Bronze Age Bell Helmets: New Aspects On Typology, Chronology and Manufacture

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Bronze Age bell helmets: New aspects on typology, chronology and

manufacture
Article in Praehistorische Zeitschrift · April 2014

DOI: 10.1515/pz-2013-0005
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152 10.1515/pz-2013-0005
DOI Marianne Mödlinger, Bronze
Praehistorische
Age bell helmets:
Zeitschrift
new2013;
aspects
88(1–2):
on typology,
152–179 chronology and manufacture
I. Abhandlungen
Marianne Mödlinger
Bronze Age bell helmets: new aspects on typology,

chronology and manufacture
Abstract: Über einen Zeitraum von mehr als 150 Jahren mode de fabrication en décrivant de manière détaillée la
standen spätbronzezeitliche Glockenhelme nur selten im nouvelle technique de fabrication identifiée à travers les
Mittelpunkt der Forschung, zumeist wurden sie nur im Ge- analyses récentes.
samtkontext bronzezeitlicher Helme diskutiert. Dieser Ar-
tikel beschreibt im Detail und zum ersten Mal alle bekann- Keywords: âge du Bronze; casques en forme de cloche;
ten Glockenhelme sowie ein assoziiertes Fragment. Der chronologie; Europe orientale; SEM-EDXS
Beitrag wirft ein neues Licht auf die Entwicklung und Chro-
nologie jener einzigartigen Helme, deren Ursprung jedoch Abstract: Over more than 150 years of research, Late Bronze
unsicher bleibt. Glockenhelme datieren nach HaB1, sie Age bell helmets have usually been included in discussions
stammen zumeist aus Hortfunden des Karpatenbeckens. about Bronze Age helmets in general, and are rarely the
Positiv zu vermerken ist eine steigende Zahl publizierter main topic of discussion. This article discusses in detail and
Element- und Mikro-Strukturanalysen, deren Ergebnisse for the first time all known bell helmets and one associated
miteinander verglichen und im Detail diskutiert werden. fragment, and aims to shed new light on the development
Von den vierzehn bekannten Helmen stammen drei aus Pri- and chronology of these unique Late Bronze Age helmets.
vatsammlungen oder sind verloren gegangen, so dass diese Their origin remains unclear and they date into HaB1, and
nicht für weitere Untersuchungen zur Verfügung stehen. were mostly found in hoards in the Carpathian Basin. More-
Die verbliebenen zehn sicheren Fundstücke werden im vor- over, the number of published analyses of bell helmets has
liegendem Beitrag analysiert und diskutiert. Ihre Fertigung increased with elemental and micro-structural analyses
wird rekonstruiert, außerdem eine auf Basis neuer Analy- and the results will be compared and discussed in detail.
sen erkannte Herstellungstechnik eingehend vorgestellt. Unfortunately, of the 14 helmets known today, three are in
private collections or lost. The ten remaining secure finds
Keywords: Bronzezeit; Glockenhelme; Chronologie; Ost- are analysed and discussed and their manufacture recon-
europa; SEM-EDXS structed, with detailed description of a new manufacturing
technique that emerged through the new analyses.
Abstract: Depuis plus de 150 ans de recherche sur les cas-
ques de l’âge du Bronze, les scientifiques n’ont que rare- Keywords: Bronze Age; bell helmets; chronology; Eastern
ment choisi les casques en forme de cloche comme thème Europe; SEM-EDXS
principal de leurs discussion. Cet article aborde pour la
première fois, et en profondeur, tous les casques en forme
Marianne Mödlinger: Dipartimento di Chimica e Chimica
de cloche connus, ainsi qu’un fragment associé, et veut je-
Industriale – DCCI, Universitá di Genova, Via Dodecaneso 31,
ter un nouvel éclairage sur l’évolution et la chronologie de I-16146 Genoa. E-Mail: marianne.moedlinger@univie.ac.at
ces casques uniques du Bronze final. Ils datent du HaB1 et
se retrouvent généralement dans des dépôts du bassin des
Carpates, mais leur origine demeure inconnue. Grâce aux
analyses élémentaires et microstructurales, il a été possi- Introduction
ble de publier un nombre croissant d’analyses de casques
en forme de cloche, dont les résultats seront comparés et Bronze Age European metal defensive armour is rare.
discutés en détail. Malheureusement, trois des 14 casques From the beginning of the Urnfield culture (ca. 1300 BC)
connus actuellement appartiennent à des collections pri- on, we know of around 120 helmets1, 90 shields (Uckel-
vées ou ont disparu. Les dix exemplaires sûrs restants sont
analysés et font l’objet d’une discussion. On a restitué leur 1 Mödlinger 2013d.
Bereitgestellt von | Università degli Studi di Genova

Angemeldet | marianne.moedlinger@univie.ac.at Autorenexemplar
Heruntergeladen am | 14.05.14 08:39
Marianne Mödlinger, Bronze Age bell helmets: new aspects on typology, chronology and manufacture 153
mann 2012), over 60 greaves and 30 cuirasses2. The only separate sockets and the only half preserved helmet from
completely overlapping distribution area of all types of ar- Koàrk; catno. 8) are usually preserved (almost) complete
mour in Europe is the Carpathian Basin, including the and not placed in hoards as fragments only. In addition,
southern parts of Moravia and Slovakia. Focussing on they are more massive on the rim/edge than the fragment
helmets, we can distinguish two main types according from Bonyhád. The association of the fragment with bell
to their principle of construction: in Western Europe, the helmets therefore remains unsecure.
bi-valved, crested helmet is the leading type; in Central
and Eastern Europe, the cap of the helmet is made of one
single metal sheet only. A special type of crested helmet
(type Lueg) is distributed in the Austrian Alps, but will not
Description
be discussed here3. The helmets in Central and Eastern Eu-
Bell helmets are, in proportion to their width, relatively
rope are usually classified due to their shape in conical
high. Their base diameter ranges from 19–23 cm, and their
helmets, cap helmets (decorated and not decorated, with
height from 18–27.5 cm. In addition, the weight is similar:
or without (massive) socket or knob) and bell helmets.
the helmets weigh between 1032–1478 g (Tab. 2), differing
Apart from some of the cap helmets, all helmets have a
severely from the much lighter conical and cap helmets,
knob or socket on the top, which usually also has a central
which never weigh more than 700 g9. This weight differ-
hole to attach a plume. Conical and cap helmets were
ence is due not only to their larger size, but mainly to their
hammered out of a flat bronze disc to rather thin, delicate
massive cap. While conical and cap helmets, as well as the
forms, while the bell helmets are clearly larger in diameter
Italian helmets considered part of the bell helmets group
and high as well as far more massive, with a particularly
by H. Hencken and C. Clausing, have a maximum thick-
thicker cross section of the calotte (Fig. 1–3).
ness of less than 0.5 mm10. Bell helmets are up to 3 mm
Bell helmets were first described 1941 by G. von Merhart
thick, and even thicker around the rim; up to 5 mm. On the
as ‘Glockenhelme’, ‘Knaufhelme’ or ‘ungarische Helme’,
helmets from the former Guttmann collection (catno. 11)
or as ‘glockenförmige Helme (type Hajdúböszörmény)’4.
and the one from ‘Gorny and Mosch’ (catno. 12), 8–12 rivet
H. Hencken called them in 1971 ‘rounded bell helmets’,
holes with a diameter from 3–10 mm are placed at a regu-
while C. Clausing named them in 2001 ‘Helme mit glocken-
lar distance of about 5 cm apart. The so-called Ausschnitt
förmiger Kalotte und durchlochtem Scheitelknauf’.
(cut out or opening) as noticed on the rim of the conical
Though both H. Hencken and C. Clausing include Ita-
helmets is not documented on bell helmets11.
lian helmets in the bell helmet category5, such as the hel-
The cap of bell helmets lacks ornamentation in every
mets from Tarquinia, an Italian helmet now kept at the
case; only the central knob bears decoration on the shaft
museum in Karlsruhe, Germany6, and the helmet from
in form of several horizontal lines12. The only exception is
Populonia, Italy7, these helmets will not be considered
the knob of the helmet from Endröd (catno. 7), which is
here. Since bell helmets are undecorated, high, and par-
decorated with horizontal lines and chevrons with hatch-
ticularly massive, these Italian helmets are not that high
ing (Fig. 4, above right), and the knob of the helmet from
in proportion to their width, are closer to cap helmets in
Monte Altino (Catno. 14), which lacks any decoration. The
their shape, have more flattened knobs on their sockets
tubular hole usually passes through the whole knob.
and are decorated. H. Hencken also includes in his group
C. Clausing notes that the knob on the ‘Gorny and Mosch’
of bell helmets a fragment from Bonyhád, Hungary (catno.
helmet has a vertical hole, obviously closed with a cast-on
15)8. The flat, c. 15 × 18 cm sized bronze sheet was folded
on the inside of the helmet13. Inside the upper end of the
twice. On one side, rivet holes are visible as well as differ-
knob, some organic filling seems to be visible. Likewise,
ing corrosion products parallel to the slightly stripped
the tubular hole of the knob of the helmet from the former
edge, common to bronze helmets in general. Neverthe-
less, we have to consider that bell helmets (despite the two
9 Mödlinger 2013a; 2013b.
10 Hencken 1971, 32–47; Clausing 2001, 199–225.
2 Mödlinger 2013c. 11 Mödlinger 2013a.
3 See most recent e.g. Lippert 2011. 12 Sehlsdorf (catno. 1), Åkocjan (catno. 3), Mezökövesd (catno. 6),
4 Mozsolics 1955, 38; von Merhart 1941, 11. Koàrk (catno. 8), former Zschille collection (catno. 10) or with addi-
5 Hencken 1971 45; Clausing 2001, 199–225. tional herringbone ornaments (Pikcolt (catno. 9), Slú}in (catno. 2),
6 Hencken 1971, fig. 23–25. Mantova (catno. 4), helmets from the former Guttmann and Lipper-
7 Clausing 2001, 219. heide collection, ‘Gorny and Mosch’ helmet.
8 Hencken 1971, 43; Fig. in Mozsolics 2000, pl. 40/14; see Catno. 14. 13 Clausing 2005, 36.

