezd s zeibhxhqà xehwe itl elrti mipwgyd m`y zexazqdd ìd µs (c) if` , s zeibhxhq`d
N
xehweed z` meyxp s zeibhxhq`d xehweel mi`znd dvixhnd `za okl .( IR -a minelyz xehwe èd c xyà)
icnin- n -d
X
Eµs [ui ] = µs (c) × c. (12)
c
.dagx dxeva wgyna lawznd melyzd zlgez ìd ui (s) melyzdy ìd df jildz ly zipkhd zernynd
jynd .3.22 dnbec
.dagx dxeva àd wgyna opeazp
(0, 0)
a D 1/3 (5, −1)
B e 0 2/3 (−2, 5)
1/2 II E
R I A (2, 0)
f
b 0 g (1, 1)
F
1/2 I (0, 2)
1/4
C h 0 (−1, 1)
1/2
G (1, 1)
1/4
lxeb ikldn mr wgynl dnbec :4.3 xei`
izy yi I owgyl .znlyen drici lra èd df wgyn .mipwgyd ipyl melyz ìd zexgz z`vez 4.3 xeià
ìd I owgy ly zeibhxhq`d zveaw okl .zeixyt` zelert izy I owgyl yi odn zg` lkae drici zeveaw
SI = {(a, g), (a, h), (b, g), (b, h)}. (13)
:ìd II owgy ly zeibhxhq`d zveaw okl .zeixyt` zelert izy dae zg` drici zveaw yi II owgyl
SII = {e, f }. (14)
II
. owgy ly e-e I owgy ly (b, g) zeibhxhqà lynl lkzqp ,mini`znd minelyzd miayegn cvik ze`xl ick
:zeixyt` zeiexgz 3 dpkziz el` zeibhxhq` itl milret mipwgyd m`
1
.O → A → B → D → (5, −1) didi zexgzd jldn
6 zexazqda •
1
.O → A → B → D → (−2, 5) didi zexgzd jldn
3 zexazqda •
1
O → A → C → (1, 1)
. didi zexgzd jldn
2 zexazqda •
okl ìd melyzd zlgez
1 1 1 2
(5, −1) + (−2, 5) + (1, 1) = ( , 2). (15)
6 3 2 3
:èd lawznd zibhxhq` dxeva wgynd .zeibhxhq` bef lkl minelyzd z` aygl ozip dnec oteà
f e
(a, g) 0, 0 0, 0
(a, h) 0, 0 0, 0
3 1
(b, g) 2, 2 2, 23
(b, h) 7 5 1 17
8, 8 24 , 8

dlertd z` xgea I owgy m` oky ,iyrn jxev lkl zelewy (a, h)-e (a, g) zeibhxhq`d dpexg`d dnbeca 4.3 dxrd
ef dcewpl epqgiizd . a ,zg` dibhxhq` ici lr zeibhxhq`d izy z` bviil ozip okl . h-l g oia xegal jxhvi `l mlerl , a
.8 wxta mb dil` qgiizpe ,28 cenra
zibhxhq` dxeva hngyd wgyn 4.4 dnbec
wgynd zvixhn z` meyxl ziyrn zexyt` mey oi` okle ,mevr èd hngyd wgyna zeibhxhq`d xtqn
dcaerd mvrl zeaiyg yi mle` ,(dagx dxeva wgynd z` meyxl ziyrn zexyt` mey oi`y myk) dyrnl dkld
od dvixhna dprtezy zeixyt`d ze`vezd .(inepexhq` lceba) ziteq dvixhn zxfra wgynd z` meyxl ozipy
.(dn`zda (0, 0) -e (−1, 1) (1, −1)

, ici lr mb obviil ozipy) (ewiz) D -e (gvpn xegy) B ,(gvpn oal) W
1 2 3 · · ·
1 W D W · · ·
2 D D B · · ·
3 B B D · · ·
· · · · · · ·
· · · · · · ·
· · · · · · ·
m`) xegy ly zgvpn dibhxhq` . W md dixai` lky dxeyl dni`zn (efk yi m`) oal ly zgvpn dibhxhq`
e`) dxey ìd (xegyl e`) oall ewiz zegtl dgihand dibhxhq` . B md dixai` lky dcenrl dni`zn (efk yi
.( D e` B e`) D e` W md dixai` lky (dcenr
zniiwzn (dze` meyxl milbeqn ep` oi` m` mb) hngyd wgyn z` zx`znd dvixhnay okl raep 2.4 htynn
:zeàd zeiexyt`dn zg` wxe zg`
. W dixai` lky dxey dpyi .1
. B dixai` lky dcenr dpyi .2
. D e` B dixai` lky dcenre , D e` W dixai` lky dxey opyi .3
mipwgydn cg` lk m` D
: gxkda meyx dcenre dxey dze` ybtna if` ,ziyilyd zexyt`d zniiwzn m`
.ewiz gxkda ìd zexgzd z`vez if` ,ewiz zegtl el dgihand dibhxhq` wgyn
zibhxhq`d dxevde dagxd dxevd oia xywd 4.1
wgynn xearl zizhiy jxc mb epi`x .zibhxhq` dxeva cigi wgyn mi`zn dagx dxeva wgyn lkl ik epi`x
lkl m`d :jetdd oeeikd iabl dl`yd irah oteà zl`yp .el mi`znd zibhxhq` dxeva wgynl dagx dxeva
yi .zilily dpid ef dl`yl daeyzd ?xfbp èd epnn dagx dxeva cigi wgyn miiw zibhxhq` dxeva wgyn
,zipepwd dbvdd `xwp elld miwgyndn cg` .zibhxhq` dxev dze`l miliaend dagx dxeva miwgyn daxd
.zrk x`zp ezeè

:dagx dxeva àd wgynd ici lr x`zl ozip G = (N, (Si )i∈N , (ui )i∈N ) zibhxhq` dxeva wgyn lk
s13 sm
3
3
s13 sm
3
3
s13 sm
3
3
Player 3
s12 sm
2
2
s12 sm
2
2
s12 sm
2
2
Player 2
s11 s1m1
Player 1
dagx dxeva wgynk zibhxhq` dxeva wgyn zbvd :4.4 xei`
oteà ” miyrp mipwgyd lk ly mikldndy dcaerd z` z`hand ,dcigi drici zveaw yi owgy lkl ,ef dbvda
mipwgyd mirvany mikldnd lr xac rcei èd oi` ely jldnd z` rvan owgy xy`k ,lewy oteà . “
iphleniq
ritend mipwgyd xcqy xexa o`k xak .wgynd ly zipepwd dagxd dxevd `xwp wgynd ly df xe`z .mixg`d
dxicbn divhenxt lky oeeikne ,mipwgyd zveaw lr zepey zeivhenxt n! yiy oeeikn .edylk zeidl leki 4.4 xeià
elld zexevd lk ik ,wcvae ,oerhl xyt` .milewy dyrnl mdy ,mipepw mixeìz n! mpyi ,mipwgyd lr dpey xcq
.cigi xeìz oda ze`xl xytè ,dyrnl zelewy
dpid daeyzd ?dfn df xzei izedn oteà mipeyd zibhxhq` dxeva wgyn eze`l mipey mixe`z yi m`d
:àd zibhxhq` dxeva mipwgy ipy wgynl mi`zn 4.6 xeiày miwgynd zyelyn cg` lk ,dnbecl .ziaeig
re
r re
l le
r le
l
L −1, 2 −1, 2 0, 2 0, 2
R 1, 3 0, 1 1, 3 0, 1
zibhxhq` dxeva wgynd :4.5 xei`
re
r (3, 1)
II re
l 2
UII
(1, 0)
le
r re (3, 1)
I L (3, 1) I L
le
l (1, 0) (1, 0)
l
e
(2, −1) r (2, −1)
re
r R
R (2, −1)
re
l l (2, 0)
(2, 0) 1
UII
le
r
(2, 0)
le
l
Part A Part B
2
UII
re (3, 1)
I
R
l
e (1, 0)
1
UII L re (2, −1)
l
(2, −1)
l
e
re (3, 1)
r (1, 0)
R l
e
re (2, 0)
L
l
e (2, 0)
Part C
zibhxhq` dxeva wgyn eze`l mini`znd dagx dxeva miwgyn dyely :4.6 xei`
I -y mewna :mipwgyd miwgyn ea xcqd z` epipiy (C) dbvda .wgynd ly zipepwd dbvdd ìd (A) dbvdd
dipy dxigae , I owgy iptl rvan èd zg` dxiga :miwlg ipyl II ly ezxiga z` epwlig ,eixg` II-e oey`x wgyi
,xzei zpiiprn (B) dbvdd .wgynl izedn epi` df iepiy ,ipyd owgyd xga dn rcei epi` owgy s`y oeeikn .eixg`
wgynl ddf ok` zibhxhq` dxeva df wgyn ly dbvdd ik `cee) .eiptl rvia I owgy dn rcei II owgy day oeeikn
(.4.6 xeià ritend
xeìzd ixdy ,driztn dpi` dagx dxeva miwgyn xtqnn ribdl leki zibhxhq` dxeva wgyny dcaerd
xeìza miritend miinpicd mikildzd ihxtn lecb wlgn mlrznd ,zvnezn xeìz èd wgyn ly ibhxhq`d
eze`l mini`znd dagx dxeva miwgyn ipy oia “ipeyd zcin idn ” ìd zpiiprn zihnzn dl`y .dagx dxeva
dxeva wgyn eze`l mini`zn md m` zedfl ozip ,dagx dxeva miwgyn ipy ozpida m`d ?zilnxep dxeva wgyn
?zibhxhq`
gikede “ wgynd zedn z` zepyn opi`y ” zeixhpnl` zelert yely xicbdy ,??? zpya ??? ici lr xwgp df xac
ozip m` wxe m` zilnxep dxeva wgyn eze`l mini`zn mipwgy zveaw dze` mr dagx dxeva miwgyn ipyy
.zeixhpnl` zelert ly iteq xtqn ici lr ipyl cg`dn xearl
oexzt ibyen :miiteziy `l miwgyn 4.2
wgynd gezipa .odizepekzae zibhxhq` dxeve dagx dxeva wgyn xeìzl zepey zexeva wx epwqr dk cr
oegvp :zeixyt` ze`vez yely mr mipwgy ipy ly micgein miwgyn iabl von Nuemann htyn jxc hrn eprbp
.xegyl oegvpe ewiz ,oall
wgyna “dxwi dn” :miwgynd zxez ly zifkxnd dl`yae xzei miillk miwgyna weqrp miàd mitirqa
.oezp
:ef dl`yl zepey zeixyt` zeiernyn yely zegtl yiy al miyp ziy`x
?oezp wgyna dyrnl dkld miwgyn mipwgy cvik :zixitn` zixeìz zernyn .1
?oezp wgyna ewgyi mipwgyy “ ie`x ” cvik :ziaihnxep zernyn .2

e` “ dxiaq ” zebdpzd lr zeniieqn zegpd zgz wgyna ygxziy dn lr àpl xyt` dn :zihxeìz zernyn .3
.mipwgyd ly “ ”
zilpeivx
dxezd ly df wlg .dpey`xd zernyna wqer (Descriptive game theory) miwgynd zxez ly ixeìzd cvd
my ,dcarna miizek`ln mi`pza e` zeizeìvn zeivèhiqa m` ,dyrnl dkld zebdpzd lr zeitvza jexk
zxez ly df wlga weqrp `l df xtqa .mzebdpzd z` miwceae miheyt miwgyn wgyl miwcapn miywan
.miwgynd
xtqn qiqa lr d`vezd z` raewd mkqen xxea e` wwegn ,htey ly dyibl dni`zn diipyd zernynd
mday ,miiteziy miwgynl xwira dni`zn ef dyib .'eke zepibd ,diltd-i` ,zeliri ,wcv oebk ,minkqen zepexwr
.minkqen zepexwr e` “ zenxep ”

n wgynd z`vez z` xefbl zexyt` yi okle ,miaiign minkqdl zexyt` yi
??
.( wxt d`x) ilty jxrae ( ?? wxt d`x) y`p ly gewind ziiraa dyibd idef ,mpnè
dxeva e` dagx dxeva) wgynd z` epxìzy xg`l .zihxe`zd dyibd ìd ,ziyilyd dyiba weqrp df wxta
zegpd zgz ,lawzzy xiaq ze`vez zveaw e` d`vez efi` ?wgyna dxwiy zetvl xyt` dn ,(zibhxhq`
?mipwgyd zebdpzd lr zeniieqn
mipeniq 4.3
onqp i∈N lkl .idylk dveaw Xi `dz i∈N lkle ,ziteq dveaw N = {1, . . . , n} `dz
Y
X−i = Xj
j6=i
,zexg` milina . i dveawd hrnl Xj zeveawd lk ly zifhxwd dltknd z`
X−i = {(x1 , . . . , xi−1 , xi+1 , . . . , xn ) : xj ∈ Xj , ∀j 6= i}.
onqp , i∈N lkl xi ∈ Xi m` ,dnec oteà
x−i = (x1 , . . . , xi−1 , xi+1 , . . . , xn ).
i
. dhpicxeèwd zhnyd ici lr (x1 , . . . , xn ) -n xvepd icnin n−1 -d xehweed edf
dhilyd byen 4.4
:dcenr xgead II -e dxey xgead I ,mipwgy ipy oia àd wgyna opeazp
L M R
T 1, 0 1, 2 0, 1
B 0, 3 0, 1 2, 0
zibhxhq` dxeva wgynl dnbec :4.8 xei`
:ik mi`ven ep` II owgy ly R -e M zeibhxhq`d izy z` epzeeyda

. R dibhxhqà 1 znerl , 2 èd II owgyl melyzd M dibhxhqà , T wgyn I owgy m` •
.R dibhxhqà 0 znerl , 1 èd II owgyl melyzd M dibhxhqà , B wgyn I owgy m` •
-xhqà melyzdn xzei deab melyzl dìan M dibhxhq`d , I owgy ly dibhxhqà zelz `ll ik mièx ep`
.dàd dxcbdl dìan ef dpgad . R dibh
i owgy ly ti dibhxhq` zniiw m` (strictly dominated) wfg zhlyp z`xwp i owgy ly si dibhxhq` 4.5 dxcbd
:miiwzn mipwgyd x`y ly s−i dibhxhq` lkly jk
ui (si , s−i ) < ui (ti , s−i ). (16)
si
. lr wfg zhley ti -y e` , ti ici lr wfg zhlyp si -y xn`p dfk dxwna
epid II owgy m`y gipdl okl xiaq .M dibhxhq`d ici lr wfg zhlyp R dibhxhq`d 4.8 xeiày dnbeca
zgpd idef . M wgyl xzei el i`ck R wgyl lewyiy dxwn lka oky ,R dibhxhqà ynzyi `l èd , “ ilpeivx ”
.gippy dpey`xd zeilpeivxd
.wfg zhlyp dibhxhqà ynzyi `l ilpeivx owgy 1 dgpd
.milpeivx mipwgyd lk ik gipp ,wgynl ziyeniy didz ef dgpdy ick
.milpeivx wgyna mipwgyd lk 2 dgpd
ìd daeyzd ?(4.8 xeiày dnbeca R lynl) wfg zhlyp dibhxhq` wlql ozip el` zegpd izy zgz m`d
ilpeivx II
-y rcei epi` I owgy m` j` , R dibhxhq`d z` wgyi `l èd ,ilpeivx II owgy m` mpn` :`weec e`l
dibhxhq` weliq myl ,xnelk B

. wgyl I -l i`ck ,dfk dxwnae , R wgyl z`f lka ieyr II -y aeygl ieyr èd
:ik gipdl jixv wfg zhlyp
oke ,ilpeivx II •
.ilpeivx II -y rcei I •
-y gipdl mb jixv :witqn `l df mby dlbz ztqep daygn
.ilpeivx II -y rcei I -y rcei II •
I
. owgy ly milewiya zqpkp R dibhxhq`dy oeayga ìadl jixv II zxg`
mb gipdl jixve ,witqn `l df mb dzry xexa
,ilpeivx II -y rcei I -y rcei II -y rcei I •
,ilpeivx II -y rcei I -y rcei II -y rcei I -y rcei II •
.'eke •
.mipwgyd oia ztzeyn drici ìd ilpeivx II owgyy dcaerdy xn`p ,miniiwzn l"pd mihtynd seqpi` lk m`
.zilnxet dxcbdl ie`x okle ,eply oeicd rwxa `vnpd ce`n aeyg byen edf
mipwgy ly ziteq zxyxy lkl m` mipwgyd oia (common knowledge) ztzeyn drici ìd dcaer 4.6 dxcbd
:àd htynd oekp i1 , i2 , . . . , ik
.dcaerd z` rcei ik owgyy ... rcei i3 owgyy rcei i2 owgyy rcei i1 owgy
.(eply dnbeca dxw mpn`y enk) minrt xtqn ritedl owgy ieyr efk zxyxyay al miyp
.dàd dgpdd z` dzr siqep mcew epnyxy zegpdd izyl
.mipwgyd lk oia ztzeyn drici ìd (2 dgpd) milpeivx mipwgyd lky dcaerd 3 dgpd
4.8 xeiày dnbeca .(ef dprh zilnxet gikep `l) wfg zhlyp dibhxhq` wlql ok m` ozip 1-3 zegpd zgz
.àd wgynd lr xnelk , R dibhxhq`d weliq xg`l lawznd wgyna lkzqdl yiy xacd zernyn
L M
T 1, 0 1, 2
B 0, 3 0, 1
R dibhxhq`d weliq xg`l wgynd :4.9 xei`
ilpeivx I owgyy dcaerdy oeeikn . T dibhxhq`d ici lr ( I owgy xear) wfg zhlyp B dibhxhq`d df wgyna
iptl miavip mipwgyd okl .ztzeyn drici ìd wgeyz `l T dibhxhq`dy dcaerdy ixd ,ztzeyn drici ìd
.wgyndn dwleq ìd :driten dpi` T dibhxhq`d ea ,zeibhxhq` zegt mr wgyn
L M
T 1, 0 1, 2
B -e R zeibhxhq`d weliq xg`l wgynd :4.10 xei`
zxzep dweliq xg`l ,M dibhxhq`d ici lr ( II owgy xear) wfg zhlyp L dibhxhq`d df wgynay oeeikn
M
. wgyn II owgye T wgyn I owgy xy`k zlawznd , (1, 2) - zg` d`vez
cigi zeibhxhq` xehweel liaen èd xy`k wfg zehlyp zeibhxhq` ly xfeg weliq
. `xwp epxìzy jildzd
xyt` .lawzzy d`vezd didz ef d`vez 1-3 zegpdd zgzy ixd ,eply dnbeca dxwy itk ,(owgy lkl zg`)
.wgynd ly oexzt ef d`veza ze`xl
lk lr wfg zhleyd dibhxhq` yi owgy lkl mda miwgynd zgtyn èd dfk oexzt yi eay cgein dxwn
-xhq` owgy lkl x`yiz ,wfg zehlypd zeibhxhq`d lk weliq xg`l ,dfk dxwnay xexa .zexg`d zeibhxhq`d
zehley zeibhxhqà oexzt wgynl yiy mixne` ep` df dxwna .ely zhleyd dibhxhq`d ìd ,dcigi dibh
(dominant strategy solution)

.
(prisoner’s dilemma) xiq`d znlic 4.7 dnbec
wgynd . “xiq`d znlic ” mya recid wgynd èd ,zepiga daxdn oiiprn z`f mr cgi j` ,ce`n heyt wgyn
.àd xetiqd zxeva zextqa riten

biydl dxhynd dleki day dcigid jxcd ,zexg` zegked lk xcrda .exvrpe xeng ryt ervia mipiixar ipy
cg` lk dcinrd dxhynd mzxiwga .dyrnd reviaa dcei (mdipy e`) mixevrd cg`y ìd ef dxiar lr dryxd
:dàd dhlgdd ipta mixevrdn
.iytgl `vze dpicn crk zepiqg lawz ,dcei `l jxage dcez m` .1
.(mipy 10 gipp) df rytl ilniqwn yper lawz ,dcei jxage dcez `l m` .2
ly xq`nl liaezy (qn znlrd ,lynl) zezegt zexiara mkzryxdl zei`x epicia yi ,ecez `l mkipy m` .3
.cg` lkl zg` dpy
.cg` lkl xq`n zepy 5 -l mkyper z` xefble mkly dlertd seziya aygzdl ywap ,ecez mkipy m` .4
`l ”
-e “ dcen ” :zeibhxhq` izy yi owgy lkl eay ,zibhxhq` dxeva mipwgy ipy wgyn dxicbn ef divèhiq
:od (xq`n zepya) ze`vezd . “ dcen
II owgy
dcen dcen `l
5, 5 0, 10 dcen
I owgy
10, 0 1, 1 dcen `l
xq`n zepy igpena xiq`d znlic :4.11 xei`
d`vezd z` onqn ipnid xtqnde I

, owgyl (xq`n zepya) d`vezd z` oiivn `za il`nyd xtqnd ,libxk
. II owgyl
`lkl uegn dpy lk ,lewy oteàe ,itqk cqtdl dlewy xq`n ztewz lky gipp ,xq`n zepya weqrl `l ick
:dàd u divwpetd zervnà xèzn itqkd geexd ik gipp ,lynl .itqk geexl dlewy
u( xexgy ) = 5, u( xq`n zpy ) = 4,

u( xq`n zepy 5) = 1, u( xq`n zepy 10) = 0.
.àd xeià riten melyz igpena wgynd xe`z
II owgy
dcen dcen `l
1, 1 5, 0 dcen
I owgy
0, 5 4, 4 dcen `l
melyz igpena xiq`d znlic :4.12 xei`
“
. dcen `l ” dibhxhq`d lr wfg zhley “ dcen ” dibhxhq`d mipwgyd ipy xear ,df wgynay ze`xl lw
(1, 1)
. ìd d`vezde ,micen mixiq`d ipy eay oexztl liaen zehlyp zeibhxhq` weliq jildz ,okl
.mipwgyd ipyl dticrd , (4, 4) didz wgynd z`vez ecei `l mipwgyd ipy m`y jka èd df wgyna oiiprd
d`vez lawl elkei mipwgyd ipyy jxc yi :liri epi` ,ce`n zexiaq ze`xpd ,zegpdd yelyn xfbpd oexztd ,xnelk
xzei cer d`vez lawle (zecedl) zehql leki mdn cg` lk oky ,daivi dpi` ef d`vez ,mlfn rexl .mdipyl dticr
.(ipyd owgyd oeayg lr) exear daeh
m`d :weliqd xcq z` epiiv `le (owgy lkl zg`) wfg zehlyp zeibhxhq` izy ewleq dpexg`d dnbeca
oi`y ze`xl lw .(aly ezeà) eicgi odizy e` 2 owgy ly , 1 owgy ly “ dcen `l ” dibhxhq`d dpey`x dwleq
dielz dpi` d`vezd ,dcigi d`vezl liaen wfg zehlyp zeibhxhq` ly xfeg weliqy dxwn lka :xacl zeaiyg
.(3 libxz d`x) weliqd xcqa
llk oi` ea wgyna ,lynl .dcigi d`vezl wfg zehlyp zeibhxhq` ly xfeg weliq liaen wgyn lka `l
.dfk dxwnl dnbec èd àd wgynd .dibhxhq` s` wgen epi` df jildz ,wfg zehlypd zeibhxhq`
L R
T 1, 2 2, 3
B 2, 2 2, 0
wfg zehlyp zeibhxhq` `ll wgyn :4.13 xei`
ynn deabd melyz dxeyd owgyl zpzep ìd dxwn lka `l mpn` :zcgein dpekz B dibhxhq`l df wgyna
dcenrd owgy xy`k) miieqn dxwnae T

, enk zegtl aeh melyz cinz dgihan ìd j` , T dibhxhq`d xy`n
dibhxhq`de) T dibhxhq` lr ylg zhley B dibhxhq`dy xn`p dfk dxwna . T -n ynn daeh ìd ( L wgyn
.( B dibhxhq`d ici lr ylg zhlyp T

i owgy ly ti dibhxhq` zniiw m` (weakly dominated) ylg zhlyp `xwz i owgy ly si dibhxhq` 4.8 dxcbd
zniiwnd
miiwzn mipwgyd x`y ly s−i ∈ S−i dibhxhq` lkl .1
ui (si , s−i ) ≤ ui (ti , s−i ). (17)
miiwzn dxeary mipwgydd x`y ly t−i ∈ S−i dibhxhq` zniiw .2
ui (si , t−i ) < ui (ti , t−i ). (18)
.si lr ylg zhley ti -y e` , ti ici lr ylg zhlyp si -y xn`p df dxwna
.dwfg dhilyn xzei ylg dhily byen mpn` ìd dylg dhily okle ,dylg dhily zxxeb dwfg dhilyy xexa
z` dzr silgp .dwfg dhilydy cgeina oiivp ok m` `l` ,“ dylg dhily ” mewna “dhily ” byena ynzyp ep`
.dàd xzei dwfgd dgpda 1 zeilpeivxd zgpd
.zhlyp dibhxhqà ynzyi `l ilpeivx owgy 4 dgpd
z` wlql okn xg`le ,(ylg zhlypd) T dibhxhq`d z` wlql 4.13 xeiày wgyna lkep 2-4 zegpd zgz
mr (T, L) ìd wgynd z`vezk lawzzy dcigid d`vezd .(T weliq xg`l wfg zhlypd) R dibhxhq`d
mya `xwp zehlyp zeibhxhq` ly xfegd weliqd jildzle , zilpeivx d`vez `xwp z`fk d`vezl (1, 2)
. melyz
xiaqdl jixv èd ,lawzz zniieqn d`vezy ayeg owgy xy`ky ìd “divfilpeivx ” gpenl daiqd . divfilpeivx
.divfilpeivx dpekn df inipt jildz .lawzz ok` ef d`vez recn envrl
zeibhxhq` ly xfeg weliqn lawzdl dleki ìd m` zilpeivx `xwz s ∈ S (zeibhxhq` xehwe) d`vez 4.9 dxcbd
.zehlyp
Reinhard ici lr dpzip ef dgpdl zixyt` dwcvd .xzei dwfg 4 dgpdy ixd ,icnl dxiaq zi`xp 1 dgpdy cera
dphw m` mb ,ziaeig zexazqd yi ik xne` df byen . (trembling hand) zcrexd cid byen z` rivdy Selten
eèaa hrn zcrex eci) zerh ,lynl ,zeidl zeleki jkl zeaiq .ely zeibhxhq`dn zg` lka ynzyi owgyy ,ce`n
,(oekp `ld xeztkd lr uegll ieyr èd zerhae ,zxgapd dibhxhq`d z` lretd l` ìvend xeztkd lr uegll
.aeyiga zerh e` zeilpeivx xqeg
0<<1
. xy`k ,dn`zda 1− -e zeiexazqda L-ae R -a xgea dcenrd owgyy gipp zcrexd cid zgpda
yi B dibhxhq`ly o`kn . B xgai m` 2 -e , T xgai m` + 2(1 − ) = 2 − ìd dxeyd owgyl melyzd zlgez
T
. -a `le B -a xgai ilpeivx I owgy okle , T dibhxhq`l xy`n (ynn) xzei ddeab melyz zlgez
,riztn oteà mizirl ,liaend liri xiykn èd - zehlyp zeibhxhq` ly xfeg weliq - divfilpeivxd jildz
.mifxknd zxezn dgewld dàd dnbeca lynl enk ,zizernyn d`vezl
ipy xign fxkn 4.5
.fxknl àd lcena opeazp
.dxiknl rven ,dwelgl ozip epi`y ,cg` utg •
zlaw oia yic` èd) vi xzeid lkl utgd xear mlyl oken èd ,xnelk .utgl vi jxr yi fxkna i szzyn lkl •
reapl leki ède (private value) i owgy ly ihxtd jxrd èd vi jxrd .(utgd zlaw i` oiae vi xigna utgd
miietv migeex ,ilhpnihpq xyw ,hedix oepbq ,zepn` ly miieqn beql dtcrd oebk ,miiaihwiiaeq milewiyn
,ely vi jxrd z` wxe j` rcei i szzyn lk ef daiqn .'eke (zxeywz zeiekf èd utgd m` ,dnbecl) utgdn
dn zxg` e` ef zexiaqa oin`dl e` xryl ,oaenk ,epnn rpen `l df .mixg`d mipwgyd ly mikxrd z` `le
.mixg`d mitzzynd ly miihxtd mikxrd md
7
.(fxknd ldpnl dxebq dthrna ybend) bi xign rivn i szzyn lk •
my o`kne) edaeba ipyd xignd z` mlyn ède ,xzeia deabd xignd z` rivdy szzynd èd utga dkefd •
utgde ,zilniqwnd drvdd èd utgd xign ,zilniqwn drvd dze` mirivn mitzzyn xtqn m` .(fxknd
drvd dze` erivd mitzzyn ipy m` ,xnelk .zilniqwnd drvdd irivnn cg`l deey zexazqda ozip
.ivg èd utga dkfi mdn cg` lky iekiqd ,zilniqwn
8
15
. mlyne utga dkef 21 rivdy szzynd ,dn`zda 21 -e , 2 15 5
, , mirivnd mitzzyn drax` yi m` ,lynl
.zibhxhq` dxeva wgynk ipy xign fxkn ilnxet oteà zrk bivp
7
bid
. ilbp`d gpend llba drvdl b oeniqa ynzydl bedp
8
.?? wxta oeci xzei zexken mifxkn zehiyl ef mifxkn zhiy oia xywd
.mitzzynd xtqn z` n -a onqp.fxkna mitzzynd zveaw ìd mitzzynd zveaw .1
. Bi = [0, ∞) zeixyt`d zervdd zveaw ìd i szzyn ly zeibhxhq`d zveaw .2
èd , b = (b1 , . . . , bn ) èd zeibhxhq`d xehwe xy`k i szzynl melyzd .3

 0 bi < maxj bj ,
ui (b) = bi −vi
(19)

#{k : bk =maxj bj } bi = maxj bj .
z` rcei epi` szzynd ixdy ,xzeia dyw zi`xp diirad oey`x hana ?dfk fxkna ilpeivx szzyn bdpi cvik
`l ieyr elit` èd ,ok lr xzi .mdn cg` lk riviy xignd dn rcei epi` oky lk `l ,mitzzynd x`y ly mikxrd
`ly gihadl ick , vi -n jenpd xign rivi m`d ? i owgy rivi bi xign dfi` ,ok m` .yi mixg` mitzzyn dnk zrcl
diipyd drvdd ik deewz jez ,zekfl eiiekiq z` licbdl ick vi

, -n deabd xign rivi `ny e` ,fxkna sqk ciqti
.dàd dprhd z` divfilpeivxd jildz zxfra d`xp ep` ? vi -l zgzn didz ddaeba
.zxg` dibhxhq` lk lr ylg zhley bi = vi dibhxhq`d 4.10 htyn
:oldlck didi fxknd jldn ,4-2 zegpd zgz ,zexg` milina
. bi = vi rivi szzyn lk •
9
.utgl xzeia ddeabd dkxrdd lra szzynd utga dkfi •
vi
. mikxrd lkn elceba ipyd jxrd èd (dxiknd xign) dkefd mlyiy xignd •
did `l èd ik ze`xdl epilr . bi 6= vi rivn ède vi jxr yi szzynly gipp ,ef d`vezl daiqd z` ze`xl ick
vi
. rivn did el ciqtn
licbd ik) gvpn oiicr did èd - ddf dzid d`vezde vi rivdl did leki èd ,gvpn szzynde bi < vi m` .1
.(mdizervd z` epiy `l mipwgyd x`y ik) dpzyn did `l mlyn didy mekqd j` ,(ezrvd z`
èd , vi -n ddeab xzeia ddeabd drvdd m` ?vi rivd el dxew did dn .ciqtn szzynde bi < vi ik gipp .2
did ely geexde ,gvpn did èd ,( bi -n ddeab j`) vi -n dphw xzeia ddeabd drvdd m` j` .ciqtn did oiicr
.iaeig xtqn èdy ,ef drvd zegt vi
cixedl el sicr - ciqtn èdy ixd , vi -n ddeab ddaeba dipyd drvdd m` .gvpn szzynde bi > vi ik gipp .3
oiicr vi -l ezrvd z` cixei m` vi

, -n dkenp xzeia ddeabd drvdd m` .utga zekfl `le vi -l drvdd z`
.dpzyi `l mlyi eze` mekqde ,gvpi
.zilnxet dgkedl el` zepeirx mbxzp zrk
yelyl Si = [0, ∞) ely zeibhxhq`d zveaw z` wlgp . vi èd ely ihxtd jxrdy i szzyna opeazp .dgked
:zeveaw
9
.zeliri mi`xew ,xzeia eze` jixrny df èd utga dkefd szzynd da ,ef dpekzl
.[0, vi ) vi: -n dphw drvdd oda zeibhxhq`d •
. {vi } vi : -l deey drvdd oda zeibhxhq`d •
(vi , ∞) vi
. : -n dlecb drvdd oda zeibhxhq`d •
.zexg`d zeveawd izyn zeibhxhq`d lr zhley bi = vi dibhxhq`d ik d`xp
xtqn jxce mdly xzeia ddeabd drvdd jxc mitzzynd x`y ly zeibhxhqà ielz i szzynd ly melyzd
-a mipwgy x`y ly zilniqwnd drvdd z` onqp .ef drvd erivdy mipwgyd
B−i = max bj , (20)

j6=i
-a ef drvd erivdy mitzzynd xtqn zè
N−i = #{k 6= i : bk = max bj .} (21)

j6=i
:ìd , b zeibhxhq`d xehwe ly divwpetk , i szzyn ly melyzd zivwpet

 0 bi < B−i ,


vi −B−i
ui (b) = N−i +1 bi = B−i , (22)


vi − B−i bi > B−i .

.4.14 xeià dpezp ely melyzd zivwpet , bi = vi dibhxhqà xgai szzynd m` ,xnelk
u(bi , B−i )
vi
B−i
vi
bi = vi dibhxhq`d xear melyzd zivwpet :4.14 xei`
.4.15 xeià dpezp ely melyzd zivwpet , bi < vi zniiwnd bi dibhxhqà xgai szzynd m`
u(bi , B−i )
vi
B−i
bi vi
bi < v i dibhxhq`d xear melyzd zivwpet :4.15 xei`
B−i
. drvdd z` erivdy mipwgyd xtqna ielz bi = B−i xy`k dcewpd daeby al miyp
dibhxhq`d xear melyzd zivwpet mr bi < v zniiwnd bi dibhxhq` xear melyzd zivwpet zèeydn
ìd mda B−i ikxr yie ,4.15 xeià melyzd zivwpetn (ylg) ddeab ?? xeià melyzd zivwpety xexa , bi = vi
.ihxtd jxrdn dkenp drvdd oda zeibhxhq`d lr zhley bi = vi dibhxhq`d ik lawp o`kn .ynn ddeab
.4.16 xeià xèznk melyz zivwpet lawp bi > v i zniiwnd bi dibhxhq`l ,dnec oteà
u(bi , B−i )
vi
bi
B−i
vi
bi > v i dibhxhq`d xear melyzd zivwpet :4.16 xei`
ddeab drvdd oda zeibhxhq`d lka zhley bi = vi dibhxhq`d xear melyzd zivwpet ik mièx ep` o`k mb
.ihxtd jxrdn
.eprhy itk ,zexg`d zeibhxhq`d lka ylg zhley ihxtd jxrl deey drvdd da dibhxhq`d ik eplaiw
zehlyp zeibhxhq` ly weliqd xcq :divfilpeivx 4.6
z`vez ,weliqd xcqa dielz `l d`vezd eay ,wfg zehlyp zeibhxhq` ly xfeg weliqa epi`xy dnl cebipa
.dàd dnbeca ef drtez d`xp .weliqd xcqa dielz zeidl dleki ylg zehlyp zeibhxhq` ly xfegd weliqd
4.11 dnbec
.zibhxhq` dxeva àd wgyna opeazp
L C R
T 1, 2 2, 3 0, 3
M 2, 2 2, 1 3, 2
B 2, 1 0, 0 1, 0
ylg zehlypd zeibhxhq`d weliq xcq ea wgyn :4.17 xei`
zlawznd d`vezd lr rityn
.zepey ze`vezl miliaend 4.17 xeiày wgyna ylg zehlyp zeibhxhq` weliq ikildz ipy bivp
melyz d`vez (l`nyl oinin) weliqd xcq
2, 2 ML C, B, R, T
3, 2 MR T, C, L, B
2, 1 e` 2, 2 BL M L
e- R, C, T
weliql zexyt` oiè , BL -e ML ze`vezd izy zex`yp R, C, T weliqd jildzay zpiivn dpexg`d dxeyd
.dcigi d`vezl miribn llka m` reawl mb leki weliqd xcq ,xnelk .miizyd oia yic` dxeyd owgy ik ,sqep
y`p lwyn ieey :zeaivid oexwr 4.7
.zilpeivxd d`vezd z` àpl ick ea xfridl lkep wgyn lka `le ,zelabn yi ,ezeaiyg lk mr ,dhilyd byenl
. zeaivid oexwr èd ,ipy aeyg oexwr bivp df sirqa
.dàd dvixhnd ici lr oezpd mipwgy ipy wgyna opeazp
L C R
T 0, 6 6, 0 4, 3
M 6, 0 0, 6 4, 3
B 3, 3 3, 3 5, 5
mipwgy ipy wgyn :4.18 xei`
owgy ly M -e T zeibhxhq`d z` zeeydl ,lynl ,dqpp m` .zeibhxhq`d oia dhily qgi oi` df wgyna
M -n daeh T j` , L xgea dcenrd owgy m` T -n daeh M :diipydn daeh cinz ìdy zg` oi`y gkeeip ,dxeyd
L
. -l dxeyd owgy ly (best response) xzeia daehd daeyzd ìd M ,dyrnl C
. -a xgea dcenrd owgy xy`k
R
. -l xzeia daehd daeyzd ìd B -e , C -l dxeyd owgy ly xzeia daehd daeyzd ìd T ,ok enk
eliè , M -l xzeia daehd daeyzd ìd C T , -l xzeia daehd daeyzd ìd L ,zecenrd owgy xear dnec oteà
B
. -l xzeia daehd daeyzd ìd R
.dibhxhqà xegal jixv èd wx ea wgyna mvra `vnp mixg`d mipwgyd ly zeibhxhq`d z` rceid owgy
,eply dnbeca ,lynl .el` zeibhxhq`l xzeia daehd daeyza xgai èd ,ilpeivx owgyd m`
. L xgai èd , T xgea dxeyd owgyy rcei dcenrd owgy m` •
. M xgai èd , L xgea dcenrd owgyy rcei dxeyd owgy m` •
.C xgai èd , M xgea dxeyd owgyy rcei dcenrd owgy m` •
. T xgai èd , C xgea dcenrd owgyy rcei dxeyd owgy m` •
R
. xgai èd , B xgea dxeyd owgyy rcei dcenrd owgy m` •
B
. xgai èd , R xgea dcenrd owgyy rcei dxeyd owgy m` •
xzeia daehd daeyzd ìd zeibhxhq`dn zg` lk :zeaivi zpekz yi (B, R) zeibhxhq`d befly mièx ep`
(profitable zi`ck diihq mipwgydn cg` s`l oi` , (B, R) mixgea mipwgydy dgpda :oiteligl .zxg`d dibhxhq`l
dibhxhq` mipwgyd ipyn cg` s`l oi` , (B, R) itl dibhxhq` xgea ipyd owgydy dgpda ,xnelk deviation)
.
ieey byen z` rahy , John Nash ici lr dxcbed ef zeaivi zpekz . (B, R) itl melyzdn xzei deab melyzl ìazy
.eny lr f`n `xwpd (equilibrium) lwynd

ly si dibhxhq` lkle i owgy lkl m` y`p lwyn ieey `xwp s∗ = (s∗1 , . . . , s∗n ) zeibhxhq` xehwe 4.12 dxcbd
miiwzn i owgy
ui (s∗ ) ≥ ui (si , s∗−i ). (23)
lwynd ieey melyz

. `xwp u(s∗ ) melyzd xehwe .(y`p xekf` `ll) lwyn ieey y`p lwyn ieeyl `xwp aexl
.s∗ -n zi`ck diihq oi` i owgy meyl ,zexg` milina
?eze` wgyl mipwgyl “i`ck ” recn .lwyn ieey miiw wgyna ik gipp
m` :wgyna “dietvd ” d`vezl dievxe zywazn dpekz zi`xp lwynd ieey byena zraend zeaivid zpekz •
ef d`vezy ixd (wgyn lk ly d`vezd z` zàpnd ziaihnihle` dxez ici lr) “ dietv ” d`vez zniiw
ef ik zàpn dxezd m` j` .zi`ck diihq el didzy cg` owgy zegtl didi zxg` .lwyn ieey zeidl zaiig
el sicry `vni èd okle ,ef d`vez itl ebdpi mipwgyd x`y ik gipdl lkei df owgy ,wgynd z`vez didz
d`vezd zeidl dleki dpi` ìd okle ,mybzz `l dietvd d`vezd f` j` .dietvdn dpey dibhxhqà xegal
.dietvd
dpibn ef dvlndy ixd ,wgynd z` wgyl cvik mipwgyl xxea ly dvlnd xeza lwynd ieey z` oiap m` •
.xxead ly elewa renyl `l sicriy owgy didi zxg` dvlnd lkl .ezvlnd ixg` ielina oiipernd ,xxead lr
?mipwgyd ly miqxhpi`d lr xenyl e` ,xxead lr obdl mivex ep` m`d la`
xtqn mpyi m` .cigi lwyn ieey wx yiyke ,zrcd lr zlawzn dvlnd yi xy`k wx swz df wenipy oaenk
?mdipia xxead xgai cvik ,lwyn iieey
daiq oi` mdn cg` s`l if` ,lwynd ieey itl wgyl minikqne ,wgynd zligz iptl mixacn mipwgyd m` •
.mekiqd itl milret mixg`d mipwgydy dgpda ,geexl ìadl dlekid diihq oi` oky ,lwynd ieeyn zehql
.wgynd zligz iptl mdipia xacl mileki mipwgyd ik migipn ep` ,ziy`x .zepexqg xtqn mpyi df xaqdl
ieey wlge cg` lwyn ieey miticrn mipwgydn wlg m` ?lwyn iieey xtqn yi xy`k dxew dn ,zipy
ccea owgy s`l ik migipn ep` lwynd ieey zxcbda ,ziyily ?enikqi md lwyn ieey dfi` lr ,xg` lwyn
m` ?egieexi mlek jke cgia ehqi ik enikqi mipwgy xtqn m` dn j` .geexl el ìadl dlekid diihq oi`
lr ggeyl mwlgl mixyt`n eppi` recn ,ewgyi cvik reawle wgynd zligz iptl ggeyl mipwgyl epxyt`
?zetzeyn zeihq
oindy Darwin ly dixe`zd jezn irah oteà dler lwynd ieey byen ?? wxta d`xpy dibeleial mineyiia •
eizepekzy oin ,mignvde miigd ilra ziiqelkeà . (survival of the fittest) xzeia mi`znd èd cxeyy
,xnelk .cexyi `l mipind x`y ly zeibhxhq`d cbpk xzeia daeh dibhxhq` el zeaizkn opi` zeizyxezd
xtqn zlgez z` bviin melyzde ,oind ly zeizyxez zepekz zbviin dibhxhq` lk ,oin bviin owgy lk m`
ei`v`v xtqn zlgezy oteà zeizyxezd eizepekz z` “ dpyi ” y oiny ixd ,diqelkeà hxt lk ly mi`v`vd
.lwyn ieeya mi`vnp mipind rnyn ,daivi mipind ziqelke` xy`k ,okl .diqelke`dn mlrii ohwz
weca) xzeia daeh daeyz ly byend zxfra y`p ly lwynd ieey byen z` gqpl ozip ,mcew epxn`y itk
.(zelewy 4.13-e 4.12 zexcbdy

xzeia daehd daeyzd z`xwp i owgy ly si dibhxhq` . i `ll mipwgyd ly zeibhxhq` xehwe s∗−i `di 4.13 dxcbd
miiwzn i owgy ly ti dibhxhq` lkl m` s∗−i -l
ui (si , s∗−i ) ≥ ui (ti , s∗−i ). (24)
s∗−i -l xzeia daeh daeyz ìd s∗i

. dibhxhq`d i owgy lkl m` y`p lwyn ieey `xwp s∗ = (s∗1 , . . . , s∗n ) zeibhxhq` xehwe
,lwyn ieey epi` (T, L) zeibhxhq`d bef eliè ,lwyn ieey èd (B, R) zeibhxhq`d bef 4.18 xeiày dnbeca
(!weca) cigid lwynd ieey èd (B, R) ,zeibhxhq`d zebef 9 lkn . L

-l xzeia daeh daeyz dpi` T oky
znxepn zi`ck diihq dzid dxagdn wlgl zxg` oky ,lwyn ieey zeizxag zebdpzd zenxepa ze`xl ozip
.dnxep zeidl dlcg dzid ìd fè ,ef zebdpzd
ieey zepekz xwgae ,mipey miwgyna lwynd ieey zìvna wqer miwgynd zxeza xwgnd ly lecb wlg
zebdpzdl miliaend mikildzd ixg` zewgzdl dqpnd xwgnd oeeik èd xzeie xzei gztzny aeyg oeeik .lwynd
.(daebz e` iewig ,dcinl oebk) lwyn ieeya
4.14 dnbec
.dàd dvixhnd ici lr oezpd mipwgyd ipy wgyna opeazp
L R
T 3, 7 0, 0
M 4, 1 5, 3
B 6, 5 4, 7
(5, 3)
. èd lwynd ieey melyz . (M, R) èd o`k cigid lwynd ieey
.jynd :(xiq`d znlic) 4.7 dnbec
dvixhnd ici lr dpezpd ,xiq`d znlica
II owgy
dcen dcen `l
1, 1 5, 0 dcen
I owgy
0, 5 4, 4 dcen `l
efy xekfp . (1, 1) èd lawznd melyzde ,micen mixevrd ipy xy`k ,xnelk , (dcen ,dcen ) èd cigid lwynd ieey
.zehlyp zeibhxhq` weliq jildza d`vezd mb
.meìz wgyn 4.15 dnbec
. (coordination games) “ meìz iwgyn ” mi`xwpd miwgyn ly dgtynl jiiy àd wgynd
a b
A 1, 1 0, 0
B 0, 0 3, 3
.lwyn iieey md (B, b) mbe (A, a) mb eply dnbeca .mzlert z` m`zl mipwgyd ipyl i`ck meìz wgyna
(3, 3)
. èd (B, b) -l mi`znd lwynd ieey melyz eliè (1, 1) èd (A, a) -l mi`znd lwynd ieey melyz
.mipind zngln 4.16 dnbec
(battle of the sexes) “

. mipind zngln ” `xwp ,meìz ly aikxn yi ea mby àd wgynd
xab
F C
F 1, 3 0, 0
dy`
C 0, 0 3, 1
md mzeyxl zecnerd zeiexyt`d .zay axrl ielia opkzn bef .àd itiheìxhqd xeìzdn à wgynd ly eny
,hxvpewd z` dticrn dy`d cera ,lbxeckd wgyna diitv sicrn xabd F

.( ) lbxeck wgyna diitve ( C ) hxvpew
.mdipira sicr zegtd èd szeynd ieliad m` mb cgi zeidl miticrn mdipy j`
dticrn dy`d .(3, 1) melyz mr (C, C) -e , (1, 3) melyz mr (F, F ) :lwyn ieey ze`vez izy yi df wgyna
.lwyn ieey mdipy ,xen`k ,j` . (F, F ) z` sicrn xabd eliè , (C, C) z`
epi` lwynd ieey byen okle ,lwyn iieey xtqn zeidl mileki wgynly mièx ep` zepexg`d ze`nbecd izyn
.dcigi d`veza xegal ick witqn epi` cala zeaivid byen mizirl ,xnelk .wgyn ly dcigi d`vez reawl witqn
znlica ,lynl .wgynd z`vez didi lwynd ieeyy xexa `l llk mizirl ,cigi lwyn ieey yiy dxwna mb ,dyrnl
ik xxazd ekxrpy miieqipa . (1, 1) zegpd melyzd z` daipnd ,(dcen,dcen) d`vezdn “ gep `l ” miaxl xiq`d
ipyl melyzd ,lwyn ieey dpi` ef d`vezy zexnle ,(dcen `l,dcen `l) miwgyn mipwgyd miax mixwna ok`
didz mpn` ef gxkday xexa `l ,cigi lwyn ieey wgynl yi m` mby jk lr driavn ef dcaer .lcb mipwgyd
.wgynd z`vez z` “
reawl ” ick witqn epi` cala zeaivid byen ,zexg` milina .wgynd z`vez
miiwzdl dxen`y zeaivi ly dpekz :oexzt-dhn `l` ,oexzt byen `l lwynd ieey byena ze`xl yiy o`kn
.zrcd lr lawzn oexzt lka e` , “ietv ” oexzt lka
d`vezd ,xiq`d znlica ?4.4 wxta epi`xy divfilpeivxde dhilyd ibyenl lwynd ieey byen oia xywd dn
ze`nbecd lka .ixwn epi` df xac .lwyn ieey mb ìd zehlyp zeibhxhq` weliq jildza zlawznd (dcen ,dcen )
itk .lwyn ieey ìd ef d`vezy ixd ,dcigi d`vez dlawzd zehlyp zeibhxhq` weliq jildza m` ,epi`xy
.zillk drtez idef ,oreh àd htyndy
.lwyn ieey èd s∗ if` ,zehlyp zeibhxhq` ly xfeg weliqn lawzn s∗ zeibhxhq` xehwe m` 4.17 htyn
èd (wfg e` ylg) zhlyp dibhxhq` weliq xg`l lawznd wgyna lwyn ieey lky d`xp ziy`x .dgked
.ixewnd wgyna lwyn ieey mb

