LECTURE THREE

WEEK TWO LECTURE ONE

UNIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF ROCK

1. Introduction
Cylindrical specimen of rock loaded axially between steel platen in a testing machine
The uniaxial compression test consists of loading a rock specimen in a compression testing machine
and continually recording the strains induced in the rock specimens at various stress levels
Usually carried out on small cylindrical specimens of 20 to 75mm in diameter with length 2.5-3 times
diameter
The procedure commonly used in the determination of compressive strength involves the use of a
cylindrical specimen of rock loaded axially between platens in a testing machine
The stress value at failure is defined as the compressive
strength of the specimen and is given by the relationship:

P= applied force at failure

A= initial cross sectional area transverse to the direction of force
D= sample diameter
The stress strain curves obtained during the uniaxial compression tests yield the following
information:
- Young’s Modulus
- Poisson’s ratio
- Uniaxial compressive strength
- Internal structure and behaviour of rocks in cyclic loading
- Second order parameters including internal structure and behaviour of rock

2. Factors Affecting the UCS of Rock

The UCS is a simple test concept in theory but it is very difficult to obtain the representative material
values in practice. This is due to the fact that the stress distribution on the specimen by the loading
machine is a complex process. It is very difficult to realise uniaxial compressive stress on the sample
during testing

Machine stiffness, calibration, load control, strain control, cyclic loading, platen stiffness, platen size,
hardness of platen, moduli difference between platen and rock, preparation, sample grain size,
temperature, microstructure, rate of loading, fracturing, antistrophy, moisture, chemical water, humidity,
porosity, minerology

A. Stress Distribution in Specimen Under compression; Length of Specimen on Stress Distribution

The stress distribution in specimens when compressed between compression testing machine plates
is non-uniform due to end effects associated with the elastic mismatch between the rock and testing
machine. The result obtained is not a property of the rock alone, but is dependent upon the
characteristics of both the rock and the testing machine

Horizontal frictional forces are introduced at the end surfaces of the specimen

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 Stress ratio at the centre of the specimen is less than or near 1, and decreases slightly up to r/R of 0.6,
then increases exponentially. The stress at the outer boundary of the specimen is 1.6 times σ1.

B. Friction Between Platens and End Surfaces

When a specimen is compressed between the platens of a testing machine, it tends of expand laterally
(both radially and circumferentially) as it shortens because of the Poisson’s effect. On the other hand,
frictional constraint at the planes of contact between the specimen and the testing machine tends to
prevent expansion. As a result, the specimen is not in a state of uniaxial compression in this region

C. Specimen Shape
Effect of Geometry
Use a cylindrical sample of h/d ratio > 2.5 : 1 as the stress distribution in cylindrical specimen is
symmetrical around the axis of the tested sample

Height to Diameter Ratio

Specimen with h/d < 2 exhibit higher strength values as the specimen stress distribution is
predominately triaxial

Specimen with h/d > 3 exhibits lower strength values; slender samples generally fail early due to
elastic instability

At h/d or 2.5-3.0, the compressive strength stabilises

Use the following equation for calculating UCS for h/d = 1:

σc1 = UCS of h/d = 1

σc = UCS of a sample of 1<h/d<2

Use the following equation for calculating UCS for h/d = 2:

σc1 = UCS of h/d ratio = 1

σc2 = UCS of h/d ratio = 2
h= height of sample
d= diameter of sample
σc = UCS >1

Size
The strength of a specimen usually decreases with increase in size
The strength of small samples of a particular rock is stronger than actual strength of insitu rock; hence
the tested strength of small rock samples must bee appropriately reduced to that of the insitu strength

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 D. Rate of Loading
Strength of rock increases with increased rate of loading

E. Environment (Moisture content)

The strength of rock reduces with moisture content

F. Mineralogy
Rocks with quartz as a binding agent are the strongest, followed by calcite and ferrous minerals
Rocks with clay as the binding agent are the weakest

G. Density
Denser rocks have higher UCS

H. Grain Size
The strength of a rock is greater for fine grain sizes
Coarse grain size rocks are generally weaker

I. Porosity
Generally the UCS decreases with increase in rock porosity (higher porosity gives lower strength)

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 3. Mode of Failure in Compressive Strength Test
Three modes of failure (generally)
Crumbling: general crumbling with conical ends common when h/d ratio is too short
Slabing: development of one or two major cracks resulting in slab type failure common when frictional
effect of loading platen is eliminated
Shear: shear failure along a single oblique plane is a function of loading system

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 4. Determination of Young’s Modulus and Poisson’s Ratio
The static Young’s Modulus of rock, E, and the associated Poisson’s Ratio, v, are measured on the rock
specimen during conventional compression tests
For accurate determination of these parameters, it is necessary to measure strain on the centre of the
specimen with h/d ratio > 2.5

The deformation measurement device can be selected

from one of the following techniques:
(Three methods of strain determination)
1- High grade micrometer dial gauge reading up to 0.002mm
2- Linear variable differential transducers (LVDT)
3- Electric resistance strain gauges

Types of Modulus of Elasticity

Tangent modulus at 50% failure stress
Secant modulus
Chord modulus
Initial tangent modulus
These moduli are defined in the figure. When reporting the Young’s Modulus usually tangent modulus
at 50% of the compressive strength is reported
The secant modulus of rock at any stress level is sometimes referred to as the deformation modulus

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 5. Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) Testing with Unloading Stages
Determination of modulus using unload/reload curve
Determining UCS with unloading stages in testing

6. Types of Stress Strain Curves

Category A
Igneous rocks
Linear elastic behaviour indicating one value of modulus of elasticity up to the point of failure
This is exemplified by most igneous rocks, basalt, diabase, gabbro, fine grained sandstone, limestone,
quartz and quartzite

Category B
Strain softening (concave towards abscissa)
Strain softening behaviour where the curve is concave towards abscissa and shows pronounced strain
for slight increase in load
This indicates breakdown of rock as stress increases
The elastic modulus of rock is maximum at the early stage of loading followed by continual reduction
at higher stage of loading
Examples of such rocks are shale, siltstone, tuff, weak limestone, well cleated and bedded coal

Category C
Strain hardening (convex)
Strain hardening curves that are concave towards ordinates
In these types of curves the modulus of elasticity is the lowest at the initial stage of loading and
continuously increases with increase in stress level
This behaviour is caused by closing of pore spaces and micro-cracks in the rocks with increase in
stress, thus giving higher value of modulus of elasticity
Such behaviour is exemplified by sandstones, coal, rock salt and certain metamorphic rock

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 7. Standardised Test Conditions for Conducting UCS
i. Specimen diameter = 20 to 60mm
ii. h/d ratio = 2.5-3.0; the test results should be reduced to h/d ratio of 1 or 2
iii. End of cylindrical specimens should be prepared in accordance with the appropriate standards
iv. The testing machine should have at least one spherical platen. It should be lubricated with light
inert oil. The platens should be ground and the specimen should be place centrally between the
platens. Steel inserts of the same diameters as the specimens and overall length at least equal
to diameter is recommended
v. Friction between the platens and end surfaces of the specimen has significant effect on
induction of compressive stress in the specimen. It is therefore recommended not to use
friction reducers during testing
vi. Increase of rate of loading increases the rock strength
vii. A rate of loading of 0.5-2.5MPa is recommended by ISRM
viii. Effect of humidity is to decrease the compressive strength of rock. It is recommended by ISRM
that the specimen be stored for 5-6 days in an environment 20+/-20 C and 50% relative
humidity

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