154 Marianne Mödlinger, Bronze Age bell helmets: new aspects on typology, chronology and manufacture
Fig. 1: Bell helmets (scale: 1:2): 1 – Hungary (?) (after Clausing 2005, fig. 6). 2 – Mezökövesd, Hungary. 3 – Hajdúböszörmény, Hungary.
4 – Endröd (Gyomaendröd), Hungary

Fig. 2: Bell helmets (scale 1:2). 1 – Hungary (?), former Guttmann collection (AG 1000). 2 – Sehlsdorf, Germany. 3 – unknown; former Zschille
collection. 4 – unknown; former Lipperheide collection (today lost). (3 and 4 after Born/Hansen 1992, fig. 9 and 11)

Fig. 3: Bell helmets (scale 1:2). 1 – Koàrk, Romania (cross section after Hencken 1971, fig. 27). 2 – Pikcolt, Romania (detail: scale 1:1).
3 – Mantova, Italy. 4 – Åkocjan, Slovenia (after Hencken 1971, fig. 26, a–b). 5 – Slu}ín, Czech Republic (after Salaå 2005, pl. 424/21).
6 – Bonyhád, Hungary (after Mozsolics 1985, pl. 40/14)

Tab. 1: European, Bronze Age bell helmets
Catno. findspot find museum inventory no. analyses

circumstances
1 Sehlsdorf, Germany single find Museum für Ur- und Frühgeschichte Schwerin, unknown EDXRF*
Germany
2 Slu}ín, Czech Republic hoard Muzeum Prostëjov, Czech Republic 143668 –
3 Åkocjan, Slovenia votive deposit Naturhistorisches Museum Wien, Austria 47626 SEM-EDXS;
metallography
4 Mantova, Italy (?) river (?) Antikenmuseum Berlin, Germany (former L 68 AAS ***
Lipperheide collection)
5 Hajdúböszörmény, hoard Magyar Nemzeti Múzeum Budapest, Hungary 33/1858/3 AAS ***
Hungary
6 Mezökövesd, Hungary hoard Magyar Nemzeti Múzeum Budapest, Hungary 60.2.2 AAS ***
7 Endröd, Hungary river Erkel Ferenc Múzeum Gyula, Hungary 60113,1 SEM-EDXS
8 Koàrk, Romania hoard Muzeul National Brukenthal Sibiu, Romania 11992 = A 4658 SEM-EDXS;
metallography
9 Pikcolt, Romania hoard Muzeul Municipiului Carei, Romania 2290 SEM-EDXS
10 unknown unknown Museum Berlin, Germany (Zschille collection) 13167 AAS ***
11 uncertain; Hungary (?) water (?) repository unknown (former Guttmann AG 1000 AAS **
collection)
12 uncertain; Hungary (?) unknown repository unknown (Gorny & Mosch) no invno. –
13 unknown unknown lost; Königliche Museen Berlin, Germany no invno. –
(former Lipperheide collection)
14 Monte Altino, Italy unknown Museo Provinciale Sannitico, Campobasso, – –
Italy
15 Bonyhád (?), Hungary hoard Magyar Nemzeti Múzeum Budapest, Hungary 107/1889/167 –
* see Krause 2003 ** see Born-Hansen 2001 *** see Born-Hansen 1992
Tab. 2: Weight and measurements of the helmets (* for helmets with supplementation applied during the restoration; the actual weight of the
helmets might have been higher)
helmet state high cap (cm) high knob (cm) dm (cm) thickness (mm) weight (g) rivetholes
Sehlsdorf complete 25,2 6,8 22.2 × 23.2 2.5 – 2.7 1455 11
Mantova complete 26,6 6,1 22.7 × 23.5 0.8 – 4.0 1478 ?
Hajdúböszörmény complete 25,5 5,8 20.5 × 23.5 3 1338 11
Mezökövesd complete* 23,5 6,2 22,5 2–3 1340 8
Endröd complete 26,1 6,2 19 × 23.2 5 (rim) 1032 8
Koàrk not complete 25 6,1 23 circa – 1524 >4
Pikcolt complete* 18 – 22 – 1094 11
Zschille not complete 23,1 6,1 20.5 × 24.9 2–3 (rim); 0.5–1 (above) 1912 10
Guttmann AG 1000 complete 21,5 4,5 19.5 × 21.3 1.2 – 3.5 1150 11
Gorny and Mosch complete 24 – 21 circa 2.5 (rim) – 12
Lipperheide complete 25 circa – – – – >7
Slu}ín only knob – 6,2 – – – –
Åkocjan only knob – 6,4 – – – –
Monte Altino complete 27.5 – 23.5 × 21 – – 6
Bonyhád fragment cap – – – – – >3

Fig. 4: Helmet from Endröd, Hungary. On the left, the outer (above) and inner (below) rim
is visible – and a crack, most likely as a result of manufacture, which was covered with a rivet
and an additional metal sheet. On the right, the unique decoration of the knob is visible (above),
as the hammering traces of the base of the rim (below)
Guttmann collection does not pass completely through process in this unusual way. The helmet from Hajdúbös-
the knob. Sand found in the base of the socket, might sup- zörmény (catno. 5), on the other hand, shows horizontal
port the hypothesis of water deposition. Furthermore, it traces of hammering only in the thicker area inside the
seems that some not yet properly identified organic resi- rim; inside the cap, almost no traces are visible. The hel-
dues remained inside the socket14. mets from the former Guttmann collection, the one sold at
On some helmets, traces of repairs and use-wear are ‘Gorny and Mosch’ and the helmet from the former Lipper-
also visible. The helmet from Endröd shows several cracks heide collection could not be studied in detail.
on the calotte, one of them mended during the Bronze Age Regarding the diameter, the rivet holes and the ‘com-
using a large, flat-headed rivet, which fastens a rectangu- fort’ of wearing the helmets, it is clear that an organic inlay
lar plate of bronze inside the helmet (Fig. 4, left). The caps or an organic cap was worn underneath the helmet. This is
of the helmet from the former Guttmann collection and the also visible by different coloured corrosion products on
helmet from the former Zschille collection are covered the outside of the helmets, usually reaching from the rim
with pores, defects and vertical cracks. Horizontal traces to a few mm above the rivet holes. These normally darker
of hammering inside the helmet from Koàrk (Fig. 5) were corrosion areas (Fig. 7) are the result of the organic inlay,
already noted in the inventory book of the museum in the which was fixed with rivets inside the helmet. Similarly,
1830s and can be found on other bell helmets as well, in- on the helmets from Mezökövesd, Hajdúböszörmény, the
cluding the helmets from Sehlsdorf (also vertical traces of former Guttmann collection16 and the helmet from ‘Gorny
hammering), the former Zschille collection15, and those and Mosch’17, corrosion differs on the outside of the hel-
from Mezökövesd, Pikcolt and Mantova. The Pikcolt helmet from the rim up to a bit higher than the rivet holes, in-
met has in the middle of the cap a decorated bronze sheet dicating residues of a former organic lining, which was
like a ‘band-aid’ riveted on. On the inside of the helmet, it bent outwards and fixed with rivets. P. Schauer also men-
is supported with a rectangular, undecorated additional tions dark residues on the inside and outside of the rim on
bronze sheet (Fig. 6). Most likely, it covers a hole or crack the helmet from Mantova18.
in the cap, which was covered during the manufacturing
16 Born/Hansen 2001, 72, pl. XVI.
14 Ibid. 17 Clausing 2005, 35, fig. 6.
15 Born/Hansen 1992, 344. 18 Schauer 1988, 447.

Fig. 5: Hammering traces on the inside of the helmet from Koàrk, Romania (above) and Pikcolt,
Romania (below)
Distribution and Deposition from Monte Altino to the south (Fig. 8). For the four re-
maining helmets (former Guttmann, Zschille and Lipper-
The main distribution area for bell helmets is the Carpa- heide collection as well as the helmet from ‘Gorny and
thian Basin, with five secure find spots (Hajdúböszörmény, Mosch’), we do not know anything about the location or
Mezökövesd, Endröd, Koàrk, Pikcolt) and the nearby find of circumstances of their discovery. Nonetheless, accepting
Slu}ín, following the Danube and Morava upstream. Four a distribution centre in the Carpathian Basin, we might as-
finds might be considered as exports: the helmet from sume a production centre for bell helmets in the same
Sehlsdorf in the North and the helmets from presumably area, as suggested by H. Hencken20. The helmet from
Mantova19 and Åkocjan to the west as well as the helmet Sehlsdorf, along with other elite bronze sheet objects such
19 Mozsolics 1972, 373f. 393f. 20 Hencken 1971, 9.