ìd s∗ -y gipp .owgy eze` ly ti dibhxhq`d ici lr zhlypd i

, owgy ly si dibhxhq`d z` epwliqy gipp
∗
ep` . si dibhxhq`d mr ixewnd wgyna lwyn ieey ìd s ik gikep . si weliq xg`l lawzdy wgyna lwyn ieey
.ixewnd wgyna s∗ -n zi`ck diihq oi` owgy s`l ik d`xp
∗
mipwgy ly zeibhxhq`d zveaw oky ,ixewnd wgyna s -n zi`ck diihq oi` i -n dpeyd owgy s`l ik xexa
ìd ef diihqy ixd ,(ycgd wgyna `le) ixewnd wgyna zi`ck diihq yi i owgyl m` .ddf miwgynd ipya el`
: si gxkda
ui (si , s∗−i ) > ui (s∗ ). (25)
okle , ti ici lr (wfg e` ylg) zhlyp si j`
ui (ti , s∗−i ) ≥ ui (si , s∗−i ). (26)
ik lawp (26)-e (25) zeèeynn
ui (ti , s∗−i ) > ui (s∗ ), (27)
owgyl ik eplaiw ,ycgd wgyna i owgyl zixyt` dibhxhq` ìd ti -y oeeikn j` .zi`ck diihq ìd ti mb xnelk
ik d`xn ef dxizq .ycgd wgyna lwyn ieey ìd s∗ -y jkl dxizqa ,ycgd wgyna s∗ -n zi`ck diihq yi i
∗ ∗
.yxcpk ,ixewnd wgyna lwyn ieey ìd s okl .dpekp dpi` ,ixewnd wgyna lwyn ieey dpi` s ik ,epgpdy dgpdd
miwgynd lkay raep zehlypd zeibhxhq`d weliq jildz ialyn cg` lka ef dcaer ly xfeg yeniyn
,hxta .ixewnd wgynd ly lwyn ieey mb èd dfk miipia wgyn ly lwyn ieey lk ,weliqd jildza milawznd
èdy) cigi lwyn ieey yi - s∗i - zg` dlert wx yi owgy lkl ea oeepnd wgynd èdy ,lawzny oexg`d wgyna
.ixewnd wgyna lwyn ieey ìd ef d`veze ,( s∗
.xzei dwfg d`vezd ,wfg zehlyp zeibhxhq` ly èd weliqd jildz m`
.wgyna cigid lwynd ieey ìd s∗ if` ,wfg zehlyp zeibhxhq` ly xfeg weliqn zlawzn s∗ m` 4.18 htyn
dpid wfg da zhleyd dibhxhq`d oky ,y`p lwyn ieeya ritedl dleki dpi` wfg zhlyp dibhxhq` .dgked
.lwynd iieey zveaw z` dpyn epi` wfg zehlyp zeibhxhq` weliqy o`kn .(mi`znd owgyl) zi`ck diihq
wgyna mby ixd ,(dcigi dibhxhq` yi owgy lkl eay) oexg`d wgynd ly cigid lwynd ieey èd s∗ -y oeeik
.cigi lwyn ieey yi ixewnd
milina .lwynd iieey zveaw z` llk jxca dpyn ylg zehlyp zeibhxhq` weliq ,4.6 wxta epi`xy itk
dyrnl raep df xac .ixewnd wgynd ly lwyn ieey zcewp wlql leki ylg zhlyp dibhxhq` weliq ,zexg`
:epi`xy zecaer izyn
.y`p lwyn ieey ìd zehlyp zeibhxhq` ly xfeg weliq ly dcigi d`vez lk .1
raep o`kn .weliqd xcql m`zda ,zepey (zecigi) ze`vezl ìadl leki zehlyp zeibhxhq` ly xfeg weliq .2
liaed `l jildzdy ef) lwyn ieey zeibhxhq` ly weliql mexbl leki zehlyp zeibhxhq` ly xfeg weliqy
.(dil`
d`vezl liaen ède ,cigi èd weliqd jildz m` mb wleqn zeidl leki lwyn ieeyy d`xn dàd dnbecd
.cala zg`
4.19 dnbec
.dàd dvixhnd ici lr oezpd mipwgy ipy wgyna opeazp
L R
T 0, 0 2, 1
B 3, 2 1, 2
.(B, L) -e (T, R) :lwyn iieey ipy yi df wgyna
L ìd ylg zhlypd dcigid dibhxhq`d .ylg zehlyp zeibhxhq` ly xfeg weliq jildz ixg` zrk aewrp
(T, R)
. ìd zlawznd d`vezde , B dibhxhq`d zwleqn , L dibhxhq`d ly dweliq xg`l .( R ici lr zhlypd)
ieey ,ok lr xzi .ixewnd wgyna lwyn ieey ìdy , (B, L) d`vezd z` wlqn L dibhxhq`d ly dweliq
lwynd ieeyl mi`znd (2, 1)

, melyzdn mipwgyd ipyl xzei aeh èdy (3, 2)
, melyzl mi`zn wleqy lwynd
.weliqd jildz ici lr xgapy (T, R)
oinqwnd byen :oegha 4.8
.àd wgyna opeazp
L R
T 2, 1 2, −20
M 0, 8 0, −10
B −100, 2 3, 3
wgyn :4.19 xei`
efy ddeab zexiaqa zetvl ozip mpn`d . (3, 3) melyz mr ,wgyna cigid lwynd ieey èd (B, R) -y ze`xl lw
meyn m`) L xgai dcenrd owgy `ny yygn , B xegal ce`n qqdl ieyr dxeyd owgy ?wgynd z`vez didz
okzii ,dxeyd owgy xear ziltexhqhw dpid (B, L) d`vezdy oeeik .(zxg` daiqn e` ,zerha m` ,ilpeivx epi`y
−100
. lawl oekiq oi` da j` ,(lwynd ieeya 3 mewna) 2 melyz el dgihand , T dibhxhq`d z` sicri ède
, T dgehad dibhxhqà xgai dxeyd owgyy xiaq iekiq yiy ayege ,df qeqidl xr dcenrd owgy m` ,dyrnl
L
. dibhxhqà xgaiy ce`n okziie ,( −20 melyza okzqdle) R lwynd ieey zibhxhq` z` xegaln yeygi èd
.T xegal dxeyd owgy ly divaihend z` xzei cer wfgn df xac
:owgy lk ly zebdpzda zxg` e` ef dcina miiw i`ceeay ,zilpeivx zebdpzd ly sqep hwtq` mièx ep` o`k
.mixg`d mipwgyd ly zeilpeivxd lr “ jenql ” ilan ozipy xzeia daehd d`vezd zghad
èd lawl lelr èdy xzeia rexbd melyzd si dibhxhqà xgai m` ?envrl gihadl i owgy leki dn
min ui (si , t−i ). (28)

t−i
leki èd mipwgyd x`y ly zeilpeivxd lr jenql ila ,xnelk .df jxr znqwnnd si dibhxhqà xegal leki èd
envrl gihadl
v i = max min ui (si , t−i ). (29)

si t−i
dgihand s∗i dibhxhq` .owgyd ly oeghad znx e` , (MaxMin value) i owgy ly oinqwnd jxr `xwp vi lcebd
zniiwnd dibhxhq` idef ,xnelk . oinqwn zibhxhq` z`xwp df jxr
ui (s∗i , t−i ) ≥ v i , ∀t−i ∈ S−i , (30)
e`
min ui (s∗i , t−i ) ≥ min ui (si , t−i ), ∀si ∈ Si . (31)

t−i t−i
:dibhxhq` lk dgihany ilnipind jxrd z` meyxp 4.19 xeiày dnbecd xear
L R min
T 2, 1 2, −20 2
M 0, 8 0, −10 0
B −100, 2 3, 3 −100

min 1 −20 2, 1

mipwgyd ly oeghad ikxr mr wgynd :4.20 xei`
jxr . T ìd df melyz dgihand oinqwnd zibhxhqè , 2 èd dxeyd owgy ly oinqwnd jxr ik mièx ep`
oexwr it lr wx ebdpi mipwgyd ipy mpn` m` L

. ìd oinqwnd zibhxhqè , 1 èd dcenrd owgy ly oinqwnd
ipy ly oinqwnd jxr weica èd df melyzy dxwn wx edf . (2, 1) melyz mr (T, L) d`vezl dtvp oeghad
epi` owgy lkl melyzd ,mdly oinqwnd zeibhxhq` z` mixgea mipwgyd lk m` mb ,llk jxca .mipwgyd
lecb zeidl ieyr èd j` ,df jxr zegtl èd melyzd ,oinqwnd jxr zxcbd jezn) ely oinqwnd jxr gxkda
.(xzei
melyza (T, L) -l mi`znd (2, 1) melyzd ztlgd ici lr zncewd dnbeca lawznd wgyna lynl opeazp
mipwgyd m` ,dzr j` .epzyd `l mipwgyd ipy ly oinqwnd zeibhxhqè oinqwnd ikxry ze`xl lw . (3, 1)
.2 èd ely oinqwnd jxry cera , 3 didi dxeyd owgyl melyzd , (T, L) oinqwnd zeibhxhqà exgai
zeibhxhq` z` miwgyn mipwgyd xy`k melyzd xehwe èdy ,“ oinqwnd melyz ” mizirl ,ok lr xzi
ielz zeidl ieyr melyzd xehwee ,oinqwn zeibhxhq` dnk zeidl zeieyr owgyl :ahid xcben epi` ,oinqwnd
.àd wgyna dxew df avn .xgai odn efià
4.20 dnbec
.dàd dvixhnd ici lr oezpd mipwgyd ipy wgyna opeazp
L R min
T 3, 1 0, 4 0
B 2, 3 1, 1 1

min 1 1 1, 1

èd dcenrd owgy ly oinqwnd jxr . B ìd ely oinqwnd zibhxhqè 1 èd dxeyd owgy ly oinqwnd jxr
melyzd ,oinqwn zibhxhqà mixgea mipwgyd ipy xy`k mb ,okl .oinqwn zeibhxhq` od R mbe L mb j` 1
,
.dcenrd owgy xgaiy oinqwnd zibhxhq`l m`zda , (1, 1) e` (2, 3) zeidl ieyr
-leyd dibhxhq` ìd zhley dibhxhq`y oeeikn ?zhley dibhxhq`l oinqwn zibhxhq` oia xyw yi m`d
:ik ze`xl lw ,zxg` dibhxhq` lk lr (ylg) zh
ly oinqwn zibhxhq` ìd owgyd ly zexg`d zeibhxhq`d lk lr (ylg) zhleyd i owgy ly dibhxhq` 4.21 dprh
.mipwgyd x`y ly zeibhxhq` xehwe lk cbpk xzeia daeh daeyz ìd ef dibhxhq` ,ok lr xzi .df owgy
.zeàd zepwqnd zeraep o`kn
-xhq`d xehwe deedn ,ely zeibhxhq`d x`y lk lr (ylg) zhleyd dibhxhq` owgy lkl yi eay wgyna 4.22 dpwqn
.oinqwn zeibhxhq` xehwe oke lwyn ieey zehleyd zeibh
:lawp 4.22 dpwqnne 4.18 htynn
zeibhxhq`d xehwe deedn ,zeibhxhq`d x`y lk lr wfg zhleyd s∗i dibhxhq` owgy lkl yi eay wgyna 4.23 dpwqn
.wgyna zecigi oinqwn zeibhxhq` xehwe oke ,wgynd ly cigi lwyn ieey (s∗1 , . . . , s∗n )
qt` mekq miwgyn 4.9
{1, 2}
. -a mipwgyd ipy z` onql gep .mipwgy ipy ly miwgyn lr lkzqp df sirqa
mihwtq` ipy mi`hand mipey mibyen ipy md oinqwnd byene y`p ly lwynd ieey byeny epybcde epi`x
mibyend ipy miliaen mda mixwn yi z`f zexnl .oegha `han ipyde ,zeaivi `han oey`xd :zebdpzd ly mipey
.df sirqa oecp ea ,qt` mekq iwgyna èd dxew df xac ea aeyg dxwn .d`vez dze`l
4.24 dnbec
owgy èd 2 owgye ,dxeyd owgy èd 1 owgy .dàd dvixhnd ici lr oezpd mipwgy ipy wgyna opeazp
.dcenrd
L C R min
T 3, −3 −5, 5 −2, 2 −5
M 1, −1 4, −4 1, −1 1
B 6, −6 −3, 3 −5, 5 −5

min −6 −4 −1 1, −1

wgynd zvixhn :4.21 xei`
df wgyna R
. ìd dcenrd owgy lye M ìd dxeyd owgy ly oinqwnd zibhxhq` . v 2 = −1 -e v1 = 1 o`k
jtdile lwyn ieey mb èd oinqwnd zeibhxhq` xehwe df dxwna ,xnelk .lwyn ieey mb èd (M, R) ik lawzn
?dxwn df m`d .micklzn mibyend ipy -
,zexg` milina .qt` èd mipwgyd ipy ly minelyzd mekq zeibhxhq` bef lkl 4.24 dnbecay wgyna
wgyn ” `xwp ef dpekz mr mipwgy ipy wgyn .mlyn ipyd owgydy melyzl deey lawn cg` owgyy melyzd
“
. qt` mekq mipwgy ipy
(s1 , s2 ) zeibhxhq` bef lkl m` (two person zero-sum game) qt` mekq `xwp mipwgy ipy wgyn 4.25 dxcbd
miiwzn
u1 (s1 , s2 ) + u2 (s1 , s2 ) = 0. (32)
.ciqtn ipyd gieexn cg` owgyy lk :minelyz zpigan dxebq zkxrn èd qt` mekq wgyn ,zexg` milina
qt` mekq mipwgy ipy iwgyn ,ok` .oihelgl micbepn mipwgyd ipy ly miqxhpi`d dfk wgynay ok m` xexa
.oihelgl micbepn miqxhpi` mr mipwgy ipy iwgyn ly ziwlg dveaw md
zeibhxhq` ixehwe ipy lkl m` (strictly competitive) oihelgl izexgz wgyn `xwii mipwgy ipy wgyn 4.26 dxcbd
miiwzn (t1 , t2 )-e (s1 , s2 )
u1 (s1 , s2 ) ≥ u1 (t1 , t2 ) ⇔ u2 (s1 , s2 ) ≤ u2 (t1 , t2 ). (33)
lr zg` d`vez sicrn cg` owgy m` ,zeixyt` ze`vez izy lk oia dèeyda m` oihelgl izexgz èd wgyn
:àd i`pzd z` xxeb (33) i`pz ik jnvrl `ce .dpey`xd ipt lr diipyd d`vezd z` sicrn ipyd owgyd ,dzerx
u1 (s1 , s2 ) > u1 (t1 , t2 ) ⇔ u2 (s1 , s2 ) < u2 (t1 , t2 ). (34)
gxkda èd dfk melyze ,envrl xzei deab melyz sicri owgy lk :oihelgl izexgz èd qt` mekq wgyn ik xexa
.(jynda 4.22 xei` d`x) qt` mekq mpi`y oihelgl miizexgz miwgyn yi ik ze`xl lw .ipyd owgyl xzei jenp
wgyn lkl :àd oaena oihelgl miizexgzd miwgynd llk z` “ mibviin ” qt` mekq miwgynd ,z`f mr
enk ze`vezd lr zetcrd qgi eze` yi mipwgyd lkl eay qt` mekq wgyn ici lr bevii yi oihelgl izexgz
.(8 libxz d`x) ixewnd wgyna
wgynk lr wgyn eze` ly bevii riten 4.22 (B) xeiàe ,oihelgl izexgz wgyn riten (A)
4.22 xeià ,lynl
.qt` mekq
L R L R
T −2, 7 5, 0 T −2, 2 5, −5
B 3, 1 0, 3 B 3, −3 0, 0
Part A Part B
(B) qt` mekq wgynk wgynk ebeviie (A) oihelgl izexgz wgyn :4.22 xei`
:miàd mipeieey-i`d z` zeiniiwn miwgynd ipya minelyzd zeivwpet .àd oaena milewy miwgynd ipy
u1 (T, R) > u1 (B, L) > u1 (B, R) > u1 (T, L).
u2 (T, R) < u2 (B, L) < u2 (B, R) < u2 (T, L).
.miwgynd ipya midf I owgy ly minelyzd ,zn`d ornl
miizexgz miwgyn e` qt` mekq miwgyn mpi` miwgynd zxez zxfra lthl dvxp mda miiga miavnd aex
iwgynl z`f zexnl .oihelgl micbepn mpi`y ixd ,micklzn mpi` m` mb ,mipwgyd ly miqxhpi`d oky ,oihelgl
.jkl zeaiq xtqn o`k ìap .cgein oeic dwicvnd zcgein zeaiyg qt` mekq mipwgy ipy
mipwgy ipy miwgyn mpid ,mdipinl diiaew iwgyne ,dwnc ,ya-yy ,hngy enk ,miax miiq`lw miwgyn .1
eaviry zepey`xd zeihnznd ze`vezd ebved mda .exwgpy mipey`xd miwgynd eid dl` .qt` mekq
20
.( -d d`nd zligza) dycg dxezk miwgynd zxez z` ecilede
.ihnzn letihl xzei milwe xzei miheyt llk jxca dl` miwgyn ,dliabn ce`nde zcgeind mzpekz llba .2
e` oeirx zwicaa e` gezita oey`x dxwnk mda ligzdl llk jxca i`ck ,dwihnzna miax mixwna enk
.dxezd gezita miieqn oeeik
wgynd ly miniieqn mihwtq` cceal mini`zn md ,dlert seziyl mewn oi` qt` mekq miwgynay oeeik .3
-pi` znixf oebk) wgynd ly mixg` mihwtq`n zeraep elè dlert seziyn zeraep ze`vez eli` wecale
.('eke zexfg ,divnxet
-ha znx ” ìd owgy lk ly (benchmark) daeyg zeqgiizd zcewp ,didzy lkk zkaeqn ,divèhiq lka .4
z` aygl ick .mipwgyd x`y zebdpzdd lr zeknzqd `ll ,envr zegeka gihadl leki èd dn ;ely “oeg
mipwgyd x`y lky :(worst case scenario) xzeia rexbd yigxzd z` dyrnl gipn èd efd oeghad znx
mipwgyd lk ea ,qt` mekq ,xg` wgyn lr lkzqn owgydy xacd yexit ipkh oteà .el wifdl miqpn
mb ,zexg` milina .(el wifdl eqpi md okle) ely melyzl jetd melyz mr cg` owgy mieedn mixg`d
oexztl uegp mpexzty xfr iwgynk qt` mekq miwgyn ritedl miieyr qt` mekq epi`y wgyn gezipa
.ixewnd wgynd
cigi owgy mr miwgyn .mixg` mipiiprn milcena irah oteà miler qt` mekq mipwgy ipy miwgyn .5
melyzde ,zelert sqe` jezn zg` dlerta xegal zehlgd lawn lr efk diraa dhlgd zeira
. mi`xwp
zehlgdd lawn dn zrcl ick .mdilr hley `l èdy mipey mixhnxte xga dze` dlerta ielz lawn èdy
oteà .zehlgdd lawn ly melyzd z` xrfnl dqpnd ipy owgyk daiaqd z` lcnp ,envrl gihadl leki
.12.8 wxt d`x ,dnbecl .qt` mekq mipwgy ipy wgyn dyrnl eplaiw df
wtzqp , u1 + u2 = 0 miniiwn u1 , u 2 minelyzdy oeeik .qt` mekq mipwgy ipy miwgyna oecl dzr ybip
u2 = −u
. u1 = u
fè , zg` divwpeta
owgy èdy , 1 owgy :mipwgyd ipy oia (cala mipeniqa ,epiidc) zizek`ln dixhniq` dxvep jkay al miyp
oihwdl oiipern ,dcenrd owgy èdy , 2 owgy .(ely melyzd df oky) xyt`d lkk u(s) z` licbdl dqpn ,dxeyd
.( −u(s) èd ely melyzd) mlyn èdy melyzd df oky , u(s) z`
:jk x`zp 4.24 dnbecay wgynd z`
L C R
T 3 −5 −2
M 1 4 1
B 6 −3 −5
:jk x`zp 4.22 (B) xeiày wgynd zè
L R
T −2 5
B 3 0
.àd qt` mekq wgynk x`zl lkep ,oihelgl izexgz wgyn èdy ,(3.24 dnbec) zerahnd zn`zd wgyn z`
H T
H 1 −1
T −1 1
qt` mekq wgynk zerahnd zn`zd wgyn :4.23 xei`
ici lr oezp 1 owgy ly oinqwndd jxr ?mipwgyd ly oinqwnd jxr dn
v 1 = max min u(s1 , s2 ). (35)

s1 s2
.envrl gihadl leki èd eze` jxrd :wgyna 1 owgy ly oeghad znx idef .( 1 qwcpi`d `ll) v -a oneqn df jxr
èd 2 owgy ly oinqwnd jxr
v2 = max min(−u(s1 , s2 ))
s2 s1
= − min max u(s1 , s2 ). (36)
s2 s1
onqp
v̄ = min max u(s1 , s2 ). (37)

s2 s1
milina . −v̄ zegtl didi ely melyzdy gihadl leki 2 owgy ,xnelk .2 owgy ly oinqwnd jxr qepin èd v̄
. v̄ xy`n xzei 1 owgyl mlyi `ly gihadl leki èd ,zexg`
z`xwp eze` dgihand 2 owgy ly dibhxhqè ,wgynd ly qwnpind jxr zexexa zeaiqn `xwp v̄ lcebd
qwnpin zibhxhq`
.
v̄ = 1
. -e v =1 4.24 dnbeca .df wxta epi`x mze` miwgyna qwnpind jxre oinqwnd jxr z` wecap zrk
xzeid lkl ly melyz mlyiy gihadl leki 2 owgy eliè , 1 zegtl ly melyz lawiy gihadl leki 1 owgy ,xnelk
.1
:àd wgynd epid 4.22 (B) xeià ritend wgynd
L R min
T −2 5 2
B 3 0 0

max 3 5 0, 3

zegt (mlyiy) gihadl leki `l 2 owgye 0

, -n xzei gihadl leki `l 1 owgy . v̄ = 3 eliè v=0 df wgyna
3
. -n
zerahnd zn`zd wgyna ,seqal
H T min
H 1 −1 −1
T −1 1 −1

max 1 1 −1, 1

.cg` lwy ly cqtdn xzei daeh d`vez gihadl leki `l mipwgyd ipyn cg` lk . v̄ = 1 -e v = −1 o`k
miiwzd cinz ze`nbeca j` ,mieey cinz `l v̄ qwnpinde v oinqwnd ikxr ,ze`xn dl`d ze`nbecdy itk
gihadl leki 2 owgye ,v zegtl lawi ik gihadl leki 1 owgy :milcbd ly zernyndn xexa df oeieey-i` .v ≤ v̄
zelwa zraep mb ef dpekz .miiwzdl aiig oeieey-i`d ,qt` mekq epid wgyndy oeeikn .v̄ xzeid lkl mlyi ik
.(14 libxz d`x) zexcbddn
ly jxrd `xwi v = v = v̄ szeynd lcebd v = v̄

. miiwzn m` jxr yi mipwgy ipy wgynly xn`p 4.27 dxcbd
zeilnihte` zeibhxhq`
. dp`xwiz mipwgyd ly qwnpinde oinqwnd zeibhxhqè , wgynd
gihadl leki 1 owgy :milpeivx mipwgy ipy oia wgynd z`vez didz efy ce`n xiaq , v jxr yi wgynl xy`k
,zeilnihte` zeibhxhqà eynzyi mdipy m` ,okl . v -n xzei mlyi `ly gihadl leki 2 owgye , v zegtl lawiy
.d`vezd didz mpn` ef
.àd wgynd epid 4.24 dnbeca wgynd ,xekfk
L C R
T 3 −5 −2
M 1 4 1
B 6 −3 −5
owgye , M zilnihte`d dibhxhq`d zervnà df jxr gihadl leki 1 owgy . v=1 -l deeye miiw wgynd jxr
ieey mb èd (M, R) zeibhxhq`d bef ik al miyp . R zilnihte`d dibhxhq`d zervnà eze` gihadl leki 2
.wgynd ly y`p lwyn
jxrd meiw j` ,jxrd edn mircei `l ep` ,mpn` .hngyd wgyn èd jxr el yiy wgyn ly ztqep dnbec
ici lr qt` mekq wgynk eze` bviip ,micbepn miqxhpi` mr mipwgy ipy wgyn edfy oeeik ,ok` .2.4 htynn raep
:(oall) dàd melyzd zivwpet
u( oall oegvp ) = 1,
u( xegyl oegvp ) = −1, (38)
u( ewiz ) = 0.
:zeàd zeiexyt`dn zg` wxe zg` zniiwzny xne` 2.4 htyn
1 dgihand dibhxhq` yi oall (i)
. −1 dgihand dibhxhq` yi xegyl (ii)
{0, 1}
, -a d`vez gihadl leki 1 owgy ,xnelk . 0 zegtl dgihand dibhxhq` yi mipwgydd ipyn cg` lkl (iii)
{0, −1}
. -a d`vez gihadl leki 2 owgye
ik lawp o`kne , 1 ≤ v ≤ v̄ ≤ 1 okl v̄ ≤ 1

. -y ixd , 1 èd ilniqwnd melyzdy oeeikn . v≥1 eyexit (i) dxwn
1
. jxr yi wgynle , v = v̄ = 1
o`kne , −1 ≤ v ≤ v̄ ≤ −1 okl v ≥ −1
. -y ixd ,−1 èd ilnipind melyzdy oeeikn . v̄ ≤ −1 eyexit (ii) dxwn
. −1 jxr yi wgynle . v = v̄ = −1 ik lawp
. 0 jxr yi wgynl xnelk , v = v̄ = 0 ik raep v ≤ v̄ -y oeeikn . v̄ ≤ 0 -e v≥0 -y xne` (iii) dxwn ,seqal
.dàd d`vezd z` eplaiw
.jxr yi hngyd wgynl 4.28 dpwqn
.dàd dllkdd zraep 3.17 htynn
.jxr yi znlyen drici lrae dagx dxeva iteq qt` mekq mipwgy ipy wgyn lkl 4.29 dpwqn
miiwzn hngyd wgyna m` ,lynl .y`p lwyn ieey zeedn zeilnihte` zeibhxhq` bef ,o`k mby al miyp
bef od xegyl 1 dgihand (idylk ,dyrnl) dibhxhqè oall 1 dgihany zilnihte` dibhxhq` if` , (i) dxwna
lka ciqti xegydy oeeikne ,zi`ck diihq el oi` oegvp gihan oaldy oeeikn) .lwyn ieey zeednd zeibhxhq`
.(zi`ck diihq oi` el mb ,dxwn
mb oekp jetdd oeeikd ik d`xn ze`nbecd zwica .lwyn ieey mb yi jxr mr miwgynl epi`xy ze`nbecd lka
dibhxhq` ìd lwyn ieeya ztzzynd dibhxhq` lke ,èd s` miiw jxrd ,lwyn ieey yi ea dxwn lka :ok
.zrk gikepy itk ,illk oteà zniiwzn ef d`vez .zilnihte`
if` ,mipwgyl zeilnihte` zeibhxhq` od s∗2 -e s∗1 mè , v jxr yi qt` mekq mipwgy ipy wgynl m` 4.30 htyn
. (v, −v) melyz mr lwyn ieey èd s = (s∗1 , s∗2 )

∗
s∗1 zeibhxhq`de , v jxr wgynl yi if` ,lwyn ieey èd s∗ = (s∗1 , s∗2 ) m` ,qt` mekq mipwgy ipy wgyna 4.31 htyn
v=
. u(s∗1 , s∗2 ) ,ok lr xzi .zeilnihte` zeibhxhq` od s∗2 -e
oeghad znxe lwynd ieey ibyen qt` mekq iwgynay mi`xn md ik oigap ,4.31-e 4.30 mihtyn z` gikepy iptl
?dl` zeibhxhq` itl wgyl dwcvd meyn jka yi m`d .zeibhxhq` oze`l miìan zilniqwnd
èd s` wgyi ipyd owgydy jneq èd :eaixi ly aehd oevxd lr jnzqn lwyn ieey zibxhq` wgynd owgy
drexbd d`vezd lr cinz ayeg èd :hqiniqt mvra èd oinqwn zibhxhq` wgynd owgy .lwynd ieey it lr
.el`d zevlnddn zg` itl ewgyi mipwgyd m` ,okl ,xexa `l .dxwzy xzeia
miiwzn miiw jxrd xy`k ,qt` mekq iwgyna ,epi`xy itk ,mle`
max min u(s1 , s2 ) = v = min max u(s1 , s2 ).

s1 s2 s2 s1
.jxrd z` envrl gihadl leki owgy lk ,xnelk
xear lawzn mins2 u(s1 , s2 ) iehiad ly meniqwnd ik gipp .dàd dfilp`d z` zeyrl leki dxeyd owgy ,okl
dcenrd owgyy rnyn , v -n xzei law` m` . s∗1 dxeya xga` m` v zegtl law`y gihadl leki ip` . s1 = s∗1
ip` m` .ewgyna dbyi dcenrd owgy m` wx v -n xzei law` ip` ,okl .z`f repnl leki èd j` , v -n xzei mliy
z` wgy` ,xnelk v
, zegtl law`y jk wgy` ip` okl v
. -n xzei lawl iekiq il oi` ,oeap dcenrd owgyy oin`n
∗
.s dibhxhq`d
1
. v z` envrl gihai èd mbe ,dnec gezip dyri dcenrd owgy
dibhxhq`d z` exgeaa ,owgy lk eay iphleniq wgyn èd zibhxhq` dxeva wgyndy zexnl ik al miyp
dibhxhq`d z` zelbl leki owgy wgynl jxr yi m`y ixd ,xg`d owgyd ly dibhxhq`d z` rcei epi` ,ely
dibhxhq` ìd s∗1 -y gipp m` ,mpnè .el wifi xacdy ilan ipyd owgyl wgyl oeekzn èd dze` zilnihte`d
:y ixd v ekxry wgyna 1 owgyl zilnihte`
min u(s∗1 , s2 ) = v,
s2
miiwzn s2 lkl okle
u(s∗1 , s2 ) ≥ v.
dxrdl .jxrdn jenp melyzl mexbl leki `l 2 owgy , s∗1 wgyi èdy 2 owgyl “ ricen ”1 owgy xy`k mb ,xnelk
zilnihte` zniieqn dibhxhq` m`d wecal ick :zeilnihte` zeibhxhq` xg` yetiga ipkh jxr yi ef dheyt
ahink dyere ,xgaz ef dibhxhq`y rcei 2 owgy xy`k melyzd didi dn ,xnelk ,gihadl dleki ìd dn wecap
.ef dibhxhq` cbpk ezleki
ik raep oezpdn .4.30 htyn zgked
u(s∗1 , s2 ) ≥ v, ∀s2 ∈ S2 , (39)
u(s1 , s∗2 ) ≤ v, ∀s1 ∈ S1 . (40)
okl . u(s∗1 , s∗2 ) ≤ v ik lawp (40) dèeyna s∗1 zavd ici lre , u(s∗1 , s∗2 ) ≥ v ik lawp (39) dèeyna s∗2 zavd ici lr
v = u(s∗1 , s∗2 )
.
zeàd zeèeynl zenbxzin (40)-(39) zeèeyn ,xnelk
u(s∗1 , s2 ) ≥ u(s∗1 , s∗2 ), ∀s2 ∈ S2 , (41)
u(s1 , s∗2 ) ≤ u(s∗1 , s∗2 ), ∀s1 ∈ S1 , (42)
(v, −v)
. melyz mr lwyn ieey èd (s∗1 , s∗2 ) okle
ik lawp ,lwyn ieey èd (s∗1 , s∗2 )-y oeeikn .4.31 htyn zgked
u(s∗1 , s2 ) ≥ u(s∗1 , s∗2 ), ∀s2 ∈ S2 , (43)
u(s1 , s∗2 ) ≤ u(s∗1 , s∗2 ), ∀s1 ∈ S1 . (44)
(43) dèeynn lawp w = u(s∗1 , s∗2 ) onqp m`
u(s∗1 , s2 ) ≥ w, ∀s2 ∈ S2 , (45)
lawp (44) dèeynn . v≥w okle
u(s1 , s∗2 ) ≤ w, ∀s1 ∈ S1 , (46)
v̄ ≤ w
. okle
ik lawp v ≥ v̄ -y oeeikn
w ≤ v ≤ v̄ ≤ w, (47)
dèeynne , 1 owgyl zilnihte` dibhxhq` ìd s∗1 ik raep (45) dèeynn ,ok lr xzi . w -l deeye miiw jxrd xnelk
2
. owgyl zilnihte` dibhxhq` ìd s∗2 ik raep (45)
if` lwyn iieey ipy md (s∗∗ ∗∗ ∗ ∗

1 , s2 )-e (s1 , s2 ) m` ,qt` mekq mipwgy ipy wgyna 4.32 dpwqn
.u(s∗1 , s∗2 ) = u(s∗∗ ∗∗

1 , s2 ) :melyz eze` lwynd iieey ipyl .1
.(melyz eze` mi`zn mdl mb ,oey`xd sirqd it lre) lwyn iieey md (s∗∗ ∗ ∗ ∗∗
1 , s2 )-e (s1 , s2 ) mb .2
.wgynd ly jxrl gxkda deey lwynd ieey melyz oky ,4.31 htynn raep oey`xd wlgd .dgked
4.30 htynn okl .zeilnihte` od s∗1 , s∗∗ ∗ ∗∗

1 , s2 , s2 zeibhxhq`d 4.31 htynn ik al miyp ,ipyd wlgd zgkedl
.lwyn iieey md (s∗∗ ∗

1 , s2 )-e (s∗1 , s∗∗
2 )
meìzd wgyna opeazp ,lynl .qt` mekq mpi`y miwgyna gxkda oekp epi` 4.32 dpwqn iwlgn cg` s`
:4.15 dnbeca epi`xy
a b
A 1, 1 0, 0
B 0, 0 3, 3
(A, b) oke ,(miiwzn epi` oey`xd wlgd okle) mipey minelyzl mini`znd lwyn iieey md (B, b) -e (A, a)
.(miiwzn epi` dpwqnd ly ipyd wlgd okle) lwyn iieey mpi` (B, a) -e
lwyn ieeye jxrd ly oexztd ibyen ipy qt` mekq mipwgy ipy iwgynay ìd df sirqn daeygd dpwqnd
ieey byen z` John Nash d`x ef daiqn .zeaivid byen mr cklzn oeghad byen ,zexg` milina .micklzn y`p
ieey byeny ixd ,zeaivie oegha - mihwtq` ipy `han jxrd byeny cera la` .jxrd byenl dllkdk ely lwynd
itk ,zeaivid byenn dpey oeghad byen qt` mekq mpi`y miwgyna .zeaivid hwtq` z` wx `han lwynd
.4.15 dnbeca epi`xy

milibxz 4.10
xehwe edn ,ok m` ?cigi xehweea miizqn wfg zehlyp zeibhxhq` ly xfeg weliq miàd miwgyna m`d .1
?df
4, 2 0, 1 1, 3 2, 3
1, 1 3, 3 0, 4 0, 2
Part A Part B
1, 0 3, 0 2, 1
3, 1 0, 1 1, 2
2, 1 1, 6 0, 2
Part C
yi m` ,zevlnd xtqn oiive jzaeyz z` wnp ?miàd miwgynd zraxà wgyl mipwgyl uilnz cvik .2
.dl`k
L R L R
H 2, 3 1, 5 H 4, 8 5, 10
T 0, 0 4, 1 T 3, 7 6, 20
Part A Part B
a b c d
δ 2, 13 4, 8 6, 5 8, 2
γ 6, 4 2, 3 3, 8 8, 4
β 0, 9 7, 7 2, 7 14, 8
α 4, 0 0, 4 4, 6 6, 0
Part C
a b c d
δ −5, 5 −4, 4 −5, 1 0, 4
γ −4, 1 −3, 3 −2, 2 1, 1
β 0, 0 1, −1 −4, 4 −3, 3
α −1, 6 2, −2 7, 1 5, 2
Part D
, s∗ dcigi d`vezl liaen wfg zehlyp zeibhxhq` ly xfeg weliq zibhxhq` dxeva wgyna m` ik d`xd .3
s∗
. d`vez dze`l liaen èdy lk xcqa wfg zehlyp zeibhxhq` ly xfeg weliq if`
dvixhnl àd wgynd z` ylg zehlyp zeibhxhq` ly xfeg weliq ici lr mvnvl ozip mipey mipte` dnka .4
3×3
?
a b c d e
7, 1 7, 1 8, 0 8, 0 8, 0
δ 8, 0 8, 0 7, 1 8, 0 7, 1
γ 8, 0 7, 1 8, 0 7, 1 8, 0
β 7, 1 8, 0 8, 0 8, 0 7, 1
α 8, 0 8, 0 8, 0 7, 1 7, 1
.ylg zehlyp zeibhxhq` ly xfeg weliq ici lr miàd miwgyna lawl xyt`y zepexztd lk z` `vn .5
2, 7 3, 6 1, 8 5, 4 4, 4 4, 3
7, 2 5, 5 0, 0 3, 4 3, 4 2, 2
Part A Part B
16, 10 9, 3 13, 4 9, 3
2, 10 0, 6 2, 4 −1, 1
0, 10 4, 2 6, 3 1, 5
Part C
7, 3 5, 5 6, 4 6, 4
6, 4 6, 4 6, 4 6, 4
6, 4 7, 3 6, 4 5, 5
5, 5 6, 4 6, 4 2, 8
Part D
drvdd z` yibdy szzynd fxkna dkef .dxebq dthrna ezrvd z` yibdl szzyn lk lr oey`x xign fxkna .6
,zilniqwn drvd dze` mirivn mitzzyn dnk m` .ezrvdl deey mlyn èdy mekqde ,xzeia ddeabd
.ezrvdl deeyd mekq mlyne utga dkef mdn cgè ,dlxbd mdipia zkxrp
zeibhxhq`d lk lr ylg zhley dpi` jl deey utgdy mekqd z` rivdl dibhxhq`d df fxkna ik d`xd
.ylg zhley dpi` ìd dilr zxg` dibhxhq` yi ,zexg` milina .zexg`d
erivdy zervdd lk ly rvennd z` mlyn ède ,utga dkef xzeia ddeabd drvdd lra ea fxkna opeazp .7
dlxbd mdipia zkxrp ,zilniqwn drvd dze` mirivn mitzzyn dnk m` .(ely ezrvd llek `l) mixg`d
.utga dkef mdn in zraewd

lk lr ylg zhley dpi` el deey utgdy jxrd z` szzynd rivn da dibhxhq`d df dxwna mb m`d
?zexg`d zeibhxhq`d
wgyn miiw if` iteq oihelgl izexgz mipwgy ipy wgyn èd G = (N, (Si )i∈N , (ui )i∈N ) m` ik gked .8
miiwzny jk Ge = (N, (Si )i∈N , u e) qt` mekq
u1 (s1 , s2 ) > u2 (s01 , s02 ) ⇐⇒ u(s1 , s2 ) > u(s01 , s02 ). (48)
.miàd miwgyna lwynd ieey lk z` `vn .9
a b c d
γ 7, 3 6, 3 5, 5 4, 7
β 4, 2 5, 8 8, 6 5, 8
α 6, 1 3, 8 2, 4 6, 9
Part A
a b c d
δ 5, 2 3, 1 2, 2 4, 5
γ 0, 3 2, 2 0, 1 −1, 3
β 8, 4 7, 0 6, −1 5, 2
α 0, 5 1, −2 2, 2 3, 4
Part B
a b c d
0, 0 −1, 1 1, 1 0, −1
δ 1, −1 1, 0 0, 1 0, 0
γ 0, 1 −1, −1 1, 0 1, −1
β −1, 1 0, −1 −1, 1 0, 0
α 1, 1 0, 0 −1, −1 0, 0
Part C
xgea II owgy B
, e` C T, dxey xgea I owgy) àd mipwgyd 3 wgyn ly lwynd ieey zecewp z` `vn .10
.( Q e` P dvixhn xgea III owgy , R e` M L , dcenr
L M R L M R
T 3, 10, 8 8, 14, 6 4, 12, 7 T 4, 9, 3 7, 8, 10 5, 7, −1

C 4, 7, 2 5, 5, 2 2, 2, 8 C 3, 4, 5 17, 3, 12 3, 5, 2
B 3, −5, 0 0, 3, 4 −3, 5, 0 B 9, 7, 2 20, 0, 13 0, 15, 0
P Q
.lwynd iieey lk z` `vne ,zibhxhq` dxeva miàd miwgynd z` meyx .11
I
g (1, 2, 3)
II
c
h (4, 5, 6)
d
a e (7, 8, 1)
I f (2, 3, 4)
c (5, 6, 7)
b d (8, 1, 2)
e
i (3, 4, 5)
III f
j (6, 7, 8)
I
Part A
(0, 0)
M f (4, 4)
2/3 II
R e (2, 3)
II 0 1/3
d (0, 6)
L I
c (0, 4)
b (2, 3)
II
a (5, 1)
Part B
A
. dvixhnd ici lr bveind mipwgy ipy wgyn oezp .12
? I owgy dpekn II owgye II owgy dpekn I owgy m` wgyn eze` xèzi cvik (`)
,dvixhn xgea III owgye dcenr xgea II owgy ,dxey xgea I owgy eay mipwgy dyely wgynl l"pk (a)
.mipwgyd ly idylk divhenxt zrveany ixg`
.zeixtqn ze`nbec dligz dqp : fnx
(T, L, W )
. èd mipwgy dyely mr àd wgyna cigid lwynd ieey ik gked .13
W E
L
R R L
T 1, 1, 1 0, 1, 3 T 3, 0, 1 1, 1, 0
B 1, 3, 0 1, 0, 1 B 0, 1, 1 0, 0, 0
10
ik gked .idylk divwpet u : A × B → IR -e ,zeiteq zeveaw izy B -e A dpiidz .14
max min u(a, b) ≤ min max u(a, b). (49)

a∈A b∈B b∈B a∈A
.zeilnihte`d zeibhxhq`d lk odne edn ,ok m` ?miiw miàd miwgyna jxrd m`d .15
a b
2 2
A
1 3
B a b
a b c A 3 0
A 1 2 3 B 2 2
B 4 3 0 C 0 3
a b c d
3 12 3 4 12 A
7 5 6 13 B
4 2 3 0 C
wgynl ik d`xd .ynn zeiaeig zevixhn izy B -e A dpiidz .16
A 0
0 B
.jxr oi`
yi if` ,zepey zecenrae zexeya mi`vnpd qt` mekq mipwgy ipy wgyna lwyn iieey ipy yi m` ik gked .17
.df beqn mixg` lwyn iieey ipy zegtl
owgye , II owgy `xwii I owgy ,xnelk) mipwgyd zeny z` etilgd àd qt` mekq mipwgy ipy wgyna .18
II owgye ,dxey xgea I owgy ,cinzk) dtlgdd xg`l wgynd z` zbviin dvixhn dfi` I
.( owgy `xwii II
.(dcenr xgea
3 −5 7
−2 8 4
10
min-d mxeary u-e B ,A lkl (dgked dzeàe) dpekp dprhd .meniqwnde menipind ly mneiw xear wxe j` dyexc B -e A ly zeiteqd
min-d z` silgdl ozip u-e B ,A lr i`pz mey `ll ,oiteligl .(dtivx u-e miihwtnew B -e A m` ,lynl) miniiw iehiaa miritend max-de
. sup-a max-d zè inf -a
oia yxtdd ik gked .(zibhxhq` dxeva miwgyn ipy zebviind) n×m xcqn zevixhn izy B -e A dpiidz .19
-n ohw B ly jxrde A ly jxrd
n m
max max |aij − bij |.
i=1 j=1
ilra Γ
b = (N, (Si )i∈N , (b
ui )i∈N ) Γ = (N, (Si )i∈N , (ui )i∈N )
-e zibhxhq` dxeva miwgyn ipy ly dnbec `vn .20
Γ -a lwynd ieeyn cgà mipwgyd ipy milawny melyzdy jk ,miwgynd ipya zeibhxhq` zveaw dze`
xyà , Γ
b -a wgynd ieey inelyz lka milawn mdy melyzdn c-n xzeia lecb
c= max max |ui (s) − u

bi (s)|.
s∈S1 ×···×Sn i∈N
zexrd 4.11
mlyen lwyn ieey :y`p lwyn ieey ly mipecir ipy lr 1994

-a dlklkl laep qxta dkf Reinhard Selten
.9 wxta oecp mda ,(9 wxt d`x) . (trembling hand) zcrexd cid byene (subgame-perfect equilibrium)
- 1914 Vickrey 1962
, . -a exn`na William Vickrey olklkd did miwgynd zxez zxfra mifxkn cnly oey`xd
divnxetpi` yi mipwgyl xy`k (incentives) mivixnzd xwga eznexz lr 1996 -a dlklkl laep qxta dkf , 1996
.mifxknd zxez lr mdizeklyde ,dpey
miwgynl miiteziy miwgyn oia dyry dcxtdd lr 1994 -a dlklka laep qxta dkf ( 1928-a clep) John Nash
.lwynd ieey byen lre ,miiteziy `l
.17-e 11 ,4 milibxzd z` mxzy Lloyd Shapley -l micen ep`

70 d`ln divnxetpi` mr miwgyn 5
d`ln divnxetpi` mr miwgyn 5

miwxta .dl`k md miwgynd aex ,zn`d ornl . lwyn ieey zcewp oi` mda miax miwgyn mpyi ,epi`xy itk
.el` miwgyn mr miccenzn cvik cnlp miàd
.lwyn ieey yi da wgyn lkly gikedl lkep diabl xy` ziyeniye dxiyr miwgyn zgtyna oecp df wxta
zepekz miiwn dagx dxeva wgyn m`y d`xp ,xnelk .dagxd mzxeva `weec oiit`p ef dgtyna miwgynd z`
elit` opyi ,ok lr xzi .Nash lwyn ieey (epnn xfbpd zibhxhq` dxeva wgynl mb ,oaenke) el yi if` zeniieqn
oeeikn .zibhxhq` dxevl wgynd z` jetdl jxev oiè ,wgynd ur jezn zexiyi èvnl lwy lwyn ieey zecewp
.urd lr zexiyi cearl ozipy jka lecb oexzi epyi ,wgynl xzei dgep dbvd epid wgynd ur zeaexw mizirly
d`x) znlyen drici ilra dagx dxeva miwgynd zgtyn ìd df sirqa mda weqrpy miwgynd zgtyn
.(3.27 dxcbd
.zg` lwyn ieey zcewp zegtl yi znlyen drici lra iteq wgyn lka ( Kuhn) 5.1 htyn
ly oa lk .wgynd ura micewcwd xtqn lr divwecpià zrvazne ,2.4 htyn zgkedl dnec htynd zgked
yi el` mivr-izzn cg` lka divwecpi`d zgpdn .ixewnd urdn micewcw zegt liknd wgyn ur xicbn yxeyd
ura lwyn ieey xicbn mivrd-izza lwynd iieey lk cegi`y ixd ,lxeb jldn rvazn yxeya m` .lwyn ieey
melyz ,lwynd ieeya ,lawn èd ea oaa xgai df owgyy ixd ,i owgy ly dhlgd cewcw èd yxeyd m` .elek
.ilniqwn
.zilnxet dgkedl el` zepeirx mbxzp zrk
hwep èd ,cewcw s` lr hley epi` i owgy miieqn wgyna m` ik gipp daizkd zegep myl .5.1 htyn zgked
.owgyl zixyt`d dcigid dibhxhq`d idefe , ∅ zilìaixhd dibhxhqà
.wgynd ura micewcwd xtqn lr divwecpià zrvazn htynd zgked
(∅, . . . , ∅) zeibhxhq`d xehwe okle ,dxiga zexyt` lk owgy s`l oi`y ixd ,cigi cewcw wgynd ura m`
.lwyn ieey
K liknd Γ wgyn ura opeazpe ,micewcw K -n zegt liknd wgyn ur lkl dpekp dprhd ik divwecpià gipp
.micewcw
micewcwd zveawe , xl èd izlgzdd cewcwd ea ur-zzd z` Γ(xl ) -ae ,yxeyd ly eipa z` x1 , . . . , xL -a onqp
l
.(2.4 htyn zgkeda enk ìd zilnxetd dxcbdd) wgynd ura x ixg` miribnd micewcwd lk ìd
,dfk epi` wgynd m` .znlyen drici lra èd wgyndy dcaera miynzyn ep` eay mewnd o`k ik al miyp
.eiabl divwecpi`d zgpd z` lirtdl lkep `l okle ,wgyn-zz xicbnd ur-zz gxkda epi` xl -a ligznd sxbd wlg
l l l
Γ(x ) wgyna divwecpi`d zgpdn . K -n ohw Γ(x ) -a micewcwd xtqn , Γ(x ) ly cewcw epi` yxeydy oeeikn
.df lwyn ieeya mipwgyl melyzd z` ul = (uli )i∈N -a onqp . sl = (sli )i∈N lwyn ieey yi
ìd i owgyl melyzd zlgez if` pl

. -a xl oa xgapy zexazqdd z` onqp :lxeb jldn rvazn yxeya :'` dxwn
PL
.
l=1 pl uli
-xhqà ynzyd , xl cewcwd xgap oey`xd jldna m` :àd oteà zxcbend si dibhxhqà opeazp i owgy lkl
.sli dibh
.lwyn ieey èd s = (si )i∈N zeibhxhq`d xehwe ik zrk d`xp

u0li -a onqp Γ(xl )

. wgynd-zzl s0i ly mevnvd s0li `dz s0i
. ,zxg` dibhxhq`l dheq i owgy ik gipp ,ok`
zlgez if` .s
l
−i miwgyn mipwgyd x`ye s0li wgyn èd xy`k Γ(x ) l
wgyn-zza i owgyl melyzd zlgez z`
PL l 0l
.
l=1 p ui ìd (sl−i , s0li ) zeibhxhq`d xehwe zgz i owgyl melyzd
okle , l = 1, . . . , L lkl u0li ≤ uli miiwzn Γ(x ) l

-a lwyn ieey èd sl -y oeeikn
L
X L
X
pl u0li ≤ pl uli . (50)
l=1 l=1
si
. -n diihq ici lr gieexn epi` i owgy ,xnelk
:àd oteà zxcbend si dibhxhqà opeazp i 6= i0 owgy lkl i0

: owgy ly dhlgd cewcw epid yxeyd :'a dxwn
. Γ(xl ) -a sli dibhxhqà ynzyd , xl cewcwd xgap oey`xd jldna m`
,xnelk .ilniqwn uli0 melyzd exear xl0 oaa xga yxeya :dàd dibhxhq`d z` xicbp i0 xear
uli00 ≥ uli0 , ∀l. (51)
11
sli
. dibhxhqà ynzyd Γ(xl ) wgynd-zza xl ∈ A(x0 ) oa lkl
.'` dxwna dgkedl dnec si -n diihq zervnà gieexdl leki epi` i0 epi`y owgy lky dgkedd
0
`di .s dibhxhq`l dheq i0 owgy ik gipp ,ok` .diihq ici lr gieexdl leki epi` i0 owgy mb ik d`xp zrk
i0
0
Γ(xl )
. wgynl znvnevnd s0i0 dibhxhq`d s0li0 `dz yxeyd ly xl oa lkle ,yxeya zxgea ef dibhxhq`y oad xl
oeeikn ,mcew epi`xy itk (sl−i0 , s0li0 )
. zeibhxhq`d xehwe zgz Γ(xl ) wgyna i0 owgyl melyzd z` u0li0 -a onqp
l
miiwzn Γ(x ) wgyna lwyn ieey epid sl -y
u0li0 ≤ uli0 , ∀l. (52)
0
ik raep (52)-e (51) zeèeynn . u0li0 èd (sl−i0 , s0li0 ) zgz i0 -l melyzd
0 0
u0li0 ≤ uli0 ≤ uli0 . (53)
xehwe zgz melyzd èd l`nyn lcebde , s zeibhxhq`d xehwe zgz i0 owgyl melyzd èd oinin lcebd j`
0
.ef diihqa gieexn epi` i0 owgy ,hxta .(s−i , s
0 i0 ) zeibhxhq`d
-tl divwecpi` ” `xwp df jildz .eipal yxeydn dnicw divwecpi`d aly z` eprvia dgkedd jildza 5.2 dxrd
.àd oteà ,milr md eipa lky cewcwl milrdn xeg`l divwecpi`d aly z` rval did ozip . (forward induction) “mip
, x ly milrd z` wegnp zrk .ilniqwn ely melyzd ea l dlra xgai x-a zehlgdd lawn .milr eipa lky cewcw x `di
eilre ,xzei ohw micewcw xtqn lra èd ef dwign xg`l lawzdy urd . -a melyzd èd melyzd eay dlrl l x z` jetdpe
ly jildz lr zqqazn ef dgked .dgkedd ihxt z` milydl `xewdn miywan ep` 2 libxza .divwecpi`d zgpd z` lirtp
micewcwa miligzn ep` .lwyn ieey zìvnl ihwxt mzixebl` epl zpzep ìde , (backward induction) “xeg`l divwecpi` ”
èd el melyzd ea dlra xgai df cewcwa lretd owgyd ,dfk cewcw l` dribn zexgzdy dgpda .milrl wxe j` miliaend
,lxeb jldn èd micewcwd cg` m` .(mdn cg` lka xegal leki owgyd ,ilniqwn melyzd mda milr ipy yi m`) ilniqwn
11
`ly Γ(xl ) mivr-izza mb si z` xicbdl epilr ,ezhilyay cewcw lka owgy wgyi cvik xicbdl yi dibhxhq` xicbdl icky oeeikn
.oey`xd alya mixgap

lka minelyzd z` eprawy xg`l .cewcwdn ribdl ozip mdil` milra minelyzd ly llweyn rvenn èd df cewcwa melyzd
hleyd owgyd el` micewcwa .melyzd rawp xak mxeary micewcwl e` milrl miliaend micewcwl mipet ,el`d micewcwd
lawl ef jxca ozip mizirl .yxeyl miribny cr urd dlrna mikiynn df oteà .ilniqwn melyz el ìand jyndd z` xgea
.ef jxca milawzn mpi`y lwyn iieey mpyi ,milibxza d`xpy itk j` ,lwyn iieey xtqn
milibxz 5.1
.zeàd zel`yd lr dpr qt`-mekq mipwgy ipy mr miàd miwgynd ipy xear .1
.xeg`l divwecpi` zervnà milawznd lwynd iieey lk z` `vn •
.zibhxhq` dxeva miwgynd z` x`z •
.mitqep lwyn iieey mpyi m`d weca •
2
e 6
3 II
f −6
0 g
a 1
−9
c 3 e 3 II
II 2 h 12
a I I
d
f 3 5 c
I b
II
b 3 4 d
Part A Part B
5.1 xei`
.5.2 dxrda xaqeny itk ,xeg`l divwecpi`d jildz zervnà 5.1 htyn z` gked .2
:xeg`l divwecpi` jildza lwyn ieey àd wgyna `vn .3
I 1, 2, 3
II 2, 3, 4
I 0, 0, 3
0, −1, 5
I
II 5, 4, 10
2, 5, 0
II 10, 1, 3
III 0, 0, 5
II 0, 0, 5
3, 1, 4
.df wgyna sqep lwyn ieey `vn

74 zeaxern zeibhxhq` 6
zeaxern zeibhxhq` 6
.“ ietv izla ” zeidl zehlgdd lawn lr zeaexw mizirl
xevrle z`f cenll diira didz `l mixreyl ,xryd ly cv eze`l cinz lcpt zehira hrai lbxeck owgy m` •
.xeckd z`
xifgdl diira eiaixil didz `l ,cv eze`l xeckd z` cinz yibi dgiztd zcewp z` haegd qiph owgy m` •
.eilr zeprl didi ozip `ly efk dxeva xeckd z`
z` mi`zdl mixgznd x`y elkei ,zepey zexdvda zexigal cnren `vi ea crend z` zefgl didi ozip m` •
.zekf zecewpa zekfle ,el` micrenl mdly dlenrzd
.miax minegzae miax miwgyna èvnl ozip minec mixwn
.zerahnd zn`zd wgyna aey opeazp `nbeck
H T
H 1 −1
T −1 1
zerahnd zn`zd wgyn :6.1 xei`
edf .xgea èd T e` H zeibhxhq`d izyn efià ze`ceea rci ipyd owgyd m` ciqti mipwgyd ipyn cg` lk
xtqn eze` ewgyi mipwgyd m` df wgyna dxwi dn .Nash lwyn ieey oi` df wgynly zipkhd dcaerl iehia
H mizirl “dietv izla ” dxeva xgai (miwgynd zxez cnl `l mlern m` mb) oeap owgyy gipdl yi ?minrt
,dlhdd z`vez z` dèx epi` ipyd owgydy oteà ,rahn zlhd ici lr ìd z`f biydl zg` jxc T
. mizirle
èd ipyd owgyd ly dibhxhqà zelz `lly ixd ,jk bdpi ok` owgy m` .d`vezl m`zda dlert ly dxigae
ixd ,z`f eyri mipwgyd ipy m` ,ok lr xzi . 0 didz ely melyzd zlgeze ,zeey zeiexazqda 1 ciqti e` 1 gieexi
. 0 ède jxr dzr yi wgynl okle , 0 melyz zlgez gihai mdn cg` lky
z`veza zelzk dibhxhqà xegale ,rahn lihdl mipwgyl xzen zrk - wgynd iweg z` epipiyy al miyp
melyzd zlgez èd melyzde T -e H oia “ ixwn oteà ” xegal mileki mipwgyd ea wgynl jxr yi ,xnelk .dlhdd
.ixewnd
zeibhxhqà mb ynzydl mipwgyd mileki eay wgynde ,zeaxern zeibhxhq` ze`xwp el` zeixwn zeibhxhq`
.zeaxern zeibhxhq`l wgynd ly dagxdd `xwp zeaxern
.àd oeniqa ynzyp el` mibyen ly zilnxetd dxcbdl
xnelk . A lr (zeiebltzdd e`) zexazqdd ixehwe lk zveaw z` ∆(A)-a onqp .dipn za dveaw A `dz 6.1 dxcbd
( )
X
∆(A) = p : A → IR : p(a) ≥ 0 ∀a ∈ A, p(a) = 1 . (54)
a∈A
èd zexazqdd ixehwe sqe` , A = {H, T } m` ,lynl
∆(A) = {(p1 , p2 ) : p1 ≥ 0, p2 ≥ 0, p1 + p2 = 1} . (55)
iedif ici lr [0, 1] rhwd mr ∆(A) z` zedfl ozip . (0, 1) mr (1, 0) z` xagnd IR2 -a rhwl lewy ∆(A) df dxwna
zexazqdd xehwe mr x ∈ [0, 1] iynnd xtqnd ly
p(H) = x, p(T ) = 1 − x. (56)
èd zexazqdd ixehwe sqe` , A = {L, M, R} xy`k
∆(A) = {(p1 , p2 , p3 ) : p1 ≥ 0, p2 ≥ 0, p3 ≥ 0, p1 + p2 + p3 = 1}. (57)
. (0, 0, 1)
-e (0, 1, 0) (1, 0, 0)
, zecewpd md eicewcwy IR3 -a yleynl lewy ∆(A) df dxwna
.zeaxern zeibhxhq`l wgynd ly dagxdd z` xicbp zrk
(Si )i∈N zexedhd zeibhxhq`d zeveaw eay zibhxhq` dxeva wgyn G = (N, (Si )i∈N , (ui )i∈N ) `di 6.2 dxcbd
wgynd èd (mixed extension) zeaxern zeibhxhq`l G ly dagxdd .dipn zepa
Γ = (N, (Σi )i∈N , (Ui )i∈N ),
ìd i owgy ly zeibhxhq`d zveaw eay
Σi = ∆(Si ), (58)
σ = (σ1 , . . . , σn ) ∈ Σ = zeibhxhq` xehwe lkl dni`znd , Ui : Σ → IR divwpetd ìd i owgy ly melyzd zivwpete
melyzd z` Σ1 × · · · × Σn
X
Ui (σ) = Eσ [ui (σ)] = ui (s1 , . . . , sn )σ1 (s1 )σ2 (s2 ) · · · σn (sn ). (59)
s1 ,...,sn
i
. owgy ly (mixed strategy) zaxern dibhxhq` `xwp σ i ∈ Σi xai`
dhpicxeèwd . σi = (σi (si ))si ∈Si Si : lr zeiexazqd xehwe ,ok m` ,ìd i owgy ly zaxern dibhxhq`
Σi zeaxernd zeibhxhq`d oia oigadl ick .ixewnd wgyna si dibhxhq`d z` wgyl zexazqdd ìd σi (si )
lky oeeik (pure strategies)
. zexedh zeibhxhq` mya zepexg`d dl` dp`xwz ,ixewnd wgyna Si zeibhxhq`de
gqepi 5.1 htyn ,lynl ,m`zda ze`vezd z` gqpl yi ,zexedh zeibhxhq` xear eid dk cr egkedy ze`vezd
.zexedh zeibhxhqà zg` lwyn ieey zcewp zegtl yi znlyen drici lra iteq wgyn lka :àd oteà
,zerahnd zn`zd wgyna .àd oteà oneqz zaxern dibhxhq`
2 1
[ (H), (T )] (60)
3 3
2
zxgap T dxedhd dibhxhq`de ,
3 zexazqda zxgap H dxedhd dibhxhq`d da zaxernd dibhxhq`d ìd
1
if` ,Si = {s1i , s2i , . . . , sK
i } m` ,illk oteà .
3 zexazqda
[α1 (s1i ), α2 (s2i ), . . . , αK (sK

i )] (61)
md α1 , . . . , αK xyà) αk zexazqda zxgap ski dxedhd dibhxhq`d da i owgy ly zaxernd dibhxhq`d ìd
.( 1 mnekqy miilily-i` mixtqn
zedfl ozip si ∈ Si dxedhd dibhxhq`d z` :zpeepn zaxern dibhxhq` ìd dxedh dibhxhq` lk ik al miyp
aizka 0
.( zexazqda zexedhd zeibhxhq`d x`y zè) si z` 1 zexazqda zxgead zaxernd dibhxhq`d mr
dibhxhq`d idef ilnxet
[1(si )]. (62)
-pd zeiexazqdd zivwpet it lr ui melyzd zivwpet ly zlgezd ìd dagxdd wgyna Ui melyzd zivwpet
melyzd (s1 , . . . , sn ) zexedhd zeibhxhq`d xehwe xgap m` :mipwgyd ly zeaxernd zeibhxhq`d ici lr zraw
zltkn ìd xgaii df xehweey zexazqdd ,dielz izla dpid mipwgyd ly dxigady oeeikne ui (s1 , . . . , sn )
, èd
.σ1 (s1 )σ2 (s2 ) · · · σn (sn ) dltknl dpeeyd , si dibhxhqà xgai i owgy lky zeiexazqdd
rhwl lewy zeaxernd zeibhxhq`d agxn ,mcew epxn`y itk ,okle ,zelert izy yi zerahnd zn`zd wgyna
if` ,H xgai dcenrd owgyy zexazqdd z` y -ae , H xgai dxeyd owgyy zexazqdd z` x -a onqp m` [0, 1]
.
ìd melyzd zivwpet
U (x, u) = xy + (1 − x)(1 − y) − x(1 − y) − (1 − x)y

= 1 − 2x − 2y + 4xy.
−U (x, y)
. èd dcenrd owgyl melyzd ,qt` mekq wgyn edfy oeeikn
Γ = ({1, 2}, X, Y, U ) qt` mekq wgynd èd zeaxern zeibhxhq`l zerahnd zn`zd wgyn ly dagxdd ,mekiql
xyà
X = Y = [0, 1] (63)
-e
U (x, y) = 1 − 2x − 2y + 4xy. (64)
[0, 1]
. rhwd - zeiteqpi` ea zeibhxhq`d zeveaw ,dk cr epi`xy ze`nbecdn dpeya ,xy` qt` mekq wgyn edf
v̄ = miny maxx U (x, y)

. zè v = maxx miny U (x, y) z` xnelk ,owgy lk ly oeghad znx z` aygl ozip z`f lka
,dxeyd owgy ly x zaxern dibhxhq` lkl

 2x − 1 x ≤ 12 ,
min U (x, y) = min (4x − 2)y + (1 − 2x) = (65)
y y  1 − 2x x ≥ 12 .
0 x
1
−1
miny U (x, y) divwpetd ly sxbd :6.2 xei`
okl .(6.2 xei` d`x) 0 divwpetd jxr my , x∗ = 1

2 -a lawzn ef divwpet ly meniqwnd
v = max min U (x, y) = 0, (66)

x y
. [ 12 (H), 12 (T )] ìd I owgy ly oinqwn zibhxhqè
y
,dcenrd owgy ly zaxern dibhxhq` lkl ,dnec oteà

 1 − 2y y ≤ 12 ,
max U (x, y) = max (4y − 2)x + (1 − 2y) = (67)
x x  2y − 1 y ≥ 12 .
0 y
1
maxx U (x, y) divwpetd ly sxbd :6.3 xei`
okl .(6.3 xei` d`x) 0 divwpetd jxr my , y∗ = 1

2 -a lawzn ef divwpet ly menipind
v̄ = min max U (x, y) = 0, (68)

y x
[ 12 (H), 12 (T )]
. ìd II owgy ly oinqwn zibhxhqè
lr xzi . 0 jxr yi zeaxern zeibhxhq`l zerahnd zn`zd wgyn ly dagxdl ik epgked , v = v̄ = 0 -y oeeik
1 1
.[
jxr yi wgynl ik xeviwa xn`p ep`
2 (H), 2 (T )] od mipwgyd ipy ly zecigid zeilnihte`d zeibhxhq`d ,ok
.zeaxern zeibhxhqà
ynzyn owgy lwyn ieeya m`y xne` df oexwr . zeyic`d oexwr zxfra ìd lwyn ieey zìvnl xzei dlw jxc
zlgezl deey zg`d z` wgyn èd m` ely melyzd zlgez if` ,ziaeig zexazqda zexedh zeibhxhq` izya
.dipyd z` wgyn èd m` melyzd
m` .i owgy ly zexedh zeibhxhq` izy ai , b

ai dpiidze ,zibhxhq` dxeva wgyna lwyn ieey σ `di 6.3 htyn
if` σi (b
ai ) > 0 oke σi (ai ) > 0
Ui (σ−i , ai ) = Ui (σ−i , b
ai ). (69)
zlgezn ddeab ai z` wgyn èd xy`k i owgyl melyzd zlgez m` :dheyt miiwzn htyndy jkl daiqd
z` wgyl zexazqdd oeayg lr ai z` wgyl zexazqdd z` licbdl el sicr , ai

b z` wgyn èd xy`k melyzd
ai
.
b
ik gipp zeillkd zlabd ilae ,miiwzn epi` htynd ik dlilya gipp .dgked
Ui (σ−i , ai ) > Ui (σ−i , b

ai ). (70)
.àd oteà zxcbend i owgy ly dibhxhq`d σi0 `dz

 σi (ai )

 bi 6∈ {ai , b
ai },
0
σi (bi ) = 0 bi = b
ai ,


σi (ai ) + σi (b
ai ) bi = ai .

if`
X
Ui (σ−i , σi0 ) = σ 0 (bi )Ui (σ−i , bi ) (71)
bi ∈Ai
X
= σ(bi )Ui (σ−i , bi ) + (σi (ai ) + σi (b
ai ))Ui (σ−i , ai ) (72)
bi 6∈{ai ,b
ai }
X
> σ(bi )Ui (σ−i , bi ) + σi (ai )Ui (σ−i , ai ) + σi (b
ai ))Ui (σ−i , b
ai ) (73)
bi 6∈{ai ,b
ai }
X
= σ 0 (bi )Ui (σ−i , bi ) (74)
bi ∈Ai
= Ui (σ), (75)
ìd σi0 dibhxhq`d i owgy xear oky ,lwyn ieey σ -y jkl dxizq idef j` .(70) dèeynn raep oeieey-i`d xy`k
.σ−i cbpk σi -n xzei daeh daeyz
.lwyn ieey zìvnl zeyic`d oexwra ynzydl ozip cvik d`xn dàd dnbecd
6.4 dnbec
y 1−y
H T
x H 5 0
1−
Tx 4 7
6.4 xei`
xei` d`x) ([x(H), (1 − x)(T )]; [y(H), (1 − y)(T )]) zeaxern zeibhxhqà lwyn ieey miiw wgyna ik gipp
if` 0<x<1 m` ik raep zeyic`d oexwrn .(6.5
5y = 4y + 7(1 − y), (76)
if` 0<y<1 mè
5x + 4(1 − x) = 7(1 − x). (77)

èd (77)-(76) zeèeyn ly oexztd
3 7
x= , y= . (78)
8 8
(!weca) wgyna lwyn ieey èd ([ 38 (H), 58 (T )]; [ 78 (H), 18 (T )]) zeibhxhq`d xehwe ,okè
.zexedh zeibhxhq` yely yi dcenrd owgyl da ,ztqep `nbeca zrk opeazp
6.5 dnbec
.dàd dvixhnd ici lr oezpd qt` mekq mipwgy ipy wgyna opeazp
L C R min
T 1 4 −2 −2
B 0 −3 4 −3

max 1 4 4 −2, 1

.zexedh zeibhxhqà jxr wgynl oi` okle , v̄ = 1-e v = −2 ,mièxy itk
4
v=
.
7 ède zeaxern zeibhxhqà jxr yi df wgynly mipreh ep` ,aeyigd jxc z` df alya ze`xdl ilan
didz ely melyzd zlgez [ 47 (T ), 37 (B)] zaxernd dibhxhq`d z` wgyi dxeyd owgy m`
L C R
4 4
7 1 7
ìd melyzd zlgez L xgai dcenrd owgy m` ,ok`
4 3 4
×1+ ×0= , (79)
7 7 7
ely melyzdy dxeyd owgy gihan ef dibhxhqà okl .zexg`d zecenrd izy xear zeyrl ozip dnec aeyige
4 4
v≥
.
7 miiwn oinqwnd jxr okle ,
7 zegtl didi
ìd melyzd zlgez [ 67 (L), 0(C), 17 (M )] zaxernd dibhxhq`d it lr wgyi dcenrd owgy m`
T 4
7
B 4
7
4 4
-iwzn cinzy oeeik . v̄ ≤ 7 miiwn qwnpind jxr okle ,
7 lr dlri `l melyzdy gihadl leki dcenrd owgyy o`kn
ik o`kn raep , v ≤ v̄ mi
4
v = v̄ = . (80)
7
4
zexnl ,df dxwna zecigi) zeilnihte` zeibhxhq` befe ,
7 -l deey èd ,zeaxern zeibhxhqà jxr yi wgynl okl
∗
.dcenrd owgyl y = [ 76 (L), 0(C), 71 (M )]-e dxeyd owgyl x∗ = [ 47 (T ), 37 (B)] èd ,(z`f epgked `ly
miwgynl zeaxern zeibhxhqà jxrd meiw z` dlilkn miwgynd zxeza zepey`xd zeaeygd ze`vezd zg`
.miillk
yi mipwgyd ipyl ea qt` mekq mipwgy ipy wgyn lkl ( 1923 ,von Neumann ly qwnpind htyn) 6.6 htyn
.zeaxern zeibhxhqà jxr yi zeibhxhq` ly iteq xtqn
xzei illk htyn gikep ik ,dgked o`k ìap `l ep` ,zegked ly ce`n lecb xtqnl dkf df aeyg htyny zexnl
.zeaxern zeibhxhqà Nash lwyn ieey yi mipwgy ly iteq xtqn mr iteq wgyn lkly xne`d
.zeaxern zeibhxhqà y`p lwyn ieey yi iteq mipwgy n wgyn lkl ( 1951 ,Nash) 6.7 htyn
.zexedh zeibhxhq` ly iteq xtqn mdn cg` lkly ,mipwgy ly (iteq) edylk xtqn lr xacn Nash htyn
,jxrd byen mr lwynd ieey byen cklzn qt` mekq miwgyn ly ihxtd dxwnay raep 4.31-e 4.30 mihtynn
.mipwgy n -l qwnpind htyn ly dllkdk ely d`vezd z` xicbd y`p ,mpnè .6.6 htyn z` xxeb 6.7 htyn okle
mr . 2
-n lecb mipwgyd xtqne ,qt` `weec e`l mekq :mipeeik ipya dllkd mpn` o`k yi cg` cvny ìd zn`d
ipyd otd ly dllkd o`k oi` .zeaivid - jxrd byen ly miptd cg` ly wx dllkd idef ,63 cenra epxn`y itk ,z`f
.qt` mekq mipwgy ipy wgyna jxrd z` oiit`nd - oeghad -
.dàd d`veza xfrp htynd zgkeda .6.7 htyn zgkedl zycwen wxtd zix`y
f :X→ `dze ,icilwe` agxna zihwtnewe dxenw dveaw X `dz ( Brouwer ly zayd zcewp htyn) 6.8 htyn
miiwzny jk x∈X yi if` .dtivx divwpet X
f (x) = x. (81)
f
. ly zay zcewp z`xwp efk x dcewp
zcewp yi dnvr l` zihwtnewe dxenw dveawn dtivx divwpet lkly xne` Brouwer ly zayd zcewp htyn
mb :dàd oeyla htynd z` x`z oe'bxt lèpnr i`wihnznd .dnvr l` dxiarn divwpetdy dcewp ,xnelk ,zay
.izlgzdd dnewnl xefgzy dtih didz cinz ,dtw qek ahid aaxrz m`
ìd zihwtnewe dxenw dveaw df dxwna .cgeina dheyt dxev lawn Brouwer htyn icnin cgd dxwna
:miiwzn miàd mixwnd zyelyn cg` ,dtivx divwpet ìd f : [a, b] → [a, b] xy`k . [a, b] xebq rhw
f
. ly zay zcewp ìd a fè , f (a) = a .1
f
. ly zay zcewp ìd b fè , f (b) = b .2
yi miipiad jxr htynn . g(b) < 0 -e g(a) > 0 if` . g(x) = f (x) − x divwpeta opeazp . f (b) < b oke f (a) > a .3
f
. ly zay zcewp èd dfk x lk . f (x) = x xnelk , g(x) = 0 miiwnd x ∈ [a, b]
.dheyt dpi` htynd zgked ,micnin ipy zegtl yi xy`k
/// dheyt dgkedl diiptd ///
.(3-1 milibxz d`x) `xewl libxzk zx`yen zeàd zeprhd izy zgked
Σi ely zeaxernd zeibhxhq`d zveaw if` ,ziteq i owgy ly Si zexedhd zeibhxhq`d zveaw m` 6.9 xfr zprh
.zihwtnewe dxenw
A m` . IRn+m -a zihwtnew dveaw ìd A×B if` ,zeihwtnew zeveaw od B ⊂ IRm -e A ⊂ IRn m` 6.10 xfr zprh
.dxenw ìd A×B mb ,zexenw od B -e

zexedhd zeibhxhq`d z` xtqnl ozip if` i

. owgy ly zexedhd zeibhxhq`d xtqn z` mi = |Si | -a onqp
:àd oteà i owgy ly
Si = {s1i , s2i , . . . , sm
i }.
i
(82)
IRm1 +m2 +···+mn

. -a zihwtnewe dxenw dveaw ìd Σ = Σ1 ×Σ2 ×· · · Σn ik miwiqn ep` 6.10-e 6.9 xfrd zeprhn
:zeàd zepekzd izy z` gikepe , f :Σ→Σ dtivx divwpet xicbp .àd oteà rvazz y`p htyn zgked
.dtivx f •
.wgyna lwyn ieey ìd f ly zay zcewp lk •
ik Brouwer ly zayd zcewp htyn zxfra miwiqn ep` ,dtivx f -y oeeikne ,zihwtnewe dxenw Σ -y oeeikn
.cg` lwyn ieey zegtl yi wgynl ik wiqp dipyd dpekzdn .zg` zay zcewp zegtl f -l yi
j
σ zeaxern zeibhxhq` xehwe lkl ,xnelk .g
i : Σ → [0, ∞) xfr zivwpet i, j lkl dligz xicbp f zxcbd myl
j
.g (σ) ilily-i` xtqn xicbp
i
xy`k lawn èdy melyzd . Ui (σ) èd σ zeaxernd zeibhxhq`d xehwe zgz lawn i owgyy melyzd
j
z` xicbp ep` .Ui (σ−i , s )
i èd sji dxedhd dibhxhq`d z` wgyn èd j` , σ itl miwgyn mipwgyd x`y lk
:àd oteà gij divwpetd
n o
gij (σ) = max 0, Ui (σ−i , sji ) − Ui (σ) . (83)
.zi`ck diihqdy dxwna diihqdn geexl e` , sji -l σi -n zehql i`ck `l i owgyl m` 0 -l deey gij (σ) ,milina
.dtivx divwpet ìd gij 6.11 xfr zprh
,hxta .dly mipzynd lka zix`pil ìd :zix`pil-ihlen dpid Ui divwpetd ,(59) dèeyna mièxy itk .dgked
okl .dtivx ui (σ−i , sji ) divwpetd mb i owgy ly dreaw sji dibhxhq` lkl ,daiq dze`n .dtivx ìd ef divwpet
ìd zetivx zeivwpet ly meniqwny oeeikne ,dtivx divwpet ìd 0 -y oeeik .sivx Ui (σ−i , sji ) − Ui (σ) yxtdd
N .dtivx gij divwpetd ik lawp ,dtivx divwpet
lk wgyiy zexazqdd z` i owgy lkl xicbdl yi , Σ èd f ly geehdy oeeikn f

. divwpetd z` xicbp zrk
:àd oteà dxicbpe ,l"pd zexazqdd z` fij (σ)-a onqp .s

j
i dxedh dibhxhq`
σi (sji ) + gij (σ)

fij (σ) = Pmi k . (84)
1 + k=1 gi (σ)
.zeyxcpd zepekzd z` zniiwn f ik gikedl dptp
.Σ èd f ly geehd 6.12 xfr zprh
:xnelk ,zeaxern zeibhxhq` xehwe èd f (σ) σ ∈ Σ, lkl ik ze`xdl yi dprhd zgkedl .dgked
. i, j lkl fij (σ) ≥ 0 .1
Pmi
i
. lkl
j=1 fij (σ) = 1 .2
.ilily-i` dpende 1 zegtl epid (84)-a dpknd okle ,ilily-i` gij (σ) -y oeeikn zniiwzn dpey`xd dyixcd
Pmi j
,
j=1 σi (si ) =1 -y oeeikn ,ok` .zniiwzn diipyd dyixcd ik d`xp zrk
mi mi
X X σi (sji ) + gij (σ)
fij (σ) = Pmi k (85)
j=1 j=1
1 + k=1 gi (σ)
Pmi j j
j=1 (σi (si ) + gi (σ))
= Pmi k (86)
1 + k=1 gi (σ)
Pmi j Pmi j
j=1 σi (si ) + j=1 gi (σ)
= Pmi j = 1. (87)
1 + j=1 gi (σ))
.dtivx f 6.13 xfr zprh
dpid gij -y oeeikn .zetivx zeivwpet md fij zxcbda dpknd ode dpend od ik raep 6.11 xfr zprhn .dgked
ziaeig divwpet ìd dpknd da zetivx zeivwpet ly dpny oeeikn 1

. zegtl epid fij zxcbda dpknd ,zilily-i`
N .zlawzn dprhd ,dtivx divwpet dpid
.micrv xtqna z`f dyrp .lwyn ieey ìd f ly zay zcewp lk ik ze`xdl yi ,htynd zgked z` miiql ick
miiwzn if` . f ly zay zcewp σ `dz 6.14 xfr zprh
mi
X
gij (σ) = σi (sji ) gik (σ), ∀i, j. (88)
k=1
sbà dhpicxeèw lk okle ,mixehwe oia oeieey edf . f (σ) = σ miiwzn , f ly zay zcewp σ -y oeeikn .dgked
xnelk ,oini sbà dni`znd dhpicxeèwl deey l`ny
fij (σ) = σi (sji ), ∀i, j. (89)
ik raep f zxcbdn
σi (sji ) + gij (σ)

Pmi k = σi (sji ), ∀i, j. (90)
1 + k=1 gi (σ)
lawpe mitb`d ipy z` ea litkdl ozip okle ,iaeig l`ny sbà dpknd
mi
X
σi (sji ) + gij (σ) = σi (sji ) + σi (sji ) gik (σ), ∀i, j. (91)
k=1
N .(88) dèeyn z` lawpe mitb`d ipyn σi (sji ) z` mvnvp

:miniiwzn miàd mipeieey-i`d ipy exear j qwcpi` miiw if` .owgy i `die , f ly zay zcewp σ `dz 6.15 xfr zprh
σi (sji ) > 0, (92)
gij (σ) = 0. (93)
zlgez ìd Ui (σ−i , sji ) -e , σ zeaxernd zeibhxhq`d xehwe zgz i owgyl melyzd zlgez ìd Ui (σ) .dgked
zgzy oeeikn . σ itl miwgyn mipwgyd x`y lke sji dxedhd dibhxhq`d z` wgyn èd xy`k i owgyl melyzd
j
miiwzny ixd ,σ
i zexazqda sji dxedhd dibhxhq`d z` wgyn i owgy σi
mi
X
Ui (σ) = σi (sji )Ui (σ−i , sji ). (94)
j=1
gij ik xekfp) . gij (σ) > 0 ik miiwzn σi (sji ) > 0 miiwnd j qwcpi` lkl ,if` .dpekp dpi` dprhd ik dlilya gipp
j
miiwzn dfk j lkl ,g
i zxcbdn (.ziaeig gxkda ìd 0 dpi` ìd m` okle ,zilily-i`
Ui (σ−i , sji ) − Ui (σ) > 0. (95)
ik lawp o`kn . σij > 0 exear cg` j qwcpi` zegtl miiw ,zexazqd xehwe èd σi -y oeeikn
X
σi (sji ) Ui (σ−i , sji ) − Ui (σ) > 0, (96)
j : σi (sji )>0
m` ,okl . σi (sji ) = 0 ik miiwzn mekqa miriten mpi`y j miqwcpi`d lkl .cg` xai` zegtl likn mekqd oky
ik lawp (96) dèeyna mekql elld miqwcpi`d z` siqep
X
σi (sji ) Ui (σ−i , sji ) − Ui (σ) > 0. (97)
1≤j≤mi
okle ,dpekp dpi` dlilyd zgpd ik dcirn ef dxizq .dxizq zlawzne ,qt`l deey l`ny sb` (94) dèeynn la`
N .dpekp dprhd
.lwyn ieey ìd f ly zay zcewp lk ik gikedl ybip zrk
.y`p lwyn ieey ìd σ if` . f ly zay zcewp σ `dz 6.16 xfr zprh
miiwzn i owgy ly σi0 zaxern dibhxhq` lkl ik d`xp ep` .edylk owgy i idi .dgked
Ui (σ−i , σi0 ) ≤ Ui (σ). (98)
ik epgked 6.14 xfr zprha
mi
X
gij (σ) = σij gik (σ), ∀i, j. (99)
k=1
gij (σ) = 0
. oke σij > 0 ik miiwnd 1 ≤ j ≤ mi qwcpi` miiwy raep 6.15 xfr zprhn
ik lawpe (99) dèeyna el` milcb aivp
mi
X
0 = σi (sji ) gik (σ). (100)
k=1
okle
mi
X
gik (σ) = 0. (101)
k=1
ik lawp ,miilily-i` mixai` ly mekq èd l`ny sb`y oeeikn
gik (σ) = 0, ∀k. (102)
miiwzn 1 ≤ k ≤ mi lkl ik raep gik zxcbdn
Ui (σ−i , ski ) ≤ Ui (σ), ∀k. (103)
ik lawpe σi0 k -a mitb`d ipy z` litkp
σi0 k Ui (σ−i , ski ) ≤ σi0 k Ui (σ), ∀k. (104)
lawpe mitb`d ipy z` mekqp
mi
X mi
X
σi0 k Ui (σ−i , ski ) ≤ σi0 k Ui (σ) = Ui (σ). (105)
k=1 k=1
N .(98) dèeyn z` lawp , Ui (σ−i , σi0 )

-l deey l`ny sb`y oeeikn
milibxz 6.1
.zihwtnewe dxenw dveaw ìd ∆(S) if` ziteq dveaw S m` ik gked .1
.dxenw dveaw ìd A × B ⊆ IRn+m dltknd zveaw ik gked .zexenw zeveaw B ⊆ IRm -e A ⊆ IRn dpiidz .2
dveaw ìd A × B ⊆ IRn+m dltknd zveaw ik gked .zeihwtnew zeveaw B ⊆ IRm -e A ⊆ IRn dpiidz .3
.zihwtnew
.miàd miwgyna zeilnihte`d zeibhxhq`d lk zè zeaxern zeibhxhqà jxrd z` `vn .4
L R L R
T 2 0 T 3 3
B 3 4 B 2 4
L M R L M R
T 3 4 12 T 1 2 3
B 8 4 2 B 4 3 0
zeibhxhqà dvixhnd ly jxrd ik gked At = −A

.( ,xnelk) zixhniqihp` zireaix dvixhn A `dz .5
II
. owgy ly efl ddf I owgy ly zeilnihte`d zeibhxhq`d zveaw ,ok lr xzi . 0 èd zeaxern
jxrd z` A ∈ Mm,l dvixhn lkl dni`znd divwpetdy gked m×l

. xcqn zevixhnd agxn Mm,l `di .6
.dtivx ìd zeaxern zeibhxhqà dly
m` A = (aij ) leabl zqpkzn Mm,l -a (An )n∈IN zevixhn zxcq :dxrd
aij = lim anij , ∀i, j. (106)

n→∞
.mipwgydn cg` s`l zexedh zeilnihte` zeibhxhq` oi` dàd dvixhna ik gipp .7
L R
T a b
B c d
.zeaxern zeibhxhqà wgynd jxr z` `vn
dxebq dveaw ìd qt` mekq mipwgy ipy wgyna owgy ly zeilnihte`d zeibhxhq`d zveaw ik gked .8
.zeaxernd zeibhxhq`d agxna dxenwe
:miàd miwgyna zeaxern zeibhxhqà lwynd iieey lk z` ayg .9

L R L R
T 1, 1 4, 0 T 1, 2 2, 2
B 2, 10 3, 5 B 0, 3 1, 1
L M R
T 1, 1 0, 2 2, 0
B 0, 0 1, 0 −1, 3
. s1 , s2 lkl u1 (s1 , s2 ) = u2 (s2 , s1 ) -e S1 = S2 m` ixhniq èd zibhxhq` dxeva mipwgy ipy wgyn .10
,ixw) zeaxern zeibhxhqà ixhniq lwyn ieey yi zilnxep dxeva ixhniq mipwgy ipy wgyn lka ik gked
.( σ1 = σ 2 ea (σ1 , σ2 ) lwyn ieey
dveaw dpid , ∆(S1 ) × ∆(S2 ) × · · · × ∆(Sn ) dltknd agxna dveaw ìdy ,lwynd iieey zveaw ik gked .11
.zihwtnew
x iaeig invr xehwee λ>0 invr jxr miiw ik gked .( i, j lkl aij > 0 ) ziaeig dvixhn A `dz (oext htyn) .12
miiwzny jk x iaeig xehwee λ>0 yi ,xnelk .( i lkl xi > 0 )
Ax = λx. (107)
icnin n−1 -d qwltniqdn divwpet xcbd :dkxcd
n
X
∆ = {(x1 , . . . , xn ) : xi ≥ 0 ∀i, xi = 1}
i=1
ici lr envr l`
Ax
ϕ(x) = , (108)
kAxk1
htyn zxfrae ,dtivx ϕ ik gked Ax

. ly zehpicxeèwd ly mihlgend mikxrd mekq èd kAxk1 xyà
.libxzd z` gked Brouwer ly zayd zcewp
.dagx dxeva 7.2 dnbeca miwgynd ipy z` meyx .13
zveawe ,ziteq I owgy ly S1 zexedhd zeibhxhq`d zveaw ea qt` mekq mipwgy ipy wgyn oezp `di .14
ik gked .dipn za II owgy ly S2 zexedhd zeibhxhq`d
sup inf U (σ1 , σ2 ) = inf sup U (σ1 , σ2 ). (109)
σ1 ∈∆(S1 ) σ2 ∈∆(S2 ) σ2 ∈∆(S2 ) σ1 ∈∆(S1 )
.dipn za S1 mb xy`k oekp epi` 14 libxz ik zicbp dnbec ici lr d`xd .15
miiwzny jk i (si ) ∈ [0, 1] `di si ∈ Si dlert lkle i owgy lkl .16
X
i (si ) ≤ 1, ∀i. (110)
si ∈Si
`dz
Yi = {σi ∈ ∆(Si ) : σi (si ) ≥ i (si ), ∀i, ∀si }.
.lwyn ieey miiw Yi dveawd jezn zaxern dibhxhq` xegal laben i owgy lk ea wgyna ik gked
:àd oteà sei ∈ ∆(Si ) zaxern dibhxhq` xicbp si lkl .Si = {s1i , . . . , sm
i }
i
-e , mi = |Si | onqp :dkxcd

 (t )
i i ti 6= si ,
sei (ti ) = (111)
 1−P
ui 6=ti i (ui ) ti = si .
Ti = ìd i owgy lk ly zexedhd zeibhxhq`d zveaw ea mipwgy zveaw dze` mr xfr wgyn xicbp
.ixewnd wgyna minelyzd zivwpet ìd minelyzd zivwpete , s1i , . . . , sem

{e i }
i
.labend wgyna lwyn ieey èd xfrd wgyna lwyn ieey lk ike ,lwyn ieey miiw xfrd wgyna ik d`xd
88 divnxetpi`d jxr :znlyen `l divnxetpi` 7
divnxetpi`d jxr :znlyen `l divnxetpi` 7

miwlgn ep` ,xnelk .mipwgyd cg`l divnxetpi` mitiqen ep` ik gippe qt` mekq mipwgy ipy wgyna opeazp
owgyd - owgyd ly eavn z` eprxd `l jka ik ze`xl lw .zeveaw-izz xtqnl ely dricid zeveawn wlg z`
.mcew enk wgyle ,el dpzipy ztqepd divnxetpi`dn mlrzdl cinz leki
7.1 dnbec
zveaw .dcigi drici zveaw yi owgy lkl ,df wgyna .7.0 (A) xeià oezpd mipwgy ipy wgyna opeazn
,iphleniq wgynl lewy wgynd .{l, r} ìd II owgy ly efe , {L, M, R} ìd I owgy ly zexedhd zeibhxhq`d
I
. owgy ly ezxiga z` rcei epi` ,ely wgyi dze` dlertd z` xegal eèaa , II owgy ea
l r l r l r l r l r l r
II II II
L M R L M R
I I
Part A Part B
7.0 xei`
zeveaw izyl II owgy ly dricid zveaw z` epwlig ea j` ,7.0 (A) xeià wgynl dnec 7.0 (B) xeià wgynd
eptqed ,zexg` milina .`l e` L xga I owly m`d rcei ,ely dlertd z` xegal eèaa , II owgy ,xnelk .drici
{ll, lr, rl, rr}

. :mixai` drax` dlikn II owgy ly zexedhd zeibhxhq`d zveaw zrk .divnxetpi` II owgyl
xgea dze` dlerta zelz `ll , l dxwn lka wgyn II owgy ik drnyn (B) wlga wgyna ll dibhxhq`d
wlga wgyna rr dibhxhq`d ,dnec oteà . (A) wlga wgyna l dibhxhq`l dlewy ef dibhxhq` okl . I owgy
ely divnxetpi`d zeveaw izya dlert dze` wgyn II owgyy jka . (A) wlga wgyna r dibhxhq`l dlewy (B)
I . owgy xga dze` dlertd - laiw èd dze` ztqepd divnxetpi`dn mlrzn dyrnl èd
j kj
wgynd G, `di .(U
i )j=1 èd i owgy ly dricid zeveaw sqe` ea ,dagx dxeva wgyn G `di ,illk oteà
kj
(U10 j )j=1 -a onqp .zeveaw-zz xtqnl miwlgn 1 owgy ly dricid zeveawn wlg z`y jk ici lr G -n lawznd
zeveawdn zg` ly dveaw-zz ìd U10 j zeveawdn zg` lk if` . G0 wgyna 1 owgy ly dricid zeveaw sqe` z`
k
(Uij )j=1
.
j
sqeà
0
divwpet ìd s1 ,ok` . G -a dibhxhq` mb xac ly ezin`l ìd G -a 1 owgy ly s1 dibhxhq` lk ik zrk d`xp
0
zveaw ly dveaw-zz ìd G -a drici zveaw lky oeeikn .ixyt` jldn 1 owgy ly drici zveaw lkl dni`znd
0
eze` èd s01 itl U10 j dricid zveawa xgapd jldnd :àd oteà G 0
-a s01 dibhxhq` xicbdl ozip ,G -a drici
0
xehwe lkl ,zexgz dze` zexyn s01 -e s1 ik ze`xl lw . U10 j z` dliknd U1j dricid zveawa s1 itl xgapd jldn
.mipwgyd x`y ly zeibhxhq`
zeibhxhq`d agxn z` S10 -ae , G ixewnd wgyna owgy ly zexedhd zeibhxhq`d agxn z` Si -a onqp
S1 ⊆
. S10 ,epi`xy itk . G 0
wgyna 1 owgy ly zexedhd
miiwzn , S1 xy`n zeibhxhq` xzei dlikn S10 -y oeeikn
max min u1 (s1 , s2 ) ≤ max0 min u1 (s1 , s2 ). (112)

s1 ∈S1 s2 ∈S2 s1 ∈S1 s2 ∈S2
-pi` laiwy iptl ely oinqwnd jxrn ltep epi` ztqep divnxetpi` laiwy xg`l 1 owgy ly oinqwnd jxr okl
.ef divnxet
miiwzn s2 ∈ S2 lkly oeeik
max u1 (s1 , s2 ) ≤ max0 u1 (s1 , s2 ), (113)

s1 ∈S1 s1 ∈S1
milawn II owgy ly zeibhxhq`d lk lr menipind z` migwel xy`k
min max u1 (s1 , s2 ) ≥ min max u1 (s1 , s2 ). (114)

s2 ∈S2 s1 ∈S10 s2 ∈S2 s1 ∈S1
.divnxetpi`d zlaw xg`l xtzyn 1 owgy ly qwnpind jxr mb okl
.df avn dyignn dàd dnbecd
7.2 dnbec
ici lr zeàd zevixhnd izyn zg` zxgap dligz .mialy ipyn akxend àd mipwgy ipy wgyna opeazp
1
minelyzd mr wgynd z` mipwgyd ipy miwgyn okn xg`l .( zexazqda zxgap dvixhn lk) rahn zlhd
2
.dxgapy dvixhnay
L R L R
T 1 T
0 2 1 0
B B 1
0 1 2 0
mixwnd ipya .rcei èd ipyae ,dxgap dvixhn efi` rcei epi` I owgy oey`xa :miàd mixwnd ipy z` deeyp
.dxgap dvixhn efi` rcei epi` II owgy
zrvennd dvixhnd z` mvra miwgyn md dxgap dvixhn efi` mircei mpi` mipwgyd ipy xy`k
L R
T 1 1
2 4
B 1 1
4 2
owgyl zilnihte` dibhxhqè , [ 21 (T ), 12 (B)] ìd I owgyl zilnihte` dibhxhq` .

3
8 èd df wgyn ly jxrd
[ 12 (L), 12 (R)]
. ìd II
izy yi II owgyly cera ,( BB BT T B T T

, , , ) zeibhxhq` 4 el yi ,dxgapy dvixhnd idn rcei I owgy xy`k
èd lawznd zilnxep dxeva wgynd okl .( R -e L) zeibhxhq`
L R
1 1
TT 2 4
1 1
TB 4 4
1 1
BT 2 2
1 1
BB 4 2
1 3 1
ztqepd divnxetpi`d ,
2 > 8 -y oeeikn I
. owgyl zilnihte` dibhxhq` ìd BT -e ,
2 èd df wgyn ly jxrd
I . owgyl dlired
ieeya j` ,ztqep divnxetpi` lawn I owgy dàd dnbeca .oihelgl dpey avnd qt` mekq epi` wgynd xy`k
.ciqtn èd lwynd
wifn drici scer 7.3 dnbec
.àd mipwgy ipy wgyna opeazp
(1, 1)
M
l (10, 0)
R
II r
L (0, 10)
l (0, 10)
r
(10, 0)
I
znlyen `l divnxetpi` mr wgyn :7.1 xei`
dzeà mi`vnp I owgyl mikiieynd md oky ,ely micewcwd ipy oia oigadl leki epi` I owgy df wgyna
:wgyna cigid lwynd ieey èd àd zeaxernd zeibhxhq`d xehwe .divnxetpi` zveaw
[ 21 (L), 12 (R), 0(M )]

. wgyn II owgy •
[ 12 (l), 12 (r)]
. wgyn I owgy •
(5, 5)
. èd lawznd lwynd ieey melyz
:èd cigid lwynd ieey ,(7.2 xei` d`x) eicewcw ipy oia oigane ,ztqep divnxetpi` lawn I owgy xy`k
[0(L), 0(R), 1(M )]

. wgyn II owgy •
.oeilra l -e oezgzd cewcwa r wgyn I owgy •

,hxta .ztqep divnxetpi` laiw I owgyy jkn eciqtd mipwgyd ipy ,xnelk . (1, 1) èd lawznd melyzd
. I owgyl dwifn divnxetpi`d
(1, 1)
M
l (10, 0)
R
II I r
L (0, 10)
l (0, 10)
I r
(10, 0)
divnxetpi` ztqez mr wgynd :7.2 xei`
micewcwd cg`l dribn zexgzd m` :ezeyxay divnxetpi`dn mlrzdl leki epi` I owgyy ìd jkl daiqd
èdy oeeikn .ely melyzd zlgez z` zigti da yeniy i` :ely divnxetpi`d z` lvpl I owgyl i`ck , I owgy ly
did I owgy .ycgd avnl ely dibhxhq`d z` mi`zn ède ,z`f rcei II owgy .da ynzyi ok` èd ,ilpeivx
,zeaiigzd oià .wgyna zixyt` dpi` efk zeaiigzd j` ,ztqepd divnxetpià ynzyi `l ik aiigzdl oiipern
.dpin` dpi` divnxetpià ynzydl `l “ dghad ”

owgyl yiy rcei II owgyy dcaerdn `l` ,ztqepd divnxetpi`d mvrn wefip epi` I owgyy èd oiiprnd xacd
ilan , “ ziceq ” dzid ztqepd divnxetpi`d eli` .m`zda ezebdpzd z` dpyn èd okle ,ztqep divnxetpi` I
drici ” ly df `yep .10 melyzl lawle zlrez dpnn witdl leki did I owgy f` e` ,dneiw lr rci II owgyy
. ?? wxta hrn ea oecpy wenr `yep èd ('eke drici lr drici) “ziaihw`xhpi`
ipy ly oinqwnd jxr ixd ,divnxetpi`d ztqez zeawra ohw (cigid) lwynd ieey melyzy zexnly al miyp
.ohw epi` mipwgyd
milibxz 7.1
ely oinqwnd jxr ,divnxetpi` mipwgyd cg`l mitiqen mipwgy n mr dagx dxeva wgyna m` ik gked .1
.ohw epi`
ly oinqwnd jxr ,divnxetpi` mipwgyd cg`l mitiqen mipwgy n mr dagx dxeva wgyna m` ik gked .2
.dler epi` mipwgyd x`y
,divnxetpi` mipwgyd cg`l mitiqen mipwgy n mr dagx dxeva wgyna xy`k ik dnbec ici lr d`xd .3
.zepzydl `l leki ely oinqwnd jxr
,divnxetpi` mipwgyd cg`l mitiqen mipwgy n mr dagx dxeva wgyna xy`k ik dnbec ici lr d`xd .4
.zcxl ieyr mixg`d mipwgyd lk ly oinqwnd jxr

92 zebdpzd zeibhxhq` 8
zebdpzd zeibhxhq` 8
cg dn`zd oi`y epiiv ,zibhxhq`d dxevde dagxd dxevd ,wgyn ly xeìzd zexev izy z` epbvd xy`k
`ly “wgynd zegztzd ” ly mihwtq` likne xzei xiyr dagx dxeva xeìzd illk oteà .miizyd oia zikxr
mibyend z` wecal epilr ,z`f xe`l .ze`vezae zeibhxhqà wx ielzd ,zibhxhq` dxeva xeìza iehia icil mià
.wgynd ixeìz oia ipeydn raepd ,dfk yi m` - mdizepekza ipeyd lr cenrle wgynd zexev izya migztn ep`y
wgyna ahid xcben zibhxhq` dxeva wgynd ly mipezpd cg` èdy ,dxedhd dibhxhq`d byeny xak epi`x
zelertd zveaw jezn dlert drici zveaw lkl dni`znd divwpet ìd owgy ly dxedh dibhxhq` .dagx dxeva
.dveaw dzeà zeixyt`d
8.1 dnbec
.àd dagx dxeva wgyna opeazp
U12 l
O5
U21
A r
O4
U11
L l
O3
C
r
O2
R O1
8.1 xei`
:zexedh zeibhxhq` raxè U12 -e U11 drici zeveaw izy 1 owgyl yi df wgyna
S1 = {Ll, Lr, Rl, Rr}.
zexedh zeibhxhq` izye U21 zg` drici zveaw yi 2 owgyl
S2 = {A, C}.
ahid xcben df byen okl .zexedhd zeibhxhq`d zveaw lr zexazqd zcink xcbed zaxernd dibhxhq`d byen
12
:od zeaxernd zeibhxhq`d zeveaw .dagx dxeva wgyna
Σ1 = ∆(S1 ), Σ2 = ∆(S2 ).

m`d dl`yd zl`yp ,wgyna eikldn ly zixwn dxiga ìd owgyl zaxern dibhxhq` ly miyextd cg` m`
owgyl lynl enk ,(zg` drici zveaw) cala cg` jldn yi owgyl m`y xexa ?ef zeixwn biydl dcigid jxcd ef
1−α
, zexazqda C zè α zexazqda A z` xegal :ixwn jldn rval zg` jxc yiy ixd ,8.1 dnbecay wgyna 2
.zaxern dibhxhq` mpn` idefe
lynl ,zaxern dibhxhqà hwep èd xy`k ?8.1 dnbecay wgyna drici zeveaw izy el xy` 1 owgy iabl dne
dibhxhqà hwep èd fè ,wgynd zligza zg` dlxbd rvan èdy ixd , σ1 = [ 13 (Ll), 0(Lr), 13 (Rl), 13 (Rr)]
.( Rr e` Rl e` Ll ) dlxbedy dxedhd
12
.74 cenr d`x , S dveawd lr zexazqdd ixehwe lk zveaw ìd ∆(S) ,S ziteq dveaw lkl ,xekfk
xegale U11 -a ezeida R L

-e oia ixwn oteà xegal ìd miixwn mikldn rval 1 owgyl zegt `l zirah zexyt`
(β, 1 − β) -e U11 -a (α, 1 − α) zexazqd ixehwe ipy i"r xèzz ef dibhxhq` U12
. -a ezeida r -e l oia ixwn oteà
zveaw lka jldnd z` zraewd (dxedhd dibhxhq`d) lrd zipkz z` ixwn oteà xegal mewna xnelk . U12 -a
zixwn dibhxhq` .zniieqn drici zveawa `vnp èdy mrt lka ely jldnd z` ixwn oteà xgea owgyd drici
.zebdpzd zibhxhq` z`xwp efk
lkl dni`znd divwpet ìd dagx dxeva wgyna owgy ly (behavioral strategy) zebdpzd zibhxhq` 8.2 dxcbd
.dricid zveaw dzeà miixyt`d mikldnd zveaw lr zebltzd drici zveaw
zveaw z` A(Uij ) -a onqp , i owgy ly ly dricid zeveaw z` Ui = {Ui1 , Ui2 , . . .} -a onqp zilnxet daizkl
i owgy ly (milìvphetd) mikldnd lk zveaw z` Ai = ∪j A(Uij )-ae .U

i
j
dricid zveawa miixyt`d mikldnd
.wgyna
divwpet ìd dagx dxeva wgyna i owgy ly zebdpzd zibhxhq` 8.3 dxcbd
bi : Ui → ∆(Ai ),
miiwzn j lkly jk
bi (Uij ) ∈ ∆(A(Uij )).
.drici zveaw lkl zg` ,(zexazqd ixehwe) zelxbd zveawn ok m` zakxen owgy ly zebdpzd zibhxhq`
.zaxern dibhxhqà (cg` zexazqd xehwe) zg` dlxbdl dèeyda z`f
zebdpzdd zeibhxhq` zveaw z` Bi -a onqp m` ?zeaxern zeibhxhq`l zebdpzd zeibhxhq` oia xywd dn
dxwn lka ik al miyp ziy`x ? Σi -l Bi oia xywd dn ely zeaxernd zeibhxhq`d zveaw z` Σi -ae owgy ly
miagxna zeveaw izy - mipey miihnzn mixevi od Σi -e Bi zeveawd ixd 1