Fig. 6: Helmet from Pikcolt, Romania. Details of the riveted on decorated bronze on the outside
of the helmet (below). On the inside, another sheet was applied. The overlapping hammering traces
indicate that it was applied during the manufacture process
as Hajdúböszörmény-type vessels (i.e. from Siem/Aal- former Guttmann collection might be water finds (as the
borg or Granzin/Lübz) or bronze cups of the Jeniåovice helmet from Endröd certainly is). However, no find spot is
type, testifies to a constant exchange between the Carpa- known for the helmet from the former Guttmann collec-
thian Basin and Northern Germany/West of the Baltic tion. For the four helmets from Monte Altino, the one
Sea. This is visible not only as an simple trade of objects, from the former Zschille collection, the helmet from
but as a constant elite exchange of traditions, deposi- ‘Gorny and Mosch’ and the helmet from the Lipperheide
tional practices and values, as already discussed in detail collection, we do not know anything about their find spot
by H. Born and S. Hansen21. Unfortunately, many bell hel- or find circumstances. Massive copper carbonates in
mets do not have secure find spots or find circumstances. cracks of the helmet from the former Zschille collection
The helmets from Sehlsdorf and Endröd are single finds; might nevertheless indicate deposition in soil22. Most of
the helmets from presumably Mantova and from the the helmets, including those from Slu}ín, Åkocjan, Koàrk,
21 Born/Hansen 1992, 353f. 22 Ibid. 341.

Fig. 7: Helmets from Hajdúböszörmény (above left) and Mezökövesd (below left), both
Hungary, from the outside; no scale. Different corrosion products relating to the organic
inlay attached with rivets to the helmet. On the helmet from Hajdúböszörmény the
drop-like traces of the removal of the corrosion during restoration (?) are still visible. In
the small picture, one of the rivet holes from the helmet from Sehlsdorf, Germany
(above right, © Landesamt für Kultur und Denkmalpflege Schwerin), is depicted
Pikcolt, Endröd, Hajdúböszörmény and Mezökövesd, were Åkocjan covers the entire Urnfield period. Valuable ob-
found in hoards. jects, particularly arms and armour, including swords,
The composition of the hoards in which bell helmets helmets, greaves, axes, spearheads, bronze vessels, were
have been found varies. The hoard from Slu}ín consists of thrown inside the cave or abyss. Many of these mainly
one ceramic vessel, in which 22 complete, destroyed or ‘male’, warrior objects were deliberately damaged, being
only fragmented bronze objects were placed: 12 sickles lay burnt, melted, bent, broken or chopped up. In addition to
with the decorated side upside and seven socketed axes the helmet, the Hajdúböszörmény hoard contains one
with the blades all pointing north or northwest. Further Hajdúböszörmény-type situla; two other situlae, of which
finds are a knob of a bell helmet, a tube/socket, and a frag- today only the handles are present; a bronze cup of the Je-
ment of a sword blade. The composition of the metal finds niåovice-Kirkendrup type; one smaller and one larger
of the hoard is not at all typical for deposits of the Lausitzer bronze bucket, both with cruciform handles24; at least 20
Urnfield culture due to the lack of jewellery. Finds like this and perhaps 30 swords, including five Sprockhoff IIa type
are more common to the southeast, in the Carpathian swords, two Sprockhoff IIc type swords, four metal hilted
Basin23. The chronological span from the votive place from swords with flat pommel, two metal hilted swords with
23 Salaå/Åmíd 1999, 33. 24 Type B1 according to Patay 1990, 21–22.

Fig. 8: Distribution map – Bronze Age bell helmets. The find spots of the helmets from the former Guttmann, Lipperheide and Zschille
collection and the auction from ‘Gorny and Mosch’ are unknown, and thus not depicted on the map

Tab. 3: Composition of the hoard of Koàrk, Romania, according to different authors
Author Axes Helmets Spearheads sickles Varia
Luca – Georgescu 2008, citing Weber > 30 2 2 2

(who bought the hoard)
Ackner 1834: Weber sold to Ackner collection 1 1st helmet 1 1
Luca – Georgescu 2008, citing Weber: donation 1836 4

to Brukenthal Museum
Neigebaur 1851 1 3 fibula (?)
Goos 1876: finds sold to private collection in Hannover > 30 2nd helmet fibula (?)
Mozsolics 1955 30 2 2 few mace head
Petrescu–Dîmboviwa 1978 21 and > 9 2 2 2

(min. 3 Hannover) (1 Hannover)
Schauer 1988 21 2 2 few mace head
oval knob, six Schalenknauf-type swords and three sword noted that just a small part of the deposit was sold to the
blade fragments which are now lost25. The bronze objects collection of J. M. Ackner (one helmet, a spearhead, a
of the hoard from Mezökövesd were placed inside each sickle and one socketed axe)31. Weber donated four sock-
other and then inside one big ceramic vessel. One bronze eted axes to the Brukenthal Museum in 1836. J. Neigebaur
vessel of the Hajdúböszörmény type contained the helmet, mentions another different assemblage of the hoard –
in which two arm spirals with twisted ends were placed. three spearheads, one helmet and one fibula (probably
The ceramic vessel also contained fragments of two roman) – arriving at the Brukenthal Museum more or less
bronze vessels type B126. The hoard from Bonyhád, which the same time32. C. Goos notes that the second helmet as
contains a fragment possibly from a bell helmet, consists well as more than 30 socketed axes and the fibula (ob-
of more than 200 objects, such as fragmented spearheads, viously he was quoting the mistake of J. Neigebaur) went
daggers, knife, sickles, chisel, arm rings, rings, pins, belt to a private collection in Hannover33. Furthermore,
buckles, spirals, fragments of a bronze cup, several bronze J. Hampel mentions a second hoard from Koàrk, also
sheet fragments (vessels?) as well as socketed and winged found by gypsies and containing a helmet as well34. Re-
axes27. The hoard from Pikcolt consists most likely only of putedly, it was passed to a private collector in Hannover.
the helmet and a bronze cup belonging to HaA28. It might A. Mozsolics states that other finds of the hoard were
be possible that further finds belonging to the deposit found inside the helmets: in the now missing helmet,
were not noted during the construction of the road, during 30 axes were found. In the other hoard, two spearheads,
which the helmet and the cup were discovered. one mace head and a few sickles were deposited inside
Several authors have discussed the hoard of Koàrk, the helmet35. It is the first time that a mace head is noted
and the composition of the hoard varies from author to within the context of the hoard, which most likely is due
author29 (see Tab. 3). G. F. Weber, the evangelic priest to plate 1 in the Ackner publication, which depicts finds
from Koàrk who documented trade and find circum- from Koàrk but from different periods. M. Petrescu–Dîm-
stances of the hoard, mentions more than 30 socketed boviwa depicts five axes, one spearhead, one sickle and
axes, two sickles, two spearheads and two helmets30. He the helmet as well as a part of the second helmet as a part
of the hoard, mentioning briefly that more than 30 axes,
two spearheads and two sickles were found in two
25 Patay 1990, 22; Moszolics 1984; Moszolics 2000, 46.
26 Patay 1969; 1990, 23.
27 Moszolics 2000, 102–104.
28 Born/Hansen 1992, 348. 31 Ackner 1834, 274, pl. I/1.
29 I.e. Ackner 1834, 222–285; Neigebaur 1851, 275; Goos 1876, 50; Moz- 32 Neigebaur 1851, 275.
solics 1955, 39; Petrescu-Dîmboviwa 1978, 144f.; Luca/Georgescu 33 Goos 1876, 50; Luca/Georgescu 2008, 27.
2008, 27–33. 34 Hampel 1886, 96.
30 Luca/Georgescu 2008, 27. 35 Mozsolics 1955, 39.

helmets36. From her depiction, 21 axes were deposited cannot find any direct ancestor of this massive, heavy hel-
in one helmet37. According M. Petrescu-Dîmboviwa, some met type. However, not only typological differences, but
of the finds – at least a helmet and three axes – seem also differences in the manufacturing technique support
to be kept in a private collection in Hannover38. Today, the hypothesis of a new, European invention most likely
from the hoard of Koàrk only the first helmet, one spear- in the Carpathian Basin. The helmets were made out of an
head (flat, rhombic blade type), one sickle (type Uioara 9, as-cast, flat disc as were the older conical and cap hel-
HaA1–B1), two socketed axes (type Wanzek 2.b.7), one mets, and the decorated Italic helmets or the cap helmets
socketed axe with Y-shaped decoration on one side (type with massive knobs. Bell helmets have less intensive de-
Wanzek 2.b.6.a or Boroffka-Ridiche 2.b.6.a.3–0/3), one formation applied compared to the construction of the
unique socketed axe with herringbone decoration and one other, much thinner types of helmets.
rather common axe with concave mouth are preserved39. G. von Merhart noted that bell helmets are younger
It is unclear whether one of the helmets of unknown than conical helmets45, while P. Schauer noted that the
provenience might be the second helmet from Koàrk, if the sockets of the older Urnfield bell helmets testify that they
helmet is still preserved or if it is held in some unknown were at least for some time contemporary with the conical
repository today. The only thing we know for certain is bell helmets (definition of conical bell helmets after P.
that a second helmet, most likely associated with the Schauer)46, and this partial contemporaneity was again
known helmet from Koàrk, was sold to a private collection noted by H. Born and S. Hansen47. Today, however, the re-
to Hannover40. H. Hencken has taken into account the lationship of conical helmets and bell helmets is clear.
possibility that one of the lost helmets from the Lipper- Chronological and typological aspects of conical helmets
heide (denied by P. Schauer without any further expla- were recently discussed in detail, suggesting a much ear-
nation) or Zschille collection might be the second helmet lier date for conical helmets: BzC2 (14th cent. BC) for the
from Koàrk41. Alternatively, the helmet from the former helmet from Biecz, BzC2/D (14th–13th cent. BC) for the hel-
Guttmann collection or the helmet from ‘Gorny and mets from the BzD–HaA (c. 1300–1050 BC) hoards from
Mosch’ might be the lost second helmet from Koàrk. How- Brno-Qebkovice, Keresztéte, Nadap, Spiåská Belá and
ever, there are also speculations about a second helmet {aåkov. Meanwhile, the conical helmet found in the HaB1
from the deposit from Hajdúböszörmény, and we might (c. 10th cent. BC) hoards (dated to HaB1 only due to the
consider the possibility that one of the four helmets with vessel’s type Hajdúböszörmény) from Lúbky and Sîg are
uncertain provenience might originally be from Hajdúbös- considered to be the oldest objects in the hoards48.
zörmény. J. Hampel discusses one more helmet found at The bell helmets found in hoards, such as the helmets
Hajdúböszörmény, and shows two helmets on his plates42. from Slu}ín, Hajdúböszörmény, Mezökövesd, Koàrk and
Nevertheless, there is a mistake in the plate; the second Pikcolt, can be considered for the chronological evalu-
helmet is the one from Endröd, as J. Hampel himself no- ation of bell helmets. All hoards with bell helmets are uni-
ticed one year later43. formly dated to the 10th–9ht cent. BC, most of them to
HaB1. M. Salaå – M. Åmíd date the hoard of Slu}ín to the
Rohod-period based on the socketed axes, and from ce-
ramic vessels more specifically to HaA2/B1, tending more
Chronology and typology to the beginning of HaB1 (deposit horizon Kqenûvky)49 or
HaB150. The helmet from Hajdúböszörmény is generally
Due to the wide time difference, it seems unlikely that the
dated to HaB151; only J. Kossack placed it in HaA252. P. Patay
bell helmets are directly connected to Greek depictions of
dates the helmet from Mezökövesd to HaB1, as indicated by
rounder boar tusk helmets, as H. Hencken suggests44. A
its similarity to the hoard from Hajdúböszörmény53. The
European evolution seems much more likely, though we
45 Merhart 1941, 4f. note 3.