-n lecb Ui -a dricid zeveaw xtqny
.mipey
.jynd :8.1 dnbec
L wgyl zexazqdd 0≤α≤1 :zeiexazqd izy ici lr zxèzn 1 owgy ly zebdpzd zibhxhq` ef dnbeca
l :okl . U12 -a wgyl zexazqdd 0≤β≤1 -e , U11 -a
 
 X 
Σ1 = (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) : xj ≥ 0, xj = 1 , (115)
 
j
-e
B1 = {(α, β) : 0 ≤ α ≤ 1, 0 ≤ β ≤ 1}. (116)
IR4
P
ìd B1 -y ixd ,(
j xj = 1 i`pzd llba zicnin zlz dyrnl ìdy) ly dveaw zz ìd Σ1 cera ,xnelk
2 2
3 cnin) B1 xy`n xzei ddeab cnina dveaw ìd Σ1 -y dcaerd . [0, 1] dcigid reaix edf : IR ly dveaw zz
.xzei “ dlecb ” e` “ dxiyr ” dveaw ìd Σ1 -y jkl zfnex ( 2 cnin znerl

zibhxhqà ,dzxcbdn .miizyd oia xyw yiy ixd ,zaxern dibhxhq` dpi` zebdpzd zibhxhq`y zexnl
,zelxbdd lk z` rvai owgyd m` dxwi dn .ely dhlgd cewcw lka dielz izla dlxbd rvan owgyd zebdpzd
:zelxbd izy wgynd zligza rvai I owgy ,8.1 dnbeca ,lynl ?wgynd zligza ,ely dhlgdd icewcw lk xear
2 1
z`vezy zexnl .U divnxetpi`d zveawa r e` l xegal m`de ,U divnxetpi`d zveawa R e` L xegal m`d
1 1
mb ,wgynd zligza dze` rval leki owgyd , L ìd dpey`xd dlxbda d`vezd m` wx zihpalx dipyd dlxbdd
. R ìd dpey`xd dlxbdd z`vez m`
Ll, Lr, Rl, Rr zexedhd zeibhxhq`dn zg` z` xga èd :dxedh dibhxhq` xga mvra I owgy ,df dxwna
eplaiw ,dlxbdd zrvean izn dpyn df oi`y oeeikn .zaxern dibhxhq` ynin mvra èd okle ,wgynd zligza
.dl dlewyd zaxern dibhxhq`l yi zebdpzd zibhxhq` lkl ik o`k
if` , i owgy ly divnxetpi`d zeveaw od (Uij )j=1,...,mi m` .ilnxet qeqia el ozipe dfd oeirxd z` lilkp zrk
j
ìd bi m` .ef dveawa ixyt` jldn U si
i divnxetpi` zveaw lkl dni`znd divwpet ìd ely dxedh dibhxhq`
j j
jldnd edf) si (U
i ) jldnd xgai Ui divnxetpi`d zveaway zexazqdd if` , i owgy ly zebdpzd zibhxhq`
j
.bi (si (U
xgaiiy jldnd divnxetpi`d zeveaw lkay zexaqzdd okl
i )) ìd (ef divnxetmpi` zveawa zxgea si -y
Qmi j
si “
. ìd eli`k bdpzz ” bi -y zexazqdd idef ,zexg` milina .
j=1 bi (si (Ui )) ìd zxgea si -y df didi
zelewy bi -e σi ik xn`p .df owgy ly zebdpzd zibhxhq` bi -e ,i owgy ly zaxern dibhxhq` σi `dz 8.4 dxcbd
i owgy ly si dxedh dibhxhq` lkl ,ilnxet oteà . σi -l ddf zexedhd zeibhxhq`d zveaw lr dxyn bi -y zebltzdd m`
miiwzn
mi
Y
σi (si ) = bi (si (Uij )). (117)
j=1
zveaw dyrnl okle ,zaxern dibhxhq`l dlewy zebdpzd zibhxhq` lk ik ze`xdl epl zxyt`n ef dxcbd
.zebdpzdd zeibhxhq` zveaw z` dlikn zeaxernd zeibhxhq`d
.dl dlewyd zaxern dibhxhq` zniiw zebdpzd zibhxhq` lkl 8.5 htyn
-xyt`d zelertd zveaw ìd A(Uij ) -a onqp . i owgyd ly dricid zeveaw od Ui = (Ui1 , Ui2 , . . .) .dgked
j
zeveawdn zg` lkn zg` daihpxhl` ly dxiga ìd dxedh dibhxhq` .U dricid zveawa i owgyl zi
i
:l"pd zeveawd ly zifhxwd dltkna xai` ìd dxedh dibhxhq` xnelk . A(Ui1 ), A(Ui2 ), . . .)
Si = ×j A(Uij ) = A(Ui1 ) × A(Ui2 ) × · · · . (118)
xicbp .zebdpzd zibhxhq` bi `dz
mi
Y
σi (si ) = bi (si (Uij )), ∀si ∈ Si . (119)
j=1
miilily-i` mixtqn ly xehwe èd (σi (si ))si ∈Si m` ,xnelk) zaxern dibhxhq` ìd σi m` ik raep dxcbddn
.zrk z`f `ceep . bi -l dlewy ìd if` ,( 1 mnekqy

lkl σi (si ) ≥ 0 -y ixd , i owgy ly si dxedh dibhxhq` lkle j = 1, . . . , mi lkl bi (si (Uij )) ≥ − -y oeeikn
miiwzn ,zebdpzd zibhxhq` ìd bi -y oeeikn ,ok enk . i owgy ly si dxedh dibhxhq`
X
bi (a) = 1, ∀j = 1, . . . , mi . (120)
a∈A(Uij )
okl
X mi
X Y
σi (si ) = bi (si (Uij )) (121)
si ∈Si si ∈Si j=1

mi
Y X
= bi (si (Uij )) (122)
j=1 a∈A(U j )
i
mi
Y
= 1 = 1. (123)
j=1
dlewy dpi`y zaxern zibhxhq` yi mda miwgyn mpyi :oekp epi` jetdd oeeikdy d`xn dàd dnbecd
dlecb) “ xzei dxiyr ” zeaxernd zeibhxhq`d zveaw ,zexg` milina .zebdpzd zibhxhq` s`l zibhxhq`
.zelewy zeibhxhq` midfn ep` xy`k mb ,zebdpzdd zeibhxhq` zveawn (xzei
8.6 dnbec
.cigi owgy yi ea àd wgyna opeazp
UI2 l
O4
UI1
L r
O3
l
O2
R
r
O1
8.2 xei`
dibhxhq`l dlewyd zebdpzd zibhxhq` oi` ik ze`xl lw {Ll, Lr, Rl, Rr}
. zeibhxhq` rax` yi owgyl
1 1
.[
(!gked)
2 (Ll), 0(Lr), 0(Rl), 2 (Rr)] zaxernd
oaena zelewy Rr -e Rl zeibhxhq`d 8.1 dnbecay wgyna ,dnbecl .icn wfg zeliwyd byen ,miyeniyd xear
dn llk dpyn `l okle , U12 dricid zveawl ribi `l wgynd , U11 dricid zveawa R wgyn 1 owgy m` - miieqn
jxev lkly ixd ,zepey el` zexedh zeibhxhq`y zexnl ,okl .ef drici zveawl ribi wgynd m` owgyd wgyi
.zeibhxhq` oia zelgwy ly xzei ylg byen zrk xicbp .(8.4 dxcbda epxcbdy zeliwyd ef oi` j`) zelewy od iyrn
x`y ly σ−i zeibhxhq` xehwe lkl m` zibhxhq` zelewy dp`xwz i owgy ly σ

bi -e σi zeibhxhq` izy 8.7 dxcbd
.wgynd ly meiqd icwcw zveaw lr zebltzd dze` mixyn (σ−i , σ

bi )-e (σ−i , σi ) zeibhxhq`d ixehwe ipy ,mipwgyd
zeibhxhq`d lr zebltzd dze`l gxkda zeni`zn opi` mpn` zibhxhq` zelewy zeibhxhq` izy xnelk
.wgynd ze`vez zpigan zelewy od j` ,zexedhd
dxedh dibhxhq` lk oky) zexedh zeibhxhq` ,zeaxern zeibhxhq` onql mileki σ

b -e σ milnqd ,ef dxcbda
-xern dibhxhq` zniiw zebdpzd zibhxhq` lkly oeeik) zebdpzd zibhxhq` e` (zaxern dibhxhq` hxta ìd
.(dl dlewyd za
zibhxhq` dlewy dpi` [ 12 (Ll), 0(Lr), 0(Rl), 12 (Rr)] zaxernd dibhxhq`d 8.6 dnbecay wgyna ik `ceel lw
zebdpzd zibhxhq` zniiw zaxern dibhxhq` lkl 8.1 dnbecay wgyna ik d`xp zrk .zebdpzd zibhxhq` s`l
.zibhxhq` dl dlewyd
.jynd :8.1 dnbec
:zexedhd zeibhxhq`d lr dàd zebltzdd z` dxicbn bi = (α, β) zebdpzd zibhxhq`
sj Ll Lr Rl Rr
σ(sj ) αβ α(1 − β) (1 − α)β (1 − α)(1 − β)
[αβ(Ll), α(1 − β)(Lr), (1 − α)β(Rl), (1 − α)(1 − zaxernd dibhxhq`l dlewy (α, β) zebdpzdd zibhxhq` okl
zeveawl zeni`znd zelxbdd ,zebdpzd zibhxhqày dcaerd z` ztwyn ef zeliwy ,mcew epxn`y itk . β)(Rr)]
zveawa dlxbdd z` m`zl leki `l owgyy raep o`kn .(zeiexazqdd ltk o`kn) zeielz izla od zepeyd dricid
zeaiyg yi jkle ,zaxern dibhxhqà okzi dfk meìz .zxg` drici zeveawa dlxbdd ze`vez mr zg` drici
.jynda d`xpy itk dax
2
α+β+ m` okl .U
1 dricid zveawa wgyn èd dn dpyn df oi` , R wgyn I owgy xy`k ,mcew epxn`y itk
zaxernd dibhxhq`d γ+δ =1
[α(Ll), β(Lr), γ(Rl), δ(Rr)], (124)
zaxernd dibhxhq`l zibhxhq` dlewy

α β
α(Ll), β(Lr), (γ + δ)(Rl), (γ + δ)(Rr) , (125)
α+β α+β
(!weca) zebdpzdd zibhxhq`l zibhxhq` dlewy dpexg`d efe

α
α + β, . (126)
α+β
xacd ik d`xp jynda .idylk zebdpzd zibhxhq`l zibhxhq` dlewy zaxern dibhxhq` lk df wgyna ,xnelk
.cinz miiwzn epi`
dveawd ziy`x :zeaiq izyn oexzi zeidl ieyr zeaxern zeibhxhq` mewna zebdpzd zibhxhqà yeniyl
drici zeveaw 4 yi owgyl m` lynl . Σi dveawd xy`n mixhnxt zegt ici lr zxèzne “xzei dphw ” dpid Bi
4
zllek zaxern dibhxhqè ,2 = 16 èd zexedhd zeibhxhq`d xtqny ixd ,zg` lka zeaihpxhl` izy mr
lka dpey`xd daihpxhl`l zexazqdd) mipzyn 4 wx zllek zebdpzd zibhxhq` z`f znerl ,mipzyn 15 okl
owgyd : “
xzei zirah ” zi`xp zebdpzd zibhxhq` ,dagx dxeva lecb wgyna ,jkl sqepa .(dricid zveawn zg`
.(dxedhd dibhxhq`d) wgynd zipkz lk zxigal zg` dlxbd `le ribn èd dil` drici zveaw lkl dlxbd rvan
.cala zebdpzd zeibhxhq`l mvnhvdl owgy leki miwgyn eliàe m`d zrcl dvxp ef daiqn
dricid zveawa ely dxigad z` “ xkef epi` ” U12 dricid zveawa I owgy :zcgein dpekz d`xn 8.6 dnbeca oeir
zeibhxhq` oia zeliwyd xqegl daiqd efy xrye mlyen `l oexkif lra wgyn Kuhn `xw dfk wgynl U11
.
dxcbd o`k ìap `l perfect recall

.( ) mlyen oexkif ly byen okl xicbd èd .zebdpzd zeibhxhq`l zeaxern
.ef dxcbd ixeg`n oeirxd z` milina wx oiivp .xzei agx oeice miax mipeniq zyxec ef dxcbdy meyn zilnxet
m` mlyen oexkif yi dagx dxeva wgyna miieqn owgyl
.wgyna mincewd eikldn lk z` xkef owgyd (1)
lk if` (8.2 xeià xèznk) Ui1 ixg` dàd drici zveaw ìd Ui2 m` xnelk ,divnxetpi` ca`n `l owgyd (2)
zveawa mb el dreci (mixg` mipwgy ikldne lxeb ikldn iabl) Ui1 -a i owgyl dreci dzidy divnxetpi`
. Ui2 dricid
zibhxhq` yi ely zaxern dibhxhq` lkl if` ,mlyen oexkif yi i owgyl dagx dxeva wgyna m` (Kuhn) 8.8 htyn
.zibhxhq` dl dlewyd zebdpzd
“ .xac ciqtdl ilan ” zebdpzd zibhxhqà wx ynzydl i owgy leki dfk wgyna
zebdpzd zeibhxhqà lwyn ieey meiw 8.1
miiw mb wgyn lka m`d .zeaxern zeibhxhqà lwyn ieey miiw dagx dxeva wgyn lka ik raep 6.7 htynn
?zebdpzd zeibhxhqà lwyn ieey
.zilily jkl daeyzd ,d`xn dàd dnbecdy itk
8.9 dnbec
.qt` mekq mipwgy ipy wgyn èd àd xeià xèznd wgynd
2 0 −2 0
D E D E
Anne UI2
1 −1
S C S C
1
UI Alex Bob UII
1 1
2 2
8.3 xei`
slw ozip oey`x alya .aea èd II owgy .oè qkl` befdn akxen I owgy :àd oteà wgynd z` yxtl ozip
owgydn 1 lawle (Show) eze` zelbl leki slwd z` laiwy owgyd .deey zexazqda aeal e` qkl`l e` gvpn
(slwd in icia zrcl ilan) xegal o` z`xwp dfk dxwna . (Continue) jiyndl e` (wgynd miizqn dfae) ipyd
slwa wifgnd xnelk , (Double) dikfd mekq z` litkdl e` ( E ) minelyz `ll (End) wgynd z` wiqtdl :oia
.ipyd owgydn 2 lawi
wgynd .{S, C} ìd II owgy ly efe {SD, SE, CD, CE} ìd I owgy ly zexedhd zeibhxhq`d zveaw
(I -l II
-n md minelyzd) :dàd dvixhnd ici lr oezp zibhxhq`d ezxeva
C S
CE 0 − 12
CD 1
0 2
SE 1
2 0
SD − 12 0
1
df melyz dgihany zaxern zilnihte` dibhxhqè v =
,
4 èd zeaxern zeibhxhqà wgynd ly jxrd
[ 12 (C), 12 (S)]
. ìd (zaxern) zilnihte` dibhxhq` II owgyl . σ1 = [0(CE), 21 (CD), 12 (SE), 0(SD)] ìd I owgyl
I owgy ,efk dzid eli` ? σ zaxernd dibhxhq`l zibhxhq` dlewyd zebdpzd zibhxhq` I owgyl yi m`d
1
zeibhxhqà gihadl I owgy lbeqn dn dzr wecap .zebdpzd zibhxhq` ici lr
4 melyz gihadl lbeqn did
.(zebdpzd zibhxhq`l laben èd xy`k ely oinqwnd jxr z` aygp xnelk) zebdpzd
, S xgai qkl`y zexazqdd ìd 0≤α≤1 xyà , b1 = (α, β) ìd I owgy ly zillk zebdpzd zibhxhq`
gxazy zexazqdd ìd 1−β -e) D xgaz o`y zexazqdd ìd 0≤β≤1 -e ,( C xgaiy zexazqdd ìd 1−α -e)
E
.(
:aea ly jldna dielz , b1 dibhxhq`d z` wgyn èd xy`k , I owgy ly melyzd zlgez
:èd melyzd S xgea aea m` •

1 1 1
(α + (1 − α)(2β + 0(1 − β))) + (−1) = (1 − α)(β − ).
2 2 2
:èd melyzd C xgea aea m` •

1 1 1
(α + (1 − α)(2β + 0(1 − β))) + (β(−2) + 0(1 − β)) = α( − β).
2 2 2
èd zebdpzd zeibhxhqà oinqwnd jxr okl

1 1
v b = max min (1 − α)(β − ), α( − β) = 0. (127)
α,β 2 2
1 1
.iaeig-i` ipyd xai`d β≥ 2 mè ,iaeig-i` oey`xd xai`d β≤ 2 m`y meyn ,ok`
1 1 1
-xhqày cera ,
4 melyz zlgez I owgyl dgihna σ1 = [0(CE), 2 (CD), 2 (SE), 0(SD)] dibhxhq`dy oeeikn
zibhxhq` dlewyd zebdpzd zibhxhq` oi` ik miwiqn ep` , 0 wxe j` gihadl lbeqn df owgy zebdpzd zeibh
σ1
. -l
dricid zeveaw izya eizelert oia m`zl oiipern I owgy .zeibhxhq`d ibeq ipy oia lcadd xewn z` ze`xl lw
zaxern dibhxhqà ixyt` dfk meìz . C wgiy qkl` m` D wgyz ìde , S wgiy qkl` m` E wgyz o` :ely
.zeielz izla od (β, 1 − β) -e (α, 1 − α) zelxbddy meyn ,zebdpzd zibhxhqà ixyt` epiè
yi aealy oeeikn .envrl gihadl lbeqn aea dn aygp ,zebdpzdd zibhxhqà jxr oi` wgynly `ceel ick
(θ, 1 − θ) oeniqa ynzyp .jtidle zaxern dibhxhq` mb ìd ely zebdpzd zibhxhq` lk ,zg` drici zveaw
:èd zebdpzd zeibhxhqà II owgy ly qwnpind jxr .( s θ -l zexazqdd ìd ) aea ly zebdpzd zibhxhq` xear

1 1
v̄b = min max θ(1 − α)(β − ) + (1 − θ)α( − β) (128)
θ α,β 2 2

1 1
= min max θ(β − ) + α( − β) (129)
θ α,β 2 2
1
= min max{θ, 1 − θ} (130)
2 θ
1
= . (131)
4
-y oeeik xnelk
1
v̄b = > 0 = vb , (132)
4
.zebdpzdd zibhxhqà jxr oi` df wgynly ixd
lkl mda miwgynd zgtyn ìd zebdpzd zeibhxhqà lwyn ieey miiw mda miwgyn ly zg` dgtyn
.mlyen oexkf yi mipwgyd
.zebdpzd zeibhxhqà lwyn ieey yi ,mipwgyd lkl mlyen oexkif lra iteq wgyna 8.10 htyn
owgy lkl 8.8 htynn .σ zeaxern zeibhxhqà lwyn ieey miiw dfk wgyn lka ik raep 6.7 htynn .dgked
σi
. -l zibhxhq` dlewyd bi zebdpzd zibhxhq` yi i
zlgez z` Ui (b)
-a onqp ep` .zeaxern zeibhxhq`l i owgy ly minelyzd zivwpet ly dagxdd ìd Ui ,xekfk
. b zebdpzdd zeibhxhq` xehwe z` miwgyn mipwgyd xy`k i owgyl melyzd
σi0 zaxern dibhxhq` yi ely b0i zebdpzd zibhxhq` lkle i owgy lkl .lwyn ieey èd b = (bi )i∈N ik d`xp
okl .dl dlewyd
Ui (b−i , b0i ) = Ui (σ−i , σi0 ) ≤ Ui (σ) = Ui (b). (133)
.lwyn ieey ok` èd b okle , bi -n dhqi m` gieexdl leki epi` owgy s`y o`kn
milibxz 8.2
.iaihifpxhe iaiqwltx epid zibhxhq`d zeliwyd qgi ik gked .1
zaxernd dibhxhq`l zibhxhq` dlewyd zebdpzd zibhxhq` oi` ik gked 95 cenra dritend 8.6 dnbeca .2
1 1
.[
2 (Ll), 0(Lr), 0(Rl), 2 (Rr)]
.zebdpzd zeibhxhqàe zeaxern zeibhxhqà àd wgynd jxr z` ayg .3
2
UI
0
UII
1
UI1 2
1
1
0
1
UI3
8.4 xei`
.zebdpzd zeibhxhqà qwnpind jxr zè ,zeaxern zeibhxhqà àd wgynd jxr z` ayg .4
2
UI
1
UI1 −1
2
−2
0
UII 1
8.5 xei`
101 2005 xaehweà 10 lwynd ieey byen ly mipecir 9
2005 xaehweà 10 lwynd ieey byen ly mipecir 9

cg` xegal xyt` mè ,lwynd ieey xtqn z` mvnvl mizirl dvxp cg` lwyn ieeyn xzei yi wgynl xy`k
ieey byen ly (refinements) “ mipecir ” ly jildz mya reci df jildz “

. milpeivx ” mipeixhixw jnq lr mdn
.dagxd ezxeva wgyna ode zibhxhq`d ezxeva wgyna od zeyridl mileki mipecir .lwyn
zcrex-ci-ihwtxt lwyn ieey 9.1
,zibhxhq` dxeva miwgyn xear xcben df byen .zcrex-ci-ihwtxt lwyn ieey èd weqrp ea oey`xd oecird
dxeva miwgyn xear mb swz df oecir ,zibhxhq` dxeva wgynk bivdl ozip dagx dxeva wgyn lky oeeikn j`
.dagx
i (si ) ∈ `di si ∈ Si dibhxhqè i∈N owgy lkle ,zibhxhq` dxeva wgyn (N, (Si )i∈N , (ui )i∈N ) `di 9.1 dxcbd
miiwzny jk [0, 1]
X
i (si ) ≤ 1, ∀i ∈ N. (134)
si ∈Si
ìd i owgy ly zeaxernd zeibhxhq`d zveaw ea wgynd epid Γ(~) labend wgynd

σi ∈ Σi : σi (si ) ≥ i (si ), ∀si ∈ Si . (135)
i (si )
. zegtl zexazqda zwgeyn si dibhxhq` lk Γ(~) wgyna ,milina
:a oneqi Γ(~) wgyna i owgyl zexzend zeaxernd zeibhxhq`d sqe`
Σi (i ) = {σi ∈ Σi : σi (si ) ≥ i (si ), ∀si ∈ Si } . (136)
.dxenwe zihwtnew dpid ef dveaw ik `ceel lwe ,dwix dpi` Σi (i ) ik gihan (134) i`pzd
.àd htynd raep 87 cenra 6.16 libxzn
σ i ∈ Σi miiwzny jk σ = (σi )i∈N zaxern dibhxhq` zniiw ,xnelk .lwyn ieey miiw laben wgyn lka 9.2 htyn
-e i∈N owgy lkl
Ui (σ) ≥ Ui (σ−i , τi ), ∀i ∈ N, τi ∈ Σi (i ). (137)
-a onqp
M (~) = max i (138)

i∈N,si ∈Si
-ae , Γ(~)
-a zilniqwnd dlabdd z`
m(~) = min i (139)

i∈N,si ∈Si
.zilnipind dlabdd z`
9.3 dnbec
àd mipwgy ipy wgyna opeazp
L M
T 1, 1 0, 0
B 0, 0 0, 0
zelabdd xehweeae
1 (T ) = , 2 (L) = ,
2
1 (B) = , 2 (R) = 2.
if` . ∈ (0, 13 ] xyà
M (~) = 2, m(~) = 2 . (140)
melyzd labend wgyna ,hxta .oihelgl zeaxern od Σ2 (2 ) -e Σ1 (1 )

-a zeibhxhq`d lk , m(~) > 0 -y oeeikn
zlgez T wgyi m`y cera 0

, èd lawiy melyzd B wgyi I owgy m` : B zgz melyzdn lecb cinz T zgz
2 2
. (1 − )T + B ìd Σ2 () -a dibhxhq` lk cbpk I owgy ly xzeia daehd daeyzd ,okl .ziaeig el melyzd
xzeia daehd daeyzd okle , L wgyn èd xy`k xzei ddeab II owgy ly melyzd zlgez ik lawp ote` ezeà
(1 − 2)L + 2R
. ìd Σ1 () -a dibhxhq` lk cbpk ely
epid labend wgyna cigid lwynd ieey ik lawp o`kn
([1 − 2 )(T ), 2 (B)], [(1 − 2)(L), 2(R)]).
(B, R)
. -e (T, L) :lwyn iieey ipy yi laben-`ld wgyna ik al miyp
aiiegn II owgy xy`k ,dfk dxwna . B dxedhd dibhxhq`d lr ylg zhley T dxedhd dibhxhq`d ef dnbeca
owgyd lwyn ieeya okle , B xy`n xzei ddeab melyz zlgez daipn cinz T ,oihelgl zeaxern zeibhxhq` wgyl
.dàd dprhd z` okl eplaiw .el zxzend zilnipind zexazqda B z` wgyi
miiwzn labend wgyna σ lwyn ieey lka if` ,ylg zhlyp si m` 9.4 dprh
σi (si ) = i (si ). (141)
mitèye miiaeig md dlabdd ixehwe xy`k ,milaben miwgyna lwyn iieey ly leab ik xne` àd htynd
.y`p lwyn ieey gxkda epid ,qt`l

ieey σk `die ,zelabd xehwe ~k `di k ∈ IN lkl .zibhxhq` dxeva wgyn (N, (Si )i∈N , (ui )i∈N ) `di 9.5 htyn
k
m` . G(~ ) labend wgyna lwyn
, k lkl m(~k ) > 0 .1
, limk→∞ M (~k ) = 0 .2
σ
, zeaxernd zeibhxhq`d xehweel deeye miiw limk→∞ σ k .3
.y`p lwyn ieey èd σ if`
oeeikn .dihq ici lr gieexdl leki epi` owgy s` ik ze`xdl yi y`p lwyn ieey epid σ -y ze`xdl ick .dgked
.dxedh dibhxhq`l dihq ici lr gieexdl leki epi` owgy s` ik ze`xdl ic ,zix`pil-ihlen minelyzd zivwpety
ik d`xp ep` . si ∈ Si -e i∈N ,ok m` ,`di
Ui (σ) ≥ Ui (σ−i , si ). (142)
.àd oteà i owgyl σi0k zaxern dibhxhq` xicbp k lkl

 k (s0 ) s0i 6= si ,
i i
σi0k (s0i ) = (143)
 1−P k
ti 6=si i (ti ) s0i = si .
. si opi`y zelertd lkl zilnipin zexazqd zpzep σi0k ,xnelk
P
ik raep ,
si ∈Si i (si ) ≤1 -y oeeikn
X
σi0k (si ) = 1 − ki (ti ) ≥ i (si ), (144)
ti 6=si
Γ(~k )
. -a i owgyl zixyt` dibhxhq` idef ,xnelk . σi0k ∈ Σi (ki ) okle
miiwzn , Γ(~k )
-a lwyn ieey σk -y oeeikn
Ui (σ k ) ≥ Ui (σ−i
k
, σi0k ), ∀k ∈ IN. (145)
,dtivx Ui -y oeeikne si
, -l 1 zexazqd zpzepd dibhxhq`d ìd σi0k ly seqpi`l sèy k xy`k leabdy oeeikn
leabl xarn ici lr miiwzn
Ui (σ) ≥ Ui (σ−i , si ), (146)
.gikedl epivxy oeieey-i`d edfe
md dlabdd ixehwe xy`k ,milaben miwgyna lwyn iieey ly leabk lawznd zeaxern deibhxhq` xehwe lk
,ilnxet oteà . zcrex-ci-ihwtxt lwyn ieey z`xwp ,qt`l mitèye miiaeig

-ihwtxt lwyn ieey z`xwp (N, (Si )i∈N , (ui )i∈N ) zibhxhq` dxeva wgyna σ zaxern dibhxhq` 9.6 dxcbd
k
m(~ ) > 0 (`) miniiwnd (~k )k∈IN zelabd ixehwe ly dxcq zniiw m` (trembling hand perfect equilibrium) zcrex-ci
k k
miiwzny jk Γ(~ ) wgyna σ lwyn ieey miiw k ∈ IN lkle , limk→∞ M (~k ) = 0 (a)-e k ∈ IN lkl
σ = lim σ k . (147)
k→∞
wgyn lka ik xne` àd htynd .y`p lwyn ieey epid zcrex-ci-ihwtxt lwyn ieey lk ik xne` 9.5 htyn
.cg` zcrex-ci-ihwtxt lwyn ieey zegtl miiw
.cg` zcrex-ci-ihwtxt lwyn ieey zegtl miiw zibhxhq` dxeva wgyn lka 9.7 htyn
limk→∞ M (~k ) = 0
. -e k lkl m(~k ) > 0 zniiwnd zelabd ixehwe ly idylk dxcq (~k )k∈IN `dz .dgked
1
zeibhxhqà lwyn ieey miiw k lkl ik raep 9.2 htynn .si ∈ Si lkle i ∈ IN owgy lkl ki (si ) = k|Si | ,lynl
k k
,(85 cenra 1 libxz d`x) ihwtnew Σ zeaxernd zeibhxhq`d ixehwe agxny oeeikn . G(~ ) wgyna σ zeaxern
kj k
zxcq lr 9.5 htyn z` lirtp . σ -a dxcqd leab z` onqp . (σ )j∈IN zqpkzn dxcq zz yi (σ )k∈IN dxcql
kj kj
.zcrex-ci-ihwtxt lwyn ieey epid σ ik lawpe , (σ )j∈IN lwynd iieey zxcq lre (~ )j∈IN zelabdd ixehwe
epi` ylg zhlypd dxedh dibhxhq` ziaeig zexazqda miwgyn ea y`p lwyn ieey ,9.4 dprha epi`xy itk
.zcrex-ci-ihwtxt epid oihelgl axern lwyn ieey ik d`xn àd htynd .zcrex-ci-ihwtxt zeidl leki
. si ∈ Si lkl σi (si ) > 0 m` oihelgl zaxern z`xwp i owgy ly σi zaxern dibhxhq` 9.8 dxcbd
.ziaeig zexazqda ely zelertd lk z` wgyn owgyd m` oihelgl zaxern dpid dibhxhq` ,xnelk
.zcrex-ci-ihwtxt epid oihelgl zeaxern zeibhxhqà lwyn ieey lk 9.9 htyn
m(~k ) > 0 zniiwnd zelabd ixehwe ly idylk dxcq (~k )k∈IN `dz .oihelgl axern lwyn ieey σ `di .dgked
i (si ) < -y jk eic lecb K0 (si ) yi si lkl limk→∞ M (~k ) = 0 < σi (si )
, -y oeeikn . limk→∞ M (~k ) = 0 -e k lkl
. k ≥ K0 (si ) lkl σi (si )

xicbp
K0 = max K0 (si ), (148)

i∈N,si ∈Si
miiwzn k ≥ K0 lkl ik lawpe
σi ∈ Σi (i ), ∀i ∈ N. (149)
,zeibhxhq` zegt yi labend wgynay oeeikn .labend wgyna xzen σ zeibhxhq`d xehwe k ≥ K0 lkl ,xnelk
.labend wgyna lwyn ieey ìd σ okle ,dihq zeiexyt` zegt yi mipwgyl
k
-ihwtxt lwyn ieey èd σ ik lawpe , (σ) dreawd dxcqd lre (~ )k≥K0 dxcqd lr 9.5 htyn z` ok m` lirtp
.yxcpk ,zcrex-ci
wgyn-zz-ihwtxt lwyn ieey 9.2
9.10 dnbec
.mipwgy ipy mr dagx dxeva àd wgyna opeazp
x R (2, 1)
B II
o L (0, 0)
I
A (1, 2)
9.2 xei`
.àd wgynd èd df wgynl mi`znd zibhxhq` dxeva wgynd
L R
A 2, 1 1, 2
B 0, 0 1, 2
owgy cera oey`xd lwynd ieey z` sicri I owgyy oaen .(A, L) -e (B, R) ,lwyn iieey ipy mpyi df wgyna
?xac ly eteqa wgeyi lwyn ieey dfi` .ipyd z` sicri II

.dagx dxeva wgynd lwynd iieey ipy miriten àd xeià
x R x R
(2, 1) (2, 1)
B II B II
o L (0, 0) o L (0, 0)
I I
A (1, 2) A (1, 2)
Part A Part B
lwynd iieey ipy mr wgynd :9.3 xei`
dcewpa zilpeivx dpi` II owgy ly dibhxhq`d (A, L) lwynd ieeyay gkeep dagxd ezxeva wgyna opeazp m`
iehia icil dà `l ef dxiga mpn` . 1 melyz el zpzepd R -a `le 0 melyz el zpzepd L dlerta xgea èd : x
ze`xl xyt` . “L xgai II f` B xgai I m` ”
y jk lr iepa lwynd ieey j` , A xgea I owgy ik lwynd ieey jldna
zxigan lawn dz`y 1 mewna 0 lawze , L ip` xga` B xegal “frz ” m` : I owgy lr II owgy ly mei` oirn dfa
0 melyza dxiga - zilpeivx `l zebdpzd lr iepa mei`d :`ly orh Reinhard Selten ?oin` df mei` m`d j` A
.
1
. mewna
cg` jldn wx yi eay ilìaixh wgyn-zz edf) x cewcewa ligznd wgynd zza :z`f riadl zxg` dxev
.wgynd zza lwyn ieey dppi`y L dibhxhq`d èd df wgyn-zzl mvnevn (A, L) lwynd ieey ( II owgy ly
:okl xicbde wgyn-zz lka mb lwyn ieey mieednd lwynd ieey mze` z` xegal rivd Selten
m` (subgame perfect) wgyn-zz-ihwtxt lwyn ieey `xwi dagx dxeva wgyn ly lwynd ieey 9.11 dxcbd
.wgyn-zzd ly y`p lwyn ieey mieedn df wgyn-zzl zvnevnd zeibhxhq`d iwlg wgyn-zz lkl
-zz-ihwtxt èd (B, R) -y cera wgyn-zz-ihwtxt eppi` (A, L) lwynd ieey ,epiptly dnbeca epi`xy itk
.x -a ligznd wgynd zza lwyn ieey ìd R dxigad :wgyn
ieey oial ,wgynd ly dagxd dxevd lr iepad ,wgyn-zz-ihwxt lwyn ieey oia xyw ze`xl ozip dnbeca
(A, L) cera zcrex-ci-ihwtxt èd (B, R) :wgynd ly zibhxhq`d dxevd lr iepad ,zcrex-ci-ihwtxt lwyn
(ylg) zhlyp L :ylg zehlyp zibhxhq` ly xfeg weliq ici lr mb zlawzn d`vez dze` df dxwna .dfk eppi`
(B, R)
. z` xi`yny dn , A
-a (wfg) zhley B dibhxhq`d , L weliq ixgè R i"r
lwyn ieey èd wgyn-zz-ihwtxt epi`y lwyn ieey :àd oteà ze`xl xyt` mibyend ipy oia xywd z`
-zz j` ( x
-a ligznd wgynd-zza II owgy enk) wgynd-izzn cgà ilpeivx `l oteà wgyn mieqn owgy eay
(off the equilibrium ,lwynd ieey lelqnl uegn èd wgynd-zzdy xnel bedp .lwyn ieeya byen epi` df wgyn
wgynd icewcew lk ,ziaeig zexazqda zewgeyn zeibhxhq`d lk xnelk ,“ ci zcirx ” yi eay wgyna . path)
`l zxg` ik ,ilpeivx oteà wgyn-zza wgyi `l owgy lwyn ieeyay okzi `l ,okl .ziaeig zexazqda mibyen
.lwyn ieey df did
:(3 libxz d`x) zilnxet gikedl ozip lirl lewiydn
mi`znd dagx dxeva wgyn lka) wgyn-zz-ihwtxt lwyn ieey èd zcrex-ci-ihwtxt lwyn ieey lk 9.12 htyn
.(zibhxhq` dxeva oezpd wgynl
.oekp epi` jetdd oeeikdy d`xn dàd dnbecd
9.13 dnbec
.àd dagx dxeva mipwgy ipy wgyn opeazp
II
R (1, 3)
L (1, 1)
C
I
B R (2, 1)
L (0, 0)
A
(1, 2)
9.4 xei`
:ìd wgynd ly zibhxhq`d dxevd
L R
A 1, 2 1, 2
B 0, 0 2, 1
C 1, 1 1, 3
èd (B, R) ,mcewd wgyna enk ,ik ze`xl lw . (B, R) -e (A, L) lwyn ieey ipy o`k yi mcewd wgyna enk
èd (A, L) (mcewd wgyna enk `ly) dagx dxeva wgyna z`f mr .dfk eppi` (A, L) cera zcrex-ci-ihwtxt
zeihwtxtd zyixc okl ,envr wgynl hxt wgyn-zz oi` df wgynay meyn wgyn-zz-ihwtxt lwyn ieey ok
.wix oteà z`lnzn wgyn-zzl
wgynl m` dnver lrae izernyn dyrp wgyn-zz-zeihwtxt ly oeixhixwdy d`xp lirl ze`nbecd izyn
-zz-zeihwtxt gihadl ick lwynd ieeyn zeyixc ly ax xtqn yi f` ik ,wgyn izz ly lecb xtqn yi oecpd
zeveaw lk eay wgyn edf ,xekfk .znlyen divnxetpi` mr wgyn èd dfk wgyn ly ipeviwd dxwnd .wgyn
.wgyn-zz ly dlgzd cewcew èd cewcew lk dfk wgyna .cg` cewcew zepa od dricid
9.14 dnbec
:znlyen divnxetpi` mr mipwgy ipy wgyn èd àd wgynd
9
C (4, 5)
8
4 I (−10, 10)
B 7
II (3, 7)
2 6
A (−10, 10)
I 3 I 5
(−2, −4)
D
1 (1, 2)
wgyn-zz-ihwtxt lwyn ieey mr wgynd :9.5 xei`
micewcewa miligznd dl` :xzeia miphwd wgynd izza ligzp wgyn-zz ihwtxt lwyn ieey èvnl ick
D
. e` C a miligznd wgynd izz epiidc ,meiq icewcewl mikenq
d`vezl dliaen ef daihpxhl` ik 9

, xgea I owgy eay df èd cigid lwynd ieey C -a ligznd wgyn-zza
df èd cigid lwynd ieey D -a ligznd wgyn-zza ote` ezeà .xzeia deabd èd ely melyzd day (4, 5)
.(−2, −4) d`vezl liaene 5 -a xgea I owgyy
lwynd ieey z`veza D wgyn-zzd zè , (4, 5) ely lwynd ieey z`veza C wgyn-zzd z` silgdl lkep dzr
:(wgynd ly letiw `xwp df jildz) àd wgynd z` lawp . (−2, −4) ely
4 (4, 5)
B
2 II
A
I 3 (−2, −4)
1 (1, 2)
9.6 xei`
:lawpe dfd wgyn-zzd z` ltwp . (4, 5) d`vezl liaeie 4 -a xgai II owgy A-a ligznd wgyn-zza eiykr
2 (4, 5)
A
I
1 (1, 2)
9.7 xei`
(4, 5)
. d`vezl liaene 2 -a xgea I owgy df wgynae
lwyn ieeyl liaed ède , (backward induction) xeg`l divwecpi` `xwp , ?? cenra xak epybt eze` ,df jildz
xeg`l divwecpi` ly df jildzy ze`xl lw .wgyn-zz-ihwtxt lwyn ieey èd eziipa itl xy` , ((2, 5, 9), 4)
z` eplaiw okl .zexedh zeibhxhqà wgyn-zz-ihwtxt lwyn ieeyl znlyen drici lra iteq wgyn lka liaei
.àd htynd
.zexedh zeibhxhqà wgyn-zz-ihwtxt lwyn ieey yi znlyen drici lra dagx dxeva iteq wgyn lkl 9.15 htyn
dgkedd .xzeia milecba dlke xzeia miphwdn ,wgyn-izzd lr divwecpià zrvazn htynd zgked .dgked
.`xewl zx`yen zilnxetd
opyi .xeg`l divwicpi`d jildzd z` ligzdl zexyt` oi` zxg` ik ,dgkedl zigxkd wgynd ly zeiteqd 9.16 dxrd
.( 1992-n Mycielski ly wxta 3.1 dprh ,dnbecl ,d`x) miiw epi` jxrd mda miiteqpi` miwgyn ly ze`nbec
cg` lk xegal ozip ,owgyd ly zlrezd z` minqwnny mikldn xtqn yi xeg`l divwecpi`d jildza xy`k 9.17 dxrd
(wgyn-zz-mihwtxt mleky) lwyn ieey xtqn zeidl mileki okle ,xg` lwyn ieeyl liaez dxiga lk .jildzd jyndl mdn
.xeg`l divwecpi`d jildza milawznd
miligzn ep` oi` f`y `l` ,znlyen drici ilra mpi`y miwgyna mb zeyridl leki xeg`l divwecpi`d jildz 9.18 dxrd
dfky wgyn-zzly oeeik .wgyn-zzl mini`znd “meiql xzeia miaexwd ” micewcwa `l` meiql mipkyd micewcwdn `weec
zeibhxhqà wgyn-zz-ihwtxt lwyn ieey meiwl dgked df jildza oi`y ixd ,zexedh zeibhxhqà lwyn ieey gxkda oi`
.znlyen `l drici mr wgyn ly dxwna zexedh
idef .mirevia xwga inpicd zepkzd oexwrl miwgynd zxez zqxb dyrnl èd xeg`l divwecpi` jildz 9.19 dxrd
ly avn lkl , n oexg`d alya dlertd ly divfinihteà miligzn :zialy-ax divfinihte`l xzeia ziyeniye zirah dyib
n−2
.'eke , alya zkxrn avn lkl n − 1-d alya dlertd ly divfinihte` miyer jk xg` . n−1 alya zkxrnd
mizirl xxern miwgynd zxeza da yeniydy ixd ,icnl zrpkyn zibel dhiy xeg`l divwecpi`d zeid lk mr
divfinihte` zeiraa miiw `ly xac ,mdipia divw`xhpiè zehlgd ilawn xtqn yiy dcaerdn zeraepd zel`y
.zeiziirad z` zeyignnd ze`nbec xtqna opeazp .mirevia xwga zinpic
xeq`d znlic ly xfeg wgyn 9.20 dnbec
:dàd dvixhna miritend minelyzd mr xiq`d znlicn `vp
D C
D 1, 1 4, 0
C 0, 4 3, 3
mipwgyl mircep aly lk seqa xy`k ,minrt 100 dfd dvixhnd wgyn z` miwgyn II I
-e mipwgyd ipyy gipp
.minelyzd mb okle ,aly ezeà mdipy ly mikldnd

zhleyd) D z` lwyn ieeya xgai owgy lk (oexg`d) 100 -d wgyna :xeg`l divwecpià wgynd z` gzpp
o`kn D
. -l dihq ici lr melyzd z` licbdl ozip did zxg` :mincewd mialya mikldna zelz `ll ( C -a wfg
oke 99 -d alya mb D wgyi owgy lk okle lwyn ieeya wgynd jynd lr drtyd mey oi` 99 -d alya jldnly
miwgyn mipwgyd ipyy èd cigid wgyn-zz-ihwtxtd lwynd ieeyy ìd xeg`l divwecpi`d ze`vez :d`ld
.(11 wxt d`x) cigi wgyn-zz-ihwtxt wx `le cigid lwynd ieey edfy gikedl ozip dyrnl .mialyd lka D
zexfga (3, 3) ly melyz elawiy jk wgyl jxc e`vni miilpeivx mipwgy ipyy xiaq - dxiaq zi`xp `l ef d`vez
ik mixy`n mpn` eyrpy miax miieqip .mialyd lka (1, 1) melyz mr (D, D) ewgyi `le ,wgynd ly zepey`xd
.miax mialy jyna dlert mitzyn mipwgyd
(centipide game) miilbxd daxn wgyn 9.21 dnbec
mrtdy `l` ,mialy 100 ea yiy mipwgy ipy wgyn èd s` 29 cenra 15 libxza epybty miilbxd daxn wgyn
owgy wgyn t = 1, 3, . . . , 99 miibef i`d mialya :oibexiql `l` (xiq`d znlica enk) miiphleniq mpi` mikldnd
èd xnelk) (t, t − 1) èd melyzd t alya wiqtn èd m` . C ezkynd oial S wgynd zwqtd oia hilgn ède I
èd mbe ,t = 2, 4, . . . , 100 miibefd mialya wgyn II owgy .jynp wgynd zxg` .( t−1 lawn II owgye t lawn
m` . (t − 2, t + 1) èd melyzd t alya wgynd z` wiqtn èd m` C

. ekyndl S wgynd zwqtd oia hilgn
dagx dxeva wgynd xeìz . II owgyl 100 I-e owgyl 101 èd melyzd mialyd 100 meza wiqtn `l owgy mey
:miilbxd daxn wgyn `xwp èd recn xidai
Stage 1 2 3 4 99 100
I II I II I II (101, 100)
C C C C C
S S S S S S
(1, 0) (0, 3) (3, 2) (2, 5) (99, 98) (98, 101)

9.8 xei`
lkae 1 lwy (dgpndn) lawn I owgy xy`k ligzn wgynd :dàd jxca ìd wgynd lr aeygl zg` jxc
dgpnd fè ,xg`d owgyl cg` lwy zzl e` xavy sqkd mr z`vle wgynd z` wiqtdl e` leki owgy lk aly
I owgy .milwy 98 yi II owgyle ,milwy 99 yi I owgyl 99 alya lynl .milwy ipy cer xg`d owgyl siqen
I owgyl okl .milwy ipy cer II owgyl siqen dgpnd fè II owgyl cg` lwy zzl e` wgynd z` wiqtdl leki
.milwy 101 yi II owgyle milwy 98 dzr yi
cera ,milwy 101 mr miiqi wiqti m` :wiqtdl jixv II owgy 100 alya ?xeg`l divwecpi`d epl zxne` dn
99 alya jiyni m`y rcei I owgy :wiqtdl I owgy lr 99 alya ,jky oeeik .milwy 100 mr miiqi jiyni m`y
oerih .wiqti èd wgyn-zz-ihwtxt lwyn ieeya okl .milwy 99 lawi wiqti m` eliè milwy 98 lawi èd
owgyd aly lka eay df èd df wgyna cigid wgyn-zz-ihwtxt lwynd ieey okle ,mialyd lka lawzn dnec
(1, 0)
. okl eidi minelyzde ,oey`xd alya wgynd z` wiqtn I owgy ,hxta .wgynd z` wiqtn wgyl exezy
daxd minelyz yi xy`k (1, 0) melyza ewtzqi `l miilpeivx mipwgy :zrcd lr zlawzn `lk zi`xp ef d`vez
miilbxd daxn dlrna “ miqthn ” miyp` ik mi`xn oiipra ekxrpy miieqip .“ miilbx daxn dlrna ” mideab xzei
.wgynd z` “wiqtn ” mdn cg` fè ,miieqn aly cr

Kohlberg .zilpeivx zebdpzd z` dcal x`zl dwitqn dpi` xeg`l divwecpi`dy xexa el` ze`nbec izyn
dcaerdn mlrzne wgynd jynda wx lkzqn owgyd aly lka xeg`l divwecpiày 1986 -a eprh and Mertens
ly ezebdpzd lr edyn cnll dleki igkepd eavnl ribd wgyndy dcaerd .`vnp èd ea avna `vnp wgyndy
ipyd owgydy il xxazn xiq`d znlic ly iyilyd alya m` ,dnbecl .oeayga dìadl yi okle ,ipyd owgyd
jka yi ile` .oeayga z`f ìadl jixv ip`y ixd “ ilpeivx `l ” dfy jkl xarn ,mincewd mialyd ipya C wgy
it lr bdp `l I owgyy oniq ,wgyl `xwp miilbxd daxn wgyna II owgy m` ,ote` ezeà ?(C, C) wgyl zezi`
mpn` - 3 alya mb wiqti `l I owgyy xiaq ,èd s` jiyni m`y xryl leki II owgy .wiqtd `le lwynd ieey
,f` wiqtd `l m` 1
. alya wiqtdl el dxn` mb ìd j` , 3 alya wiqtdl I owgyl zxne` xeg`l divwecpi`d
?zrk wiqtiy recn
o`k ìap `l . (forward induction) miptl divwecpi` mi`xew wgynd ly dixehqidl zernyn zqgiind dyibl
.àd wgyna z`f mibcp wx `l` miptl divwecpi`d byen ly ilnxet gezit
9.22 dnbec
.II Ie mipwgyd oia àd wgyna opeazp
II
R (1, 5)
L (1, 1)
C
I
B R (0, 0)
L (3, 2)
A
(2, 3)
9.9 xei`
:zexedh zeibhxhqà lwyn ieey ipy yi df wgynl
(2, 3)
. melyzl mi`znd , (A, R) •
. (3, 2) melyzl mi`znd , (B, L) •
yexit ixd wgyl `xwp mpn` èd m` ? R wgyi II owgyy xiaq m`d ?xiaq lwyn ieey èd (A, R) m`d
on .cala 1 melyz dgihany C xgaiy okl xiaq `l .2 melyz el gihan didy A -a xga `l I owgyy xacd
M
, -l R oia oigan `l II owgyy zexnl ,zexg` milina 3
. ly melyz el ìadl dieyry B -a xga èd mzqd
I
, owgy ly zeilpeivxd jnq lr ,wiqdl leki èd owgyl `xwp ède ef drici zveawl ribdy dcaerd mvrn ixd
.C `le B wgiy I owgyy
xeg`l divwecpiè zeilpeivx 9.3
elit` zeihphqiqpew ly zeira xxerl ieyr zeilpeivxd byena iaihwecpi` yeniye ziaihwecpi`d daiygd
:àd wgyna opeazp .envr zeilpeivxd byenl

r (2, 1)
I b (1, 1)
O l II d (0, 0)
A a I
c (1, 2)
B
9.10 xei`
II owgy xgea A dcewpa recn . (2, 1) melyz mr (r, c; a) ìdy cigi wgyn-zz-ihwtxt lwyn ieey df wgynl
xy`n xzei aeh èd II owgy xeary , (1, 2) melyz lawzie c-a df dxwna xgai èd ilpeivx I owgy m` ik ? a
-a
l -a xga èd :ilpeivx `l I owgyy raep A dcewpl ribd II owgyy df mvrn j` .b xga eli` lawn didy (1, 1)
ile` B
? -a ilpeivx didi I owgyy II owgy gipi recn f` .2 el dgihany r -a xga `le ,1 xzeid lkl el dgihand
? 1 melyz envrl gihadle b -a xegal II owgy ly ecivn ilpeivx xzei df
(3, 1)
. -l (1, 1) melyzd z` wx epipiy eay àd wgyna xzei cer iziira avnd
r (2, 1)
I b (3, 1)
O l II d (0, 0)
A a I
c (1, 2)
B
9.11 xei`
divwecpi`d it lr o`k mb . (2, 1) melyz mr , (r, c; a) èd cigid wgyn-zz-ihwtxtd lwynd ieey df wgyna mb
wiqdl jixv A-a `vnpd II owgy okl . (1, 2) melyzl liaez l zxigay oeeik , l xegal I owgyl ilpeivx df oi` xeg`l
.ze`ceea 1 lawl ick , b -a xgai II owgy A -ay okzi okl . a -a xgai m` (0, 0) -n yeygl ileè ,ilpeivx `l I owgyy
l -a xgead I owgy mpn`d ,ok m` . r dxigad dìany 2 mewna 3 melyz I owgyl ìaz l -a dxigad df dxwna
?ilpeivx epi`
milibxz 9.4
:miàd miwgyna miihwtxtd lwynd iieey lk z` `vn .1
L M
T 1, 1 1, 0
B 1, 0 0, 1
Part A
R C L
−1, −2 0, 0 1, 1 T
0, −2 0, 0 0, 0 M
−2, −2 −2, 0 −2, 1 B
Part B
L C R
T 1, 2 3, 0 0, 3
M 1, 1 2, 2 2, 0
B 1, 2 0, 3 3, 0
Part C
gxkda m`d .qt` mekq mipwgy ipy wgyna mipwgyd ipyl zeilnihte` zeibhxhq` x2 -e x1 dpiidz .2
.zicbp dnbec `vn e` gked ?ihwtxt lwyn ieey èd (x1 , x2 )
.106 cenra 9.12 htyn z` gked .3
.mipwgy ipy mr àd wgyna opeazp .4
c (20, 7)
a II
e (3, 6)
I d I
f (4, 8)
b (5, −20)
.xeg`l divwecpi` jildza lwyn ieey `vn (`)
.xzei deab melyz milawn mipwgyd ipy ea sqep lwyn ieey `vn (a)
.zibhxhq` dxeva wgynd z` bvd : fnx

?a4 sirqa z`vny lwynd ieey ly zepexqgde zepexzid md dn (b)
.zeàd zel`yd lr dpr qt` mekq mipwgy ipy mr miwgynd ipy xear .5
.xeg`l divwecpi` zervnà milawznd lwynd iieey lk z` `vn (`)
.zibhxhq` dxeva miwgynd z` x`z (a)
.mitqep lwyn iieey mpyi m` weca (b)
c 3
a II
e 3
I d I
f 2
b 3
Part A
c 4
a II
d 5
I e 6
2/3 II
b −6
0 g f −9
1/3 II 12
h
Part B
9.12 xei`
:qt` mekq mipwgy ipy mr wgyn èdy ,àd wgynd ly lwynd iieey lk z` `vn .6
c 12
a II
d 15
I
e 8
b II
f 10
.xeg`l divwecpià lawzdl mileki wgyna lwynd iieey lk `l recn xaqd
dxeva wgynd z` bivdl ila dl`yd lr dpr ? (3, 0, 3) melyzl liaend lwyn ieey miiw àd wgyna m`d .7
.jzprhl dgked oze ,dagx
(3, 3, 0)
I
(2, 4, 1) (3, 0, 3)
(0, 2, 4)
III
II
(2, 3, 1)
I II I
(4, 2, 2)
(2, 1, 0) III
(0, 5, 1)
(1, 5, 3)
milawzn mdn eli` oiive ,lwynd iieey lk z` `vn (25 cenra 6 libxz d`x) oebxitl dxagd wgyna .8
.xeg`l divwecpià
.mipwgy dyely mr àd wgyna opeazp .9
(0, 3, 0)
I (2, 1, 0)
II (0, 0, 3)
III (1, 2, 0)
III (2, 2, 1)
III (3, 2, 2)
I (3, 1, 1)
II (1, 0, 2)
I (2, 1, 3)
III (0, 3, 2)
I (3, 2, 1)
II (0, 1, 2)
II (3, 0, 2)
II (2, 3, 1)
III (2, 0, 3)
I (1, 1, 1)
.xeg`l divwecpi` ici lr milawznd lwynd iieey lk z` `vn (`)
.wgyn-zz-miihwtxtd lwynd iieey lk z` `vn (a)
.dagx dxeva wgynl wgynd z` jetd (b)
.mitqep lwyn iieey yi m` `vn (c)
ieey epi`y wgyn-zz-ihwtxt lwyn ieey yi ea d`ln divnxetpi` mr dagx dxeva wgyn ly dnbec oz .10
.zcrex-ci-ihwtxt lwyn
zexrd 9.5
.9-e 8 ,7 ,4 milibxzd z` mxzy Lloyd Shapley -l micen ep`

115 zlrezd zxez 10
zlrezd zxez 10
m`d j` .ely melyzd zlgez z` mqwnl dqpn owgy lk ik epgpde ,zilnxep dxeva miwgyn epcnl ?? wxta
?dpekp ef dgpd
.dàd dnbecd zxfra ef dgpd ly zeiziirad z` mibcp
10.1 dnbec
.I owgyl mlyi II owgyy mekqd z` mix`zn minelyzd ea ,mipwgy ipy mr àd wgyna opeazp
L R
T g"y 0 g"y 15000
C g"y 15000 g"y 0
B g"y 7000 g"y 7000
owgyle ,zeey zeiexazqda zexedhd zeibhxhq`d izy z` wgyl II owgyl drivn dk cr epcnly dxezd
1
,df dxwna . 0 zexazqda dpezgzd dxeyd zè ,zg` lk
2 zexazqda zepeilrd zexeyd izy z` wgyl I
ok` jk ,minrt daxd wgeyi df wgyny y`xn reci did m` ,wtq ila .g"y 7500 ìd I owgyl melyzd zlgez
miwgyny wgyna xaecnd o`k la` .wgynl g"y 7500 rvenna lawl dtvi I owgyy meyn ,mipwgyd ewgyi
?epzvlnd itl wgyl owgyd xgai oiicr m`d .cala zg` mrt
1 1
.
2 zexazqda xac meye ,
2 zexazqda g"y 15000 lawi da dlxbd didz d`vezd ,el eprvdy itk wgyi m`
? B wgyiy jka g"y 7000 dghaa lawl leki èd xy`k ,mekqd lk ly cqtd okql el i`ck m`d
m`d .g"y 15000 ly qxtd zxenz elit` ,cqtd okql `le B

, wgyl eticri mc`d ipa aexy d`xn oeiqpd
oekiq i`pey md mc`d ipa aexy èd xacd yexit !`le `l ?ilpeivx oteà mibdpzn mpi` mc`d ipay xacd yexit
.ynn sqkl dlewy dpi` sqk ly zlgez ,mc` ipa xear .dnbeca enk minekqa xaecndyk
myiil lkep cvik ,llkae ?miitqk minelyza xaecnyk miyi epi` dk cr epcnly dn lky èd xacd yexit m`d
xz`d ìd wgynd z`vez xy`k dxew dn ?mixtqna ze`hean opi` wgynd ze`vez xy`k epcnly dxezd z`
?df dxwna zepey ze`vez oia rvnp cvik .xepzd zxeny e` icb oir - dgtynd xwaz ea
xtqn dlxbd lkl mi`zpy jk ici lr dze` xeztl erivde ,ef diral mixr eid Morgenstern -e von Neumann
sicri owgyd :owgyd sicrn dlxbd efi` wecal ick ynyl dplkez zelrezd dlxbdd ly zlrezd
. `xwpd ,iynn
dxezd ,zlgez iaeyig zxfra zlrezd z` aygl ozip m` ik d`xp ep` .xzeia ddeabd zlrezd mr dlxbdd z`
.zlgez iaeyig zxfra zelrez xicbdl ozip izn d`xp mb ep` .lwyn ieey iaeyigl dniyi mincewd miwxta epcnly
lcend 10.1
-a zeixyt`d ze`vezd z` onqp .miqxt e` ,zeixyt` ze`vez ly iteq xtqn yi wgynl ik gipp ep`
A1 , A2 , . . . , AK
.
. “
g"y 15000” = A3 -e “ g"y 7000” = A2 “ , g"y 0” = A1 :zeixyt` ze`vez yely opyi 10.1 dnbeca
.ze`vez lr zelxbd xtqn mièx 10.1 xeià .el` ze`vez lr zelxbdd agxn èd milret epgp` ea agxnd
116 zlrezd zxez 10
A1 A2 A5 A7 A1 A2 A5 A7
1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1
2 4 8 8 3 3 2 2
Part C Part B Part A

ze`vez lr zelxbd :10.1 xei`
zeiexazqda A7 -e A5 ze`vezd oia dlxbd mièx ep` A wlga :ze`vez lr zelxbd yely mièx ep` df xeià
1 2
zeiexazqda A7 e` A5 A2 A1
, , dpid d`vezd C wlgae ,
3 iekiqa A2 -e
3 iekiqa A1 ìd d`vezd B wlga ,zeey
1 1 1 1
.dn`zda
8 -e 8 ,
4 ,
2
1
, mnekqy miilily-i` mixtqn md p1 , . . . , p K xyà , pk zexazqda Ak d`vez lk zlawzn da L dlxbd
:àd oteà zpneqn

L = p1 (A1 ), p2 (A2 ), . . . , pK (AK ) . (150)
od 10.1 xeià zeritend zelxbdd zyely ,dl` mipeniqa

1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
(A5 ), (A7 ) , (A1 ), (A2 ) , (A1 ), (A2 ), (A5 ), (A7 ) .
2 2 3 3 2 4 8 8
dlxbdl lewy Ak qxtd ,xnelk . 1 zexazqda df qxt zpzepd dlxbdd mr ddfp Ak qxtd z`

0(A1 ), 0(A2 ), . . . , 0(Ak−1 ), 1(Ak ), 0(Ak+1 ), . . . , 0(AK ) .
ernyn L1 %i L2 ,xnelk .zelxbdd lk agxn lr xcbend %i zeyic`-e`-zeticr qgi yi i owgy lkl ik gipp ep`
.odipia yic` èdy e` , L2 dlxbdd ipt lr L1 dlxbdd z` sicrn i owgyy
:dzerx lr zg` dlxbd ynn sicrn i owgy izn x`znd , i zeticrd qgi z` xicbdl ozip %i qgid zervnà
L1 i L2 ⇐⇒ L1 %i L2 mbe L2 6%i L1 . (151)
:zelxbd izy oia yic` owgy izn - ≈i zeyic`d qgi z` xicbp ,ok enk
L1 ≈i L2 ⇐⇒ L1 %i L2 mbe L2 %i L1 . (152)
zxcbend ziynn divwpet ìd i owgy xear ui zlrez zivwpet i owgy ly zeyic`/zeticr qgi %i
. `di 10.2 dxcbd
zniiwne zelxbdd agxn lr
ui (L1 ) ≥ ui (L2 ) ⇐⇒ L1 %i L2 .
117 zlrezd zxez 10
.owgyd ly zeieticrd z` mitwyn dikxry divwpet ìd zlrez zivwpet ,milina
.zeix`pil zlrez zeivwpet dpqetzz df wxta cgein ciwtz
dlxbd lkl m` zix`pil z`xwp ui zlrez zivwpet 10.3 dxcbd

miiwzn L = p1 (A1 ), p2 (A2 ), . . . , pK (AK )
ui (L) = p1 ui (A1 ) + p2 ui (A2 ) + · · · + pK ui (AK ).
zlrez zivwpet .miqxtd ly zlrezd zlgez ìd dlxbd ly zlrezd ,zix`pil ìd zlrezd zivwpet m`
oxhypbxen oniep-oet zlrez

. z`xwp mb zix`pil
.mincewd miwxta epcnly dxeza ynzydl ozip ,zeix`pil zlrez zeivwpet yi mipwgyd lkl m` ik d`xp ep`
miwgynd zxezl zlrezd zxez oia xywd 10.2
.àd wgynd enk ,mipwgy ipy wgyn epiptl ik zrk gipp
y1 y2 y3
x2 A1 A2 A3
x1 A4 A5 A6
A1 , A2 , . . . , A6
. ,zeixyt` ze`vez 6 yi df wgyna
u2
. -e u1 zix`pil zlrez zeivwpet yi mipwgyd ipyl ik gipp .zelxbd lr dtcrd qgi epyi mipwgydn cg` lkl
zexazqdd .zeixyt`d ze`vezd lr dlxbd dxyn y = (y1 , y2 , y3 ) -e x = (x1 , x2 ) zeaxern zeibhxhq` bef lk
:dàd dlahd ici lr dpezp lawzz d`vez lky
A6 A5 A4 A3 A2 A1 d`vez
x2 y3 x2 y2 x2 y1 x1 y3 x1 y2 x1 y1 zexazqd
:ze`vezd lr dàd dlxbdd z` dxyn zeaxern zebihxhq` bef lk ,xnelk

L = Lx,y = x1 y1 (A1 ), x1 y2 (A2 ), x1 y3 (A3 ), x2 y1 (A4 ), x2 y2 (A5 ), x2 y3 (A6 ) . (153)
ìd ef dlxbdn i owgy ly zlrezd ,zix`pil mipwgyd ipy ly zlrezd zivwpety oeeikn
ui (L) = x1 y1 ui (A1 ) + x1 y2 ui (A2 ) + x1 y3 ui (A3 )

+x2 y1 ui (A4 ) + x2 y2 ui (A5 ) + x2 y3 ui (A6 ). (154)
ly zlrezd z` miazek dvixhna `z lka ea wgyna i owgyl melyzd zlgez weica ìd ef dlxbdn zlrezd
:`z ezeà zlawznd d`vezdn owgyd

118 zlrezd zxez 10
y1 y2 y3
x2 u1 (A1 ), u2 (A1 ) u1 (A2 ), u2 (A2 ) u1 (A3 ), u2 (A3 )
x1 u1 (A4 ), u2 (A4 ) u1 (A5 ), u2 (A5 ) u1 (A6 ), u2 (A6 )
zlrez igpena wgynd :10.2 xei`
xeiày wgyna lwyn ieey ytgl dvxpy ixd ,ely zlrezd z` mqwnl ìd owgy lk ly ezxhn m`y ,o`kn
.ezlrez z` licbi `l lwynd ieeya ewlgn dhqiy owgy lky ixd df wgyna lwyn ieey èd (x, y) m` ,ok` .10.2
,okl .qt` mekq epi` 10.2 xeiày wgynd ,zepey mipwgyd ly zlrezd zeivwpet llk jxcay oeeikny al miyp
zlrez igpenay ixd I

, owgyl mlyn II owgyy sqk mekq ìd ez`vezy wgyn èd ixewnd wgynd m` elit`
.qt` mekq epi`y wgyn ,aexl ,didi wgynd
zeniiw cinz m`d .zeix`pil zeidl zlrezd zeivwpet lr ,zlrezd zlgezl zernyn didzy icky mièx ep`
?zeix`pil zlrez zeivwpet
zegpd yng zeniiwn mipwgyd ly zeieticrd m`y d`xp àd sirqa .zilily dpid illk oteà daeyzd
. zeneiqw` mya zegpdd z` dpkp ep` .zeix`pil zlrez zeivwpet zeniiw ,zrcd lr zelawzn
zlrezd zxez ly zeneiqw`d 10.3
,xzei lecb agxn xear `l` ,zelxbd xear wx zexcben opi` owgy lk ly zetcrddy yexcp ep` ,xac ly ezin`l
.zeakxend zelbxdd agxn
-k dpezp zakxen dlxbd ,xnelk .zelxbd lr dlxbd dpid zakxen dlxbd 10.4 dxcbd

L = q1 (L1 ), . . . , qJ (LJ ) ,
mrxtqn miniiw 1 ≤ j ≤ J lkl ,xnelk .zelxbd od L1 , . . . , LJ -e ,1 mnekqy miilily-i` mixtqn md q1 , . . . , qJ xyà

j
p1 (A1 ), . . . , pjK (AK ) -y jk 1 mnekqy miilily-i`

. Lj =
.zeakxen zelxbd oial opia lcadd z` yibcdl ick , zeheyt zelxbd mya `xwp L zelxbdl
.àd xeià driten zakxen dlxbdl zitxb dnbec
A1 A2 A5 A7
2 1 1 1
3 3 2 2
3 1
4 4
zakxen dlxbdl dnbec :10.3 xei`

119 zlrezd zxez 10
1 1
2 1

ìd 10.3 xeià dritend zakxend dlxbddy ixd , L2 = 2 (A5 ), 2 (A7 ) -e L1 = 3 (A1 ), 3 (A2 ) onqp m`

3 1
L= (L1 ), (L2 ) .
4 4
: 1 zexazqd L dlxbdl zpzepd L zakxen dlxbd mr L dlxbd lk zedfl ozip

L = 1(L) .
dheytd dlxbdd mr zedfl ozip Ak qxt lk ,okl

L = 0(A1 ), . . . , 0(Ak−1 ), 1(Ak ), 0(Ak+1 ), . . . , 0(AK ) (155)
.[1(L)] zakxend dlxbdd mre
,zeheytd zelxbdd lk z` llek Lb ik mièx ep` zncewd dwqtdn .zeakxend zelxbdd lk sqe` z` Lb
-a onqp
.mnvr miqxtd lk z` mb okle
ly zeyic`/zeticrd qgil zeqgiizn dl` zeneiqw` .oxhypbxene oniep-oet ly zeneiqw`d z` x`zp zrk
.i owgy
zeiaihifpxh 10.3.1
.dtcrd qgi ly zepekz xtqn xicbp dligz
e`) L2 -i L1 -y e` L1 -i L2 -y e` L1 , L2 ∈ Lb
, zelxbd izy lkl m` mly `xwp -i dtcrd qgi 10.5 dxcbd
.(mdipy
L1 -i L3
. mb miiwzn if` L2 -i L3 -e L1 -i L2 miiwzn xy`k m` iaihifpxh `xwp -i dtcrd qgi 10.6 dxcbd
Lb agxnd
. lr xcbend ,iaihifpxhe mly qgi èd -i zeyic`/zeticrd qgi (zeiaihifpxhe zenly) 5 dneiqw`
,iaihifpxh qgidy oeeikn Aj

. -e Ai zeixyt` ze`vez izy lk oia zeeydl ozip mly èd dtcrdd qgiy oeeikn
ik gipp ep` .ztcren zegtl xzeia ztcrendn - xcq itl ze`vezd z` xcql mb ozip
A1 -i A2 -i · · · -i AK . (156)
A1
. ,aeh zegt ikd qxtd ipt lr ynn scren AK xzeia deabd qxtd ,xnelk , A1 ≺i AK ik gipp miizpia
jynda oecp eae ,heyt epid df dxwn .miqxtd lk oia yic` owgyd qgid zeiaihifpxhn if` A1 ≈i AK m`
.wxtd
zetivx 10.3.2
:g"y 0 ipt lr g"y 100 lawl sicrie ,g"y 100 ipt lr g"y 300 lawl sicri xiaq zehlgd lawn lk
g"y 0 ≺i g"y 100 ≺i g"y 300.

120 zlrezd zxez 10
lr (xac lawl `l 0.01% zexazqdae) 99.99% zexazqda g"y 300 lawl sicri zehlgdd lawn ik gipdl mb xiaq
zexazqda g"y 300 ly dlaw ipt lr ze`ceea g"y 100 lawl sicri èdy mb xiaq .g"y 100 ly zi`ce dlaw ipt
,ilnxet oteà .(xac lawl `l 99.99% zexazqdae) 0.01%

0.01%( g"y 300), 99.99%( g"y 0) ≺i 100 ≺i 99.99%( g"y 300), 0.01%( g"y 0) .
dticr dlxbdd dyrz (g"y 0 lawl zexazqdd z` oihwp okle) g"y 300 lawl zexazqdd z` licbpy lkk
xiaq ,zetivx ilewiyn ,okl .g"y 300 lawl zexazqdd z` oihwp xy`k zegt dticr dyrz ìd ,dnec oteà .xzei
el zpzepd dlxbde ,g"y 100 ly zi`ce dlaw oia yic` didi zehlgdd lawny jk p zniieqn zexazqd didzy
: 1−p zexazqda g"y 0 -e p zexazqda g"y 300

p(300), (1 − p)(0) ≈i 100.
mqwnl zpiipern ,zerwyd daxd dly lnb ztew :mipey zehlgd ilawn xear dpey p ly wiiecnd jxrd ik xexa
1 1
oekiqd iade`le ,
3 -n deab didi oekiq ade` epi`y mc` ly p -d .p= 3 dxeare ,oekiqa zelz `ll geexd zlgez z`
1
.
3 -n ohw p yi eppiay
dticrd d`vezd ìd AK -y jk zexceqn ze`vezdy xekfp) dàd zetivxd zneiqw` z` gqpl ok m` lkep
:(dticrd zegtd d`vezd ìd A1 -e ,xzeia
-y jk bki ≤ 1
0≤u yi k = 1, . . . , K lkl (zetivx) 6 dneiqw`
k
bki )(A1 ) .

Ak ≈i u
bi (AK ), (1 − u
zeipehepen 10.3.3
lawl zexazqdd z` oihwdle ,zedeab ze`vez lawl zexazqdd z` licbdl sicri xiaq zehlgd lawn lk
.dàd dneiqwà mkqp efd dpgadd z` .zekenp ze`vez
m` wxe m` β < α .A1 ≺i AK ik gippe , [0, 1] rhwa mixtqn α, β eidi (zeipehepen) 7 dneiqw`

β(AK ), (1 − β)(A1 ) ≺i α(AK ), (1 − α)(A1 ) .
.dàd dprhd zraep zeipehepend zneiqw`n
k = 1, . . . , K lkl if` , AK A1 mè ,zeipehepende zetivxd zeneiqw` z` miiwn zeyic`/zeticrd qgi m` 10.7 dprh
miiwnd cigi bki

u miiw
k
bki )(A1 ) .

Ak ≈i u
bi (AK ), (1 − u (157)
121 zlrezd zxez 10
miiwzn gxkda zeipehepende zetivxd zeneiqw` z` miiwn zeyic`/zeticrd qgi m` ik al miyp
b1i = 0,
u bki = 1.
u (158)
zelxbd ly heyit 10.3.4
,mipeyd miqxtd ly zeiexazqdd wx èd dlxbdl dtcrdd qgi z` raewy dny zxne` dàd dneiqw`d
miqxtd ly zeiexazqdl rbepd lka ,10.3 xeià dritend dlxbda opeazp m` ,lynl .dlxbdd zrvean ea ote`d `le
lawzzy iekiqd 10.3 xeià dritend dlxbda ,ok` .10.1( C ) xeià dritend dlxbdl dlewy ef dlxbd ,mipeyd
1 1 1
lawzzy iekiqde ,
8 èd A5 d`vezd lawzzy iekiqd ,
4 èd A2 d`vezd lawzzy iekiqd ,
2 èd A1 d`vezd
1
.ok mb
8 èd A7 d`vezd
.elld zelxbdd oia yic` didi zehlgdd lawny dcaerd z` drian dàd dneiqw`d
dàd dheytd dlxbdd Lj `dz j = 1, . . . , J lkl (heyit) 8 dneiqw`
Lj = pj1 (A1 ), pj2 (A2 ), . . . , pjK (AK ) ,

zakxend dlxbdd dpezp `dze

L = q1 (L1 ), q2 (L2 ), . . . , qJ (LJ ) .
xicbp k = 1, . . . , K lkl
rk = q1 p1k + q2 p2k + ··· + qJ pJk .
dheytd dlxbda lkzqp . Ak didz L zakxend dlxbdd ly d`vezdy zillkd zexazqdd idef

L = r1 (A1 ), r2 (A2 ), . . . , rK (AK ) .
if`
L ≈i L.
,mialy xtqna e` cg` alya zrvazn dlxbd m` dpyn df oi`y èd ef dneiqw` ixeg`n oeibdd ,xen`k
hxt) dlxbdd ly mixg` mihaidn znlrzn ef dneiqw` .dpzyn dpi` d`vez lk zlawl zexazqdd cer lk
zegt e` xzeil jkae ,gzn xzeil mitzzynl mexbl dleki mialya zrveand dlxbdy lynl enk ,(zeiexazqdl
.d`pd
davd 10.3.5
zniiw zakxen dlxbdn dycg zakxen dlxbd xevip .àd dxwnd lr zxacn (dpexg`de) ziyingd dneiqw`d
oia yic` owgyd m` ik yexcz dneiqw`d .zxg` dheyt dlxbda zeheytd zelxbdd zg` z` silgpy jk ici lr
.zeakxend zelxbdd izy oia mb yic` èd if` ,(dtilgnde zixewnd) zeheytd zelxbdd izy
122 zlrezd zxez 10

if` Lj ≈i M m` .dheyt dlxbd M `dze ,zakxen dlxbd L = q1 (L1 ), . . . , qJ (LJ ) `dz (davd) 9 dneiqw`

L ≈i q1 (L1 ), . . . , qj−1 (Lj ), qj (M ), qj+1 (Lj+1 ), . . . , qJ (LJ ) .
zlrezd zivwpet oeit` htyn 10.4
.àd htynd ozep jkl daeyz .zix`pil zlrez zivwpet owgyl yi izn xnel ìd epzxhn
zlrez zivwpet owgyl yi ,oxhypbxene oniep-oet ly zeneiqw`d yng z` miiwn i owgy ly dtcrdd qgi m` 10.8 htyn
.zix`pil
.dgked
zelxbdd agxnn ui divwpet zxcbd :oey`x aly
miiwnd 0≤ bki
u ≤1 cigi iynn xtqn miiw 1≤k≤K lkl 10.7 dprhn
k
bki )(A1 ) .

Ak ≈i u
bi (AK ), (1 − u (159)

,zakxen dlxbd L = q1 (L1 ), . . . , qJ (LJ ) `dz .Lb zeakxend zelxbdd agxn lr ui divwpet xicbp zrk
Lj = ici lr zepezpd zeheyt zelxbd od L1 , . . . , LJ -e , 1 mnekqy miilily-i` mixtqn q1 , . . . , q J

md xyà
j
p1 (A1 ), . . . , pjK (AK )

.
1≤k≤K lkl xicbp
rk = q1 p1k + q2 p2k + · · · + qJ pJk . (160)
. Ak didz dlxbdd z`vezy zexazqdd idef
xicbp
b1i + r2 u
ui (L) = r1 u b2i + · · · + rK u
bki . (161)
1≤k≤K lkl bki

ui (Ak ) = u :ipy aly

Ak ìd L dlxbdd z`vez . L = 1(L) zakxend dlxbdl dlewyd , L = 1(Ak ) dlxbdl lewy Ak qxtd
df dxwna okle , 1 zexazqda

 1 l = k,
rl = (162)
 0 l 6= k.
ik lawp o`kn
bki ,
ui (Ak ) = u ∀k. (163)
123 zlrezd zxez 10
zix`pil ui :iyily aly
dheyt dlxbd lkl ik ze`xdl yi ,zix`pil u ik ze`xdl ick

L = p1 (A1 ), p2 (A2 ), . . . , pK (AK ) (164)
miiwzn
ui (L) = p1 ui (A1 ) + p2 ui (A2 ) + · · · + pK ui (AK ). (165)

ui zxcbdne rk = pk
, df dxwna okl .L = 1(L) zakxend dlxbdd mr ddefn L dheytd dlxbdd ,xekfk
lawp
b1i + p2 u
ui (L) = p1 u b2i + · · · + pK u
bki . (166)
miiwzn (163) dèeynn j`
b1i + p2 u
p1 u b2i + · · · + pK u
bki = p1 ui (A1 ) + p2 ui (A2 ) + · · · + pK ui (AK ). (167)
.zniiwzn (165) dèeyn ik raep (167)-e (166) zeèeynn
zlrez zivwpet dpid ui :iriax aly
0 0
ui (L) ≥ ui (L )
. m` wxe m` L %i L ik ze`xdl yi zlrez zivwpet dpid ui ik ze`xdl ick
0
onqp .zeakxen zelxbd izy L -e L ,ok m` ,dpiidz

L = p1 (A1 ), . . . , pK (AK ) , (168)
L0 = p01 (A1 ), . . . , p0K (AK ) .

(169)
k
od minrt K zlrtend davdd zneiqw`n . 1≤k≤K lkl Ak ≈i Lk if` Lk = u
. bki )(A1 )
bi (AK ), (1 − u onqp
miiwzn , L0 xear ode L xear

L ≈i p1 (L1 ), p2 (L2 ), . . . , pK (LK ) , (170)
L0
0
p1 (L1 ), p02 (L2 ), . . . , p0K (LK ) .

≈i (171)
onqp

M = p1 (L1 ), p2 (L2 ), . . . , pK (LK ) , (172)
M0 = p01 (L1 ), p02 (L2 ), . . . , p0K (LK ) .

(173)
M 0 ≈i L0
. -e M ≈i L if`
.dnilynd zexazqda A1 -e b1i

,p 1 u + ... + bki
pK u zexazqda AK :zeixyt` ze`vez izy yi M dlxbdl
0 1
.dnilynd zexazqda A1 -e ,p u
1 bi + ... + p0K u
bki zexazqda AK :zeixyt` ze`vez izy yi M 0
dlxbdl mb
124 zlrezd zxez 10
ik miiwzn heyitd zneiqw`n
b1i + . . . + pK ubki )(AK ), (1 − (p1 ub1i + . . . + pK ubki ))(A1 ) ,

L ≈i M ≈i (p1 u (174)
L0 ≈i M 0 ≈i (p01 u
b1i + . . . + p0K u
bki )(AK ), (1 − (p01 u
b1i + . . . + p0K u
bki ))(A1 ) .

(175)
miiwzn zeipehepend zneiqw` lya
L %i L0 ⇐⇒ p1 u bki ≥ p01 u
b1i + . . . + pK u b1i + . . . + p0K u
bki . (176)
la`
b1i + . . . + pK u
ui (L) = p1 u bki , (177)
ui (L0 ) = p01 u
b1i + . . . + p0K u
bki . (178)
okle
L % L0 ⇐⇒ ui (L) ≥ ui (L0 ), (179)
.yxcpk
miiwziy jk dxcbed ui divwpetd ik al miyp
ui (AK ) = 1, ui (A1 ) = 0. (180)
A1 ≈i AK dxwnd 10.5
:miqxtd lk oia yic` owgyd ea oeepnd dxwna lthp df sirqa
A1 ≈i A2 ≈i · · · ≈i AK . (181)
izy zepezp dpiidz ,ok` .zeheyt zelxbd izy lk oia mb zeyic` zniiw heyitde davdd zeneiqw` lya
0
: L -e L zeheyt zelxbd

L = p1 (A1 ), . . . , pK (AK ) , (182)
L0 = p01 (A1 ), . . . , p0K (AK ) .

(183)
zeakxen zelxbd izy xicbp . 1 zexazqda Ak qxtd lawzn da dlxbdd Lk = [1(Ak )] `dz

L = p1 (L1 ), . . . , pK (LK ) , (184)
L0 = p01 (L1 ), . . . , p0K (LK ) .

(185)
L0 ≈i L0
. -e L ≈i L heyitd zneiqw`n
125 zlrezd zxez 10
lawp davdd zneiqw`n , 1≤k≤K lkl Lk ≈i L1 -y oeeikn
L ≈i [1(A1 )] ≈i L0 . (186)
ik eplaiw lkd jqa
L ≈i L ≈i 1(A1 ) ≈i L0 ≈i L0 ,

(187)
.gikedl epivxy dn dfe
zelxbd izy lk oia mb yic` èd davdd zneiqw`ny ixd ,zeheyt zelxbd izy lk oia yic` owgydy oeeikn
.zeakxen
,edylk c ∈ IR xear ,xicbp .zix`pil zlrez zivwpet ìd dreawd divwpetd df dxwna ik zrk `ceep
ui (L) = c, ∀L ∈ L.
b (188)
,zix`pil zlrez zivwpet ìd ,ok enk .zlrez divwpet ok` ef ,zeakxen zelxbd izy lk oia yic` owgydy oeeikn

miiwzn L = p1 (A1 ), . . . , pK (AK ) dheyt dlxbd lkl oky
ui (L) = c = p1 ui (A1 ) + p2 ui (A2 ) + · · · + pK ui (AK ), (189)
p 1 + p2 + · · · + p K = 1
. -y oeeikn miiwzn ipyd oeieeyd xy`k
zeipit` zeivnxetqpxhe zlrezd zivwpet 10.6
m` u ly zipit` divnxetqpxh ìd v : X → IR divwpetd .ìdy lk divwpet u : X → IR `dz 10.9 dxcbd
-y jk β iynn xtqne α iaeig xtqn miniiw
v(·) = αu(·) + β (190)
.(10 libxz d`x) v ly zipit` divnxetqpxh ìd u u

if` , ly zipit` divnxetqpxh ìd v m` ik ze`xl lw
.zlrez zivwpet ìd zlrez zivwpet ly zipit` divnxetqpxh ik oreh àd htynd
ìd s` u ly v zipit` divnxetqpxh lk if` ,edylk owgy xear zix`pil zlrez zivwpet ìd u m` 10.10 htyn
.df owgy xear zix`pil zlrez zivwpet
z` sicrn owgyd ik gippe ,zeheyt zelxbd L2 -e L1 dpiidz .zlrez zivwpet ìd v ik d`xp dligz .dgked
v(L1 ) ≥ v(L2 )
. ik d`xp .odipia yic` e` L2 ipt lr L1
miiwzn zlrez zivwpet u(·)
-y oeeikn
u(L1 ) ≥ u(L2 ). (191)
okl
v(L1 ) = αu(L1 ) + β ≥ αu(L2 ) + β = v(L2 ), (192)

126 zlrezd zxez 10
.ze`xdl epivxy dn dfe

p1 + p 2 + -y oeeikn . L = p1 (A1 ), p2 (A2 ), . . . , pK (AK ) dheyt dlxbd dpezp `dz .zix`pil v(·) ik d`xp zrk
miiwzn ,zix`pil u -y oeeikne , · · · + pK = 1
v(L) = αu(L) + β
= α (p1 u(A1 ) + p2 u(A2 ) + · · · + pK u(AK )) + β
= α (p1 u(A1 ) + p2 u(A2 ) + · · · + pK u(AK )) + (p1 + p2 + · · · + pK )β
= p1 v(A1 ) + p2 v(A2 ) + · · · + pK v(AK ), (193)
.zix`pil v okle
.(12 libxz d`x) libxzk xi`yp ezgked z` .jetdd htynd èd àd htynd
ìd v if` ,oxhypbxen-oniep oet zeneiqw` z` miiwnd mc` ly zlrez zeivwpet izy od v(·)-e u(·) m` 10.11 htyn
u
. ly zipit` divnxetqpxh
-yd ly zernynd .zipit` divnxetqpxh ik cr zrawp owgy ly zlrezd zivwpet ik milawn ep` dpwqnk
.(18 libxz d`x) libxzk zx`yen ezgkedy ,àd htyna z`hean zeliw
ieey zeibhxhq` xehwe σ = (σ1 , . . . , σn ) `die ,zibhxhq` dxeva wgyn (N, (Si )i∈N , (ui )i∈N ) `di 10.12 htyn
dycg minelyz zivwpet i owgy lkl xicbp . βi ∈ IR-e αi > 0 `di i∈N owgy lkl .lwyn
di (s) = αi ui (s) + βi . (194)
. (N, (Si )i∈N , (vi )i∈N ) wgyna lwyn ieey èd σ if`
lr zlrezd zeivwpet z` mipwgyl epipiyy xg`l mb lwyn ieey x`yp ixewnd wgyna lwyn ieey lk ,xnelk
.dlrtedy zix`pild divnxetqpxhl m`zda dpzyn lwynd ieey melyz ik al miyp .zipit` divnxetqpxh ici
10.4 xeià mipezpd miwgynd ipy lr dnbec myl lkzqp
L M L M
T 3, −3 −2, 2 T 3, 3 −2, 8
B 5, −5 1, −1 B 5, 1 1, 5
Part A Part B
10.4 xei`
minelyzl eptqedy jk ici lr A wlga wgyndn xvep B wlga wgyndy èd miwgynd ipy oia cigid lcadd
cera .( β=6 α=1 , ) zipit` divnxetqpxh II owgy ly minelyzd lr eplrtd ,xnelk 6

. reawd z` II owgy ly
6
. èd dvixhna `z lka zelrezd mekq - qt` mekq epi` B wlga wgynd ,qt` mekq èd A wlga wgyndy
zccnp II owgy ly zlrezd eay qt` mekq wgyn edf mvra j` reaw mekq wgyn
, èxwl mibdep dfk wgynl
ly minelyzl reaw ztqez ici lr qt` mekq wgynl reaw mekq wgyn lk jetdl oaenk xyt` .zexg` zecigia
.jd epiid mpid reaw mekq wgyne qt` mekq wgyn ly mibyend okle ,mipwgyd cg`
127 zlrezd zxez 10
dibhxhq`de , I owgy xear T lr wfg zhley B dibhxhq`d 10.4 xeià miritend miwgynd ipya ik al miyp
ok` 10.12 htyne (B, M )

, èd cigid lwynd ieey dl` miwgyn ipya okl II
. owgy xear L lr wfg zhley M
.miiwzn
cigid lcadd ea wgyn lawp oiicr , α 6= 1 da zipit` divnxetqpxh mipwgyd ly minelyzd lr rvap m`
mekq wgynl lewy wgynd ik zedfl xzei dyw didi zrk j` ,mipwgyd ly zlrezd zcin zecigi iepiy èd
x 7→ 5x + 7 zipit`d divnxetqpxhd zlrtd ici lr 10.4 (A) xeià wgyndn lawzd àd wgynd ,dnbecl .qt`
I
. owgy ly minelyzd lr
L M
T 22, −3 −3, 2
B 32, −5 12, −1
oeic 10.7
oxhypbxen-oniep oet zeneiqw` z` `lnnd owgy ly zlrezd zivwpet z` zepal xyt` zegtl zihxeìz
zervnà ,jk xgè 1 , AK

zeidl ly zlrezd z` 0
, zeidl A1 ly zlrezd z` mixgea ,lynl .oei`x zervnà

.pk (AK ), (1 − pk )(A1 ) dlxbdd oiae Ak oia yic` owgydy jk bki
u mixtqnd z` miraew ,zel`y
- oniep oet ly zeneiqw`d mr zeayiiznd zeaeyz ozep epi` oiièxnd llk jxca ik mi`xn ekxrpy miieqip
.jkl minxeb dnk zrk ìap .oxhypbxen
zenlyd zneiqw`l zeiv i` 10.7.1
izy oia zeeydl mileki mpi` miyp` mizirl .dil`n zpaenk dlawl oi` ,dxiaq zi`xp ef dneiqw`y zexnl
zeiexyt`d izy ik oekp df oi` ?à` mr e` `n` mr meid z` zelal sicrn miyexb eixedy cli m`d :zelxbd
.odipia bxcl oken e` leki epi` èd - clid ipira zelewy
zeiaihifpxh zneiqw`l zeiv i` 10.7.2
exear p0 jxr seqa `vnp , p ly mipey mikxr dqppe , ABC miniiwnd miqxt dyely mc` iptl ìap m`
miiwzn

B ≈ p0 (A), (1 − p0 )(C) . (195)
:àd zeyic`d qgi lr geecn mc` ik ,dnbecl ,gipp

2 1
$7000 ≈ ($20000), ($0) . (196)
3 3
miiwzi oiicry jk x zeidl jixv lecb dnk yi` eze` z` l`yp zrk m`

2 1
$7000 ≈ ($x), ($0) , (197)
3 3
128 zlrezd zxez 10
13
20000
. -n dpey jxr aexl lawp
epaex lv`y oeeikn j` . $20000 oiae $x oia yic` owgydy okzi oky ,zlrezd zxez z` zxzeq dpi` ef d`vez
.zeiaihifpxhl dxizq milawn ep` , x = 20000 xy`k wx zniiwzn efk zeyic`
,mphaa aygn oi` mc` ipal .ezi` miclep miyp`y xac dppi` zexazqdd zyegzy jka ef dxizq xiaqdl ozip
lr dravd ici lr zeìby owzl zeqpl z`f lka xyt` .zepnidn opi` zegeecnd ze`vezdy jk mr milydl yie
.zekxrd owzl oeiqpe zeaeyzd gezip ,zeiawr xqeg
qgi dlek dveawl ik lawl ozip ,iaihifpxh dtcrd qgi mdn cg` lkly miyp` zveawn akxen owgyd m`
.dàd dnbeca zygnen ef drtez .iaihifpxh epi`y dtcrd
Condorcet ly qwecxtd 10.13 dnbec
,mi`yep dyelyn cg` xegal jxev yi .(mieey `weec e`l) minec mixiv ixtqn mr zebltn yely yi hpnlxta
:zizriq zrnynl zetetk zeravdde ,onwlck od zebltnd yely ly zeieticrd ik gipp . C e` B A ,
A 1 B 1 C : 1 dbltn
B 2 C 2 A : 2 dbltn
C 3 A 3 B : 3 dbltn
in . CA BC AB

-e , ik hilgi hpnlxtd :yily ipy hrnk ly aex lawzi mi`yepdn miipy oia dravd lka
?hpnlxtd ici lr ,ok m` ,scren mi`yepd zyely oian
ly dèeyd ici lr xzeia ztcrend zexyt`d z` èvnl ozip `l , May ici lr 1954 -a jxrpy ,àd ieqipa mb
:zeizhetid bef zepa yely 'blewa micinlz 62 -l ex`z df ieqipa .zeiexyt` zebef
.zilklk zxceqn ,d`xnl dheyt ,ce`n dnkg (`
.diipr ,ce`n dti ,dnkg (a
.dxiyr ,d`xnl d`p ,cgeina dnkg `l (b
.zeizhetid zepa bef lk oia zeeydl eywazd micinlzd
od mdizetcrd ik egeeic mil`ypdn 17
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ).
` a b `
.zeiaihifpxh eid mil`ypd x`y ly mdizetcrd
heyitd zneiqw`l zeiv i` 10.7.3
.zepeyd ze`vezd ly zeiexazqda wxe j` dielz zakxen dlxbd ly zlrezd ik zpreh heyitd zneiqw`
xqeg z` e`) d`pdd z` dhinyn dneiqw`d - dlxbdd ly mixg` mihaidn znlrzn ìd ik epxn` mcew xak
dlxbd sicri mcè okzi ,mcew epiivy zexazqdd zyegz xqegl sqepa ,okl .dlxbda zetzzydd mvrn (d`pdd
.zeiexazqd ozeà zepeyd ze`vezd z` zpzepd zpzepd dheyt dlxbd ipt lr zakxen
13
.ef dnbec lr Reinhard Selten-l micen ep`
129 zlrezd zxez 10
zetcrdd lr miritynd mitqep mihwtq` 10.7.4
mc` .àd xetiqd d`xn jkl dnbec .mdl yiy divnxetpià zeielze ,onfd mr zepzyn miyp` ly zetcrdd
ixg` .xwa ilv oinfn mc`d . “ xwa ilve wiihq ” dper xvlnd .hixtza yi dn xvlnd z` lèye dcrqna ayiizn
xne` “,jk m` ” “
. oixnfex ahexa xey dfg mb hixtza epl yi la` ,ipec` ,dgilq ” xneè xvlnd xfeg zewc dnk
“
. wiihq oinf` ip` ” ,gxe`d
wiihq mipikn `l zecrqnd aexa ik rcei j` ,wiihq ade` mc`d .hlgda ?dxiaq creqd ly zebdpzdd m`d
xey dfg mb miyibn dcrqna ik el mixtqn xy`k .oikdl rcei sy lk eze` ,xwa ilv oinfn èd okl .aehe iqiqr
.iqiqr wiihq oikdl cvik rci okle ,xyken syd ik wiqn èd oixnfex ahexa
ly dxigad z` zepyl dleki rcin ztqez ik dcaerd z` mibcn Raifa -e Luce ly mxtqn gewld ,df xetiq
.zlrezd zxez z` xzeq epi` dfk iepiye ,mc`d
-tid zifga diipyd mlerd znglna rx`y ,àd dxwnd èd zlrezd zxezl dxizqa cner dxe`kly dxwn
14
eiwehn wgxnd .mcrin n"w 2000 ,otiiq ià znwenn dzid eiweh zvvtda dtzzydy zi`wixn`d zqiihd .zip
zixad zevx`l xfeg did qiih lk .zevvt hrn mre ieeil `ll eqh mivivtnd okle ,axw iqehn xear icn lecb did
.zeqihd 30 z` ecxy miqiihdn wx zivgn ziptid y`d lya j` ,dvvtd zeniyn 30 xg`l
ciivl mewna m` ,miqiihd ly dcixyd iiekiq z` licbdl ozip ik eayig zqiihl eelzdy mirevia xwg iyp`
zlcbd ,aeyigd itl .zevvt xzeia j` ,cg` oeeikl wlca miqehnd z` eciivi ,mipeeikd ipyl wlca miqehnd z`
miqiihdn mirax dyelyy jk ,izernyn oteà zeqihd zenk z` mvnvl didi ozipy jkl mexbz zevvtd zenk
.dvvtd zniynl z`vl llk ekxhvi `l
dlxbda szzydl miqiihl erivd mirevia xwg iyp` ,ok m`

3 1
( miig ), ( zeen ) ,
4 4
dlxbda mewna

1 1
( miig ), ( zeen ) .
2 2
.miiwd avnd z` eticrd mlek .ciin dze` egc drvdd lr mzrc iabl el`ypy miqiihd lk
,cg` xaqd ?zlrezd zxez zeneiqw` z` miniiwn `l md m`d ?zeiexazqdd z` epiad `l miqiihd m`d
`l df il ” ik mipin`ne ,mrahn miinihte` miyp`y èd ,zeneiqw`d z` miniiwn mpi` miyp` ik d`xn ok`y
egwl miqiihdy cigid mxebd dpi` zeen-miigd zl`y .zlrezd zxez mr miayiiznd mixaqd mb yi j` . “ dxwi
qehl dybxdd e` ,dziad melya xfeg dz` cera zeca`zd zniynl xag zxwtd enk zeixqen zel`y .oeayga
reaw xac mpi` dcixyd iiekiq ,dfn xzei .dhlgdd lr erityd ,xefgz `l ze`ceea dz`y drici jez n"w 2000
.xzei zenkg zevvt egztiy okziie ,erpkii miptide okzii .dnglna
df qiqa .eiwehn n"w 600 zwgexnd ,dni'b ei` z` eqtz mi`wixn`d dzlr drvddy xg`l xvw onf ,okè
.mi`lt elr miqiihd ly dcixyd iiekiqe ,mivivtnl zeelzdl axw iqehnl xyt`l ick eiwehl eic aexw did
14
. Merrill F. Flood-n mze` rnyy , Kenneth Arrow itn epicil eribd mihxtd
130 zlrezd zxez 10
zlrezd zxez zxhn 10.7.5
?zlrezd zxez epl zxfer dna ,zexg` milina . “? zlrezd zxez ly zlrezd idn ” dl`ya wxtd z` miiqp
epiid el .dax zelwa Nash lwyn iieey aygl epl zxyt`n zix`pil zlrez igpena mipwgyd ly mzlrez zbvd
ieey aygl jaeqn xzei daxd did ,zix`pil `l zlrez ici lr mipwgyd ly zeyic` / zeticrd qgi z` mibivn
ik ,qeiqlv zelrna miccen ep` dxehxtnhd z` .mixg` minegza zel`wq zxigal dnec xacd .wgyna lwyn
zipeivxetext zkzn hen zekx`zd ik xne`y wegd oebk) dheyt dbvdl mipzip dwiqita miax miweg ef dbvda
dwiqit iweg ,qeiqlv zelrn ly log lynl ,zexg` zecigia dxehxtnh miccen epiid el .(dxehxtnhd z`lrdl
zeheyt zelxbd ly zlrez aygl epl xyt`n zix`pil zlreza yeniyd .xzei mikaeqn zeidl mikted eid miax
.zibhxhq` dxeva miwgyn ly gezip hytn jkae ,zlgez iaeyig zxfra
minekq od ze`vezd m` elit` ,qt` mekq mpi` mei meid iiga miavnd aexy ìd epl dxxazdy daeyg dcaer
dgtyn wx dpyi .zecbepn opi` aexl zepey zelxbd lr mipwgyd zeieticry meyn z`f .exagl mc` mlyny
ipy zeieticry ze`vez izy ilra miwgynd zgtyn efe ,qt` mekqk wgynd z` ze`xl xyt` cinz day zg`
lvè ,0 -e 1 od ze`vezd lr mipwgyd cg` ly zelrezdy reawl xyt`y meyn z`f .zecbepn mdilr mipwgyd
mekq wgyn lawzn mixicp mixwna wx ,mipwgy ipy mr mixg` miwgyna 0

. -e −1 od zelrezdy reawl ipyd
.qt`
.dl`k opi` miiga zeivèhiqd lk hrnk m` ,qt` mekq miwgyn cenll recn ìd zrk dlerd zirah dl`y
.ef dl`yl zeaeyz xtqn `xewd `vni ,qt` mekq miwgyna ocd wxta ,57 cenra
131 zlrezd zxez 10
milibxz 10.8
15
.iaihifpxhe ixhniq-ihp` èd ynn zeticrd qgi ik gked (`) .1
16
.iaihifpxhe ixhniq èd ≈ zeyic`d qgi ik gked (a)
lawl zaiig eze` zbviind zlrez zivwpet lky X lr % dtcrd qgile X miqxt zveawl dnbec oz (`) .2
.mikxr seqpi`
eze` zbviind zlrez zivwpet lky X lr % dtcrd qgie X miqxt ly dipn za zveawl dnbec oz (a)
.minly `l mikxr mb lawl zaiig
:ik geecn zlrezd zxez zeneiqw` z` zeniiwn eizetcrdy mc` .3
2
meye
3 zexazqda g"y 1000 lawn èd day dlxbd oial g"y 500 ly mekq zlaw oia yic` èd •
1
. zexazqda sqk mekq
3
3
mekq meye
8 zexazqda g"y 500 lawn èd day dlxbd oial g"y 100 ly mekq zlaw oia yic` èd •
5
. zexazqda sqk
8
u(g"y 1000) = 1 sqepa zniiwne ,df mc` ly eizetcrd z` zbviind zix`pil zlrez zivwpet `vn (`)
u(
. g"y 0) = 0 -e
:mc`d sicri zeàd zelxbdd izy oian efi` (a)
1 1 3
g"y 0 ,
2 zexazqda g"y 100 ,
10 zexazqda g"y 1000 lawi da dlxbd •
1
. zexazqda
10
2 3 2
g"y 0 ,
3
. zexazqda
10
.jzaeyz z` wnp ?df mc` sicri zeàd zelxbdd izyn efi` xn`l ozip m`d (b)
1 1 3
g"y 0 ,
1
. zexazqda
10
.g"y 400 ly zi`ce dlaw •
.jzaeyz z` wnp ?df mc` sicri zeàd zelxbdd izyn efi` xn`l ozip m`d (c)
1 1 3
g"y 0 ,
1
. zexazqda
10
.g"y 600 ly zi`ce dlaw •
.wnp u(
? g"y 0) = 3 -e u( g"y 1000) = 8 xgaz m` 3 dl`ya L2 -l L1 oia zetcrdd dpipzyz cvik .4
15
. yx miiwzn `l if` x y miiwzn m` x, y lkl m` ixhniq-ihp` èd qgi
16
.y ≈ x miiwzn if` x ≈ y miiwzn m` x, y lkl m` ixhniq èd ≈ qgi
132 zlrezd zxez 10
od D -e C B A, , miqxtd lr eizetcrd ik geecn zlrezd zxez zeneiqw` z` zeniiwn eizetcrdy mc` .5
:onwlck

3 2 1 1
C ≈i (A) + (D) , B ≈i (A) + (C) , A D.
5 5 2 4
:mc`d sicri zeàd zelxbdd izy oian efi`