36 Petrescu-Dîmboviwa 1978, 144. 46 Schauer 1988, 191.
37 As copied also by Schauer 1988. 47 Born/Hansen 1992, 348.
38 Petrescu-Dîmboviwa 1978, 144f. 48 Mödlinger 2013a.
39 Luca/Georgescu 2008, 54f. 49 Salaå/Åmíd 1999, 33.
40 Goos 1876, 50. 50 Salaå 2005, 158.
41 Hencken 1971, 50, fig. 28; 29. Schauer 1988. 51 Mozsolics 1955, 37f.: horizon Hajdúböszörmény, B Via; Müller-
42 Hampel 1876, pl. XII. Karpe 1959, 114; 139; 167; 204; Gimbutas 1965, 151–153; Patay 1969, 200.
43 Hampel 1877, opposite pl. XIII. 52 Kossack 1954, 27f.
44 Hencken 1971, 8. 53 Patay 1969, 200f.

Tab. 4: Results of all analyses on the alloy composition carried out on bell helmets so far, including the new SEM-EDXS data achieved.
Analyses findspot analyses Cu Sn Pb Sb As S Fe Zn Ni Ag Bi Co Au Cd further information
1 EDXRF* Sehlsdorf cap 87,0 11,7 0,3 0,2 0,0 tr. tr. 0,1 0,1 surface analyses f qualitative
1 EDXRF* Sehlsdorf knob 88,0 10,0 0,4 0,2 0,1 tr. tr. 0,1 0,1
3 SEM-EDXS Åkocjan knob 88,3 10,2 0,5 0,2 0,2 0,5 0,1 0,1 0,2 spectra: 7
3 SEM-EDXS Åkocjan cap 89,8 9,0 0,1 n.d. tr. tr. tr. n.d. 0,1 0,1 n.d. 0,2 spectra: 7
4 AAS *** Mantova cap 89,7 8,4 0,4
4 AAS *** Mantova knob 88,5 9,8 0,4
5 AAS *** Hajduböszörmény cap 10,4 1,6 drilling sample
5 AAS *** Hajduböszörmény knob 16,2 1,1 drilling sample
6 AAS *** Mezökövesd cap 11,6 0,8 drilling sample
6 AAS *** Mezökövesd knob 16,7 1,0 drilling sample
7 SEM-EDXS Endröd cap 91,0 7,0 1,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 spectra: 6
7 SEM-EDXS Endröd knob 89,7 7,5 1,9 0,3 0,5 0,1 0,1 spectra: 7
8 SEM-EDXS Koàrk cap 87,3 10,3 1,6 0,3 0,3 tr. 0,4 tr. 0,1 tr. spectra: 6
8 SEM-EDXS Koàrk knob 92,9 1,7 0,3 1,6 1,1 0,3 0,1 1,1 0,6 spectra: 8
9 SEM-EDXS Pikcolt cap 84,6 11,0 3,1 0,3 0,3 0,4 0,1 0,1 0,2 spectra: 9
9 SEM-EDXS Pikcolt knob 91,5 6,3 1,2 0,4 0,2 0,1 0,3 spectra: 7

10 AAS *** Zschille cap 87,0 11–12 0,5
10 AAS *** Zschille knob 90,8 7,6 0,8

11 AAS ** unknown cap 89,93 8,26 1,21 0,09 0,20 0,04 0,02 0,13 0,06 <0.025 0,08 <0.01 <0.001

11 AAS ** unknown knob 89,93 8,09 1,35 0,07 0,20 0,04 0,02 0,11 0,55 <0.025 0,11 <0.01 <0.001
11 AAS ** unknown rivet 90,25 7,75 1,37 0,06 0,30 0,04 0,01 0,11 0,06 <0.025 0,11 <0.01 <0.001
* see Krause 2003, attached CD; ** see Born/Hansen 2001; *** see Born/Hansen 1992, Tab. 1
Marianne Mödlinger, Bronze Age bell helmets: new aspects on typology, chronology and manufacture
165
helmet from Koàrk is dated to the Transylvanian Bronze were not only studied with the SEM-EDXS, but also with
Age IV, which is contemporary with HaB(1)54. S. A. Luka and light optical microscope with bright field and dark field.
A. Georgescu date the hoard to HaB1 (Moigrad – Tàuteu The alloy composition of drilling samples (finds from
period), as does M. Rusu55. I. Németi dates the helmet from Åkocjan, Endröd and Pikcolt) and two micro-samples
Pikcolt to HaB, while M. Rusu dates it to HaB156. Most parts (Koàrk, Škocjan) were characterized by Energy Dispersive
of the votive place from Åkocjan belong to HaB, but there X-Ray Spectroscopy (using a PENTAFET® EDXS detector
are also finds from the Hallstatt Iron Age, as iron spear- sensitive to light elements, Z>5) connected to a Scanning
heads, bronze axes and fragments of a so-called ‘Schüssel- Electron Microscope (SEM) Evo40 Zeiss. The operating
helm’. In addition, fragments of crested helmets were de- conditions were an accelerating voltage of 20 kV, P<10–5
posited in the cave57. C. F. C. Hawkes and M. A. Smith prefer barr and an acquisition time of 60 seconds with 2000
late HaB while G. von Merhart and G. Kossack are consider- channels of 5 eV each. The cobalt calibration was applied
ing the deposit typical for HaB58. Nevertheless, we have to with ZAF 5 correction and real standards for the quanti-
consider that the votive place from Åkocjan contains finds tative analyses. The compositions reported are normal-
from the 12th–8th cent. BC, therefore can not be used as ized and in weight percent. They correspond to the math-
closed find and as a marker of the bell helmet chronology. ematical average of 6–9 spectra with suitable fit index per
Due to the clear and uniform chronological classifi- each sample. Element concentrations <0.3 wt % were con-
cation, the helmets with unknown find locations (Monte sidered as semiquantitative and taken into account only
Altino, ‘Mantova’, former Guttmann, Zschille and Lipper- when the identification peaks were clearly visible in the
heide collection as well as the helmet from ‘Gorny and spectrum acquired.
Mosch’) or single helmet finds (Sehlsdorf, Endröd) were
and are dated according to the chronological well-defined
hoards containing bell helmets. A. Mozsolics dated the
helmet from Endröd to HaB59, and J.-P. Schmidt placed the
Discussion – Results of analyses
helmet from Sehlsdorf in period IV/V (c. 1100–900 BC)60.
Unlike older helmets from BzD–HaA (c. 1300–1050 BC);
conical helmets either decorated or undecorated cap hel-
mets), the younger bell helmets regularly contain small
Analyses amounts of Pb (lead), usually around 1–2 wt %, in the
case of the cap of the helmet from Pikcolt up to 3 wt % on
So far, elemental analyses of six bell helmets have been occasion (Tab. 4). The tin (Sn) amount ranges between
published61. In order to present an overview of all analyses 6–12 wt % for both cap and knob, except the knob of the
of bell helmets, the previously published analyses with helmet from Koàrk with 1.7 wt % and the two knobs of the
AAS are presented together with the newly acquired SEM- helmets from Hajduböszörmény and Mezökövesd with
EDXS results in Tab. 4. more than 16 wt % each. Here, we have to note that the
AAS results62 for the latter two knobs are significantly
higher than all other results from knobs of bell helmets. It
is also worth noting that there is no apparent colour differ-
SEM-EDXS ence between knob and cap, although a light difference
luster might be visible with a difference in Sn of 5 wt %63.
The two new samples from the Koàrk and Åkocjan helmets
For the analyses of the helmet from Sehlsdorf64 it has
were mounted in epoxy resin for metallography and
to be noted that the analyses were carried out on the cor-
polished with up to 0.25 mm diameter paste. The samples
roded surface and thus are qualitative; it can only be said
that the alloy composition of cap and knob is similar, with
the cap potentially showing a slightly higher amount of Sn.
54 Hencken 1971, 50, after Mozsolics 1955, 48. It is interesting to note that the helmets from Endröd
55 Luka/Georgescu 2008, 33; 54; Rusu 1990, 70.
and Åkocjan as well as the helmet from the former Gutt-
56 Németi 1972, 120; Rusu 1990, 77.
57 Hencken 1971, 120; Kossack 1954, 45; von Merhart 1941, 30; Szom- mann-collection all show a similar alloy composition for
bathy 1913, 151.
58 Hawkes/Smith 1957, 140; von Merhart 1952, 58.
59 Endröd 1955, 48. 62 Born/Hansen 1992 339–356.
60 Mozsolics 1955, 48; Schmidt 2004, 195. 63 Ammanati et al. 2004.
61 Born/Hansen 1992, 339–356; Born/Hansen 2001, 270; Krause 2003. 64 Krause 2003.