2 1 1 1
L1 = (A), (B), (C), (D) ,
5 5 5 5

2 3
L2 = (B), (C) .
5 5
?DA ik oezp did m` 5 dl`yl jzaeyz didz dn .6
.5 dl`yl daeyzl ef jzaeyz oia xyw `vn
wgyn miwgyn mipwgyd .oxhypbxene oniep-oet ly zeneiqw`d z` zeniiwn mipwgy ipy ly mdizetcrd .7
:ìd minelyzd zvixhn . I owgyl II owgy mlyny milwy od ea ze`vezdy
L M R
T g"y 300 g"y 800 g"y 1500
B g"y 1500 g"y 600 g"y 300
1
zexazqda g"y 1500 -e
4 zexazqda g"y 300 lawi day dlxbd oial g"y 600 ly geha geex oia yic` I owgy
1 3
g"y 1500 -e
2 zexazqda g"y 600 lawi da dlxbd oial g"y 800 ly geha geex oia yic` mb èd .
4
1
. zexazqda
2
1
g"y 800 -e
7 zexazqda g"y 300 ciqtii day dlxbd oial g"y 600 ly geha cqtd oia yic` II owgy
1 6
8 zexazqda g"y 300 ciqti da dlxbd oial g"y 800 ly geha cqtd oia yic` mb èd .
7 zexazqda
7
.
8 zexazqda g"y 1500
-e
.zeixyt`d ze`vezd xear mipwgyd ipyl zlrez zeivwpet `vn (`)
?qt` mekq èd wgynd m`d raw (a)
.mipwgyd ipyl zeilnihte` zeibhxhq` `vn ,ziaeig mcewd sirql daeyzd m` (b)
divnxetqpxhd ìd dn meyx dxwn lka ?qt` mekq iwgyn md miàd miwgynd zyng oian eli` .8
.jzaeyz z` dgikend zipit`d
2, 7 4, 5 11, 2 5, 4 11, 2 5, 4 −16, 11
6, 3 −3, 12 −7, 8 17, 0 −7, 8 17, 0 −1, 6

133 zlrezd zxez 10
9, 2 5, 6 12, −1 9, 5 3, 7 −18, 14
9, 8 1, 10 7, 4 −9, 11 15, 3 −4, 9
.jzaeyz z` wnp .aeyig s` rval ila qt` mekq wgyn èd àd wgynd m` raw .9
2, 15 10, 5 7, 8
8, 7 2, 15 5, 3
v
. ly zipit` divnxetqpxh ìd u if` u ly zipit` divnxetqpxh ìd v m` ik gked .10
-qpxh ìd w if` , v ly zipit` divnxetqpxh ìd w mè , u ly zipit` divnxetqpxh ìd v m` ik gked .11
.u ly zipit` divnxet
izy ici lr beviil zepzip oxhypbxene oniep-oet ly zeneiqw`d z` zeniiwnd mc` ly eizetcrd ik gipp .12
.u ly zipit` divnxetqpxh ìd v ik gked . v -e u zlrez zeivwpet
-oniep oet zeneiqw` z` zeniiwn eizetcrdy mc` ( The sure thing principle ,gehad xacd oexwr) .13
miiwzn 0<α≤1 lkl ik gked . L1 L2 ik L2 L1

e zelxbdd lr geecn oxhypbxen

α(L1 ), (1 − α)(L2 ) L2 .
idz . i owgy ly zix`pil zlrez zivwpet ui `dz .14

L = q1 (L1 ), q2 (L2 ), . . . , qr (Lr )
ik gked .zakxen dlxbd
ui (L) = q1 ui (L1 ) + q2 ui (L2 ) + · · · + qr ui (Lr ).
miiwzn L2 -e L1 zeakxen zelxbd izy lkly gked . i owgy ly zix`pil zlrez zivwpet ui `dz .15
L1 %i L2 ⇐⇒ u(L1 ) ≥i u(L2 ).
(0, 1000) (0, 0)

, , od eicewcw zrax` ly zehpicxeèwdy ireaix dcya xà zepal dvex miieqn xki` .16
zeieticr .minly mixtqn od dly zehpicxeèwdy dcewpa zeidl dkixv xàd . (1000, 1000) -e (1000, 0)
, (x2 , y2 ) dcewpd ipt lr (x1 , y1 ) dcewpa xtgz xàdy sicrn èd x1 > x2 m` :zeitxbewiqwl od mc`d
y1 > y2
. m` wx oey`xd mewind z` sicrn èd x1 = x2 m` . y1 , y 2 lkl
zeneiqw` eli` oiiv ,`l m` .gked ,ok m` ?oxhypbxen-oniep oet zeneiqw` z` zeniiwn dl` zeieticr m`d
.zeniiwzn opi`
134 zlrezd zxez 10
.àd qt` mekq wgynd ly zeilnihte`d zeibhxhq`d zè jxrd z` `vn (`) .17
12 8
4 16
:milawne 18 -a II owgy ly zelrezd z` milicbn (a)
12, 6 8, 10
4, 14 16, 2
.jzaeyz z` wnp ?wgyna lwynd iieey lk mdn
.àd wgynd z` milawne 3 mitiqene 2-a ixewnd wgyna oey`xd owgyd zelrez z` miltek (b)
27, −12 19, −8

11, −4 35, −16
?df wgyna lwynd ieey melyze lwynd ieey zeibhxhq` dpipzyz cvik
.10.12 htyn z` gked .18
wxe m` (x1 , x2 ) % (y1 , y2 ) X

: lr itxbewiqwld dtcrdd qgi % `di .zeiexyt`d zveaw X = [0, 1]2 `dz .19
. x2 ≥ y2 -e x1 = y1 (a) e` x1 > y1 (`) m`
jk , (x∗ , y∗ ) (x0 , y0 )
dcewpe , leabl zqpkznd dcigid reaixa (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), . . . zecewp zxcq `vn (`)
.(x∗ , y∗ ) (x0 , y0 ) mle` i lkl (xi , yi ) (x∗ , y∗ ) miiwzny
.jzaeyz z` gked ?zlrez zivwpet ici lr beviil ozip df dtcrd qgi m`d (a)
135 mixfeg miwgyn 11
mixfeg miwgyn 11
mipwgyd oia divw`xhpi`d mda miavn milcnn el` miwgyn .miialy-cg miwgyn epcnl mincewd miwxta
divw`xhpi`d miax mixwna .mipwgyl dxewy dn lr drtyd lk dl oi` ,zniizqn ìdy xg`le ,zialy-cg dpid
miwgyne ,zeax minrt df z` df miybete mixfeg mipwgyd mizirl ;cg` ybtn xg`l zniizqn dpi` mipwgyd oia
qiph ilrp ykex qiph owgy ,oerax lka xiip ipxvin xiip dpew qetc zia .mipey miwgyn e` ,wgynd eze` aeye aey
mipwgydy oeeikn .dper lka miinrt zeybtp lbxeck zeveaw ,dlazd mcewd befdy mrt lka exira zeiepgd zg`n
.miialy-cg miwgyna èvnl ozip `ly zeizebdpzd zertez zevv mrt xg` mrt ipyd mr cg`d miwgyne mixfeg
mdizelert z` zepzdl mileki mipwgydy oeeikn .dlert szyl mipwgyl zxyt`n xfeg wgyndy dcaerd •
wgyi èd ,dlert ezi` etzyi `l m`y eiaixi lr mii`l leki owgy ,mincew mialya dxwy dna aly lka
zia ,dnbecl . “
dyipr ” rval xnelk ,lretd l` mei`d z` ìvedl s` mizirle ,mda zerbetd zelert cizra
.xiip epnn yekxl wiqti èd , 10% -a cxi `l xiipd xign m`y xiip oxvil ricedl leki qetc
zxken ìdy dxegqdy oihipen gztl dleki qiph zepg .oihipen gztl mileki mipwgy ,xfeg wgyndy oeeikn •
.dlef e` daeh
xg` mrt miwgyn mipwgyd eay miwgyn ly heyt lcen edf .mixfeg miwgyn ly lcend z` bivp df wxta
mr zepzyn opi` ,mdly melyzd zivwpet mb enk ,mipwgyl zeixyt`d zelertd ,hxta .ialy-cg wgyn eze` mrt
ze`nbeca :zniiwzn dpi` miax mixwnae ,dliabn ce`n dpid ,oaenk ,ef dgpd .wgynd jldna zeielz opiè ,onfd
zecxei lbxeck zeveawe ,weyd z` miafer miniiw xiip iwtqe ,weyl miqpkp miycg xiip iwtq ,dlrnl epbvdy
zertezdn wlg oiadl epl xyt`n df heyt lcen mb ,z`f mr .xzei ddeab dbill zeler e` ,xzei dkenp dbill
zepzyn mdly melyzd zivwpete mipwgyd zelert ea lcend .mialy xtqn zekynpd zeivw`xhpià zetvipd
Competitive Markov Decision Problems xtql dpten oxwqd `xewde ,mihqkehq miwgyn `xwp alyl alyn
.megzd ly zpiiprne dti dbvdl Filar and Vrieze ly
mipeniq 11.1
ohwd xzeia lecbd mlyd xtqnd èd bcc -e , c

-n lecbd xzeia ohwd mlyd xtqnd èd dce c , iynn xtqn lkl
. c-n
xzeia dphwd dxenwd dveawd ìd conv{x(1), . . . , x(K)} IRN , -a {x(1), . . . , x(K)} mixehwe ly dveaw lkl
{x(1), . . . , x(K)}
. z` dliknd
d
onqp IR -a x xehwe lkl ,xnelk . L1 ly dnxepd ìd df sirqa ynzyp da dnxepd
d
X
kxk1 = |xi |. (198)
k=1
−i
. -k i
-n mipeyd mipwgyd zveawl mizirl qgiizp ,owgy èd i xy`k
lcend 11.2
ìd N = {1, 2, . . . , n} xyà , (N, (Si )i∈N , (ui )i∈N ) ici lr oezp xfeg wgyn mb ,zibhxhq` dxeva wgyn enk
ly zialy-cgd minelyzd zivwpet ìd ui : S → IR -e ,i owgy ly zelertd zveaw ìd Si ,mipwgyd zveaw
,xekfk . i owgy
.zelertd ixehwe zveaw ìd S = S1 × S2 × · · · × Sn

lkae ,minrt xtqn miybtp mipwgyd xfeg wgynay ìd zibhxhq` dxeva wgynl xfeg wgyn oia lcadd
.zibhxhq` dxeva wgyn eze` z` miwgyn mrt
mipwgyd aly lkay oeeikn ,sqepa .jynp wgynd mialy dnk mb xnel yi ,xfeg wgyn `ln oteà x`zl ick
owgy lk cvik ,xnelk .milawn mdy minelyzd zxcq z` mikixrn mipwgyd cvik oiivl yi ,melyz milawn
.zxg` minelyz zxcql zg` minelyz zxcq oia deeyn
:mixwn ipya fkxzp ep`
miineid minelyzd rvenn zlgez z` mqwnl dqpn owgy lke ,mialy ly T iteq xtqn jynp wgynd •
.lawn èdy
.minelyzd irvenn leab zlgez z` mqwnl dqpn owgy lke ,mialy seqpi` jynp wgynd •
-a onqp ep`
M = max max |ui (s)| (199)

i,...,N s∈S
Σ = Σ 1 × Σ2 × -e , Si lr zeiebltzdd zveaw ìd Σi ,xekfk .wgyna melyz ly ilniqwnd hlgend jxrd z`
.(75 cenr d`x) Σ -l ui minelyzd zivwpet ly dagxdd ìd Ui -e , · · · × Σn

zexedh zeibhxhq` eeidy Si
, -a mixai`d z` .wgynd lka wgyl cvik owgyl dxen dibhxhq` dzxcbdn
zelert
. mya o`k dpkp ,ialy-cgd wgyna
ze`nbec 11.3
.jynda dpèazy zeprhde zexcbdd xaqde zbvdl epze` ynyz dàd dnbecd
zxfegd xiq`d znlic 11.1 dnbec
.dàd minelyzd zvixhn ici lr oezpd mipwgy ipy mr ialy-cgd wgynd ìd xiq`d znlic
II
D C
D 1, 1 4, 0
I
C 0, 4 3, 3
dxhynl zexg` zegked lk oià .eyry dyrn lr mixwgp dxiar xacl mitzey ipy ea avn lcnn wgynd
leki xwgp lk j` .( Cooperate xear , C dlertd) mzwizya ecnri m` (cg` lkl 3 melyz) iytegl e`vi mitzeyd
cr dkfi ezwizy lr xney exag m` ,df dxwna .( Defect xear , D dlertd) etzey z` xibqdle dpicn cr zeidl
,z`f znerl ,exag m` .( 0 melyz) dxnega ypri exag cera ( 4 melyz) mincew miwiz zwignae xexgya dpicnd
ly zlrezd z` mipiivn dvixhna minelyzd .( 1 melyz) lw ypera e`vi mdipy ,dxhynd mr dlert sziy ok mb
.df avna owgy lk
.( D D , ) èd cigid lwynd ieey ialy-cgd wgyna okle , C dlertd lr wfg zhley D dlertd
mrta ewgiy dn mircei md dipyd mrtae ,miinrt wgynd z` miwgyn mipwgyd xy`k lwynd iieey mdn
D
, ) miwgyn mipwgyd mialyd ipyay èd miinrt xfegd wgyna cigid lwynd ieey ik d`xp ep` ?dpey`xd
`di .( D D
, ) miwgyn mpi` mipwgyd ea aly epyi ziaeig zexazqda ea lwyn ieey yiy dlilya gipp ,ok` .( D
epi` I owgy t alya df dxwna ik gippe ,ziaeig zexazqda ( D D , ) miwgyn mpi` mipwgyd ea oexg`d alyd t
.lwyn ieey zeidl dleki dpi` efk dibhxhq` ik d`xp .( D D , ) miwgyn mipwgyd t aly xg`l ,hxta . D wgyn
I owgyl melyzd ik d`xp .D wgyn èd mialyd ipya da I owgy ly dibhxhqà opeazp t=1
. :oey`x dxwn
ewgiy mipwgyd t aly xg`ly oeeikn .dlr oey`xd alya I owgyl melyzd , C lr wfg zhley D -y oeeikn .dlr
èd el melyzdy ixd , D wgyn èd dycgd dibhxhqày oeeikn . 1 did ipyd alya I owgyl melyzd ,( D D , )
.dlr I owgy ly minelyzd mekq okl .( C e` D wgyn II owgy m` ielz) 4 e` 1

dibhxhq`d el dxeny itk oey`xd alya wgyn èd da I owgy ly dibhxhqà opeazp . t = 2 :ipy dxwn
wfg zhley D -y oeeikn j` ,dpzyn epi` oey`xd alya I owgyl melyzd D

. wgyn èd ipyd alyae ,zixewnd
.dlr I owgy ly minelyzd mekq lkd jqa okl .dlr ipyd alya I owgyl melyzd , C lr
lwynd ieey ,xiq`d znlic z` minrt ly T iteq xtqn miwgyn mipwgyd m` ik ze`xdl ozip dnec oteà
miwgyn mpi` mipwgyd ea oexg`d alyd zeidl t z` xicbp :( D D , ) zelertd xehwe z` aly lka wgyl èd cigid
t
, alya D wgyl I owgyl dxep D
. wgyn epi` I owgy t alya df dxwna ik gippe ,ziaeig zexazqda ( D D , )
.dler I owgyl melyzd zlgez T =2 dxwna enke
lka ea zeibhxhq` xehwe lk ,minrt T xfegd wgyn lka , T mly xtqn lkl ik ze`xl lw ,illk xzei oteà
.lwyn ieey èd ialy-cgd wgyna lwyn ieey miwgyn mipwgyd aly
ly cigid lwynd ieey ìd ialy-cgd wgynd ly cigid lwynd ieey lr aly lka dxfg xiq`d znlica
lwynd iieey zveaw mizirl :zilily ìd daeyzdy d`xz dàd dnbecd ?avnd cinz df m`d .xfegd wgynd
.xzei dxiyr xfegd wgyna
.oihelgl zepey ze`vez milawn ,dyiprl zynynd ,ztqep dlert mipwgyd ipyl mitiqen m` ik zrk d`xp
dyipr zexyt` mr zxfegd xiq`d znilc 11.2 dnbec
.dàd minelyzd zvixhn ici lr oezpd ,zelert yely yi owgy lkl ea mipwgy ipy wgyna zrk opeazp
D C P
D 1, 1 4, 0 −1, 0
C 0, 4 3, 3 −1, 0
P 0, −1 0, −1 −2, −2
mipwgyd ipyl zpzepd ziyily dlert owgy lkl eptqed j` ,11.1 dnbeca epcnly wgynl dnec df wgyn
.jenp melyz
cigid lwynd ieey okl ,zexg`d zelertd izy ici lr wfg zhlyp ( Punishment xear) P dlertd ik al miyp
D D
.( , ) oiicr èd ialy-cgd wgyna
cebipa j` .( D D , ) dlertd z` mialyd ipya wgyl èd cg` lwyn ieey ialy-ecd wgyna ,mcew epxn`y itk
z` wgyn owgy lk ea zeibhxhq`d xehwe ,ok` .mitqep lwyn iieey mpyi df xfeg wgyna ,xiq`d znlicl
:lwyn ieey èd dàd dibhxhq`d
C
. wgy oey`xd alya •
. P ipyd alya wgy zxg` . D ipyd alya wgy , C wgiy jaixi oey`xd alya m` •
mdipy ipyd alyae C miwgyn mdipy oey`xd alya ,efd dibhxhq`d z` miwgyn mipwgyd ipy m` ,ok`
ipya ( D D
, ) miwgyn ea lwynd ieeya 2 llek melyz znerl) 4 llek melyz elawi mdipy okl . D miwgyn
alya dhqi m` gieexdl leki `l owgy s` ,zexg`d zelertd izy lr wfg zhley D dlertdy oeeikn .(mialyd
alya −1 xzeid lkl lawi èd j` ,( D wgyi m`) df alya 4 lawl leki oey`xd alya dheqd owgy .cala ipyd
.(lwynd ieeya 4 znerl ,xzeid lkl 3 lawi) ciqti èd lkd jqa okle ,( P wgyi eaixi ik) ipyd
oteà ewgyi `l m`y ipyd lr cg`d mii`l mileki mipwgyd ,xfeg wgynd xy`k ik epl d`xn ef dnbec
,zelcb dyiprd zeiexyt` ,xzei zeax minrt xfeg wgyndy lkk .xzei xge`n alya eypri md ,cg` alya miieqn
.lcb lwynd iieey xtqn illk oteà okle
yely yi owgy lkl ialy-cgd wgynay cera .xfegd wgyna zexedhd zeibhxhq`d ieaixl al miyl i`ck
zeibhxhq` 3 × 39 = 310 = 59, 049 owgy lkl yi ialy-ecd wgynay ixd ,( P -e C D

, , ) zexedh zeibhxhq`
zelertd befn divwpet ici lr dpezp dibhxhq`d ipyd alyae ,zeixyt` zelert yely el yi oey`xd alya :zexedh
4
3 × 39 × (33 ) = 391 owgy lkl yi ialy-dyelyd wgyna . {D, C, P } -l {D, C, P }2 oey`xd alya ewgeey
dpezp dibhxhq` iyilyd alyae ,dpzyd `l mipey`xd mialyd ipyl zeiexyt`d xtqn :zexedh zeibhxhq`
4
jixv owgyd mipey`xd mialyd ipya ewgeyy zelert zebef ipy lkl :{D, C, P } -l {D, C, P } -n divwpet ici lr
.iyilyd alya wgyi cvik hilgdl
lecibl .(1 libxz d`x) zexfgd xtqna zilìvppetqw` dler owgy lk ly zeibhxhq`d agxn lceb illk oteà
ieey eplaiw ,dipyd dnbeca .mipiiprne miakxen lwyn iieey lawl ozipy ìd ziaeig d`vez .ze`vez izy yi df
d`vez .(11.1 dnbec) xiq`d znlica miiwd cigid lwynd ieeya xy`n xzei milawn mipwgyd ipy ea lwyn
xy`k lwynd iieey lk z` èvnl ixyt` izla ,zeibhxhq`d ieaixa dkexkd zeikeaiqd z`tny ìd zilily
.lecb zexfgd xtqn
xy`k zeihehtniq` ze`veza oiiprzp `l` ,xfegd wgyna lwynd iieey z` aygl s`yp `l ep` ef daiqn
lk z` èvnl dqpp `le) lwyn ieeya lawzdl milekid minelyzd zveaw z` axwl dqpp ,lcb zexfgd xtqn
ox`zl ozipy lwyn ieey zeibhxhq` èvnl dqppe ,(iteqd wgyna lwyn ieeya lawzdl milekid minelyzd
.dheyt dxeva
ialy T -d wgynd 11.4
milekid minelyzd zveaw z` oiit`l ìd epzxhn .ialy T -d wgyna lwynd iieey z` xewgp df sirqa
.ea jnezd heyt lwyn ieey zeibhxhq` xehwe lwyn ieey melyz lkl zepale ,lwyn ieeyk lawzdl
zeibhxhqè zeixehqid 11.4.1
wgyndy lkk ipyd lr cg`d divnxetpi` mixaev md ,mrt xg` mrt miybtp mipwgyd xfeg wgynay oeeikn
mipey`xd mialyd t−1 -a mipwgyd lk ewgiyy zelertd èd t alya owgy lk ly ezeyxl cnerd rcind .mcwzn
:k zeialy t-d zeixehqidd sqe` z` okl xicbp .wgynd ly
H(t) = S t−1 = S × S × · · · × S.
.dlert s` dlikn dpi`y ,wgynd zligza dixehqidd ìd ∅ xyà , H(0) = {∅} midfn ep` t=0 xear
zelertd xehwe èd sj = (sji )i∈N xyà ,(s1 , s2 , . . . , st−1 )

-a mizirle h -a mizirl oneqz H(t) -a dixehqid
j
. alya wgeyy
zaxern dlert efi` ,zixyt` dixehqid lk ixg` ,owgyl zxne`y dlert zipkez ìd i owgy xear dibhxhq`
.dzxw ef dixehqid m` wgyl xen` èd
dlert T -n ohw jxeà dixehqid lkl dni`znd divwpet ìd ialy T -d wgyna i owgy xear dibhxhq` 11.3 dxcbd
:zaxern
−1
τi : ∪Tt=0 H(t) → Σi .
owgyl dxen τit : H(t) → Σi xyà ,zeivwpet ly τ = (τit )t∈IN dxcqk dibhxhq` xicbdl ozip ,lewy oteà
. t alya wgyl cvik
−1
lr zebltzd zeidl dxen` zaxern dibhxhq` okle , τi : ∪Tt=0 H(t) → Si divwpet ìd dxedh dibhxhq` 11.4 dxrd
−1
τi :
. ∪Tt=0 H(t) → Σi divwpetl dlewy zaxern dibhxhq` lk ik `ceel lw .zexedh zeibhxhq`
:dàd dibhxhq`d ìd I owgyl dibhxhq`l dnbec .zialy ecd xiq`d znlica opeazp .jynd :11.1 dnbec

1 1
τ1 (∅) = (D), (C) ,
2 2
τ1 (T L) = D,

2 1
τ1 (T R) = (D), (C) ,
3 3

1 3
τ1 (BL) = (D), (C) ,
4 4
τ1 (BR) = C.
:dàd dibhxhq`d ìd II owgyl dibhxhq`l dnbec
τ2 (∅) = C,

3 1
τ2 (T L) = (D), (C) ,
4 4

1 1
τ2 (T R) = (D), (C) ,
2 2
τ2 (BL) = C,
τ2 (BR) = D.

-e , si dlertd z` oey`xa alya wgyi i owgyy zexazqdd ìd τi (si )
-a onqp
τi (si | s1 , . . . , st−1 )
mipwgyd mipey`xd mialyd t−1 -ay ozpida si dlertd z` t alya wgyi i owgyy dpzend zexazqdd z`
:owgy lkl zg` ,zeibhxhq` ly xehwe èd τ zeibhxhq` xehwe (s1 , . . . , st−1 )
. zelertd z` ewgiy
τ = (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τN ).
.àd oteà dagx dxeva wgynk zialy-ecd xiq`d znlic z` x`zl ozip .jynd :11.1 dnbec
I
D C
II II
D C D C
I I I I
D C D C D C D C
II II II II II II II II
D C D C D C D C D C D C D C D C
dagx dxeva wgynk ialy-ecd wgynd :11.1 xei`
wgynd ura zyw lkl mi`zdl ozipy ixd ,mcew epxcbdy τ2 -e τ1 zeibhxhq`d ixg` miawer mipwgyd m`
.(11.2 xei` d`x) wgynd zra xgaiz ìdy zexazqdd z`

I
D C
1 1
2 2
II II
D C D C
0 1 0 1
I I I I
D C D C D C D C
2 1 1 3
1 0 3 3 4 4 0 1
II II II II II II II II
D C D C D C D C D C D C D C D C
3 1 3 1 1 1 1 1
4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
6 6 12 12 2
dagx dxeva wgyna rlv lk ly zexazqdd :11.2 xei`
dxyn τ zeibhxhq` xehwe lk . S T = H(T ) èd ialy- T -d wgyna miixyt`d wgynd ikldn lk sqe`
m`y zexazqdd ìd (s1 , s2 , . . . , sT ) wgyn jldn lk ly zexazqdd . H(T ) lr Pτ zexazqd zcin irah oteà
xehwe lkl xicbp ,ilnxet oteà .ef dixehqid didi lawziy wgynd jldn τ dibhxhq`d itl ewgyi mipwgyd
s = (s1 , . . . , sN ) ∈ S zelert
Pτ (s) = τ1 (s1 ) × τ2 (s2 ) × · · · × τN (sN ). (200)
i owgy lky zeiexazqdd zltknl deey ìde , s epid wgeyiy zelertd xehwe oey`xd alyay zexazqdd idef
1 2 t t
divwecpià xicbp (s , s , . . . , s ) ∈ S lkle t lkl ,illk xzei oteà . si dlertd z` wgyi
Pτ (s1 , s2 , . . . , st ) = Pτ (s1 , s2 , . . . , st−1 ) × τ1 (st1 | s1 , s2 , . . . , st−1 )

×τ2 (st2 | s1 , s2 , . . . , st−1 ) × · · · × τN (stN | s1 , s2 , . . . , st−1 ).
ìd s1 , s2 , . . . , st zelertd ixehwe z` mipey`xd mialyd t -a ewgyi mipwgyd τ zgzy zexazqdd ,xnelk
1 2 t−1
dpzend zexazqdd letk , s ,s ,...,s zelertd ixehwe z` ewgyi md mipey`xd mialyd t−1 -ay zexazqdd
.s1 , s2 , . . . , st−1 ewgiy md mipey`xd mialyd t−1 -ay ozpida st zelertd xehwe z` ewgyi md t alyay
.miielz izla md aly lka mipwgyd mirvany miixwnd miaexirdy dcaerd iehia icil o`k dày al miyp
.mèzn lwyn ieey ly byena epc ea ?? wxta driten mipwgyd ikldn oia m`zn yi day zexyt`
miawer mipwgyd xy`k lawzi df wgyn jldny zexazqdd (wgyn jldn =) dlr lk cil riten 11.2 xeià
.139 cenra excbedy (τ1 , τ2 ) zeibhxhq`d ixg`

lwyn ieeye minelyz 11.4.2
-ae . uti -a t alya lawn i owgyy melyzd z` onqp .aly lka melyz mipwgyd milawn xfegd wgyna
minelyzd zxcq z` i owgy lawn wgynd jldna if` t

. alya minelyzd xehwe z` u = (ut1 , . . . , utN )
t
rvenn z` ,lewy oteà e` ,miialyd einelyz mekq z` mqwnl dqpn owgy lk ik gipp ep` . (u1i , u2i , . . . , uTi )
.miialyd einelyz
zlgezd xehxte` z` onqp H(T )

. lr Pτ zexazqd zcin dxyn τ zeibhxhq` xehwe lk ,mcew epxn`y itk
: Pτ zgz f ly zlgezd z` onqn Eτ (f ) f : H(T ) → IR

, divwpet lkl ,xnelk . Eτ -a mi`znd
X
Eτ (f ) = Pτ (s1 , . . . , sT )f (s1 , . . . , sT ). (201)
(s1 ,...,sT )∈H(T )
melyzd rvenn zlgez z` onqp Eτ (uti )

. ìd τ zeibhxhq` xehwe zgz t alya i owgy ly melyzd zlgez
-a , τ zgz ,mipey`xd mialyd T -a i owgy ly
T
! T
1X t 1X
γiT (τ ) = Eτ u = Eτ (uti ). (202)
T t=1 i T t=1
zexazqda milawznd wgynd ikldn .wgyn jldn lkl zexazqdd z` lawp 11.2 xei`n .jynd :11.1 dnbec
:md ziaeig
wgyn jldn zexazqd melyz
1
(D, C), (D, D) 6 (5, 1)
1
(D, C), (D, C) 6 (8, 0)
1
(D, C), (C, D) 12 (4, 4)
1
(D, C), (C, C) 12 (7, 3)
1
(C, C), (C, D) 2 (3, 7)
ìd melyzd zlgez okl
1 1 1 1 1 7 1
× (5, 1) + × (8, 0) + × (4, 4) + × (7, 3) + × (3, 7) = (4 , 4 ).
6 6 12 12 2 12 4

.ialy-cgd wgyna lwynd ieey byen ly zirahd dllkdd ìd ialy T -d wgyna lwyn ieey zxcbd
dibhxhq` lkle i owgy lkl m` ialy T -d wgyna lwyn ieey `xwp τ = (τ1 , . . . , τN ) zeibhxhq` xehwe 11.5 dxcbd
miiwzn i owgy ly τi
γiT (τ ) ≥ γiT (τi , τ−i ). (203)
.lwyn ieey melyz `xwp γ T (τ ) ,ialy T -d wgyna lwyn ieey èd τ m`

i owgy ly qwnpind jxr 11.4.3
xicbp
vi = min max Ui (σi , σ−i ). (204)

σ−i ∈×j6=i Σj σi ∈Σi
lk i
. owgy ly qwnpind jxr `xwp vi jxrd .biydl i owgyn repnl mileki mpi` −i mipwgydy jxrd èd vi
miiwnd σ−i zeaxern zeibhxhq` xehwe
vi = max Ui (σi , σ−i ) (205)

σi ∈Σi
rvennd melyzdy migihan md σ−i miwgyn −i mipwgyd m`y meyn z`f i

, owgy cbpk dyipr xehwe `xwp
. vi lr dlri `l i owgyl
zniiwnd i owgy ly σ i ∈ Σi zaxern dlert zniiw σ−i ∈ ×j6=i Σj zeaxern zelert xehwe lkl ik al miyp
,dxenwe zihwtnew ìd Σi dveawdy oeeikne ,zix`pil ìd σi 7→ Ui (σi , σ−i ) divwpetdy oeeikn . Ui (σi , σ−i ) ≥ vi
dlert zniiw σ−i ∈ ×j6=i Σj zeaxern zelert xehwe lkl okl .oeviw zcewpa lawzn ef divwpet ly meniqwnd
0
.Ui (s , σ−i )
i ≥ vi zniiwnd i owgy ly s0i ∈ Si dxedh
. vi zegtl epid i owgy lkl melyzd lwyn ieey lka ik zxne` dàd dprhd
γiT (τ ) ≥ vi
. miiwzn i owgy lkl if` .ialy T -d xfegd wgyna lwyn ieey τ `di 11.6 dprh
zniiwnd i owgy xear τi∗ dibhxhq` yi (lwyn ieey gxkda epi`y) τ zeibhxhq` xehwe lkl ik d`xp .dgked
T ∗
miiwzn lwyn ieey èd τ m` ,hxta ,okl .γ
i (τi , τ−i ) ≥ vi
γiT (τ ) ≥ γiT (τi∗ , τ−i ) ≥ vi , (206)
.yxcpk
xehwe èd τ−i (h) = (τj (h))j6=i -e h

, dixehqidd ixg` j owgy wgyny zaxernd dlertd ìd τj (h) ik xekfp
−1
h ∈ ∪Tt=0 H(t) dixehqid lkl ,mcew epiivy itk . h dixehqidd ixg` −i mipwgyd miwgyny zeaxernd zelertd
dixehqid lk ixg` ,da i owgy ly dibhxhq`d τi∗ `dz . Ui (bi (h), τ−i (h)) ≥ vi miiwzny jk bi (h) ∈ Si dlert yi
,ilnxet oteà . bi (h) dxedhd dlertd z` wgyn èd h
−1
τi (h) = bi (h), ∀h ∈ ∪Tt=0 H(t). (207)
lkl ìd i owgyl melyzd zlgez aly lka (τi∗ , τ−i ) zeibhxhq`d xehwe z` miwgyn mipwgyd xy`ky oeeikn
:ilnxet oteà . γiT (τi∗ , τ−i ) ≥ vi ik lawp , vi zegtd
T
1X
γiT (τi∗ , τ−i ) = Eτ ∗ ,τ [ut ]
T t=1 i −i i
T
1X X
= Pτi∗ ,τ−i (h)ui (τi∗ (h), τ−i (h))
T t=1
h∈H(t−1)
T
1X X
= Pτi∗ ,τ−i (h)ui (bi (h), τ−i (h))
T t=1
h∈H(t−1)
T
1 X X
≥ Pτi∗ ,τ−i (h)vi
T t=1 h∈H(t−1)
= vi ,
.yxcpk
ici lr V melyzd ixehwe zveaw z` xicbp
n o
V = x ∈ IRN : i owgy lkl xi ≥ vi . (208)
minelyzd zveaw z`xwp ef dveaw .ely qwnpind jxr z` zegtl lawn owgy lk mda minelyzd zveaw idef
zlken lwynd ieey inelyz zveaw ik miwiqn ep` 11.6 dprhn . (individually rational payoffs) zihxt mixiaqd
V
. dveawa
lwynd ieey inelyz oeit` 11.5
cg` èd aly lka mipwgyd ly melyzd okle S

, -a s èdy lk zelert xehwe miwgyn mipwgyd aly lka
1
PT
ly xenwa gxkda `vnp ,
T t=1 u(st ) -l deeyd ,mipwgyl minelyzd rvenn ,hxta . {u(s), s ∈ S} mixehwedn
:ici lr F dveawd z` okl xicbp .el`d mixehwed
F = conv{u(s), s ∈ S}. (209)
τ
. zeibhxhq` xehwe lkl γ T (τ ) ∈ F if` .miixyt`d miialy-cgd minelyzd lk ly xenwd edf
dveawa zlken lwynd ieey inelyz zveaw ,11.6 dprhne dpexg`d dxrddn
.lecb T xy`k xfegd wgyna lwynd ieey inelyz zveaw z` zaxwn F ∩V dveawd ,zrk d`xpy itk . F ∩V
-xhq` dxeva wgyna β(i) lwyn ieey yi i owgy lkl ik gipp 17 (The folk theorem ,innrd htynd) 11.7 htyn
x ∈ F ∩V xehwe lkle T ≥ T0 lkly jk T0 ∈ IN miiw > 0 lkl if` .ui (β(i)) > vi miiwnd (N, (Si )i∈N , (ui )i∈N ) zibh
miiwnd ialy T -d wgyna τ lwyn ieey miiw
kγ T (τ ) − xk < . (210)
i owgy lkl ik yxec htynd i`pz . i owgy lkl ui (β) ≥ vi ,ialy-cgd wgyna β lwyn ieey lka ik al miyp
.wfg èd i owgy xear oeieey-i`d ea lwyn ieey miiw
dnbec - 11.7 htyn zgked 11.6
.mipwgy ipy mr àd wgyna opeazp .zillkd dgkedd z` xidazy dnbec ìap htynd zgked iptl
L R
T 6, 6 2, 7
B 7, 2 0, 0
cbpk dyiprd zibhxhqè , R ìd 1 owgy cbpk dyiprd zibhxhq` , 2 èd mipwgyd ipy ly qwnpind jxr
dn`zda (7, 2) -e (2, 7) minelyz mr (B, L) -e (T, R) mixedh lwyn iieey ipy yi df wgyna .B ìd 2 owgy
onqp m` ,okl .(zeaxern zeibhxhqà lwynd ieyyl wwcfp `l lwynd ieey ziipal(
β(1) = (B, L), β(2) = (T, R),
.miniiwzn 11.7 htyn i`pz ik lawp
ely zehpicxeèwd izy ik V -a `vnp mb èd . (3, 3) = 12 (0, 0) + 12 (6, 6) ik F -a `vnp (3, 3) minelyzd xehwe
F ∩V
. -a `vnp èd okl .mipwgyd ly qwnpind jxr èdy , 2 -l zeey e` zelecb
(3, 3)
. -l aexw minelyzd rvenn ea mialy 100 mr wgyna lwyn ieey zrk dpap
(B, R) miibef-i` mialyae ,( (6, 6) didi melyzd dfk aly lka) (T, L) miibef mialya ewgyi mipwgyd m`
cg` lkl - lwyn ieey epi` edf ik ìd dlw dira . (3, 3) didz melyzd zlgez ,( (0, 0) didi melyzd dfk aly lka)
,zelert ly zihqipinxhc dxcq wgyl mixen` mipwgydy oeeikn .mialydn cg` lka zehql i`ck mipwgydn
dheqd owgyd ik ghaen ef jxca .dyipr zibhxhqà dheqd z` yiprdl leki ipyd owgyde ,cin dlbzn diihq lk
.dheq did `l el 3 rvenna `le ,diihqd xg`l aly lka 2 xzeid lkl lawi
geexd lr dlri dyiprdn cqtddy icka mialy witqn exzep m` wx iaihwt` dyipr zibhxhqà df mei`
zexyt` zxvep okle ,eyiprdl icka mialy exzeei `l ,oexg`d alya dhqi owgy ,dnbecl ,m` .diihqdn byend
.lwynd ieey z` zepal ick hrn mkgzdl jxhvp jk myl .geexl
zxèzn ziqiqad zipkzd .dyipr zibhxhq`ne ziqiqa zipkzn xcbend ,àd zeibhxhq`d xehweea opeazp
.dàd dlaha
B T B T · · · B T B T owgy
L R R L · · · R L R L owgy
100 99 98 97 · · · 4 3 2 1 aly
7 2 0 6 · · · 0 6 0 6 owgyl melyz
2 7 0 6 · · · 0 6 0 6 owgyl melyz
rvenny migihan jkae , (B, R) (T, L)

-e zelertd ixehwe z` oiteligl miwgyn mipwgyd mipey`xd mialyd 98 -a
ipyd ,dheq mdn cg` m` okle ,zihqipinxhc zipkz itl miwgyn md el` mialya . (3, 3) -l aexw didi minelyzd
17
dlidwa reci did df htyn mipy xtqn jyna .(11.13 htyn d`x) iteqpi`d wgynd xear belpà èd The folk theorem myd xewn
. Krishna-e Benoit ici lr 1985-a gked 11.7 htyn . Shapley-e Aumann-l qgein htynd meik .ircn xn`n sà mqxet `ly zexnl zircnd
owgyd cbpk dyiprd zibhxhq` z` lirtn ipyd owgyd àd alydn ,zygxzn efk diihqy rbxa .cin jka oigan
o`kn wgyi owgy ,dheq owgy m`y cera , B dlertd z` jliè o`kn wgyi owgy ,dheq owgy m` :dheqd
.mixedhd lwynd ieey ipy z` miwgyn mipwgyd ziqiqad zipkza mipexg`d mialyd ipya . R dlertd z` jliè
. (3, 3) -l aexw rvenn melyz ozepd lwyn ieey èd df zeibhxhq` xehwe ik zrk `ceep
èd minelyzd rvenn ,df zeibhxhq` xehwe ixg` miawer mipwgyd m`
49 49 1 1
(6, 6) + (0, 0) + (2, 7) + (7, 2) = (3.03, 3.03),
100 100 100 100
.(3, 3) -l aexwd
mialyd ipya .dhqi m` gieexdl leki epi` 1 owgy ik `ceep ,zeixhniq zeibhxhq`de mipwgydy oeeikn
gipp .el` mialya dhqi m` gieexdl leki `l 1 owgy okle ,ialy-cgd wgyna lwyn iieey miwgeyn mipexg`d
.21 alya dnbecl ,mipey`xd mialyd 98 -n cgà dpey`xl dheq 1 owgy ik ok m`
.( 6 mewna 7 lawi èd) 1 gieexn 1 owgy ,dhq ea 21 alya •
lawi èd L wgyi 1 owgy mè , R dyiprd zibhxhq` z` wgyi 2 owgy) 2 xzeid lkl gieexi èd 22 alya •
.( 0 mewna 2
2
. xzeid lkl lawi èd j` , 3 rvenna lawl xen` èd - ciqti 1 owgy 23, . . . , 98 mialydn cg` lka •
.gieexi `l èd 99 alya •
.( 2 xzeid lkl lawi j` , 7 lawl xen` èd) 5 zegtl ciqti èd 100 alya •
.ecqtda z`vei eziihq okle , 5 zegtl ciqtne ( 22 -e 21 lialya) 3 xzeid lkl gieexn 1 owgy ,xnelk
ixehwe ipy ly rvenn epid (3, 3) melyzdy oeeikn miibef-iè miibefl mialyd z` epwlig o`k epbvdy dipaa
-l aexwd melyz mr lwyn ieey zepal mivex epiid m` .dvixhna melyz
1 3 1 1 1
(3 , 4 ) = (0, 0) + (6, 6) + (2, 7),
2 4 4 2 4
zixefgn dxeva miwgyn eid mipwgyd ,mipexg`d mialyd jldna hrnl :4 zeixefgn mr lwyn ieey mipea epiid
zelertd ixehwe z`
(B, R), (T, L), (T, L), (B, L).
dvixhna minelyzd ixehwe ly llweyn rvennk dbvdl ozip crid melyz xy`k diipad z` zewgl ozip okl
minelyzd ixehwe ly llweyn rvennk eze` bivdl ozip , F -a `vnp crid melyzy oeeikn .milpeivx zelwyn mr
.milpeivx zelwyn zxfra mze` axwl jxhvp ,milpeivx mpi` zelwynd m` .mdylk zelwyn mr dvixhna
mipwgyd apfd jldna .ciqti dheq owgy ik gihadl èd (lirl dnbeca mipexg`d mialyd 2 ) apfd ciwtz
deey e` dlecb mdn cg` lka i owgyl melyzd zlgez . β(1), . . . , β(n) lwynd iieey z` zixefgn dxeva miwgyn
ciqti èd , i owgy z` miyiprn mipwgyd x`y m` okl . vi -n ynn dlecb ìd β(i) -ae ,(lwyn iieey md ik) vi -l
.diihq ici lr xeavl ozipy ilniqwnd geexdn xzei lecb didi df cqtdy ick witqn jex` didi apfd jxe` .apfa
.crid melyzn wegx didi `l llekd melyzdy ick ,wgynd jxe`l ziqgi eic xvw didi apfd jxe` ,z`f mr
zraep ef daxw .el daexw `l` , x crid melyzl deey dpi` lwynd ieey melyz zlgez ,innrd htynd geqipa
:zeaiq izyn
.crid melyz weica epi` melyzd ea ,apfd meiw .1
jixve ,milpeivx zelwyn mr dvixhna minelyzd ixehwe ly llweyn rvennk bivdl ozip `l x zè okzi .2
.milpeivx zelwyn ici lr milpeivx-i`d zelwynd z` axwl didi
11.7 htyn zgked 11.7
milpeivx zelwyn ici lr milpeivx-i` zelwyn aexiw 11.7.1
mr {u(s), s ∈ S} mixehwed ly xenw sexiv ici lr axwl ozip F -a melyz lk ik zxne`y dprh gikep dligz
.dpkn eze` ilra milpeivx mincwn
miniiwnd K mnekqy (ks )s∈S miilily-i` minly mixtqn yi K ∈ IN lkle x∈F xehwe lkl 11.8 dprh
X ks M |S|
u(s) − x < . (211)
K K
s∈S
.wgyna melyz ly ilniqwnd hlgend jxrd èd M -e , S dveawa mixai`d xtqn èd |S| ik xekfp
miniiwnd 1 mnekqy {λs }s∈S miilily-i` mixtqn miniiw x ∈ F = conv{u(s), s ∈ S} -y oeeikn .dgked
X
λs u(s) = x. (212)
s∈S
1
yleynd oeieey-i`n if` , s∈S lkl |λs − µs | < K miniiwnd 1 mnekqy miilily-i` mixtqn md {µs }s∈S m`
ik raep
X X X M |S|
µs u(s) − λs u(s) ≤ |λs − µs | × max |ui (a)| ≤ . (213)
i∈N K
s∈S s∈S s∈S
lebird xg`ly oeeikn .el aexwd K dpkn mr ilpeivx xtqnl mi- λs -dn cg` lk lbrl èd zeyrl epilry lk okl
.dhn itlk mwlge dlrn itlk mi- λs -dn wlg lbrl epilr , 1 zeidl jixv milawznd mixtqnd mekq
xnelk , λs -n ohwd xzeia lecbd K dpkn mr ilpeivxd xtqnd µ

bs `di ?lebird rvazn weica cvik
1
λs − bs ≤ λs .
<µ (214)
K
lawpe s∈S lr mkqp
|S| X
1− < bs ≤ 1.
µ (215)
K
s∈S
okle ,dfk èd mnekq mb , K dpkn mr milpeivx mixtqn md µ

bs -d lky oeeikn
X C
bs = 1 −
µ , (216)
K
s∈S
.dhn itlk x`yd zè , λs zelwyndn C dlrn itlk lbrl yiy o`kn .mly xtqn èd 0 ≤ C < |S| xyà
τ zeibhxhq` xehwe zxcbd 11.7.2
3M |S|
miilily-i` minly mixtqn yi 11.6 dprhn . K> miiwnd eic lecb mly xtqn K `di . >0 oezp `di
miniiwnd K mnekqy {ks }s∈S
X ks M |S|
u(s) − x < < . (217)
K K 3
s∈S
δ>0 i
. , lkl ui (β(i)) > vi -y oeeikn . δ = mini∈N (ui (β(i)) − vi ) onqp
3M 2KM 6M n

T ≥ T0
. `di . T0 ≥ × δ +1 n+K (a)-e T0 > (`) miiwnd eic lecb T0 `di
mialyd R ly zix`yle , K lceba miwela L T

-l wgynd jldn z` wlgpe ,ialy -d xfegd wgyna opeazp ep`
2KM
+ 1 n ≤ R < 2KM

ik raep (a) i`pzn .
δ δ +1 n+K ik yexcp .mipexg`d

3M 2KM 3M R
T ≥ T0 ≥ × +1 n+K ≥ . (218)
δ
xicbp jk xgè ,wgyl mipwgyd lr cvik xicbp dligz .ialy- T -d wgyna τ zeibhxhq` xehwe zrk xicbp
.wgyl eilr didy zelertdn dhq mdn cg` m` aibdl mikixv mipwgyd cvik
,ilnxet oteà .minrt ks weica s∈S zelert xehwe lk miwgyn mipwgyd K lceba miwelad L-n cg` lka
mipey`xd mialyd ks(1) -a wgyi i owgy lk . s(1), s(2), . . . , s(|S|) :miieqn xcqa S -a zelertd ixehwe lk z` xcqp
.'eke , si (2) dlertd z` welad ly miàd mialyd ks(2) -a , si (1) dlertd z` welad ly
β(1), . . . , β(n) lwynd iieey n z` zixefgn dxeva miwgyn mipwgyd wgynd ly mipexg`d mialyd R -a
z` T −R+2 alya , βi (1) zaxernd dlertd z` T −R+1 alya wgyn i owgy lk ,xnelk .ialy-cgd wgyna
zaxernd dlertd z` T −R+n+1 alya , βi (n) zaxernd dlertd z` T −R+n alya , βi (2) zaxernd dlertd
.dlilg xfege , βi (1)

m` okl .zaxern dlert `le ,dxedh dlert wgyl xen` owgy lk aly lka ,mipey`xd mialyd LK jldna
wgyl mixen` mipwgyd mipexg`d mialyd R -a ,z`f znerl .jka mipigan mipwgyd lk ,dheq mipwgyd cg`
dpi` ef dcaer ,jynda d`xpy itk .jka oigadl elkei `l mipwgyd x`y j` dhqi owgye okzi okle ,zaxern dlert
eawr mipwgyd lk t ≤ LK aly cr m`y jk τ dibhxhq`d xehwe z` xicbp .lwynd ieey ziipaa dira deedn
miyiprn mipwgyd x`y lk t+1 alyn lgd ,ziqiqad zipkzdn dhq j owgy t alyae ,ziqiqad zipkzd ixg`
cbpk dyipr xehwe èd (σi )i6=j xehwed xyà σi

, zaxernd dlertd z` wgyn i owgy lk ,xnelk . j owgy z`
j
. owgy
x-l aexw minelyzd irvenn leab τ zgz 11.7.3
|γ T (τ ) − x| <
. 11.9 dprh
onqp .dgked
X ks
Y = u(s). (219)
K
s∈S

.|Yi − xi | < 3 miiwzn i owgy lkl ik raep (217) dèeynn .cg` wela jyna mipwgyl minelyzd rvenn edf
.mialy R za zix`yle miwelad L -l mialyd T wexit ici lr γiT z` aygp zrk
T
!
1 X
γiT (τ ) = Eτ uti
T t=1
L−1 K T
!
1 XX X
= Eτ ulK+t
i + uti
T
l=0 t=1 t=Ln+1
T
!
1 X
= Eτ LKYi + uti
T
t=LK+1
" T
!
LK 1 X
= × Yi + Eτ uti . (220)
T T
t=LK+1
oeieey-i`n . 1− Ln
T =
R
T ≤
3M oke ,
RM
T ≤
3 ci lr meqg (220)-a ipyd xai`d ly hlgend jxrd ,
R
T ≤
3M -y oeeikn
:lawp yleynd
LK
|γiT (τ ) − xi | ≤ Yi − xi +
T 3

LK LK
≤ |Yi − xi | + 1 − xi +
T T 3

≤ + + = .
3 3 3
τ -n dihq ici lr gieexdl leki epi` owgy s` 11.7.4
,xfegd wgyna τj ely dibhxhq` lkle j owgy lkl 11.10 dprh
γjT (τj , τ−j ) ≤ xj . (221)
τbj zexedh zeibhxq` xear , γjT (b

τj , τ−j ) dxevdn minelyz ly xenw sexiv èd γjT (τj , τ−j ) melyzd .dgked
τj dxedh dibhxhq` lkl γjT (τj , τ−j ) ≤ xj ik gikedl ic dprhd z` gikedl ick ,okl .(2 libxz d`x) j owgy ly
.j owgy ly
ea oey`xd alyd èd t0 aly ik cer gippe , τj -n dpeyd τj∗ dxedh dibhxhqà ynzyn j owgy ik ok m` gipp
.τj zgz wgyl xen` èd dze` dlertdn dpeyd dlert dpey`xl wgyn j owgy t0 alya ,xnelk . τj -n zlcap τj∗
.mixwn ipya opeazp
. t0 > LK :oey`x dxwn
LK aly ixg` aly lkay oeeikn . τ ixg` aewrl mikiynn `l` , j z` miyiprn `l mipwgyd x`y df dxwna
ici lr t ≥ t0 mialydn cg` sà gieexdl leki epi` j owgy ,ialy-cgd wgyna lwyn ieey miwgyn mipwgyd
.diihq
. t0 ≤ LK :ipy dxwn
okle ,eze` miyiprn j ly eiaixi t+1 alyn lgd .lcb epi` j owgy ly minelyzd ly llekd mekqd ik d`xp
dzlbzd ea welad xtqn z` k -a onqp . vj xzeid lkl ìd t aly xg`ly mialydn cg` lka enelyz zlgez
mialya dheq èd mè dheq epi` m` zgz j owgy ly melyzd z` znkqn dàd dlahd . j owgy ly dihqd
.mipeyd
(τj∗ , τ−j ) zgz melyzd τ zgz melyzd
(k − 1)KYj (k − 1)KYj mipey`xd miwelad k−1 -a llekd melyzd
KM xzeid lkl KYj k welaa llekd melyzd
(K − k)Kvj (K − k)KYj k + 1, . . . , K miwelaa llekd melyzd
vj uj (β(1)), uj (β(2)), . . . apfa aly lka melyzd
diihqd mre ila llekd melyzd zèeyd :11.3 xei`
dlahd .11.3 xeià dritend dlaha minelyzd z` deeyp ,j owgyl zigeex dpi` diihqd ik ze`xdl ick
.( τ zgz melyzd zegt (τj∗ , τ−j ) zgz melyz) j owgy ly minelyzd yxtd z` znkqn dàd
minelyzd yxtd
ddf melyz mipey`xd miwelad k−1

2KM xzeid lkl k wela
iaeig i` yxtd k + 1, . . . , K miwela
R

− n −1 δ xzeid lkl apfd
minelyzd iyxtd :11.4 xei`
z` zixefgn dxeva miwgyn mipwgyd apfa . |Yj | ≤ M -y oeeikn 2KM xzeid lkl èd yxtdd k welaa ,ok`
uj (β(i)) ≥ vj
. -y oeeikn ,dheq èd xy`k gieexn epi` j owgy i 6= j mr β(i) miwgyn ea aly lka . β(1), . . . , β(n)
R
ik raep , β(j) miwgyn mda mialy
n −1 zegtl yiy oeeikn . δ zegtl ciqtn j owgy β(j) miwgyn ea aly lka
R R

−
.
n −1 δ -n ohwd ilily xtqn èd yxtdd ,xnelk , − n −1 δ xzeid lkl èd yxtdd
ik milawn ep` o`kn

R
γjT (τj , τ−j ) − γjT (τ ) ≤ 2KM − − 1 δ. (222)
n
2KM

.gikedl epivxy itk .gikedl epivxy dn dfe ,iaeig-i` df lceb ik raep , R> δ +1 n -y oeeikn
iteqpi`d wgynd 11.8
,df lwyn ieey wgyl elkei mipwgydy ick .wgynd jxeà ielz mcewd sirqa epipay zeibhxhq`d xehwe
izn rcei `l qiph zepg lra :y`xn reci epi` wgynd jxe` zeax minrt .wgynd jxe` z` y`xn zrcl mdilr
mixwna .zxg` xira xebl exari izn e` ,qiph wgyl ewiqti izn mircei mpi` qiph ipwgye ,ezepg z` xekni èd
seqpi` jynpd wgyn :iteqpi` wgyn lrk mialy ly reci `l j` lecb xtqn mr wgyn lr aeygl gep dl`k
.mialy
zeibelp` ozipy zexcbdd .ely lwynd iieey zveaw z` oiit`pe ,iteqpi`d wgynd ly lcend z` xicbp df sirqa
.ialy- T xfeg wgyn xear epzipy zexcbdl
oi`y melyz ixehwe :miycg lwyn ieey inelyz lawl ozip iteqpi`d wgyna ,dàd dnbecd d`xny itk
.mdil` ztèyd mikex` miiteq miwgyna lwyn ieey inelyz ly dxcq
.jynd :11.1 dnbec
.dàd minelyzd zvixhn ici lr dpezp zxfegd xiq`d znlic ik xekfp
D C
D 1, 1 4, 0
C 0, 4 3, 3
lk df dxwna .minrt seqpi` wgynd lr mixfeg mipwgyd xy`k zxfegd xiq`d znlic lr zrk lkzqp
rvenn z` mqwnl dqpn owgy lky gipp .aly lka cg` melyz :minelyz ly ziteqpi` dxcq lawn owgy
dcewpa .miiw `l minelyzd irvenn leab m` dxew dn enk ,zeipkh zeiral qpkip `l df alya) ely minelyzd
xefgl èd ialy- T -d xfegd wgyna cigid lwynd ieeyy ,mcew epwqdy dpwqnl cebipa .(wxtd jynda lthp ef
milawne dlert mitzyn mipwgyd mda lwyn-iieey mpyi iteqpi`d wgyna ,aly lka ( DD
, ) zelertd xehwe lr
dlerta xga jaixi m` ,xg` aly lka . C wgy oey`xd alya :dàd dibhxhqà opeazp ,lynl .xzei deab melyz
D
. dlerta xga ,zxg` . C dlerta igkepd alya xga ,wgynd zligz f`n C
mrt m` j` ,dlert szyn dz` mb ,dlert szyn aixid cer lk :zgleq dpi`y dibhxhq` ìd ef dibhxhq`
18
.dlert szyn jpi` jliè aly eze`n ,dlert szyn epi` aixid zg`
xehwe zgz ,ok` .zehql i`ck `l owgy s`l ef dibhxhqà miynzyn mipwgyd ipy xy`k ik ze`xl lw
cg` miieqn alya m` . 3 èd owgy lkl minelyzd rvenn okle , 3 melyz aly lka lawn owgy lk df zeibhxhq`
melyzde , D wgyi eaixi aly eze`n lgd j` ,gieexie 4 lawi mpn` èd aly ezeà , D wgyne dheq mipwgyd
xzeid lkl didi dheqd owgyd ly minelyzd irvenn leab ,hxta . 1 didi aly lka dheqd owgyd ly ilniqwnd
1
.
:zaxern dlert ziteq dixehqid lkl dni`znd divwpet ìd iteqpi`d wgyna i owgy xear dibhxhq` 11.11 dxcbd
τi : ∪∞
t=1 H(t) → Σi .
:iteqpi`d wgyna miixyt`d wgynd ikldn lk sqe` z` H(∞) -a onqp
H(∞) = S N .
alya mipwgyd ly zelertd xehwe èd st xyà ,zelert ixehwe ly (s1 , s2 , . . .) dxcq èd ef dveawa illk xai`
. t
18
. grim-trigger strategy z`xwp ef dibhxhq`
-`d wgynd ikldn sqe` lr zebltzd zexyn mipwgyd ly zeibhxhq`d ,ialy T -d wgyna dxewl dneca
agxnd ziipa okle ,iteqpi` zexazqdd agxn o`k ,iteq èd zexazqdd agxn iteqd wgynay cera j` .miixyt
dxabl`-`nbiq zniiw ik dgpd zcewp jezn `vp ep` .11.9.1 sirqa mibivn ep` zilnxetd diipad z` .xzei dpicr
Pτ zexazqdd dxyn τ zeibhxhq` xehwe lke ,dcicn divwpet èd t alya melyzd dxear H(∞) agxnd xear
. Pτ zexazqdl mi`znd zlgezd xehxte` z` Eτ -a onqp .df agxn lr
iteqpi`d wgynd xear innrd htynd 11.8.1
lwyn ieey melyz `xwp x ∈ IRN xehweede (iteqpi`d wgyna) lwyn ieey `xwp τ zeibhxhq` xehwe 11.12 dxcbd
leabd i owgy lkl Pτ itl 1 zexazqda m`
T
1X T
lim ui
T →∞ T
t=1
miiwzn i owgy ly τi dibhxhq` lkle , x-l deeye miiw
T
! T
!
1X T 1X T
Eτ lim ui = xi ≥ Eτi ,τ−i lim sup u . (223)
T →∞ T
t=1 T →∞ T t=1 i
zexazqda x-l sèy τ zgz minelyzd rvenn m` x melyz mr lwyn ieey èd τ zeibhxhq` xehwe ,milina
dyixcd ,minelyzd irvenn leab meiw ghaen dihq lkl `ly oeeikn .dihq ici lr gieexdl leki `l owgy sè , 1
.lwynd ieey melyz lr dlrz `l minelyzd irvenn ly oeilrd leabd zlgez elit`y ìd
.iteqpi`d wgyna lwynd ieey inelyz zveaw z` oiit`n àd htynd
F∩ dveawd èd iteqpi`d wgyna lwynd ieey inelyz sqe` ( The folk theorem ,innrd htynd) 11.13 htyn
V
.
{u(s), s ∈ S} minelyzd ly xenwa èdy minelyz xehwe lka lwyn ieey zibhxhqà jenzl ozip ,milina
.( i owgyn repnl ozip `l eze` vi qwnpind jxrn ohw epi`y ,xnelk) owgy lkl zihxt xiaq èdye
- T -d xfegd wgynd xear innrd htynde iteqpi`d xfegd wgynd xear innrd htynd oia miiwd ipkh lcad
izednd lcadd .leabl zkll ozipy oeeikn ,melyzd ly ick cr aexiwa jxev oi` iteqpi`d wgynay èd ialy
ialy-cgd wgyna lwyn ieey ly meiw i owgy lkl yexcl jixv iteqd dxwnay ceray èd mihtynd ipy oia
hlea df lcad .jka jxev oi` iteqpi`d dxwnay ixd ,ely qwnpind jxrn ynn deabd melyz i owgyl ozepd
wgynay cera (1, 1)

, èd iteqd xfegd wgyna cigid lwynd ieey melyz ef dnbeca .zxfegd xiq`d znlica
.11.4 xeià dritend S dveawd èd lwynd ieey inelyz sqe` ,11.13 htyn itl ,iteqpi`d xfegd
(0,4)
(3,3)
(1,1)
(4,0)
ziteqpi`d xiq`d znlica lwynd ieey inelyz sqe` :11.4 xei`
, (1, 1) qwnpind jxrn ynn deabd melyz mipwgyd milawn eay lwyn ieey oi` ialy-cgd wgynay oeeikn
,zniiwzn dpi` htynd zpwqn mb ,epi`xy itk ,mpnè .miiwzn epi` iteqd wgynl innrd htynd i`pzy ixd
.iteqd wgyna cigid lwynd ieey melyz èd (1, 1) ixdy
cenra zxfegd xiq`d znlic xear epi`xy grim-trigger zeibhxhq`l dnec dgkeda dpapy zeibhxhq`d xehwe
:dvixhna minelyz ixehwe ly llweyn rvennk x z` bivp x∈F ∩V xy`k .151
X X
x= λs u(s), λs ≥ 0, ∀s ∈ S, λs = 1. (224)
s∈S s∈S
`z lky minrtd feg` xefgn lka :zixefgn grim-trigger zibhxhq` dpap ,milpeivx mixtqn md zelwynd lk m`
ypren èd ,zelert ly ef zihqipinxhc dxcqn dheq owgy mè , x ly dbvda elwynl deey wgeyn dvixhna
.dyipr zibhxhq` zxfra jliè df alyn lgd
zeniiwnd (Qs )s∈S zexf zeveaw |S|-l mipnfd zveaw z` wlgp ,milpeivx-i` mixtqn md zelwynd xy`k
leabdy
1
lim #{t ≤ T : t ∈ Qs } = λs , ∀s ∈ S. (225)
T →∞ T
zelertd xehwe z` mipwgyd ewgyi df alya , Qs -a `vnp t aly m` :àd oteà grim-trigger zibhxhq` dpap
zibhxhq` zxfra jliè eixg`y alydn lgd ypren èd ,zelert ly ef zihqipinxhc dxcqn dheq owgy m` . s
. x èd ef dibhxhq` zgz minelyzd irvenn leab ik raep (225) dèeynn .dyipr
dgkedl zepkd 11.8.2
.dgkedd jldna jxhvp oze` ze`vez izy mibivn ep` df sirqa
m` minèzn izla mi`xwp Y -e X miixwn mipzyn ipy ik xekfp
E(XY ) = E(X) × E(Y ). (226)
.milecbd mixtqnd weg ly ihxt dxwn zrk gqpp
0<W <∞ iteq reaw miiw (`) miniiwnd 0 zlgez mr miixwn mipzyn ly ziteqpi` dxcq {Xn } idz 11.14 htyn
1 zexazqda if` .minèzn izla md Xm -e Xn miixwnd mipzynd , n 6= m lkl (a)-e , n lkl −W ≤ Xn ≤ W -y jk
miiwzn
n
1X
lim Xj = 0. (227)
n→∞ n
j=1
0-l
. deeye miiw leabd 1 zexazqda ,xnelk
.dàd d`vezd z` wiqdl ozip 11.14 htynn

−W ≤ Xn ≤ W miniiwnd ,ziaeig-i` zlgez mr minèzn izla miixwn mipzyn ly dxcq {Xn } idz 11.15 dpwqn
miiwzn 1 zexazqda if` . n lkl
n
1X
lim sup Xj ≤ 0. (228)
n→∞ n j=1
:ici lr Yn ixwn dpzyn n lkl xicbp . −W ≤ µn ≤ 0 mipezpdn . µn = E(Xn ) onqp n lkl .dgked
Yn = Xn − µn . (229)
if`
E(Yn ) = E(Xn − µn ) = E(Xn ) − µn = 0. (230)
,ok lr xzi
−2W ≤ −W ≤ Xn ≤ Xn − µn ≤ 2W. (231)
izla Ym -e Yn miixwnd mipzynd n 6= m

, lkl ik d`xp zrk 2W
. ici lr mineqg {Yn } miixwnd mipzynd okl
,zilnxet . Xm -e Xn ly zeffd md Ym -e Yn -e minèzn izla Xm -e Xn -y oeeikn raep xacd .minèzn
E(Yn Ym ) = E((Xn − µn )(Xm − µm ))

= E(Xn Xm ) − µn E(Xm ) − E(Xn )µm + µn µm (232)
= E(Xn )E(Xm ) − µn E(Xm ) − E(Xn )µm + µn µm = 0.
1 zexazqda okle ,11.14 htyn i`pz lk z` zniiwn {Yn } dxcqd
n
X
lim Yj = 0. (233)
n→∞
j=1
miiwzn 1 zexazqda okl , n lkl Yn = Xn − µn ≥ Xn la`
n n n
1X 1X 1X
lim sup Xj ≤ lim sup Yn = lim Yn = 0, (234)
n→∞ n j=1 n→∞ n

j=1
n→∞ n
j=1
.yxcpk
.11.13 htyn zgkedl ynzyp mda miixwnd mipzynd zxcq z` zrk xicbp
H(∞)
, wgynd ikldn lk sqe` èd mbcnd agxn ,eply dxwna ik xekfp .edylk zeibhxhq` xehwe τ `di
-azqdd , Pτ ìd zexazqdd zivwpete ,zeililbd zeveawd ici lr zxvepd dxabl`-`nbiqd ìd dxabl`-`nbiqd
.wgynd ikldn lr τ dxyny zex
1 2
z` xicbp t≥0 lkle h = (s , s , . . .) ∈ H(∞) wgyn jldn lkl
1 2 t
ixehwe oda zeixehqidd z` dlikn B(s , s , . . . , s ) dveawd . h ly t jxeà `yixd zeidl ht = (s1 , s2 , . . . , st )
mda wgynd ikldn zveaw idef ,zexg` milina s1 , s2 , . . . , st

. md mipey`xd mialyd t -a miwgeynd zelertd
t
onqp .zixew h dixehqidd
t 1 2 t
Pτ (h ) = Pτ (B(s , s , . . . , s )),
.dxwz ht dixehqidd τ zgzy zexazqdd z`
ici lr Xt ixwn dpzyn xicbp
Xt (h) = uti (h) − ui (τ (h t−1

)),
alya lawl dtiv dze` melyzd zlgez oiae t alya laiw i owgyy melyzd oia yxtdd z` ccen Xt (h) ,xnelk
.mipey`xd mialyd t−1 -a wgynd jldn ozpida ,df
.minèzn izla {Xt } miixwnd mipzynd ike , E(Xt ) = 0 ik d`xp
ik al miyp ziy`x
!
X X
τ (st | ht−1 )(ui (st ) − ui (τ (ht−1 )) = τ (st | ht−1 )ui (st ) − ui (τ (ht−1 ))
st ∈S st ∈S
= ui (τ (ht−1 )) − ui (τ (ht−1 )) (235)
= 0.
:qt` ìd Xt ly zlgezd ik raep o`kn
X
Pτ (h) uti (h) − ui (τ (ht−1 ))

Eτ (Xt ) =
h
X X
Pτ (ht−1 ) τ (st | ht−1 ) uti (h) − ui (τ (ht−1 ))

=
ht−1 ∈S t−1 st ∈S
!
X X
t
= Pτ (ht−1 ) τ (s | ht−1 )uti (h) − ui (τ (h t−1
)) = 0.
ht−1 ∈S t−1 st ∈S
gikedl ick .(235) dèeynn miiwzn oexg`d oeieeyde , Pτ (h) ly ziaihwecpi`d dxcbddn miiwzn ipyd oeieeyd
:lawp mcewd aeyigl dneca .mipey mialy ipy l<t eidi ,minèzn izla (Xt ) mipzynd ik
uli − ui (τ (hl−1 )) × uti − u(τ (ht−1 ))

E(Xs Xt ) = E
X
Pτ (ht−1 ) ui (sl ) − ui (τ (hl−1 )) × ui (st ) − ui (τ (ht−1 ))

=
ht ∈H(t)
X X
Pτ (ht−1 )τ (st | ht−1 ) ui (sl ) − ui (τ (hl−1 ))

=
ht−1 ∈H(t−1) st ∈S
× ui (st ) − ui (τ (ht−1 ))

X
Pτ (ht−1 ) ui (sl ) − ui (τ (hl−1 ))

=
ht−1 ∈H(t−1)
X
× τ (st | ht−1 ) ui (st ) − ui (τ (ht−1 )) = 0.
st ∈S
odn zg` lk ly zetitvdy zexf zeveawl miirahd mixtqnd zveaw z` wlgl ozip ik zxne` dàd dprhd
.dpezp zetitvl deey

miirahd mixtqnd zveaw ly dwelg zniiw . 1 mnekqy miilily-i` mixtqn λ1 , . . . , λ n eidie n≥2 `di 11.16 dprh
: T ∈ IN lkl miiwzny jk Q1 , . . . , Qn zexf zeveaw n-l
|Qj ∩ {1, 2, . . . , T }| n−1

λj − ≤ . (236)
T T
divwecpi`d ly t -a alyae ,zewix zeveaw mr ligzp .divwecpià (Q1 , . . . , Qn ) zeveawd z` dpap .dgked
(dveawd ly crid lceb) λj oia yxtdd dxear dveawl eze` siqep t

. irahd xtqnd z` siqedl odn efi`l hilgp
.ilniqwn dk cr dveawl epqpkdy mixai`d fegè
.àd oteà divwecpià (Qtj )t∈I

N
1≤j≤n zeveaw xicbp ,ilnxet oteà
Q0j = ∅, 1 ≤ j ≤ n.
Qtj
dnk miniiw m`) ilniqwn λj − t exear qwcpi` jt `di .miieqn t ∈ IN xear (Qtj )1≤j≤n z` epxcbd xaky gipp
xicbp .(i`xw` oteà mdn cg` gwip ,meniqwnd lawzn mxear j


 Qt j 6= j0 ,
j
Qt+1
j =
 Qt ∪ {t + 1} j = j0 .
j
Qtj Qtj
.icn “ ” Qtj
dphw dveawd ,xzei lecb λj − t lcebdy lkk , {1, 2, . . . , t} jezn Qtj dveawd zetitv èd
t -y oeeikn
Pn
.
j=1 Qtj = t t lkl ik raep dipadn .ilniqwn df lceb da dveawl t+1 z` mitiqen ep` ef daiqn
Pn Pn |Qtj |
exear j yiy ixd ,
j=1 λj = 1 = j=1 t -y oeeikn
|Qtj |
λj − ≥ 0. (237)
t
,l"pd yxtdd z` mqwnn jt -y oeeikn
|Qtjt |
λjt − ≥ 0. (238)
t
ik t lr divwecpià d`xp zrk
|Qtj | 1
λj − ≥− . (239)
t t
-l znbxzin (239) dèeyn t=1 xear
λj − |Q1j | ≥ −1. (240)
.zniiwzn dèeynd , λj ≥ 0 -y oeeikne ,cg` xai` dlikn ìdy e` dwix dveaw ìd Q1j -y oeeikn
.t xear zniiwzn (239) dèeyn ik divwecpià gipp

divwecpi`d zgpdne λj ≥ 0 -y oeeikn , j 6= jt xy`k dxew df dxwn) Qt+1

j = Qtj m`
|Qt+1
j | |Qtj |
λj − = λj − (241)
t+1 t+1
|Qtj |

1 t
= λt + λj − (242)
t+1 t+1 t+1
t
|Q |

t j
≥ λj − (243)
t+1 t+1

t 1 1
≥ × − =− . (244)
t+1 t t+1
|Qtj |
λj −
,
t ≥0 (238) dèeynny oeeikne λj ≥ 0 -y oeeikn ,( j = jt xy`k dxew df dxwn) |Qt+1 t
j | = |Qj | + 1 m`
|Qt+1
j | |Qtj | |Qtj | |Qt+1 j |
λj − = λj − + − (245)
t+1 t t t+1
|Qtj | |Qtj | |Qtj | + 1
= λj − + − (246)
t t t+1
|Qtj | |Qtj | − t
= λj − + (247)
t t(t + 1)
|Qtj | − t
≥ (248)
t(t + 1)
−t 1
≥ =− . (249)
t(t + 1) t+1
ik lawp (239) dèeynn
|Qtj | X |Qt |
l
= 1− (250)
t t
l6=j
X 1

≤ 1− λl + (251)
t
l6=j
n−1
= λj − . (252)
t
ik eplaiw (239) dèeyn mr cgi
n−1 |Qtj | 1
λj − ≥ ≥− , (253)
t t t
:dler dxcq ìd (Qtj )t∈IN zeveawd zxcq j lkl ik mièx diipadn
∅ = Q0j ⊆ Q1j ⊆ Q2j ⊆ · · · . (254)
:el` zeveaw ly cegi`d zeidl Qj z` xicbp
Qj = ∪t∈IN Qtj . (255)

oke ,zexf zeveawl IN ly dwelg deedn (Qj )nj=1 if`
Qj ∩ {1, 2, . . . , t} = Qtj . (256)
.zniiwzn dprhd ik milawn ep` (253) dèeynn okl
11.13 htyn zgked 11.8.3
.11.13 htyn zgkedl dptp zrk
.dgked
.F ∩V -a `vnp iteqpi`d wgyna lwyn ieey melyz lk :oey`x aly
t
cg` èd , u t , alya melyzd xehweey oeeikn . x lwyn ieey melyz mr iteqpi`d wgyna lwyn ieey τ `di
miiwn T aly cr rvennd melyzd T ≥0 lkl , {u(s), s ∈ S} dveawa mixai`dn
T
1X T
u ∈ conv{u(s), s ∈ S} = F. (257)
T t=1 i
1
PT
x∈F
. ik miwiqn ep` o`kn . F -a gxkda èd ,miiw limT →∞ T t=1 uTi leabd m` ,zihwtnew F -y oeeikn
.mini`znd miiepiya 11.6 dprh zgkedl dnec x∈V ik dgkedd
.dvixhna minelyz ixehwe ly llweyn rvennk x∈F zbvd :ipy aly
x∈F
, -y oeeikn . x ∈ F ∩V `di . x lwyn ieey melyz mr τ lwyn ieey yi x ∈ F ∩V xehwe lkl ik gikep zrk
(λs )s∈S miilily-i` mixtqn miniiw ,xnelk .dvixhna minelyz ixehwe ly llweyn rvennk eze` bivdl ozip
miiwzny jk 1 mnekqy
X
λs u(s) = x. (258)
s∈S
miiwzny jk (Qs )s∈S zexf zeveaw |S| -l miirahd mixtqnd zveaw z` wlgl ozip 11.16 dprhn
|Qj ∩ {1, 2, . . . , T }| n−1

λj − ≤ . (259)
T T
τ
. zeibhxhq` xehwe zxcbd :iyily aly
ziqiqa zipkzn akxen zeibhxhq`d xehwe .àd oteà iteqpi`d xfegd wgyna τ zeibhxhq` xehwe xicbp
mipwgyd cg`y rbxd zlrtend dyipr zeibhxhqè (zelert ixehwe ly zihqipinxhc dxcq ici lr zxèznd)
owgy ly zeihq wx oeayga zgwel lwyn ieey zxcbdy oeeikn ,11.7 htyn zgkeda enk .ziqiqad zipkzdn dheq
.ziqiqad zipkzdn miheq mipwgy ipy zegtl xy`k zeibhxhq`d xehwe xben cvik dpyn df oi` ,ccea
miiwzn exear cigid èd s xyà , s zelertd xehwe z` miwgyn mipwgyd t alya :ziqiqad zipkzd •
t ∈ Qs
.
jliè aly eze`n ypren ziqiqad zipkzdn dheqy oey`xd owgyd :dyipr zibhxhq` •
x
. -l sèy minelyzd rvenn τ zgz :iriax aly
lceb ik lawp (259) dèeynn . |Qs ∩ {1, 2, . . . , T }| èd wgeyn s zelertd xehweey minrtd xtqn , T aly cr
ik lawp ,weic xzil . λs -l aexw df
T X |Qs ∩ {1, 2, . . . , T }|
1X t X
u −x = u(s) − λs u(s) (260)
T t=1 T
s∈S s∈S
X |Qs ∩ {1, 2, . . . , T }|
≤ u(s) − λs u(s) (261)
T
s∈S
|S|M (n − 1)
≤ . (262)
T
1
PT
x
. l deeye miiw limT →∞ T t=1 ut leabd ,hxta
τ
. -n dhqi m` gieexi `l owgy s` :iying aly
ik d`xp . i owgy ly idylk dibhxhq` τi∗ `dz
" T
#
1X T
Eτi∗ ,τ−i lim sup ui ≤ xi . (263)
T →∞ T t=1
dpeyd dlert wgyl i owgyl dxen τi∗ ea oey`xd alyd t0 `di , τi∗ 6= τi m` . xi -l deey l`ny sb` τi∗ = τi m`
, t > t0 lkl okle ,dyipr zibhxhq` miwgyn i owgy ly eiaixi t0 alyn lgd . τi dxeny dnn
Eτi∗ ,τ−i [uti ] ≤ vi ≤ xi . (264)
ici lr mixcbend (Xt ) miixwnd mipzynd ,epi`xy itk ,ok` .zniiwzn (263) dèeyn ik raep o`kn
Xt (h) = ui (st ) − u(τi∗ (ht−1 ), τ−i (ht−1 )) (265)
1 zexazqda 11.15 dpwqnn okle , 0 zlgez mr minèzn izla md
T
1X
lim sup Xt (h) ≤ 0. (266)
T →∞ T t=1
lawp , u(τi (ht−1 ), τ−i (ht−1 )) ≤ vi -y oeeikn
T
1X
lim sup ui (st ) ≤ vi ≤ xi , (267)
T →∞ T t=1
mb okle
T
!
1X
Eτi∗ ,τ−i lim sup ui (st ) ≤ vi ≤ xi , (268)
T →∞ T t=1
.yxcpk
oeic 11.9
.df lcen ly zepey zeivìxee ecnl miax miypè ,xzeia dxiyr mixfeg miwgyn lr zextqd
cg` ik dlbzny rbxa :zegleq `l od epxcbdy lwynd ieey zeibhxhq` .dyipra zrbep zg` daeyg dcewp
z` dcixen dyiprd zibhxhqè okziiy oeeikn .eze` miyiprn mipwgyd lk ,ziqiqad zipkzdn dhq mipwgyd
.dyiprl sxhvdl el` mipwgyl i`ck recn dl`yd zl`yp ,dhqy owgyl sqepa ,mitqep mipwgy ly mdinelyz
lwyn-ieey èd τ zeibhxhq` xehwe ??

: wxt d`x) wgyn-zz-ihwtxt lwynd ieey byen z` exicbd jk myl
-ihwtxt lwyn ieeya .lwyn ieey èd lawznd wgynd jldn ,ziteq dixehqid lk ixg` m` wgyn-zz-ihwtxt
lwyn ieey ly ef dxcbd zgz innrd htynd ly zegked .miyiprnd cgà zerbetd zeyipr dpkziz `l wgyn-zz
Rubinstein
. -e ?? ici lr epzip
,ipyd ly cg`d zelertd z` mièx mpi` mipwgyd xy`k dxew dn od zextqa ecnlpy zetqep zeivìxe xtqn
1989
, -a Lehrer ly mixn`nd ,lynl ,d`x) mipwgyd lk ly zelerta ielzd (signal) ze` lawn owgy lk `l`
,(??? ly mixn`nd ,lynl ,d`x) mdly melyzd zivwpet z` mircei mpi` mipwgyd m` dxew dn ,( 1992 -e 1990
milawn mipwgyde melyz zeivwpet ly sqe` jezn zg` melyz zivwpet zxgap wgynd zligza m` dxew dne
.( 1995 -n Aumann and Maschler ly xtqd d`x) .dxgapy melyzd zivwpet xaca ziwlg divnxetpi`
zexazqdd agxn ly zilnxet dxcbd 11.9.1
ici lr zxvepd dxabl`-`nbiqd idef .zeililbd zeveawd ici lr zxvepd dxabl`-`nbiqa H(∞) z` ciivp
dxevdn zeveaw
B(b) = B(b1 , b2 , . . . , bt ) = {(s1 , s2 , . . .) ∈ H(∞) : s1 = b1 , . . . , st = bt },
dcicn dveaw
. z`xwp dxabl`-`nbiqa dveaw lk . b = (b1 , b2 , . . . , bt ) ∈ S t -e ,èdy lk irah xtqn epid t xyà
B dcicn dveaw ly zexazqdd H(∞)

. lr Pτ zexazqd zcin irah oteà dxyn τ zeibhxhq` xehwe lk
oteà . B -a didi lawziy wgynd jldn τ zeibhxhq`d xehwe itl ewgyi mipwgyd lk m`y zexazqdd ìd
b∈S lkl xicbp ,ilnxet
Pτ (B(b)) = τ1 (b1 ) × τ2 (b2 ) × · · · × τN (bN ), (269)
xicbp (b1 , b2 , . . . , bt ) ∈ S t lkle t≥2 lkl . b epid wgeyiy zelertd xehwe oey`xd alyay zexazqdd idef ,xnelk
divwecpià
Pτ (B(b1 , b2 , . . . , bt )) = Pτ (B(b1 , b2 , . . . , bt−1 )) × τ1 (bt1 | b1 , b2 , . . . , bt−1 )

×τ2 (bt2 | b1 , b2 , . . . , bt−1 ) × · · · × τN (btN | b1 , b2 , . . . , bt−1 ). (270)
,dxabl`-`nbiqd z` zeyxet zeililbd zeveawdy oeeikn .zeililb zeveaw xear Pτ zexazqdd z` epxcbd jka
ahid zxcben Pτ zexazqdd ( II.3.4 htyn ,1995 Shiryaev

, ,dnbecl ,d`x) Kolmogorov ly dagxdd htynn
.dcicn dveaw lkl
zxcben didz minelyzd rvenn zlgezy ick aeyg df xac .dcicn divwpet èd t alya melyzd ik d`xp zrk
miiwzn c ∈ IR iynn xtqn lkl okl . uti (h) = ui (st ) miiwzn h = (s1 , s2 , . . .) ∈ H(∞) wgyn jldn lkl .ahid
{h ∈ H(∞) : uti (h) = c} = {h ∈ H(∞) : uti (st ) = c}

= ∪{B(b1 , . . . , bt ) : ui (bt ) = c}.
.dcicn ìd s` okle ,zecicn zeveaw ly iteq cegi` ìd ef dveaw

milibxz 11.10
.mipwgy n mr ialy- T xfeg wgyna owgyl zexedhd zeibhxhq`d xtqn z` ayg .1
.owgy i `die ,ialy T -d xfegd wgyna zeibhxhq` xehwe τ `di .2
miilily-i` mixtqne τi (1), . . . , τi (L) zexedh zeibhxhq` ly iteq xtqn yi i owgy lkl ik d`xd (`)
miiwzny jk 1 mnekqy λ1 , . . . , λ L
L
X
γiT (τ ) = λl γiT (τi (l), τ−i ). (271)
l=1
? (λl ) mireawd mdn ?oey`xd sirqa mda zynzydy τi (1), . . . , τi (L) zeibhxhq`d odn (a)
.zeàd zevixhnd ici lr mipezpd mixfegd miwgyna F ∩V dveawd idn .3
L R L R
T −1, 1 1, −1 T 6, 6 2, 7
B 1, −1 −1, 1 B 7, 2 0, 0
Part A Part B
L C R
T 0, 0 2, 4 4, 2
M 4, 2 0, 0 2, 4
B 2, 4 4, 2 0, 0
Part C
aexw el mi`znd melyzdy mialy 100, 000 mr wgyna lwyn ieey x`z B wlga 3 libxza ritend wgyna .4
(3, 4)
. -l 0.01 ick cr
melyzdy lwyn ieey zibhxhq` x`z dàd dvixhnd ici lr oezpd mialy 1, 000, 000 mr xfegd wgyna .5
. (5, 6) -l 0.01 ick cr aexw dl mi`znd
L R
T 6, 6 2, 7
B 7, 2 0, 0
lwynd ieey melyzl mi`znd iteqpi`d xfegd wgyna lwyn ieey x`z B wlga 3 libxza ritend wgyna .6
1 1
.(4
3, 23)
u : S → IRn dpiidz .mipwgyl zeiteq zelert zeveaw (Si )i∈N -e mipwgy zveaw N = {1, 2, . . . , n} `dz .7
0 n
zivwpet miibef-i` mialya ea xfeg wgyn ly divìxeea opeazp .minelyz zeivwpet izy u : S → IR -e
0
.u ìd minelyzd zivwpet miibef mialyae , u ìd minelyzd
?df lcena 11.7 htynl ibelp`d htynd edn (`)
?df lcena 11.13 htynl ibelp`d htynd edn (a)
1
-eà , zexazqda zg` lk) i`xwà minelyzd zeivwpetn zg` zxgap aly lka mrtd j` ,7 libxz enk .8
2
lkl zxn`p dxgapy divwpetde ,(mincewd mialya mipwgyd zelertae zencewd zexigaa ielz izla ot
.aly eze`l mzlert z` xegal mixen` mdy iptl mipwgyd
.owgy s`l zxn`p `l dxgapy minelyzd zivwpet mrtd j` ,8 libxz enk .9
mircei mpi` mipwgyd x`ye) 1 owgyl wxe j` zxn`p dxgapy minelyzd zivwpet mrtd j` ,8 libxz enk .10
.(dxgapy divwpetd idn

164 miixehwe minelyz mr mixfeg miwgyn 12
miixehwe minelyz mr mixfeg miwgyn 12

xtqn èd owgy lkl melyzd ,xnelk ,miiynn mixtqn md minelyzd mda mixfeg miwgyn epcnl 11 wxta
xehwe ìd d`vezd mda mipwgy ipy mr mixfeg miwgyna opeazp df wxta .owgyl zlrezd z` bviind ,iynn
d
IR
. icnin d -d icilwe`d agxna
,dnbecl .dèeyd ipa mpi`y minxeb xtqnn zakxen mipwgyd oia divw`xhpi`d ea avnl mi`zn df dxwn
xtqn zè ,lawiy itqkd lenbzd z` ,caerd ly dceard zery xtqn z` hxtn ewiqrnl caer oia dcear dfeg
,oegha ikxvl itqk wprn ,zeitqk zeieaxr l`xyil dwiprn zixad zevx` dpy lka ;ely zizpyd dytegd ini
lkl cinvdl ozip zeniieqn zegpd zgz ik epze` zcnln zlrezd zxez mpn` .oegha ikxvl `ly itqk wprne
,miiynn mixtqn mdy minelyz mr wgynl diirad z` mbxzle ,ef d`vezn zlrezd èdy ,iynn xtqn d`vez
.icn dxwi ozìvny e` ,mipwgyd ly zlrezd zeivwpet z` èvnl cvik mircei ep` oi`y okzi j`
xy`k .einelyz rvenn z` mqwnl dqpn owgy lk ,owgy lkl melyz ìd divw`xhpi`d z`vez xy`k
d
df dxwna okl .zxg` dhpicxeèw oeayg lr à zg` dhpicxeèw meqwine okzi IR
, -a xehwe ìd d`vezd
dveaw zz) zniieqn dxhn zveawl axwzdl minelyzd rvennl mexbl dqpn owgy lk :dxhn zveaw lr xacp
d
.zniieqn dveawl uegn zeidl e` ,( IR ly ìdy lk
dyibp dveaw ly mibyend z` xicbpe ,miixehwe minelyz mr mixfeg miwgyn ly lcend z` bivp df wxta
.mignen mr zeinpic dhlgd zeira xear lcend ly meyii bivp okn xg`l .dripn-za dveawe melyz ixehwe ly
ly oey`xd wlgd . 1956 -a Blackwell ici lr dpey`xl bved mixehwe minelyz mr mixfeg miwgyn ly lcend
.df xn`n lr qqean wxtd
mipeniq 12.1
gpena mizirle , “
xehwe ” gpena x ∈ IRd -l qgiizp mizirl .IRd icnin d -d icilwe`d agxna cearp df wxta
~0 d
. -a onqp IR -a qt`d xehwe z` . “dcewp ”
d d
, x, y ∈ IR mixehwe ipy lkl .àd oteà onqp IR -a ziniptd dltknd z`
d
X
hx, yi = xl yl . (272)
l=1
:ici lr dpezp x ∈ IRd xehwe ly dnxepd
v
u d
uX
kxk = hx, xi1/2 = t (xl )2 , (273)
l=1
ìd mixehwe oia wgxnd zivwpete
v
u d
uX
d(x, y) = kx − yk = hx − y, x − yi1/2 = t (xl − yl )2 . (274)
l=1
ici lr oezp S -e x oia wgxnd ,xehwe èd x ∈ IRd -e dveaw ìd S ⊆ IRd m`
d(x, S) = inf d(x, y). (275)

y∈S
oeieey-i` d(x, S) = 0
. miiwzn S ly xebqa x lkle , S ly xebqde x oia wgxnl deey S -e x oia wgxnd ,hxta
ik xne` yleynd
d(x, y) + d(y, Z) ≤ d(x, z), ∀x, y, z ∈ IRd . (276)
(2 libxz d`x) miiwzny ixd ,mixehwe md x, y ∈ IRd -e dveaw ìd S ⊆ IRd m`
d(x, S) + d(x, y) ≤ d(y, S). (277)
.mi`znd dcenrd xehwe èd x> ,dxey xehwe èd x m` .dxey ixehwe md jynda miritend mixehweed lk
oeniqd ,hxta . k owgy ly eaixi z` oiivn −k oeniqd k owgy lkl ,mipwgy ipy mr miwgyn cnlp ep`y oeeikn
.k ly eaixi ly dibhxhq` oiivn σ−k
lcend 12.2
.wgynd ly ilnxetd lcend z` x`zp zrk
zelert zeveaw izy ici lr oezp (miicnin d) mixehwe minelyz mr xfeg (mipwgy ipy) wgyn 12.1 dxcbd
19 d
u : I × J → IR
. minelyz zivwpete ,mipwgyd ipyl J = {1, 2, . . . , J}-e I = {1, 2, . . . , I}
I ×J
. xcqn dvixhnk u minelyzd zivwpet z` bivdl gep didi mizirl
xgea 1 owgy :dlert xgea mipwgydn cg` lk ,( t = 1, 2, . . . t ) , alya .àd oteà mialya ldpzn wgynd
t t
mixkef aly lkae ,mdiaixi zelert z` mièx mipwgyd ik o`k gipp ep` . j ∈J dlert xgea 2 owgye , i ∈I dlert
.aly eze` cr wgynd jldn z`
divwpet ìd 1 owgy xear zaxern dibhxhq` ,mixfeg miwgynd lr wxta epi`xy itk
σ1 : ∪∞
t=1 (I × J )
t−1
→ ∆(I), (278)
divwpet ìd 2 owgy xear zaxern dibhxhqè
σ2 : ∪∞
t=1 (I × J )
t−1
→ ∆(J). (279)
H(∞) = (I × J )IN
, wgynd ikldn lk zveaw lr Pσ1 ,σ2 zexazqd zcin dxyn (σ1 , σ2 ) zeibhxhq` bef lk
mi`znd zlgezd xehxte` .( ?? sirq d`x hext xzil) zeililbd zeveawd ici lr zxvepd dxabl`-`nbiqa ciievnd
.Eσ1 ,σ2 -a oneqi ef zexazqd zcinl
-a oneqi T aly cr minelyzd rvenn
T
T 1X t t
g = u(i , j ). (280)
T t=1
IRd
. -a xehwe edf
.znieqn dxhn zveawl axwzi minelyzd rvenn ik gihadl leki owgy izn xicbp zrk
19
. A2 -e A1 `le ,mipwgyd ly zelertd zeveaw xear J -e I oeniqa o`k miynzyn ep` zegep myl
jk owgyd xear σk dibhxhq` zniiw m` k owgy ici lr (approachable) dyibp z`xwp S ⊆ IRd dveaw 12.2 dxcbd
aixid ly σ−k dibhxhq` lkly miiwnd T ∈ IN miiw >0 lkly
Pσk ,σ−k d(g t , S) < ,

∀t ≥ T > 1 − . (281)
dibhxhq` lkl ,dveawl axwzi minelyzd rvenn ik gihadl leki df owgy m` owgy xear dyibp dpid dveaw
dveawl axwzn minelyzd rvenn ea avwd ,xnelk ,zinxetipe` ìd dti`yd ik al miyp .da ynzyn eaixiy
.aixid ynzyn da dibhxhqà ielz epi`
dveawn wegx didi minelyzd rvenny gihadl leki k owgy ea avnd lr zxacn 12.2 dxcbdl zilèc dxcbd
.dpezp
{x ∈ dveawdy jk δ>0 miiw m` k owgy ici lr (excludable) dripn-za z`xwp S ⊆ IRd dveaw 12.3 dxcbd
d
.k owgy ici lr dyibp ìd IR : d(x, S) ≥ δ}
dripn-za ìd dveaw okl .δ zegtl S -n owgxny zecewpd lk z` dlikn {x ∈ IRd : d(x, S) ≥ δ} dveawd
wgxn) dveawdn wegx didi minelyzd rvenn ik epevxk ddeab zexazqda gihadl leki èd m` k owgy ici lr
.(qt`n meqg iaeig
ze`nbec 12.3
mr mixfeg miwgyn ly lcenl lewy lcend df dxwna okl .iynn xtqn ìd aly lka d`vezd d=1 xy`k
wgynd jxr èd v m` 1

. owgyl mlyn 2 owgyy melyzk u(i, j) d`vezd z` yxtp :qt` mekq mipwgy ipy
lkl ik raep o`kn . 2 owgy ici lr dyibp (−∞, v] dveawde 1 owgy ici lr dyibp [v, ∞) dveawd if` ,ialy-cgd
2
. owgy ici lr dripn-za [v + δ, ∞) dveawde , 1 owgy ici lr dripn-za (−∞, v − δ] dveawd δ>0
12.4 dnbec
ici lr dpezp u minelyzd zivwpete ,zelert izy yi mipwgyd ipyl , d=2 ea wgyna opeazp
L R
U (0, 0) (0, 0)
D (1, 1) (0, 1)
owgy m` : 1 owgy ici lr dyibp (12.1( A) xei` d`x) cala (0, 0) xehweed z` dliknd S1 = {(0, 0)} dveawd
(0, 0)
. didi minelyzd rvenn ik gihan èd aly lka U dlertd z` wgyn 1
z` wgyn 1 owgy m` :1 owgy ici lr dyibp ìd s` (12.1( B ) xei` d`x) S2 = {(1, x) : 0 ≤ x ≤ 1} dveawd
.S2 -a didi minelyzd rvenn ik gihan èd aly lka D dlertd

(1,1) (1,1) (1,1)
S2 S3
S1
(1,0) (1,0) (1,0)
(0,0) (0,0) (0,0)
Part A Part B Part C
12.4 dnbeca 1 owgy ici lr zeyibp zeveaw yely :12.1 xei`
1
1
. owgy ici lr dyibp ok mb (12.1( C ) xei` d`x) S3 = {(x, 1 − x) : 2 ≤ x ≤ 1} dveawd ik ze`xl oiiprn
:dàd dibhxhq`d ìd ef dveawl axwzi minelyzd rvenn ik dgihand 1 owgy ly dibhxhq`
, g t−1
1 + g t−1
2 ≥1 m` ,xnelk , x1 + x2 = 1 oeqkl`d lrn `vnp ,g t−1 t − 1
, aly cr minelyzd rvenn m` •
U
. dlertd z` t alya wgy
alya wgy , g t−1

1 + g t−1
2 <1 m` ,xnelk ,oeqkl`l zgzn `vnp , g t−1 t − 1
, aly cr minelyzd rvenn m` •
D
. dlertd z` t
.ef diibeq ly jxcen oexztl 1 libxz d`x
dripn zepa zeveawe zeyibp zeveaw oia mixyw 12.4
.zexcbddn zeraepd zeheyt zepekz xtqn zehxtn ,`xewl zx`yen ozgkedy ,zeàd zeprhd
.dibhxhq` dzeàe , k owgy ici lr yibp S ly xebqd mb k owgy ici lr dyibp S m` .1 12.5 dprh
.dibhxhq` dzeàe , k owgy ici lr dripn-za S ly xebqd mb k owgy ici lr dripn-za S m` .2
onqp
kuk = max ku(i, j)k. (282)

i,j
ik lawp yleynd oeieey-i`n . ku(it , j t )k ≤ kuk miiwzn t aly lka ,hxta
kg T k ≤ kuk, ∀T ∈ IN. (283)
dveawl axwzn minelyzd rvenn m` okl .ziy`xd aiaq kuk eqeicxy xecka `vnp minelyzd rvenn ,milina
owgy m` ,dnec oteà .ziy`xd aiaq kuk qeicxa xeckd oiae dveawd oia jezigl axwzn gxkda èd ,znieqn
jezigdn wegx x`yi rvenndy gihadl leki èd ,znieqn dveawn wegx x`yi minelyzd rvenny gihadl leki
.ziy`xd aiaq kuk qeicxa xeckd oiae dveawd oia
.dàd dprhd z` lawp ilnxet oteà
,dyibp {x ∈ S : |xl | ≤ kuk, ∀l = 1, . . . , d} dveawd m` wxe m` dyibp S .1 12.6 dprh
.dripn-za {x ∈ S : |xl | ≤ kuk, ∀l = 1, . . . , d} dveawd m` wxe m` dripn-za S .2
.dripn-za dveaw ly dveaw-zzle ,dyibp dveaw dliknd dveawl zqgiizn dàd dprhd
dzeàe ,k owgy ici lr dyibp S0 if` S 0 -a

, zlken S mè k
, owgy ici lr dyibp dveaw ìd S m` .1 12.7 dprh
.dibhxhq`
.dibhxhq` dzeàe , k owgy ici lr dripn-za S0 if` , S0 z` dlikn S mè , k owgy ici lr dripn-za dveaw ìd S m` .2
.dàd dprha miiqp
.eaixi ici lr dripn-za mbe mipwgyd cg` ici lr dyibp mb zeidl dleki `l S dveaw s` 12.8 dprh
lr dyibp e` ìd dxebqe dxenw dveaw lk ik d`xpe ,dyibp didz dveawy jkl ixhneìb i`pz ozip df wxta
.eaixi ici lr dripn-za e` cg` owgy ici
cixtnd xeyin-lrd htyn 12.5
.cixtnd xeyin-lrd htyn z` gikepe ,xeyin lr ly dxcbda xkfip df sirqa
lr xcben H(α, β) xeyin-lrd . β ∈ IR iynn xtqne α ∈ IRd xehwe ici lr oezp IRd agxna xeyin lr 12.9 dxcbd
ici
( d
)
n o X
H(α, β) = x ∈ IRd : hα, xi = β = x ∈ IRd : αl xl = β . (284)
l=1
onqp
H + (α, β) = {x ∈ IRd : hx, αi ≥ β} (285)
-e
H − (α, β) = {x ∈ IRd : hx, αi ≤ β}. (286)
. H(α, β) xeyin-lrd ici lr mixcbend agxnd i`vg md el`
(0,2)
H + ((2, 1), 2)
(1,0)
H − ((2, 1), 2)
H((2, 1), 2)
2x1 + x2 = 2 xyid èdy , H((2, 1), 2) xeyin-lrd :12.2 xei`
ik al miyp
H + (α, β) = H − (−α, −β). (287)

dcewpde ,xeyin-lrd ici lr xcbend cg` agxn ivga z`vnp dveawd m` dcewpe dveaw oia cixtn xeyin-lr
.ipyd agxnd ivga z`vnp
x ∈ H + (α, β) (i) m` S -e x oia cixtn H(α, β) xeyin-lrd .x 6∈ S -e S ⊂ IRd dveaw zepezp dpiidz 12.10 dxcbd
−
+
S ⊆ H (α, β)-e x ∈ H (α, β) (ii)
. e` , S ⊆ H − (α, β)-e
S
. -a zecewpd lkn x
-l xzeia daexwd y∈S zg` dcewp zegtl yi x 6∈ S dcewp lkl ,dxebq S m` ik xekfp
.(4 libxz d`x) dcigi ìd ef dcewp ,dxenw S m`
ik d`xn (separating hyperplane theorem) cixtnd xeyin-lrd htyn z`xwpd) dàd zixhneìbd dprhd
.dveawl dcewpd oia cixtnd xeyin-lr miiw dveawa dpi`y dcewp lkle dxebqe dxenw dveaw lkl
H(x − xeyin-lrd if` . S -a x-l xzeia daexwd dcewpd y `dz . x 6∈ S -e ,dxebqe dxenw dveaw S `dz 12.11 dprh
:xnelk , S oiae x oia cixtn y, hx − y, yi)
S ⊆ H − (x − y, hx − y, yi), (288)
x ∈ H + (x − y, hx − y, yi). (289)
x = (2, 2)
y = (1, 1)
S
z1 + z2 = 1
S oiae x oia cixtnd xeyin-lrd :12.3 xei`
.dgked
+
x ∈ H (x − y, hx − y, yi)
. :oey`x aly
+
-y jkl dlewy x ∈ H (x − y, hx − y, yi) -y dyixcd
hx − y, xi ≥ hx − y, yi. (290)
-y jkl lewy df i`pz ,zix`pil-ia ìd ziniptd dltkndy oeeikn
hx − y, x − yi =≥ 0. (291)
Pd
.ilily-i` èd okle ,
i=1 (xi − yi )2 -l deey l`ny sb`y oeeikn miiwzn dfd oeieey-i`d j`
S ⊆ H − (x − y, hx − y, yi)
. :ipy aly
−
ik d`xp jk myl . z ∈ H (x − y, hx − y, yi) miiwzn z∈S lkl ik d`xp ep`
hx − y, zi ≤ hx − y, yi. (292)
lkn x
-l xzeia daexwd dcewpd ìd y -y oeeikn . (1 − λ)y + λz ∈ S miiwzn λ ∈ (0, 1] lkl ,dxenw S -y oeeikn
, S -a zecewpd
d(x, y) ≤ d(x, (1 − λ)y + λz). (293)
λ ∈ (0, 1] lkl okl
hx − y, x − yi = d2 (x, y) (294)
≤ d2 (x, (1 − λ)y + λz) (295)
= hx − (1 − λ)y − λz, x − (1 − λ)y − λzi (296)
= h(x − y) − λ(z − y), (x − y) − λ(z − y)i (297)
= hx − y, x − yi − 2λhx − y, z − yi + λ2 hz − y, z − yi. (298)
λ ∈ (0, 1] lkl ik lawpe mitb`d ipyn hx − y, x − yi mxebd z` mvnvp
0 ≤ −2λhx − y, z − yi + λ2 hz − y, z − yi. (299)
ik lawp . λ z` mvnvl ozip λ>0 -y oeeikn
0 ≤ −2hx − y, z − yi + λhz − y, z − yi. (300)
ik raep o`kne , hx − y, z − yi ≤ 0 ik milawn λ→0 leabd z` migwel xy`k
hx − y, zi ≤ hx − y, yi, (301)
.yxcpk
zeyibp gihand ixhneìb i`pz 12.6
melyzd zlgez q zaxernd dlertd z` wgyn 2 owgye p zaxernd dlertd z` t alya wgyn 1 owgy xy`k
ìd
X
puq > = pi u(i, j)qj , (302)
i,j
dveawd z` p ∈ ∆(I) zebltzd lkl xicbp . IRd -a xehwe èdy
 