both cap and knob. Most likely, the cap was cast first. Once Metallography
the cap was finished, the remaining alloy from the cast of
the cap was melted again to be used for the cast-on of the One micro-sample each could be taken from the helmet
knob, which might be also the reason for the slightly from Koàrk and the helmet from Åkocjan: on the helmet
higher amount of lead in the knobs. For the helmet from from Koàrk in the middle of the cap, on the helmet from
the former Guttmann collection, we can even assume that Åkocjan close to the knob. Other helmets were not
the one rivet analysed was made of the same alloy as cap sampled, since most of them are in perfect condition, were
and knob. Though the alloy composition is uniform for not accessible or suffered some recent heat treatment dur-
each helmet, the results differ slightly from helmet to hel- ing restoration, as is the case with the helmet from the
met, but are still in the range of uncertainty. The helmet former Zschille collection. The samples from the helmets
from Endröd consists of 7–7.5 wt % Sn and 1.4–1.9 wt % Pb, from Koàrk and Åkocjan were studied with an optical
and the helmet from the Guttmann collection contains microscope in bright field and dark field as well as the
about 8.1 wt % Sn and 1.3 wt % Pb while the helmet from SEM-EDXS for the elemental analyses. Due to the inter-
Åkocjan around 9–10.2 wt % Sn and 0.1–0.5 wt % Pb. The crystalline corrosion products on both samples, the ma-
helmet from Mantova just shows slight differences in the trix is clearly visible and etching was not necessary. On
Sn-amount between cap (8.4 wt % Sn) and knob (9.8 wt % the helmet from Koàrk, Pb is regularly distributed in the
Sn), but the same amount of Pb. metallic matrix in the form of fine, globular inclusions.
In contrast with the previously discussed helmets, the (Fig. 9). Polygonal grains with slipping bands and mech-
helmets from Hajduböszörmény and Mezökövesd show anical twins crossing each other are clearly visible. These
significantly different Sn-amounts for both cap and knob, are typical of recrystallization annealing after cold de-
though the amount of Pb is similar. Both helmets bear formation, followed by another slight mechanical de-
a knob with over 16 wt % Sn, while the caps contain formation as shown by mechanical twins. The cap of the
10.4 wt % and 11.6 wt % Sn respectively. Furthermore, the helmet from Åkocjan, Slovenia, was sampled very close to
composition of both cap and knob differ widely in the hel- the knob in order to document the potential change in the
met from Koàrk. This helmet also shows a significant col- microstructure during the cast-on of the knob. The micro-
our variation due to the difference in the alloy composi- structural features (such as shape factor of inclusions) of
tion: the cap contains 10.3 wt % Sn and 1.6 wt % Pb, while the cap itself indicate an amount of total biaxial de-
the knob 1.7 wt % Sn and only 0.3 wt % Pb. However, sig- formation of 40–45 %. The last step of work was slight cold
nificantly elevated levels, between 1–1.6 wt % of Sb, As hammering, indicated by annealing twins slip lines. The
and Ni, have to be taken into account. Similar high quan- rounded, undeformed shape of the grains (‘frozen’ during
tities of these elements are usually found in Fahlore. grain growth) close to the surface indicates a local thermal
Therefore, we might consider the possibility that the knob treatment at high temperature, as might have happened as
was made out of Fahlore with (almost) no previous recyc- a consequence of the cast-on of the knob. On the outer sur-
ling process. The helmets from the former Zschille collec- face of the cap, above an interface of slight corrosion and
tion and the helmet from Pikcolt also show different close to the knob, a less than 10mm layer of a+d eutectoid
amounts of Sn and Pb for both cap and knob, as the knob is visible, destroyed in some areas due to crevice corrosion
has c. 4–5 wt % less Sn than the cap. Both caps also show (Fig. 10). The formation of the a+d eutectoid layer might be
significantly higher amounts of Pb than the knobs. In light connected to the interaction between cap and knob during
of this new analyses, we cannot agree with the assumption its cast-on66. Only the d-phase with its much higher resis-
of H. Born/S. Hansen that the different alloy composition tance to corrosion is still present. The Sn necessary to cre-
for the helmet from Zschille points to a different work- ate the thin layer of a+d eutectoid on the cap’s surface de-
shop65. It rather fits with the helmets from Koàrk and Pik- rives from the knob during the cast-on process, due to the
colt, in the group of bell helmets with significantly higher phenomenon of Sn-sweating, since intentional tinning,
quantities of tin in the cap than in the knob. i.e. with cassiterite on the bronze surface between knob
and cap, does not seem to be very likely. Furthermore, the
layer of a+d eutectoid is noted only in a small area of the
sample, where the cap was close to the knob. Tin sweat
requires shrinkage of the cooling metal away from the
65 Born/Hansen 1992, 346. 66 Caumont et al. 2006.

Fig. 9: Helmet from Koàrk, Romania. SEM-picture of the micro-sample from the mid of the cap.
The white dots are Pb-inclusions, the elongated, light grey areas are Cu2-xFexS-inclusions
indicating the total deformation of the cap of 80 %

Fig. 10: Helmet from Åkocjan, Slovenia. The bronze sheet of the cap is severely corroded and only light deformed (c. 45 %). Note the inter- and
intra-crystalline corrosion following the metal structure and the remains of a+d eutectoid on the surface of the cap (on the picture above left:
at the bottom of the sample; on the two SEM images on the right on the top of the sample the white layer)
walls of the mould, which results in internal pressure, for- cast to the finished cap at around 80 % in the middle of the
cing the still molten, tin-rich bronze to move to the sur- cap for the helmet from Koàrk. In contrast, the top of the
face, more precisely into the gap between mould and raw- cap close to the knob of the helmet from Åkocjan is only
cast. Fast cooling and the release of dissolved gas during 40–45 % deformed. This level of deformation is rather low
the solidification process increase the hydrostatic press- in comparison with the much thinner conical and (decor-
ure and enhance the occurrence of tin sweat67. In the case ated) cap helmets69 and supports the hypothesis that the
of the knob cast on the helmet’s cap, the molten, tin-rich bell helmets were cast as flat discs and then die forged in
bronze touches the bronze cap and forms, during the cool- an open forging die, with additional deformation using
ing process, a+d eutectoid and results furthermore in a Sn- also a so-called Treibfaust (rounded or convex stake
enrichment in the grains close to the surface (up to 15 %). anvil). The higher deformation in the middle of the cap as
However, the temperature achieved by the cap was not shown at the helmet from Koàrk results in a much thinner
high enough to melt it and then weld both parts together. bronze sheet than on the rim or the central top of the hel-
From the deformation of the Cu2-xFexS-inclusions68, mets. The level of deformation allows calculating that the
we can estimate the total biaxial deformation from the as- as-cast thickness for both caps should be higher than
2 mm, which is the estimation from the percentage of de-
67 Meeks 1986.
68 Mödlinger/Piccardo 2012; Pernot 2000. 69 Mödlinger 2013a; 2013b.

Fig. 11: Reconstruction of the manufacturing process of the cap of a bell helmet, including the amount of deformation noted on the samples
from the helmets from Åkocjan and Koàrk. For the as-cast of the disc, three different possibilities are depicted; for the vertical cast, the space
holders for the rivet holes additionally serve for the fixation of the two halves of the mould. The round bronze disc with the cast rivet holes
then was deformed via deep-drawing or die forging over a most likely wooden die, as also indicated by the direction, form and cross-section
of the hammering traces (see also Fig. 4, below). Forming the cap lead to differing thickness of the cap (0.4–5mm). As a final step, the knob
was cast-on (Fig. 12)

formation and corresponding final thickness. This value to the knob – as if they were stretched to the top of the hel-
cannot take into account all material losses occurring dur- met (Fig. 4, 5 and 7).
ing shaping, such as flaking off of oxygen, polishing and
grinding as well as usage. The biaxial deformation is itself 2. The inside of all bell helmets shows massive tangenti-
an approximation of the real movement of matter during nal and radial traces, which bear a deeper impression to-
die forging. The temperature of annealing for both hel- wards the top of the helmet – indication of a hammering
mets was below the solidus curve of the alpha-phase in direction as indicated in Fig. 11.
the equilibrium diagram Cu-Sn, but was high enough to The thickness of the original as-cast was more than
homogenize the solid solution (according to the composi- 2 mm; according to the thickness of the rim and hammer-
tion of the alloy usually between 550–600°C; a fire with ing traces on the edge of the rim, which were broadening
charcoal gives more stable temperatures). This effect is and therefore also increasing the stability of the helmet,
not obtained in the course of a single heat treatment, but we can assume an average thickness of the as-cast disc of
results from several alternating cycles of annealing and 4–5 mm (i.e. Fig. 4, below right). A disc with a diameter of
cold deformation. For both helmets, the last step of pro- ca. 30 cm (calculated from the average circumference of
duction was cold deformation, rather than annealing, all bell helmets and an additional allowance of 6 cm in
most likely to increase the hardness of the cap. radius) could have been cast without any problems, es-
pecially when containing with the noted amounts of Pb,
which significantly increase the castability71. The extra
allowance serves for chiselling off cracks appearing due to
Manufacture material tension before they reach the actual helmet, and
to provide gaps appearing during casting in the area for
For the helmets from Endröd, Åkocjan, the former Gutt-
the helmet.
mann-collection and potentially the helmet from Mantova
(and maybe Sehlsdorf), we can assume a production of
3. Vertical cracks were noticed on the radiography of the
both parts with the same alloy; it is even possible that they
helmet from the former Zschille collection72. Further ver-
came out of the same melt. The as-cast disc for the manu-
tical cracks due to material stress during die forging were
facture of the cap was first cast in a vertical or horizontal
noted on the helmets of Hajduböszörmény, Koàrk and
bivalve mould or as an open cast; in the latter case, it is im-
Endröd.
portant to place charcoal on top of the molten metal once
cast in order to prevent oxidation and a rough surface. The
4. The total deformation of the caps (about 80 % in the
metal remaining from the cast (sprue, flashing) and metal
middle of the cap of the helmet from Koàrk and about
chiselled or chopped off during the production of the hel-
40–45 % close to the knob of the helmet from Åkocjan) is
met might be collected and re-used for the casting of the
generally lower than on decorated cap helmets with a uni-
knob. For the helmet from the former Guttmann collec-
form amount of deformation around 80–95 % obtained
tion, it is even likely that the one rivet analysed was made
during sheet manufacturing and is in agreement with the
of the same alloy as cap and knob. Moreover, the assump-
process of open die forging, where the rim and the centre
tion that the helmet from the former Zschille collection
are less deformed, but the part in between severely (Fig.
was produced in another workshop due to its different
13).
alloy composition and less perfect finish, cannot be sup-
ported. Several arguments support the notion that bell
5. Differing thickness and bi-axial deformation as ob-
helmets were cast as flat discs and then open die forged
served indicate die forging. In a manufacturing style simi-
(edging), possibly on wooden forging die(s) (Fig. 11):
lar to that noted by M. Pernot and P. Piccardo – M. Pernot
for the bronze cauldron of Estissac (Aube, France; 5th cent.
1. The shape and inside surface of rivet holes indicates
BC; the cauldron is just slightly wider than the helmets)73,
casting rather than punching as already noted by H. Born
the helmets all have a thicker rim (which serves also for
regarding the bell helmet from the former Zschille collec-
stiffening the helmet) and the metal thickness decreases
tion70. No helmet shows regular, round holes: all are
slightly distorted to an oval shape, pointing from the rim
71 Piccardo et al. 2009, 31–38.

72 Born/Hansen 1992, 343.
70 Born/Hansen 1992, 342. 73 Pernot 2000, fig. 1; Piccardo/Pernot 1997.

Fig. 12: Inside view of the cast-on knob of bell helmets. Note the untreated surface of the knob. From left to right. First row: Hajdúböszörmény,
Mezökövesd, Sehlsdorf. second row: Endröd, Pikcolt, Koàrk. Third row: former Guttmann collection (after Born/Hansen 1991, fig. 203),
Slu}ín, Åkocjan, former Zschille collection (after Born/Hansen 1992, fig. 8)
compared to the top of the cap, where it is again slightly and 11) and the metallographic structure. Since the
thicker. If the helmets would have been made out of a cir- necessary cycles of annealing and deformation depend on
cular flange that was cut out of a previously made thin several factors as annealing temperature and duration,
sheet, and the flange was deformed by ‘raising’, there quenching, strength of hammering, etc., the number of
would not have been such a high change in thickness. cycles can not be calculated. Water quenching was most
likely used as well in order to avoid the precipitation of in-
6. The combination of weight, diameter and changing termetallic phases (e.g. the brittle delta-phase). The last
thickness of the helmets also indicate die forging, if we as- step of production on both helmets was a slight de-
sume that the as-cast disc used was cast with the same formation during final cold working.
thickness as noted on the edge of the rim (4–5 mm). Since A hand-turned lathe was most likely used to produce
the volume of the deformed metal sheet per se does not the wax model of the knob. This is indicated both by the
change, the density of copper is 8.96 g/cm–3 (tin bronze is perfect geometry of the knob and the horizontal decora-
slightly lighter) and the maximal diameter of the helmet tion of the shaft. As imprints and deformation on the dec-
averages 22 cm, we can calculate the approximate weight oration indicate, it was already applied on the wax model
of the as-cast disc using the following formula V = p·r2·h. and not after casting. The central stick used in the lathe or
The resultant weight prediction is 1.36 kg (corresponding another one, applied inside the hole left by the first, was
with the actual helmet’s weight, also taking into account used to fix the wax model in axis once covered in clay. It
material loss during manufacture). also served as an indication if the knob was placed cor-
rectly in axis to the cap. After the finish of the surface, the
After casting, the bronze was open die forged to achieve cap was ready for the cast-on of the knob. For this, a hole
the bell-shaped form of the final cap. To achieve this de- of approx. 1.5–2 cm diameter was punched through at the
formation, several cycles of annealing and cold working top of the cap, most likely with a punch. Before placing the
were applied, as indicated by the hammering traces (Fig. 5 mould for the knob on the helmet, the inside of the helmet

was filled with some drops of wax (Fig. 12), serving as the able from the much thinner, lighter and older (decorated)
inner ‘disc’ to fix the knob and then surrounded with clay. cap and conical helmets, the decorated Italian helmets
Once the wax was hard, the clay mould of the knob with with massive knobs and the thin, light cap helmets with
the central wooden stick was placed on the cap, so that the massive knobs.
stick perforated the little wax disc inside the cap, resulting We must also note that the alloy composition of bell
in the ‘flashing’ around the hole, as seen on Fig. 12. Once helmets differs from those of conical and cap helmets,
the mould was placed and fixed on the cap, the helmet with the amount of Pb being significantly higher than in
was turned and heated to remove the wax. To improve the the older helmets. On three helmets (Endröd, former Gutt-
quality of ‘welding’ by cast-on, the cap was warmed before mann collection and Åkocjan), the same alloy was used to
casting and the clay baked, but not burnt. In this way, the produce both cap and knob. The helmets from Sehlsdorf
diffusion process of the liquid metal on the cap increases and Mantova were produced with similar alloys. The hel-
and the fresh cast on bronze wets the cap. Thus, the cool- mets from the former Zschille collection, Pikcolt and Koàrk
ing rate is slower and micro-segregation in the as-cast is differ in that they were produced with different alloys: the
reduced (this is also heavily influenced by the thickness of knobs of the first two helmets contain 5 wt % less Sn,
the preheated clay mould). Any further traces of de- while the knob of the helmet from Koàrk contains less than
formation in the microstructure in the part of the cap 2 wt % Sn, but significantly high amounts of Sb, As and Ni
around the knob were most likely applied after the knob (over 1 wt % each). The knob of the helmets from Hajdu-
was cast on, as we see in the sample from the Åkocjan hel- böszörmény and Mezökövesd instead were made with
met, with only a few slipping bands. 5 wt % Sn more than the cap. Weight, varying thickness
The knob was cast-on at the top of every helmet; only and surface documentation of the helmets, as well as the
in the case of the helmet from Mantova it is slightly de- microstructure of the caps from the Åkocjan and Koàrk hel-
centred. The knob of the helmet from the former Zschille mets, supports the assumption that bell helmets were
collection can even be moved74, most likely because the made out of flat, 4–5 mm thick as-cast discs with cast rivet-
cap and the mould were not pre-heated before the cast-on. holes which then where die-forged. Once the calotte was
Since the knobs on all examined helmets were cast on and finished, the knob was cast-on using the lost wax tech-
not welded or soldered on, it does not seem to be very nique.
likely that the knob from the helmet from the former By discussing bell helmets not only in chrono-typo-
Zschille collection was cast separately and then soldered logical terms but also in terms of their manufacture and
on, as was suggested by H. Born/S. Hansen75. chemical composition, we can clearly distinguish them
from the older conical and (decorated) cap helmets, and
postulate a separate development of this helmet type in
the Carpathian Basin.
Conclusions In comparison to the previous smaller, thinner decor-
ated cap helmets, the higher thickness, compactness and
Today, archaeologists know of twelve complete bell hel-
bigger size of bell helmets, which also permitted the appli-
mets, the knobs of two further helmets and one probable
cation of a thicker, higher protective organic inlay, pro-
helmet fragment. The distribution centre is in the Carpa-
tected its owner much more. That bell helmets were used
thian basin with four further finds, one each in Northern
in whatever kind of combat, is indicated by battle traces
Germany (Sehlsdorf), Northern and Southern Italy (Man-
e.g. on the helmet from Hajdúböszörmény.
tua (?) and Monte Altino [fig. 14]) and Slovenia (Åkocjan),
which were in all probability imports. All bell helmets date
to the rather short period of HaB1 (c. 10th cent. BC). How-
ever, their origin or evolution is still unclear. Due to their
unique physiognomy, a local invention, respectively de-
Catalogue
velopment from the production of cap helmets, most
Catno. 1 – Sehlsdorf
likely in the Carpathian Basin, seems highly reasonable.
Sehlsdorf, Lkr. Parchim, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Ger-
Owing to their size, weight and the lack of any decoration
many – single find (?) – complete helmet – height:
on the massive cap, bell helmets are clearly distinguish-
25.2 cm; 6.8 cm (knob); dm: 22.2–23.2 cm; thickness:
2.5–2.7 mm (rim); weight: 1455 g – Archäologisches Land-
74 Born/Hansen 2001, 248. esmuseum Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, invno. 315 – Fig-
75 Born/Hansen 1992, 343. ure 2 and 12 – Mörtz 2011a, 367; Clausing 2005, 36; Schmidt