X 
R1 (p) = {puq > : q ∈ ∆(J )} = pi u(i, j)qj : q ∈ ∆(J ) ⊆ IRd . (303)
 
i,j
R1 (p)
. dveawa didz igkepd alya melyzd zlgez ik rcei èd p zaxernd dlertd z` wgyn 1 owgy m` ,okl
q ∈ ∆(J ) zebltzd lkl xicbp dnec oteà
 
X 
R2 (q) = {puq > : p ∈ ∆(I)} = pi u(i, j)qj : p ∈ ∆(I) ⊆ IRd . (304)
 
i,j
y = y(x, S) ∈ S dcewp zniiw x 6∈ S lkl m` 1 owgy xear B -zveaw ìd S ⊆ IRd dxebq dveaw 12.12 dxcbd
.miàd mi`pzd miniiwzny jk p = p(x, S) ∈ ∆(I) zebltzde
: x-l xzeia daexwd S -a dcewp ìd y •
d(x, y) = d(x, S). (305)
R1 (p)
: oiae x oia cixtn H(x − y, hx − y, yi) xeyin-lrd •
R1 (p) ⊆ H − (x − y, hx − y, yi), (306)
+
x ∈ H (x − y, hx − y, yi). (307)
x oia cixtn H(x − y, hx − y, yi) xeyin-lrdy jk q ∈ ∆(J ) ly meiw yexcp 2 owgy xear B -zveaw zxcbdl
R2 (q)
. oiae
.zeyibp zeveaw ly ixhneìb oeit` ozep xne` àd htynd
.k owgy ici lr dyibp ìd if` k owgy xear B -zveaw ìd S m` 12.13 htyn
.k=1 xear htynd z` gikep .dgked
miiwzn l ∈ {1, . . . , d} lkle y∈S lkl ik zeillkd zlabd ila gipdl ozip 12.6 dprhn
|yl | ≤ kuk. (308)
xg`le , 1 owgy xear σ1∗ dibhxhq` xicbp dligz . kuk ≥ 1

2 ik mb gipdl ozip ,reawa minelyzd lk zltkd ici lr
llka cre t aly cr minelyzd rvenn ik xekfp S

. dveawl axwzi minelyzd rvenny dgihan ìd ik gikep okn
:àd oteà t+1 alya wgyl 1 owgyl dxen σ1∗ dibhxhq`d . gt -a oneqn
.(idylk dlert wgy) daeyg dpi` σ1∗ ly dxcbdd , gt ∈ S m` •
B
.( -zveaw ly 12.12 dxcbda dritend) p(g t , S) zaxernd dlertd z` xegal dxen σ1∗ g t 6∈ S
, m` •
σ2 dibhxhq` lkl ik ze`xdl eppevxa . S oial t aly cr minelyzd rvenn oia wgxnd edf . dt = d(g t , S) onqp
.2 owgy ly dibhxhqà ielz `l dti`yd avwe , 1 zexazqda qt`l sèy dt wgxnd , 2 owgy ly
:miiwzn 2 owgy ly σ2 dibhxhq` lkl 12.14 dprh
4kuk2
Eσ1∗ ,σ2 ((dt )2 ) ≤ . (309)
t
2kuk
ok` . d(g t+1 , g t ) ≤ t+1 ik d`xp ziy`x .dgked
t+1 t
1 X t 1X 1
g t+1 = aik j k = × aik j k + a t+1 t+1
t+1 t+1 t t+1 i j
k=1 k=1
t t 1
= g + a t+1 t+1 . (310)
t+1 t+1 i j
okl

t t 1
d(g t+1 , g t ) = d g + a t+1 t+1 , g t
t+1 t+1 i j
1 1 t
= a t+1 t+1 − g
t+1 i j t+1
1 2kuk
≤ kait+1 j t+1 k + kg t k ≤ ,
t+1 t+1
.yxcpk
t t+1
: d mr d z` xywl ozip 277 dèeynn
2kuk
dt+1 = d(g t+1 , S) ≤ d(g t+1 , g t ) + d(g t , S) ≤ + dt . (311)
t+1
lawp (311) dèeynn . dt = 0 xnelk , gt ∈ S ik gipp dligz
2kuk
dt+1 ≤ . (312)
t+1
1
. kuk ≥ 2 xy`k ,(309) dèeynay i`pzdn xzei wfg df i`pz ik al miyp
t t
dlertd z`
t
p = p(g , S) -ae , g -l xzeia daexwd S -a dcewpd z` y t = y(g t , S) -a onqp . g t 6∈ S ik zrk gipp
t+1
. alya 1 owgy wgyny zaxernd
ik raep , yt ∈ S -y oeeikn
(dt+1 )2 = (d(g t+1 , S))2 ≤ (d(g t+1 , y t ))2 = kg t+1 − y t k2 . (313)
-l deey oini sb` (310) dèeynn
2
1 t
(ait+1 j t+1 − y t ) + (g t − y t ) . (314)
t+1 t+1
xzeid lkl èd df lceb , kait+1 j t+1 − y t k ≤ 2kuk -e dt = kg t − y t k -y oeeikn
2
4kuk2

t 2t
+ (dt )2 + hu(it+1 , j t+1 ) − y t , g t − y t i. (315)
(t + 1)2 t+1 (t + 1)2
epl zepzep (315)-(313) zeèeyn
2
4kuk2

t 2t
(dt+1 )2 ≤ + (dt )2 + hu(it+1 , j t+1 ) − y t , g t − y t i. (316)
(t + 1)2 t+1 (t + 1)2
owgy wgyn t+1 alyay oeeikn . R1 (pt ) ⊂ H − (g t − y t , hg t − y t , y t i) ik milawn , B -zveaw ìd S -y oeeikn
− t t t t t t t
ik al miyp H (g − y , hg − y , y i)
. -a okle , R1 (p ) -a z`vnp t+1 alya melyzd zlgez p
, dlertd z` 1
t+1 t+1
ik eplaiw okl . Eσ1∗ ,σ2 (u(i ,j ))
-l deey t+1 alya melyzd zlgez
hEσ1∗ ,σ2 (u(it+1 , j t+1 )) − y t , g t − y t i ≤ 0. (317)
:lawpe (316) dèeyn ly mitb`d ipya zlgez gwip
2
4kuk2

t
Eσ1∗ ,σ2 ((dt+1 )2 ) ≤ + Eσ1∗ ,σ2 ((dt )2 )
(t + 1)2 t+1
(318)
2t
+ hEσ1∗ ,σ2 (u(it+1 , j t+1 )) − y t , g t − y t i.
(t + 1)2
okle ,ilily (318) dèeyn ly oini sb`d iyilyd mxebd (317) dèeynn
2
4ku|2

t+1 2 t
E
σ1∗ ,σ2 ((d ) )≤ + Eσ1∗ ,σ2 ((dt )2 ). (319)
(t + 1)2 t+1
zraep (309) dèeyn t=1 xear ,ok` t≥1
. lkl zniiwzn (309) dèeyn ik divwecpià lawl ozip ef dèeynn
:divwecpi`d zgpdn lawp t≥1 xear .(319) dèeynn zexiyi
2
4kuk2

t+1 2 t
E σ1∗ ,σ2 ((d ) ) ≤ + Eσ1∗ ,σ2 ((dt )2 )
(t + 1)2 t+1
2
4kuk2 4kuk2

t
≤ +
(t + 1)2 t+1 t
4kuk2
= .
t+1
:miiwzn c>0 lkle X ilily-i` ixwn dpzyn lkly xne` aewxn oeieey-i` ik xekfp
E(X)
P(X ≥ c) ≤ . (320)
c
:dphw ìd lecb dt -y zexazqdd ik lawp aewxn oeieey-iè 12.14 dprhn
:miiwzn 2 owgy ly σ2 dibhxhq` lkl 12.15 dpwqn

2kuk 2kuk
Pσ1∗ ,σ2 (dt )2 ≥ √ ≤ √ , (321)
t t
okle
p !
t 2kuk 2kuk
Pσ1∗ ,σ2 d ≥ 1/4 ≤ √ . (322)
t t
.ohw x`yp dt wgxnd T alyn lgdy jk eic lecb T miiw ik ze`xdl mikixv ep` .ccea t lr zxacn ef dpwqn
2 owgy ly σ2 dibhxhq` lkly miiwnd eic lecb T xtqn miiw >0 lkl 12.16 dprh
Pσ1∗ ,σ2 dt < , ∀t ≥ T > 1 − .

(323)
. 1 owgy ici lr dyibp S dveawd ik o`kn lawp hxta
lawp t = m3 xear (322) dèeynn .dgked
p !
3 2kuk 2kuk
Pσ1∗ ,σ2 dm ≥ ≤ . (324)
m3/4 m3/2
√
3 2kuk
ik raep (324) dèeynn . m≥M lkl dm < m3/4
-y rxe`nd z` ΩM -a onqp M ≥1 mly xtqn lkl
∞
X 1
Pσ1∗ ,σ2 (ΩM ) ≥ 1 − 2kuk . (325)
m=M
m3/2
miiwzn ΩM lr ik d`xp ep`
36kuk
dn ≤ , ∀t ≥ M 3 . (326)
t1/3
miiwnd cigid mlyd m≥M `die ,èdy lk t ≥ M3 `di
m3 ≤ t < (m + 1)3 . (327)
t (m+1)3
-y oeeikne ,(310) dèeyna aeyigl dnec oteà ,ok enk .
m3 ≤ m3 ≤2 miiwzn m≥4 lkl ,hxta
(m + 1)3 − m3 3m2 + 3m + 1 7m2 7

3
= 3
≤ = , (328)
m m m3 m
ik lawp
m3 m3 t − m3
dn ≤ d + 2kuk (329)
tp n
2kuk (m + 1)3 − m3
≤ 2 3/4 + 2kuk (330)
m
p m3
2kuk 14kuk
≤ 2 3/4 + (331)
m p m
2kuk 2 × 14kuk
≤ 2 × 23/4 + (332)
(m + 1)3/4 m+1
p
kuk kuk
≤ 8 × 1/4 + 28 × 1/3 (333)
t t
36kuk
≤ . (334)
t1/3
88kuk P∞ 1
t ≥ M3
. lkl
M < -e , Pσ1∗ ,σ2 (ΩM ) > 1 − exear M miiw >0 lkl ,qpkzn
m=1 m3/2 xehdy oeeikn
.yexcd miiwzn df xear

zeyibp migihand mitqep mi`pz 12.7
x oia cixtnd xeyin-lr miiw x 6∈ R1 (p) lkly 12.11 dprhn raep ,dxenw ìd R1 (p) dveawd p lkly oeeikn
12.13 htynn . R2 (q) oiae x oia cixtnd xeyin-lr miiw x 6∈ R2 (q) lkle q ∈ ∆(J ) lkl dnec oteà . R1 (p) oiae
.dàd dpwqnd z` lawp
dlertd z` aly lka zwgynd dibhxhq`d ici lr , 1 owgy ici lr dyibp R1 (p) dveawd p ∈ ∆(I) lkl 12.17 dpwqn
dlertd z` aly lka zwgynd dibhxhq`d ici lr , 2 owgy ici lr dyibp R2 (q) dveawd q ∈ ∆(J ) lkl . p zaxernd
. q zaxernd
.dàd dpwqnd z` miwiqn ep` 12.17 dpwqnn
lr , 1 owgy ici lr dripn-za ìd S if` S ∩ R1 (p) = ∅-y jk p ∈ ∆(I) miiw m` .dxebq dveaw S `dz 12.18 dpwqn
dripn-za ìd S if` S ∩ R2 (q) = ∅-y jk q ∈ ∆(J ) miiw m` . p zaxernd dlertd z` aly lka zwgynd dibhxhq`d ici
q
. zaxernd dlertd z` aly lka zwgynd dibhxhq`d ici lr , 2 owgy ici lr
.12.18 dpwqn z` wfgp zrk
q ∈ ∆(J ) lkl S ∩R2 (q) 6= ∅ m` wxe m` 1 owgy ici lr dyibp S

, dveawd .dxebqe dxenw dveaw S `dz 12.19 htyn
p ∈ ∆(I)
. lkl S ∩ R1 (p) 6= ∅ m` wxe m` 2 owgy ici lr dyibp ìde
.dàd dpwqnd z` lawp 12.18 dpwqn mr cgia
.eaixi ici lr dripn-za ìd mipwgyd cg` ici lr dyibp dpi`y dxebqe dxenw dveaw 12.20 dpwqn
miiw ik raep 12.19 htynn . 1 owgy ici lr dyibp dpi`y dxebqe dxenw dveaw S `dz .12.20 htyn zgked
. 2 owgy ici lr dripn-za S ik raep 12.18 dpwqnn . S ∩ R2 (q) = ∅ exear q ∈ ∆(J )

.dnec 2 owgy ici lr dyibp dpi` S xy`k dgkedd
2 owgy xear dgkedd . 1 owgy ici lr zeyibp xaca ,htynd ly oey`xd wlgd z` gikep .12.19 htyn zgked
.ote` ezeà ziyrp
dpi` dveawy oeeikn . 2 owgy ici lr dripn-za S if` edylk q ∈ ∆(J ) xear S ∩ R2 (q) = ∅ m` 12.18 dpwqnn
owgy ici lr dyibp dpi` S df dxwna ik lawp 1 owgy ici lr dyibp mbe 2 owgy ici lr dripn za mb zeidl dleki
1
.
S ik wiqp 12.13 htynn . 1 owgy xear B -zveaw ìd S ik gikepe , q ∈ ∆(J ) lkl S ∩ R2 (q) 6= ∅ ik zrk gipp
.1 owgy ici lr dyibp
ly zelertd zeveaw ea ialy-cgd wgyna lkzqp .S -a x-l xzeia daexwd dcewpd y∈S `dze ,x 6∈ S `di
:ici lr zxcben (miixl`wq minelyz mr) minelyzd zivwpete ,dn`zda J -e I od mipwgyd
w(i, j) = hy − x, u(i, j)i. (335)
-l deeye ,miiw df wgyn ly v jxrd ,6.6 htyn xne`y itk
J
X I
X
v = min max qj w(i, j) = max min pi w(i, j). (336)
q∈∆(J ) i∈I p∈∆(I) j∈J

j=1 i=1
ik gikep ziy`x
v ≥ minhy − x, si. (337)

s∈S
lawpe (336) dèeyna w(i, j) = hy − x, u(i, j)i aivp
J
X J
X
v = min max qj w(i, j) = min maxhy − x, qj u(i, j)i. (338)
q∈∆(J ) i∈I q∈∆(J ) i∈I

j=1 j=1
nP oI
J j
oeeikne ,
j=1 q u(i, j) od dly oeviwd zecewpy dxenw dveaw ìd R2 (q) dveawd p ∈ ∆(I) lkly oeeikn
i=1
lceb ,oeviwd zecewpn zgà dly meniqwnd z` zlawn zihwtnew dveaw lr zxcbend zix`pil divwpet lky
-l deey df
min max hy − x, ui. (339)
q∈∆(J ) u∈R2 (q)
, R2 (q) ∩ S 6= ∅ -y oeeikn
min max hy − x, ui ≥ minhy − x, si. (340)
q∈∆(J ) u∈R2 (q) s∈S
.zniiwzn (337) dèeyn ik raep (340)-(338) zeèeynn
−
,xnelk . S ⊂ H (x − y, hx − y, yi) = H + (y − x, hy − x, yi) ik lawp 12.11 dprhn
hy − x, si ≥ hy − x, yi, ∀s ∈ S, (341)
okle
minhy − x, si ≥ hy − x, yi. (342)

s∈S
-y oeeikn
I
X
v = max min pi w(i, j), (343)
p∈∆(I) j∈J
i=1
miiwnd p∗ ∈ ∆(J ) miiw
I
X I
X
v = max min pi w(i, j) = min p∗i w(i, j). (344)
p∈∆(I) j∈J j∈J

i=1 i=1
I
X
hy − x, p∗i u(i, j)i ≥ v ∀j = 1, . . . , J. (345)
i=1
nP oJ
I
zix`pil divwpety oeeikne ,
i=1 p i u(i, j) od dly oeviwd zecewpy dxenw dveaw ìd R1 (p)
-y oeeikn
j=1
u ∈ R1 (p) lkl miiwzn ,oeviw zcewpa dly menipind z` zlawn zihwtnew dveaw lr zxcbend
hy − x, ui ≥ v. (346)
ik lawp (342)-e (337) zepeieey-i`d mr cgi
hy − x, ui ≥ v ≥ minhy − x, si ≥ hy − x, yi, ∀u ∈ R1 (p). (347)

s∈S
okl
R1 (p) ⊂ H + (y − x, hy − x, yi) = H − (x − y, hx − y, yi). (348)
ìd S x 6∈ S
, lkl oekp l"pdy oeeikn . R1 (p) oiae x oia cixtn p ik raep x ∈ H + (x − y, hx − y, yi) -y oeeikn
.yxcpk , B -zveaw
:ici lr zxcbend dvixhnd z` U [π] -a onqp π ∈ IRd xehwe lkl
U [π]i,j = hπ, u(i, j)i. (349)
zivwpet mr ialy-cgd wgynd jxr z` val(A) -a onqp A (mixl`wq minelyz mr minelyz zivwpet) dvixhn lkl
A
. minelyz
owgy ici lr dyibp ìd dxebqe dxenw dveaw m`d wecal ziqgi heyt oeixhixw epl zpzep 12.19 htyn zgked
1
.
:miiwzn π ∈ IRd lkl m` wxe m` 1 owgy xear B -zveaw ìd S dxenwe dxebq dveaw 12.21 dpwqn
val(U [π]) ≥ minhπ, si. (350)

s∈S
.dxebqe dxenw dveaw S `dz .dgked
d
htyn zgkeda ,ok` .1 owgy ici lr dyibp S if` π ∈ IR lkl zniiwzn (350) dèeyn m` ik gikep dligz
i`pzdn raep df oeieey-i` j` .(337) oeieey-i` z` xefbl ick wx S ∩ R2 (q) 6= ∅ -y i`pza epynzyd 12.19
val(B) = val(U [y − x]) ≥ minhy − x, si, (351)

s∈S
.(350) dèeyn itl miiwznd
d d
π ∈ IR 2
`di . owgy ici lr dripn-za ìd S if` , π ∈ IR lkl miiwzn `l (350) oeieey-i`d m` ik gikep zrk
exear
val(U [π]) < minhπ, si. (352)

s∈S
-y oeeikn
J
X
val(U [π]) = min max bij (353)
q∈∆(J ) i∈I
j=1
exear q ∈ ∆(J ) yiy lawp
J
X
qj bij < minhπ, si, ∀i = 1, . . . , i. (354)
s∈S
j=1
-ewpy oeeikne ,oeviw zcewpa dly meniqwnd z` zlawn zihwtnew dveawa zxcbend zix`pil divwpety oeeikn
nP oI
J
miiwzn u ∈ R2 (q) lkly lawp ,
j=1 qj bij od R2 (q) ly oeviwd zec
i=1
hπ, ui < minhπ, si. (355)

s∈S
dripn-za ìd S ik wiqp 12.18 dpwqnn . R2 (q) ∩ S = ∅ -y xnelk , u 6∈ S if` u ∈ R2 (q) m`y xxeb df oeieey-i` j`
.yxcpk , 2 owgy ici lr
ly dnbec ozip zrk . 2 owgy ici lr dripn-za e` 1 owgy ici lr dyibp ìd dxebqe dxenw dveaw lk ik epi`x
. 2 owgy ici lr dripn-za dpiè 1 owgy ici lr dyibp dpi`y S dxenw `l dveaw
.jynd :12.4 dnbec
.àd miicnin-ec mixehwe minelyz mr wgyna opeazp
L R
U (0, 0) (0, 0)
D (1, 1) (0, 1)
.(12.4 xei` d`x) dàd jxca S -e Sa , S b zeveaw xicbp

1 1 1
Sa = ( , x) : 0 ≤ x ≤ , Sb = (1, x) : ≤ y ≤ 1 ,
2 4 4
-e
S = Sa ∪ Sb .
(1,1)
Sb
Sa
(1,0)
(0,0)
S dveawd :12.4 xei`
:mpnè . 1 owgy ici lr dyibp dpi` S okle , S cil x`yidl melyzdn repnl leki 2 owgy ik d`xp dligz
,minrt ly lecb witqn xtqn R wgyn 2 owgy , g t1 ≥ 0.9 m` ,dnbecl , Sb -l aexw minelyzd rvenn m` •
. S -n wgxzdl minelyzd rvennl jk ici lre ,zcxl diipyd dhpicxeèwl mxeb
ly lecb witqn xtqn L wgyn 2 owgy , 0.4 ≤ g t1 ≤ 0.6 m` ,dnbecl , Sa -l aexw minelyzd rvenn m` •
. S -n wgxzdl jkae , (1, 1) e` (0, 0) xarl fefl rvennd melyzl mxebe ,minrt
lr dripn-za dpi` S okle , S -a didi minelyzd rvenn 2T alyay gihadl leki 1 owgy T lkl ik d`xp zrk
.2 owgy ici
,hxta . B wgyn 1 owgy mipey`xd mialyd T jyna •
g T ∈ {(1, x) : 0 ≤ x ≤ 1}. (356)
1 T 1 1
.g 2T ∈ S okl . g 2T
2 ≥ 2 g2 ≥ 4 -e , g 2T
1 =1 hxta .miàd mialyd T jyna D wgyn 1 owgy , g T2 ≥ 2 m` •
1 T 1 1
g 2T
.
2 = 2 g2 < 4 -e g 2T
1 = 2 xnelk , g 2T = 12 g T hxta .miàd mialyd T jyna U wgyn 1 owgy , g T2 < 1
2 m` •
2T
.g ∈S okl
dgnend z` dkd :meyii 12.8
.miinpic dhlgd ikildzl zeyibpd zxez ly meyii bivp df sirqa
ivrei :mipey minegza mignen miwiqrn mixye zepicn iy`x :mignen ly zevrl aiywn epzi`n cg` lk hrnk
aegxdn mc`d ;miiqppit mivrei ly mzvra mirney miriwyn ;htyn ipiiprl mivrei ,miipicn mivrei ,zxeywz
mizirl .xg` xefà e` df xefà leihl z`vl m` e` ,xgn yeall dn hilgne ,xie`d-bfn zifgzl axr lk oif`n
miifkxn minegza :renyl in ly ezvra xegal eilre ,mivrei xtqn micner zehlgdd lawn ly ezeyxl zeaexw
ozip miax difielh ivexrae ,iqppit urei èvnl ozip wpa sipq lka ;daiyg izeev xtqn miwifgn zepicn iy`x
ly dirady o`kn .xie`d-bfn iefigl mipey milcena miynzynd mipey mi`fg itn xie`d bfn zifgzl oif`dl
dhlgd efi` dpi` dirad :dxev dzpiy wx ìd - mignen xtqn ezeyxl m` xzei dlwl zkted `l zehlgdd lawn
.aiywdl dgnen dfi`l `l` ,lawl
ezvlnd z` un`l zehlgdd lawn lr alye aly lka ,xnelk .zinpic zehlgd zlaw ziiraa opeazp df sirqa
lawn lawn aly lka .dgnen eze` ici lr zvlnend dlerta xegale ,mignen ly dveaw jezn cg` dgnen ly
riwynl melyzd :`vnp èd da daiaqd ly davnae xga dze` dlerta ielzd ,(zlrez=) melyz zehlgdd
ode ,èd eizelerta od ielz dpicn y`xl melyzd ;elek weyd zebdpzda ode xga da zniieqnd drwyda od ielz
.zexg` zepicn iy`x ici lr zegwlpd zelerta
zelry jk lk zkaeqn dpzyn daiaqd da jxcdy ,oiteligl e` ,daiaqd avn dpzyn cvik reci `l ik cer gipp
`le ,aexwd alya rnyi el ureid z` xegal zehlgdd lawn lr cvik llk xexa `l df avna .lecb daeyig onf e`
.eivrei zxigaa zehlgdd lawn ynzyn da dibhxhq`d aih z` oegal cvik xexa
zehlgdd lawn ,xnelk .mivreidn cg` lkn xzei aeh zeidl ìd zehlgdd lawn ly ezxhn ik gipp o`k
rneye ,mivreia aehd z` y`xn xgea didy mc` ly minelyzd rvenn xzei deab didi einelyz rvenny oiipern
jka mignend ieaixn zlrez witdl likyn zehlgdd lawny xacd yexit ,revial ozip xacd m` .ezvrl cinz
lawn ici lr zxgapd dlertdy ìd o`k migipny dienq dgpd .mignenay aehd ly el` lr s` miler eireviay
zifgzl m`zda yeall dn hilgnd mc` xear dliaw ef dgpd .daiaqd dpzyn da jxcd z` dpyn dpi` zehlgdd
dpi` ìd j` ,zerwyd urei zvlndl m`zda milwy 10, 000 riwydl wit` dfià hilgnd mc`l e` ,xiee`d bfn
.mixg` zepicn iy`x ly mdizehlgd lr zerityn eizehlgdy dpicn y`x xear dliaw
lcend 12.8.1
.zeilnxetd zexcbdd z` zrk ìap ,illk oteà lcend z` epbvdy xg`l

ici lr dpezp mignen mr dhlgd ziira 12.22 dxcbd
.daiaqd iavn ly S ziteq dveaw •
.zelert ly A ziteq dveaw •
u : S × A → IR
. melyz zivwpet •
.mignen ly E ziteq dveaw •
S
, dveawa miavnd cgà z`vnp daiaqd aly lka .oldlck èd zinpic dhlgd ziiral mipzep ep`y yextd
xegal ,daiaqd avn edn rcei epi`y ,zehlgdd lawn lr a(e) ∈ A

. dlert lr uilnn e∈E mignendn cg` lke
lawn zehlgdd lawn s∈S

, avna dzid daiaqde e dgnena xga zehlgdd lawn m` .E -a mignend cgà
20
.rnyi eleway dgnend z` xgay xg`l daiaqd avn edn cnel zehlgdd lawn ik gipp ep` . u(s, a(e)) melyz
z` mignend mixgea cvik e` ,daiaqd ly davn dpzyn cvik rcei zehlgdd lawn ik migipn eppi` ,z`f mr
.mdizevlnd
xicbp zelerta zveaw lr α ∈ ∆(A) zebltzd lkl
X
u(s, α) = α(a)u(s, a). (357)
a∈A
α
. zebltzdd zervnà xgap zelertd xehwe m` melyzd zlgez idef
1, 2, . . . , t− mialya) xara daiaqd iavn z` zllek t alya zehlgdd lawn ly ezeyxl zcnerd divnxetpi`d
zeixehqidd lk zveaw ,okl .xara aly lka mignend ly mdizevlnd zè ,aly lka xga èdy dgnend z` ,( 1
:èd t alya
H(t) = (S × E × A|E| )t−1 . (358)
divwpet ìd mignen mr dhlgd ziiraa zehlgdd lawn ly dibhxhq` 12.23 dxcbd
σ : ∪∞
t=1 H(t) → ∆(E). (359)
z` rvale mignend cgà xegal ,xara dgnen lk ly eirevia ozpida ,aly lka jixv zehlgdd lawn ,xnelk
.mignendn dnk oia aly lka lixbi zehlgdd lawny rpnpd on oi` .eci lr zvlnend dlertd
dixehqid ixg`y ixd , σ dibhxhq` uni` zehlgdd lawn m`
uilnn e dgneny oeeikn . σ(h) zebltzdd itl E -a mignend cgà xgai èd h = (s1 , e1 , a1 , . . . , st−1 , et−1 , at−1 )
zaxernd dlertd z` wgyi zehlgd lawn lreta , ate dlertd lr t alya
X
α(h) = σ(h)(e)ate . (360)
e∈E
20
el lawn didy melyzd did dne ,aly lka lawn èdy melyzd dn rcei zehlgdd lawny èd mikixv ep`y lk o`k bivpy gezipd xear
.dgnen lk ly elewa rney did

èd T aly cr zehlgdd lawn ly einelyz rvenn ,okl
T
1X
u(st , α(ht )), (361)
T t=1
.t aly cr dixehqidd ìd ht xyà
did T aly cr einelyz rvenn ,mieqn e dgnen ly elewa cinz rney did zehlgdd lawn m`
T
1X
u(st , ate ). (362)
T t=1
.mignendn cg` lk eirevian xzei miaeh eidi eireviay ìd zehlgdd lawn ly ezxhn
dxcq lkle e∈E dgnen lkl m` (no-regret) dhxg-zxqg ìd zehlgdd lawn ly σ dibhxhq` 12.24 dxcbd
miiwzn daiaqd iavn ly (s1 , s2 , . . .)

T T
! !
1X t 1X t t
Pσ lim inf u(s , α(h)) − u(s , ae ) ≥ 0 = 1. (363)
T →∞ T t=1 T t=1
eirevian xzei miaeh eirevia m` xgay dibhxhq`d lr hxgzn epi` zehlgdd lawn 1 zexazqda ,xnelk
leki zehlgdd lawn dfk dxwna .dpzyn daiaqd da jxca zelz `ll z`fe ,mignendn cg` lk ly miizhetidd
.mignend lkn xzei aeh clepd z` dfeg èdy jka xcdzdl
o`k miiw ipexwr oteày ixd - zehlgdd lawn - cg` owgy ly lcen èd o`k epbvd eze` lcendy zexnl 12.25 dxrd
,daiaqd lr (rityn e`) raew edylk aixiy okzii ,dpzyn daiaqd da jxcd lr xac epgpd `ly oeeikn .daiaqd :aixi mb
.qt` mekq mipwgy ipy wgyn lawzn dfk dxwna .ezleki ahink zehlgdd lawna rebtl dqpn df aixie
dxiga ik gipn zehlgdd lawn ,zwcven dzid xg` e` df ureia dxigad m`d aeyigd zra ik migipn ep` df dxwna mb
.daiaqd dpzyn da jxcd z` dpyn dzid `l (dpey dlerta mb okle) dpey ureia
zniiw ìd `ny e` ,efk dibhxhq` lr riavdl ozip m`d ,ok mè ?dhxg-zxqg ìdy dibhxhq` zniiw m`d
?iyrn oteà dze` ynnl ozip `l j` ihxe`z oteà
.àd htynd z` gikep zeyibpd zxez zxfra
.dhxg-zxqg ìdy dibhxhq` yi zehlgdd lawnl 12.26 htyn
.aygna dzpkzl iyew lk oi`y ,efk dibhxhq` dpap ep` ,ok lr xzi
ihxt dxwn - dhxg-zxqg dibhxhq` meiw 12.8.2
mr ddefn dgnen lk ;zixyt` dlert lkl cg` ,mignen |A| weica yi ea heytd dxwnl dgked wtqp dligz
miiwzny jk e dgnen miiw a ∈ A dlert lkl ,zexg` milina .aly lka ef dlert zgwl uilnne ,zg` dlert
. t aly lkl ate = a

.illkd dxwnd xear dgkedd z` zepyl yi cvik d`xp okn xg`l
z` bvii 2 owgye ,zehlgdd lawn z` bvii 1 owgy ,df wgyna .mixehwe minelyz mr xfr wgyn xicbp ep`
|A|
:àd oteà , R -a mixehwe md minelyzd da ,zecenr |S|
-e zexey |A| mr B = (bas ) dvixhn xicbp .daiaqd
b
Bas = u(s, a) − u(s, b). (364)
b
, a ureid ly ezvrl driny) a dlertd zxigan zehlgdd lawnl melyzd oia yxtdd èd Bas melyzd ,xnelk
lr cinz uilnnd , b ureid ly ezvrl driny) b dlerta xgea did èd el melyzde ( a dlertd lr cinz uilnnd
.( b dlertd
divwpet ìd mixehwed minelyzd mr xfrd wgyna 1 owgy xear dibhxhq`
b : ∪∞
σ t=1 (A × S)
t−1
→ ∆(A). (365)
ziiraa m` :àd oteà mignen mr dhlgdd ziiraa dibhxhq` dxicbn efk dibhxhq` lk , A = E -y oeeikn
ìd t onf cr dixehqidd mignen mr dhlgdd
b(s1 , e1 , . . . , st−1 , et−1 )

σ
. zaxernd dlertd z` t alya wgyi zehlgdd lawn , (s1 , e1 , a1 , . . . , st−1 , et−1 , at−1 )
.mincewd mialya mignend ly mdizevlndn mlrzn zehlgdd lawn ,zexg` milina
-a onqp
R = {x ∈ IR|A| : xi ≥ 0 ∀i} (366)
,wiecn oteà dze` x`zl icke ,dhxg-zxqg dibhxhq` zniiw ik gikedl ick IR|A|
. -a ilily-i`d riaxd z`
.zeàd zeprhd izy z` gikep
ìd R-l axwzi B -a minelyzd rvenn ik dgihand xfrd wgyna 1 owgy xear σ dibhxhq` lk 12.27 xfr zprh
.mignen mr dhlgdd ziiraa zehlgdd lawn xear dhxg-zxqg dibhxhq`
dvixhnd ici lr oezpd mixehwed minelyzd mr xfrd wgyna 1 owgy ici lr dyibp ìd R dveawd 12.28 xfr zprh
B
.
.ozgkedl dptp okn xg`l .htynd z` zegiken el` xfr zeprh izy ik zrk d`xp
lr oezpd mixehwed minelyzd mr xfrd wgyna 1 owgy ici lr dyibp R dveawd 12.28 xfr zprhn ,ok`
12.27 xfr zprhn . R -l miaxwzn minelyzd ik dgihand xfrd wgyna dibhxhq` σ `dz B
. dvixhnd ici
.gked htynde ,mignen mr dhlgdd ziiraa zehlgdd lawn xear dhxg-zxqg dibhxhq` ìd σ dibhxhq`d
B -a minelyzd rvenn ik dgihand xfrd wgyna 1 owgy xear dibhxhq` σ `dz .12.27 xfr zprh zgked
2 owgy ly τ dibhxhq` lkly jk T miiw >0 lkl if` . R -l axwzi
T
!
1X
Pσ,τ d( Bat ,st , R) ≤ ∀t ≥ T > 1 − . (367)
T t=1
ik hxta zxxeb ef dèeyn
T
!!
1X
Pσ,τ lim d( Bat ,st , R) = 0 = 1. (368)
T →∞ T t=1
b
b∈A lkl ik wiqp okle , Ba,s = u(s, a) − u(s, b) la`
T T
!!
1X 1X
Pσ,τ lim u(st , at ) ≥ u(st , b) = 1. (369)
T →∞ T t=1 T t=1
dibhxhq` deednd) (s1 , s2 , . . .) miavn ly dxcq lkl mb hxtae , 2 owgy ly τ dibhxhq` lkl dpekp ef dèeyn
zibhxhq` ìd σ ik weica xne` df j` .st dxedhd dlertd z` t alya wgyn 2 owgy da ,(zihqipinxhc
N .dhxg-zxqg
miiwzn π ∈ ∆(A) lkl ik d`xp ep` .12.28 xfr zprh zgked
val(U [π]) ≥ 0 ≥ inf hπ, xi, (370)

x∈R
okle , 0∈R ik miiwzn (370)-a ipnid oeieey-i`d .xfrd zprh zlawl 12.21 dpwqna ynzype
inf hπ, xi ≤ hπ, 0i = 0. (371)

x∈R
il`nyd oeieey-i`d . 0 -l zeey zehpicxeèwd x`y lke , 1 -l deey s dhpicxeèwd ea dcenrd xehwe z` 1s -a onqp
zaxernd dibhxhq`d z` A(π) dvixhnd ici lr oezpd ialy-cgd wgyna wgyn 1 owgy m` ik miiwzn (370)-a
2 owgy ly s dxedh dlert lkl : 0 envrl gihan èd π

!
X X
πAπ 1s = π(e) u(s, e) − π(e0 )u(s, e0 ) (372)
e e0
X X
= π(e)u(s, e) − π(e0 )u(s, e0 ) (373)
e e0
= 0, (374)
N πU [π]y > = 0 y ∈ ∆(S)

. , lkl okle
illkd dxwnd - dhxg-zxqg dibhxhq` meiw 12.8.3
miiw a∈A dlert lkl ike E=A ik migipn eppi` xy`k 12.26 htyn zgked z` zepyl yi cvik d`xp zrk
.ef dlert lr cinz uilnnd dgnen
eiykr yi zehlgdd lawnl ik) zexey |E| zlra ìd ef dvixhn zrk . B dvixhnd zxcbda uerp cigid iepiyd
|E|
:ici lr xcben ède , IR -a èd bes xehwed , s∈S -e e∈E lkl .zecenr S -e (xegal dgnen dfià :zelert |E|
0
e
Bes = u(s, e) − u(s, e0 ). (375)
.miywaznd miiepiyd mr ,12.26 htyn zgkedl dnec dgkedd jynd
oeic 12.9
htyn z` lilkd 2003 -a Lehrer 1 . owgy ici lr dyibp ìd dxebq dveawy jkl ixhneìb i`pz epzp df wxta
.icnin seqpi` agxna md minelyzd ea dxwnl 12.13
:àd htynd z` egiked 2002 -a Spinat -e 1971 -a Hou

.k owgy xear B -zveaw dlikn ìd m` wxe m` k owgy ici lr dyibp ìd S dxebq dveaw 12.29 htyn
{x ∈ IR : d(x, S) ≥ δ} dveawdy jk δ>0 miiw m` wxe m` 1 owgy ici lr dripn-za ìd S dveawy oeeikn
.dripn-zepa ody zeveawd ly ixhneìb oeit` mb o`k milawn ep` , 1 owgy ici lr dyibp ìd
miiwzn dnbeca z`f mr . 2 owgy ici lr dripn-za dpiè 1 owgy ici lr dyibp dpi`y dveaw ly dnbec epi`x
z`xwp ef dpekz zniiwnd dveaw . S -l aexw didi T alya minelyzd rvenn oezp T lkly gihadl leki 1 owgyy
“
. ylg dyibp ”
jk T ∈ IN miiw >0 lkl m` k owgy ici lr (weakly approachable) ylg dyibp ìd S dveaw 12.30 dxcbd
k ly eaixi ly σ−k dibhxhq` lkly zniiwnd k owgy xear σk dibhxhq` zniiw t≥T lkly
Eσk ,σ−k (d(g t , S)) ≤ . (376)
{x ∈ IRd : d(x, S) ≥ dveawdy jk δ>0 miiw m` k owgy ici lr (weakly excludable) ylg dripn-za ìd S dveaw
k
. owgy ici lr ylg dyibp ìd δ}
ik dgihand dibhxhq` ly meiw miyxec ep` zeyibpay cera :oicr èd dylg zeyibpl zeyibp oia lcadd
,( t≥T mialyd lkl daeh dibhxhq` dze` ,xnelk) t≥T lkl S dveawl aexw didi t aly cr minelyzd rvenn
t
. -a dielz zeidl dleki dibhxhq`d dylg zeyibpay ixd
-za dveaw lke ,owgy eze` ici lr ylg dyibp ìd mipwgyd cg` ici lr dyibp dveaw lky raep zexcbddn
e` ìd dveaw lk ik 1992 -a giked Vieille .owgy eze` ici lr ylg dripn-za ìd mipwgyd cg` ici lr dripn
2
. owgy ici lr ylg dripn-za e` , 1 owgy ici lr ylg dyibp
xtqn . 2000
-a Mas-Colell -e Hart ici lr dpey`xl dyrp zeyibpd zxeze dhxg zexqg zeibhxhq` oia xywd
.xzei dwfg dxeva dhxg xqeg exicbd , 1999 -a Levine -e Fudenberg odipia ,zecear
divnxetpi` mr mixfeg miwgyn ly lcend xear èd mixehwe minelyz mr mixfeg miwgyn ly sqep meyii
ly Repeated Games with Incomplete Information xtql dpten oiiprznd `xewd .cg` owgy ly d`ln `l
.megzd ly dti dbvdl Maschler -e Aumann

ici lr dyrp iteq oexkf zelra zeibhxhq`l laben mipwgyd cg` xy`k dripn zepae zeyibp zeveaw ly oeit`
.2003 -a Solan -e Lehrer
milibxz 12.10
.1 owgy ici lr dyibp 12.4 dnbeca zxcbend S3 dveawd ik gikep df libxza .1
d(g t , ~0) ≤ d(g t−1 , ~0) −

.
1
2t if` ,oeqkl`d lrn `vnp g t−1 m` ik gked (`)
1
d(g t , S2 ) ≤ (1 −
.
2t )d(g
t−1
, S2 ) if` oeqkl`d zgzn `vnp g t−1 m` ik gked (a)
P∞
limt→∞ d(g t , S3 ) = ik wqd , 0-l ztèy { 1t } dxcqdy oeeikne ,xcazn
1
t=1 t xehdy dcaerd zxfra (b)
0
.
x, y
, lkl .2
d(x, S) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y, S). (377)

:miiwzn c>0 lkle X ilily-i` ixwn dpzyn lkl :aewxn oeieey-i` z` gked .3
E(X)
P(X ≥ c) ≤ . (378)
c
d(x, y) = d(x, S)
. zniiwnd y∈S dcigi dcewp ik gked . x 6∈ S -e ,xeyina zihwtnewe dxenw dveaw S `dz .4
.1 owgy ici lr dyibp ìd 12.4 dnbeca epxcbdy S3 dveawd ik ilnxet oteà d`xd .5
divwpet èvnl ,zeyibpd zxez zxfra ,ozip cvik d`xd . 1 mnekqy miilily-i` mixtqn α1 , . . . , αK eidi .6
lkly jk f : {1, 2, . . .} → {1, 2, . . . , K}

: αk ìd k ly xewnd ly zetitvd 1≤k≤K
1
lim × |{n ≤ N : f (n) = k}| = αk . (379)
N →∞ N
gztn
oeieey-i` 127 119
, ,zenly
185 173 , ,aewxn
dira
165 ,yleyn
180 ,mignen mr dhlgd ziira

divwecpi`
39 ,gewin ziira
110 ,xeg`l
110 71 , ,miptl
14 ,sxb
108 71 , ,xeg`l divwecpi`

14 ,iteq
88 ,znlyen `l divnxetpi`
15 ,xiyw
70 ,d`ln divnxetpi`
180 151 139 24 18 9

, , , , , ,dibhxhq`
115 ,dlxbd
151 trigger grim , -

118 ,zakxen
77 59 , ,zilnihte`
118 ,dheyt
93 92 , ,zebdpzd
139 18, ,dixehqid
140 ,xehwe
dagxd
181 ,dhxg zxqg

75 ,zeaxern zeibhxhq`
75 ,dxedh
xehwe
18 11 10
, , ,ewiz zegtl dgihan
143 ,dyipr
59 ,qwnpin
minelyz
19 18 11 10
, , , ,zgvpn
144 ,zihxt xiaq
165 75 74 , , ,zaxern
104 ,oihelgl zaxern 97 ,mlyen oexkf
28 ,znvnevn
16 ,dwelg
77 54 , ,oinqwn
51 47 , ,zhlyp
divnxetqpxh
52 40 , ,wfg zhlyp
125 ,zipit`
43 ,ylg zhlyp
143 ,dyipr
69 ,zcrex ci
40 ,wfg zhley
41 ,ztzeyn drici
qgi
43 ,ylg zhley
dneiqw`
131 ,ixhniq ihp`
122 ,davd
119 ,iaihifpxh
127 119 , ,zeiaihifpxh

131 ,ixhniq
120 ,zeipehepen
116 ,zeyic`/zeticr
128 121 , ,heyit

119 ,mly
120 ,zetivx
45 ,zeliri
186
187 gztn
48 ,zeaivi 16 9 , ,avn
110 109 29 , , ,miilbxd daxn
jldn
31 30 , ,mip
21 ,lxeb
126 56 55 , , ,qt` mekq
164 ,zinipt dltkn

126 ,reaw mekq
65 ,fxkn
16 14 11 , , ,wgyn ur
65 ,oey`x xign
59 ,jxr
44 ,ipy xign
101 92 70 36 33
, , , , ,zibhxhq` dxev
rvenn
33 ,zilnxep dxev
165 ,minelyz
101 92 70 60 36 24 21 16 13
, , , , , , , , ,dagx dxev
15 ,dliqn
37 ,zipepw
15 ,jxe`
60 36 9 , , ,hngy
15 ,zilbrn
31 19 David Gale
, , ly
15 ,zeevw
56 ,oihelgl izexgz
avn
62 50 , ,meìz
16 ,izlgzd
11 ,wgyn-zz
17 ,zehlgd lawn
htyn
wgyn
80 Brouwer
,
31 Hex,
97 70 Kuhn
, ,
33 ,miixtqne xiip ,oa`

18 von Neumann
,
70 ,d`ln divnxetpi`
169 ,cixtnd xeyin-lrd
97 ,mlyen oexkf lra

80 von Neumann
, ly qwnpin
60 24, ,znlyen drici lra

152 144 , ,innr
50 41 , ,xiq`d znlic
86 ,oext
152 151 142 140 139 137 136

, , , , , , ,zxfeg
80 ,y`p ly lwyn ieey
110 108
, ,zxfegd xiq`d znlic
31 23 , ,zerahnd zn`zd 164 ,dnxep
76 74 58
, , ,zerahn zn`zd
diihq
135 ,xfeg
48 ,zi`ck
165 ,mixehwe minelyz mr
160 ,dxabl`-`nbiq
29 ,dber zwelg
weliq
70 ,znlyen drici
41 ,wfg zehlyp zeibhxhq`

22 ,znlyen drici `ll
17 ,jldn
168 ,xeyin-lr
101 ,laben
169 ,cixtn
34 ,dvixhn
16 ,dlr
51 29 , ,mipind zngln
15 ,ur
188 gztn
70 ,wgyn ur 16 ,meiq
oexwr 15 ,wner
77 ,zeyic` 107 ,letiw
133 ,gehad xacd 14 ,zyw
59 ,jxr
76 54 , ,oegha znx
99 ,zebdpzd zeibhxhqà
110 ,zeilpeivx
80 77 , ,zeaxern zeibhxhqà
47 44, ,divfilpeivx
143 89 58
, , ,qwnpin
89 58 54 53
, , , ,oinqwn
152 142 101 70
, , , ,lwyn ieey
39 ,ilty
104 ,oihelgl zeaxern zeibhxhqà
88 ,divnxetpi`d jxr
103 52 48 , -- ,y`p
44 ,ihxt jxr
101 ,mipecir
ihwtxt
divwpet
164 ,wgxn
160 ,wgyn-zz
116 ,zlrez
104 101
, ,zcrex-ci-ihwtxt
117 ,zix`pil
106 105 69
, , ,wgyn-zz-ihwtxt
136 ,dlert
152 142 49
, , ,melyz
170 ,zaxern
15 ,yxey
owgy
qwecxt
128 Condorcet ,
40 ,ilpeivx
41 ,oexzt
zlrez
41 ,zehley zeibhxhq`
117 ,oxhypbxen oniep-oet
dveaw
116 ,divwpet
166 ,dripn-za
117 ,zix`pil
184 ,ylg dripn-za

164 ,zlrezd zxez
165 160 , ,zililb

17 9 , ,zexgz
160 ,dcicn
108 ,inpic zepkz
165 ,wgynd ikldn

33 ,zlrezd zexz
166 ,dyibp
50 48, ,xzeia daeh daeyz
184 ,ylg dyibp

70 11 , ,ur zz
180 t
, alya zeixehqidd zveaw
171 B , -zveaw
24 23 , ,drici zveaw
14 ,cewcw
16 ,oa
16 ,dxed

תורת המשחקים - שמואל זמיר, מיכאל משלר ןאיךון סולן

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1

2005 xaehwe`a 10 :dqtcdd jix`z

oleq oeli`e xlyn l`kin ,xinf l`eny

13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dagx dxeva miwgyn 3

14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mivre mitxb 3.1

16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . wgyn ivr 3.2

19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . David Gale ly wgynd 3.3

21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxeb ikldn mr wgyn 3.4

22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . znlyen drici `ll miwgyn 3.5

24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dibhxhq`d byen zllkd 3.5.1

33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zibhxhq` dxeva miwgyn 4

36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zibhxhq`d dxevde dagxd dxevd oia xywd 4.1

38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oexzt ibyen :miiteziy `l miwgyn 4.2

39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dhilyd byen 4.4

44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ipy xign fxkn 4.5

47 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zehlyp zeibhxhq` ly weliqd xcq :divfilpeivx 4.6

48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . y`p lwyn ieey :zeaivid oexwr 4.7

53 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oinqwnd byen :oegha 4.8

55 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . qt` mekq miwgyn 4.9

70 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d`ln divnxetpi` mr miwgyn 5

88 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . divnxetpi`d jxr :znlyen `l divnxetpi` 7

97 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zebdpzd zeibhxhq`a lwyn ieey meiw 8.1

101 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2005xaehwe`a 10 lwynd ieey byen ly mipecir 9

101 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zcrex-ci-ihwtxt lwyn ieey 9.1

105 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . wgyn-zz-ihwtxt lwyn ieey 9.2

110 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xeg`l divwecpi`e zeilpeivx 9.3

112 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . milibxz 9.4

114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zexrd 9.5

115 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zlrezd zxez 10

115 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lcend 10.1

117 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . miwgynd zxezl zlrezd zxez oia xywd 10.2

118 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zlrezd zxez ly zeneiqw`d 10.3

119 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zeiaihifpxh 10.3.1

119 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zetivx 10.3.2

120 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zeipehepen 10.3.3

121 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zelxbd ly heyit 10.3.4

121 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . davd 10.3.5

122 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zlrezd zivwpet oeit` htyn 10.4

124 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1 ≈i AK dxwnd 10.5

125 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zeipit` zeivnxetqpxhe zlrezd zivwpet 10.6

127 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oeic 10.7

127 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zenlyd zneiqw`l zeiv i` 10.7.1

127 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zeiaihifpxh zneiqw`l zeiv i` 10.7.2

128 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . heyitd zneiqw`l zeiv i` 10.7.3

129 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zetcrdd lr miritynd mitqep mihwtq` 10.7.4

130 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zlrezd zxez zxhn 10.7.5

131 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . milibxz 10.8

135 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mixfeg miwgyn 11

135 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mipeniq 11.1

136 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lcend 11.2

136 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ze`nbec 11.3

138 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ialy T -d wgynd 11.4

139 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zeibhxhq`e zeixehqid 11.4.1

142 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lwyn ieeye minelyz 11.4.2

143 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i owgy ly qwnpind jxr 11.4.3

144 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lwynd ieey inelyz oeit` 11.5

145 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dnbec - 11.7 htyn zgked 11.6

147 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7 htyn zgked 11.7

147 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . milpeivx zelwyn ici lr milpeivx-i` zelwyn aexiw 11.7.1

148 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . τ zeibhxhq` xehwe zxcbd 11.7.2

148 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x -l aexw minelyzd irvenn leab τ zgz 11.7.3

149 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . τ -n dihq ici lr gieexdl leki epi` owgy s` 11.7.4

150 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iteqpi`d wgynd 11.8

152 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iteqpi`d wgynd xear innrd htynd 11.8.1