2004, 87–95; 195, catno. 50, fig. on page 92; Hänsel 2003; Hansen 2001, 79; 251 fig. 200; Born/Hansen 1992, 345f.;
Born/Hansen 2001, 79; Clausing 2001, 219; Catalogue Calzecchi-Onesti 1991, 80 no. 19; Egg/Waurick 1990, 41
1999b, 257, no. 154; Born/Hansen 1992, 344f.; Hundt 1997, Nr. 7.5 fig. 8,2; Pflug 1989, 65 no. 35; Schauer 1988, 182; 188,
no. 132, pl. 39/2; Calzecchi-Onesti 1991, 77, no. 8; Albrecht 447, fig. K 54a–c; Borchhardt 1972, 129 no. 29,11; Mozsolics
1991, 13–16; Schauer 1988, 188; Keiling 1987, 96, fig. 50; 1972, 373f. 393f.; Hencken 1971, 50 fig. 28; von Merhart
Borchhardt 1972, 129, catno. 29, 5; Hencken 1971, 43 fig. 21, 1941, 12 no. 18, footnote 15; Szombathy 1913, 149 fig. 93;
g–h; Drescher 1958, 52; von Merhart 1941, 11; Sprockhoff Schröder 1912, 24 fig. 15; von Lipperheide 1896, 128 no.
1956, 85; Sprockhoff 1930, 44; Beltz 1910, 253. 230b; von Wieser 1894, pl. 7/43; Catalogo della collezione
Find circumstances: The helmet was found during di antichitá fu Amilcare Ancona (1892) 3 no. 26.
peat cutting in 1836. Find circumstances: The helmet was purchased from
the collection Amilcare Ancona in Milan. Further in-
Catno. 2 – Slu}ín formation is unknown.
Slu}ín, Okr. Prostëjov, Czech Republic – hoard – only
knob – height: 6.5 cm; dm base: 6.2 cm – Muzeum Prostë- Catno. 5 – Hajdúböszörmény
jov, invno. 143.668 – Figure 3 and 12 – Clausing 2005, 36f.; Hajdúböszörmény, Hajdú-Bihar megye, Hungary –
Salaå 2005, 502–514 pl. 424/21; Clausing 2001, 219; Salaå/ hoard – complete helmet – height: 25.5 cm (calotte), 5.8 cm
Åmíd 1999, 19f. 31f. fig. 7,2; 10,21. (socket); dm: 20.5 × 23.5 cm; thickness: 3 mm (rim);
Find circumstances: In summer 1997 in the South of weight: 1338 g (not 2335 g or 2355 g!) – Magyar Nemzeti Mú-
Slu}ín, at Zábrusky, approx. 270 m above sea level, 13 stor- zeum, invno. 33/1858/3 – Figure 1, 7 and 12 – Mörtz 2011a,
age pits of the Lausitzer Urnfield culture were found. In 367; Vachta 2008, 123 list V.1.5. no. 1; Clausing 2005, 36f.;
the northern half of one of the storage pits, just 30 cm Clausing 2001, 120. Mozsolics 2000, 45 no. 5 pl. 30/5; Soro-
above the ground, a ceramic vessel, covered with the base ceanu 1995, 65; Kovács 1992, 45 fig. 29; Calzecchi-Onesti
of another one with a hole – maybe a ‘Seelenloch’ – was 1991, 77 no. 10; Patay 1990, 21 no. 7; Kemenczei 1988, 57;
found. It contained 22 complete, destroyed or only frag- Mozsolics 1984, 81–93; Borchhardt 1972, 129 catno. 29,2;
mented bronze objects: 12 sickles, seven socketed axes, Hencken 1971, 44f. fig. 21,d–f; Patay 1969, 200; Gimbutas
one knob of a helmet, a cast tube or socket and a fragment 1965, 151–153; Müller–Karpe 1959, 114; 139; 167; 204; Moz-
of a sword blade (Salaå/Åmíd 1999, 33). solics 1955, 37f. 48 fig. 4; Kossack 1954, 27f. no. 1; von Mer-
hart 1952, 5; von Merhart 1941, 11 fig. 2,12; Hampel 1892,
Catno. 3 – Åkocjan 49–58; Hampel 1886, 74 pl. XXXIII/2; Hampel 1876, pl. XII;
Åkocjan, Obalno-kraåka, Slovenia – long-term votive Graffenried 1860, 372–374 fig. 66–72.
place – knob – high: 6.4 cm; weight: 248 g – Naturhisto- Find circumstances: The hoard was found close to the
risches Museum Wien, invno. 47.626 – Figure 3, 10 and 12 – Csege-hill in 1858 and a portion reached the Magyar Nem-
Clausing 2005, 36; Clausing 2001, 219; Borgna 1999, 158 zeti Múzeum; other objects of the same hoard came to the
fig. 5; Hencken 1971, 48 fig. 26,a–c; von Merhart 1941, 12 fig. museum later, and a few might have melted down right
2,10 left; Szombathy 1913, 149 fig. 94. after the discovery. Some finds from the deposit are
Find circumstances: The long-term votive place from housed at the Reformed College at Debrecen (Moszolics
Åkocjan contains over 600 metal objects and fragments 2000, 43f.).
(mainly fragmented and deliberately destroyed arms and
armour). First objects were discovered in 1909, which led Catno. 6 – Mezökövesd
to first excavations by the Prähistorische Kommission, Mezökövesd, Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén megye, Hungary –
k.k. Naturhistorisches Hofmuseum (today the Natural His- hoard – complete helmet – height: 23.5 cm (calotte) or
tory Museum Vienna). 22 cm according to Patay 1969, 174; 6.2 cm (socket); dm:
22.5 cm (not 22–23 cm according to Patay 1969, 174); thick-
Catno. 4 – Mantova (?) ness: 2–3 mm (rim); weight: 1340 g (not 2245 g!) – Magyar
‘Mantova’, prov. Mantua, Lombardia, Italy – find circum- Nemzeti Múzeum, invno. 60.2.2 – Figure 1, 7 and 12 –
stances uncertain: ‘river find close to Mantova’ – complete Mörtz 2011a, 367; Vachta 2008, 123 list V.1.5. no. 8; Claus-
helmet – height: 26.6 cm; 6.1 cm (knob); dm: 22.7–23.5 cm; ing 2005, 36f.; Soroceanu 2005, 408; Clausing 2001, 219;
6.2 cm (base of the knob); thickness: 0.8–4 mm; weight: Mozsolics 2000, 55f. no. 5 pl. 52/3; Calzecchi-Onesti 1991,
1478 g – Figure 3 and 12 – Antikenmuseum Berlin (former 77 no. 11; Patay 1990, 23 no. 19–20; Schauer 1988, 188; Ke-
Lipperheide collection), invno. L 68 – Clausing 2005, 36; menczei 1984, 149 no. 19; Hencken 1971, 44f. fig. 21,a–c;
Iaia 2005, 46, fig. 4.2; Clausing 2001, 219 fig. 28; Born/ Patay 1969, 173f. 190f. fig. 1–8 pl. 41–45.

Find circumstances: The hoard was found during le- bronze cup, when several trees had to be removed during
velling work in 1959 at 60–65 cm depth (Patay 1969, fig. 1). preparation for the construction of a road.
Catno. 7 – Endröd Catno. 10 – Unknown – former Zschille-collection

Endröd (Gyomaendröd), Békés megye, Hungary – from Unknown provenance – complete helmet – height: 23.1 cm;
the river Körös – complete helmet – height: 26.1 cm 6.1 cm (knob); dm. 20.5–24.9 cm; weight unknown – Mu-
(calotte), 6.2 cm (socket); dm: 19–23.2 cm; thickness: up seum Berlin (formerly: Museum für Völkerkunde, Leipzig;
to 5 mm (rim; according to Mozsolics 1955: 2–3mm! – Grossenhain, Saxony), Zschille Collection; invno. 13.167 –
Erkel Ferenc Múzeum Gyula, invno. 60.113.1 – Figure 1, 4 Figure 2 and 12 – Clausing 2005, 36f.; Clausing 2001, 220;
and 12 – Clausing 2005, 36 f.; Clausing 2001, 120; Calzec- Calzecchi-Onesti 1991, 80 no. 20; Born/Hansen 2001, 251
chi-Onesti 1991, 77 no. 99; Makkay 1989, 181 f. pl. 28; fig. 201; Born/Hansen 1992, 339–356; Albrecht 1991, 13;
Schauer 1988, 188; Borchhardt 1972, 129 catno. 129,1; Schauer 1988, 188; Hencken 1971, 50; 54 fig. 29,a–c; Patay
Hencken 1971, 45 fig. 2; Mozsolics 1955, 38 fig. 5,1; von 1969, 191; Hoffmann 1961, 98; Mozsolics 1955, 38 fig. 5,3;
Merhart 1941, 11 fig. 2,11; Sprockhoff 1930, 46; Hampel von Merhart 1941, 12 fig. 2,7; Forrer 1896, no. 12.
1886, pl. XXXIII/1. Find circumstances: Though ‘Northern Germany’ is
Find circumstances: The helmet was found in the bed usually named as the find spot, this is unlikely. The collec-
of the river Körösök in or before 1874. tion was purchased in New York before 1896 by R. Zschille.
The helmet had been repaired several times, riveting dif-
Catno. 8 – Koàrk ferent brass plates on the inside of the rim of the helmet,
Koàrk (Sáros/Scharosch), jud. Brakov, Romania – hoard – covering also rivet holes (Born/Hansen 1992, 340).
half preserved – height: 25 cm (calotte), 6.1 cm (socket);
dm: not possible to measure, approx. 23 cm; weight: Catno. 11 – Hungary (?) – former Guttmann collection
524g – Muzeul National Brukenthal, Sibiu, invno. 11.992 = Hungary (?) – complete helmet – height: 21.5 cm (cap);
A 4685 – Figure 3, 5, 9 and 12 – Ciugudean et al. 2006, dm: 21.3 × 19.5 cm; thickness of the edge: 1.2–3.5 mm;
27–33; Luca/Georgescu 2008, 27–33; 51; 54f. pl. XI–XIII; socket: height: 4.5 cm; base dm: 3.9 cm; opening: 7 mm
Vachta 2008, 123 list V.1.5. no. 13; Clausing 2005, 2005, deep; weight: 1150 g – present repository unknown;
36f.; Hansen 2001, 80; Clausing 2001, 219; Born/Hansen former collection Guttmann, invno. AG 1000 – Figure 2
1992, 346 fig. I, 347 note 22, 348; Calzecchi-Onesti 1991, 77 and 12 – Hermann Historica, Auction October 19, 2005, no.
no. 16; Rusu 1990, 69f. pl. V/1; Schauer 1988, 188; Moz- 179; Clausing 2005, 36f.; Christie’s London, Auction
solics 1985, 25 note 119; Bader 1983, 122 no. 421; Petrescu- April 28, 2004, no. 9; Clausing 2001, 219; Born/Hansen
Dîmboviwa 1978, 144f. pl. 243/B9; Petrescu-Dîmboviwa 1977, 2001, 72 pl. XVI; 245f. 250f. 175, 270, fig. 195–199; 202–203.
135 pl. 324/8; Németi 1972, 115; Hencken 1971, 50f. Find circumstances: The helmet was part of the
fig. 27,c–e; Mozsolics 1955, 39 fig. 5,2; von Merhart 1941, 11 former Guttmann-collection and sold in 2004 at Christie’s
fig. 2,7; Berichte 1851, 289; Goos 1876, 50; Neigebaur 1851, and 2005 at Hermann Historica; the current repository is
275; Ackner 1834, 274 pl. I/1. unknown. According to the attached sand/chips inside
Find circumstances: The find circumstances of the the helmet it was most likely found in a water context
hoard, most likely found in the vicinity of Koàrk, are un- (Born/Hansen 1991, 245). Further details are unknown.
known. The hoard was purchased from Gypsies by
G. F. Weber, the evangelic priest from Koàrk, before 1834. Catno. 12 – Unknown – sold at ‘Gorny and Mosch’
Unknown provenance – complete helmet – height: 24 cm;
Catno. 9 – Pikcolt dm. approx. 21 cm; thickness: 2.5 mm (rim); weight: un-
Pikcolt, jud. Satu Mare, Romania – hoard – complete hel- known – sold at an auction of Gorny & Mosch in Munich
met – height: 18 cm; dm: 22 cm; weight: 1094 g – Muzeul December 13, 2003; no. 12 – Clausing 2005, 36–38 fig. 6.
Municipal Carei (Nagykárolyi Városi Múzeum), invno. Find circumstances: The origin of the helmet is un-
2290 – Figure 3, 5, 6 and 12 – Németi 2009, 65–67; Soro- known, as is the current location.
ceanu 2008, 47 no. 10; Vachta 2008, 123 list V.1.5. no. 11;
Clausing 2005, 36f.; Clausing 2001, 219; Calzecchi-Onesti Catno. 13 – Unknown – former Lipperheide collection
1991, 80 no. 17; Rusu 1990, 77 pl. V/6; Schauer 1988, 188 fig. Former Lipperheide collection – complete helmet – ap-
7; Németi 1972, 113–117 fig. 1–2 pl. 26/1–2; 27/1–4. proximately 25 cm (total height) – Königliche Museen Ber-
Find circumstances: The helmet was found in 1969 at lin, lost during World War II – Figure 2 – Hencken 1971, 50
via Veche ‘Livada’ Öregszölö, most likely together with a fig. 28; von Merhart 1941, 12.

Fig. 13: Simulation of the deformation of the bronze sheet during die
forging. Note the maximum deformation in the middle part of the cap
Find circumstances: The helmet was lent to the Königliche

Museen zu Berlin in 1905, but after the World War II it
could not be found again (Hencken 1971, 50). One surviv-
ing picture published by Hencken shows that the helmet
belongs to the group of bell helmets.
Catno. 14 – Monte Altino

Monte Altino, prov. Campobasso, Italy – complete hel-
met – find circumstances unknown – high: 27.5 cm; dm:
23.5 × 21 cm – Museo Provinciale Sannitico, Campobasso,
invno. unknown – Clausing 2005, 36; Iaia 2005, 45–46,
catno. 1 fig. 4.1; Clausing 2001, 219; Calzecchi Onesti 1988,
68f. 80 no. 18; fig. 1–2).
Find circumstances and find date are unknown.
Catno. 15 – Bonyhád
Bonyhád, Tolna megye, Hungary – fragment – hoard –
ca. 15 × 18 cm – Magyar Nemzeti Múzeum, invno.
107/1889/167 – Figure 3 – Mozsolics 1985, 102–104 no. 75 pl.
40/14; Hencken 1971, 43f.; Hampel 1886, pl. CLI–CLIII;
Wosinsky 1896, 381–392. Fig. 14: Bell helmet from Monte Altino, Italy. The photography was
The exact find spot of the hoard is unknown. provided for free by the Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici
del Molise (Ministero dei Beni e delle Attività Culturali e del Turismo
– Direzione regionale per i Beni Culturali e Paesaggistici del
Molise).
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank the Austrian Science Fund who permitted documentation, analyses and sampling of
(FWF) and the FP7/Marie Curie actions who were suppor- the helmets: Katalin Biró and Ildikó Szathmári (Magyar
ting the research with the Schrödinger-fellowship no. J Nemzeti Múzeum, Budapest, Hungary); Adrian Georgescu
3109-G21. Special thanks to Paolo Piccardo from the DCCI, and Dorin Barbu (Muzeul National Brukenthal); Detlef
Universitá degli Studi di Genova, for fruitful discussions Jantzen (Landesamt für Kultur und Denkmalpflege,
and to Roberto Spottorno, DCCI, for Fig. 13. The author is Schwerin) Anton Kern and Hans Reschreiter (Naturhisto-
very grateful to all curators of the museums concerned risches Museum Wien, Austria); Liviu Marta (Muzeul Jude-

wean Satu Mare); János Németi and Attila Nándor Hágó Bibliography
(Muzeul Municipal Carei); Milan Salaå (Moravské zemské
muzeum, Brno, Czech Republic). Ackner 1834: J. M. Ackner, Reise nach Várhely in antiquarischer
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Albrecht 1991: M. Albrecht, Der bronzezeitliche Helm von Szczecin-
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Recently an interesting bell helmet was sold at the 65th Ammanati et al. 2004: N. Ammanati/E. Martellucci/M. G. Ienco/
auction at Hermann Historica, Munich (Lot no. 419). The P. Piccardo/S. Natali,Valutazione dei parametri cromatici dei
origin of the helmet is unknown, as previous owner a ‘pri- bronzi in funzione del tenore di stagno. 30 Convegno AIM 17–19
novembre 2004, Vicenza (Milano 2004) CD Rom, mem 10.
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smooth surface of older helmet with the newly added sheet Ägäis in ihren Beziehungen zu orientalischen und europäischen
Helmen in der Bronze- und frühen Eisenzeit (Mainz 1972).
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Borgna 1999: E. Borgna, The North Adriatic Regions between the
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Bronze Age Bell Helmets: New Aspects On Typology, Chronology and Manufacture

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Bronze Age bell helmets: New aspects on typology, chronology and

Article in Praehistorische Zeitschrift · April 2014

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Bronze Age bell helmets: new aspects on typology,

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Tab. 1: European, Bronze Age bell helmets

Catno. findspot find museum inventory no. analyses

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19 Mozsolics 1972, 373f. 393f. 20 Hencken 1971, 9.

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21 Born/Hansen 1992, 353f. 22 Ibid. 341.

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23 Salaå/Åmíd 1999, 33. 24 Type B1 according to Patay 1990, 21–22.

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Tab. 3: Composition of the hoard of Koàrk, Romania, according to different authors

Author Axes Helmets Spearheads sickles Varia

Luca – Georgescu 2008, citing Weber > 30 2 2 2

Ackner 1834: Weber sold to Ackner collection 1 1st helmet 1 1

Luca – Georgescu 2008, citing Weber: donation 1836 4

Neigebaur 1851 1 3 fibula (?)

Mozsolics 1955 30 2 2 few mace head

Petrescu–Dîmboviwa 1978 21 and > 9 2 2 2

Schauer 1988 21 2 2 few mace head

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45 Merhart 1941, 4f. note 3.

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Analyses findspot analyses Cu Sn Pb Sb As S Fe Zn Ni Ag Bi Co Au Cd further information

4 AAS *** Mantova cap 89,7 8,4 0,4

4 AAS *** Mantova knob 88,5 9,8 0,4

5 AAS *** Hajduböszörmény cap 10,4 1,6 drilling sample

5 AAS *** Hajduböszörmény knob 16,2 1,1 drilling sample

6 AAS *** Mezökövesd cap 11,6 0,8 drilling sample

6 AAS *** Mezökövesd knob 16,7 1,0 drilling sample

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10 AAS *** Zschille knob 90,8 7,6 0,8

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Angemeldet | marianne.moedlinger@univie.ac.at Autorenexemplar

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65 Born/Hansen 1992, 346. 66 Caumont et al. 2006.

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71 Piccardo et al. 2009, 31–38.

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Catno. 7 – Endröd Catno. 10 – Unknown – former Zschille-collection

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Find circumstances: The helmet was lent to the Königliche

Catno. 14 – Monte Altino

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