arif_uji wrote:

nih ku dapat dari temen penjelasan yang sederhana tanpa matematis

arus urutan positif dan negatif itu terjadi pada saat gangguan antar fasa (kata posisitif dan negatif
itu arah arus menuju atau keluar dari lokasi ganggaun) kalo uurtan nol itu terjadi pada saat
gangguan fasa ke tanah

mungkin seperti itu

mohon maaf dan terimkasaih

Urutan positif terdiri dari arus tiga fasa seimbang (simetris) dan tegangan tiga fasa (fasa ke
netral) yang dipasok oleh sistem pembangkit tenaga listrik. Dalam hal ini baik arus maupun
tegangan besarnya selalu sama dan mempunyai pergeseran sudut 120O. Untuk sistem daya yang
mempunyai urutan fasa a, b, c, Kelompok tegangan pada dasarnya sama kecuali tegangan
tersebut merupakan tegangan fasa ke netral dari sistem tiga fasa, dan mempunyai pergeseran 120
derajat. Baik arus maupun tegangan merupakan putaran fasor yang berlawanan dengan arah
jarum jam pada frekwensi sistem.
Urutan Negatif
Urutan ini juga seimbang terhadap tiga kuantitas besaran yang sama pada pergeseran 120 deg,
tetapi rotasi atau urutannya terbalik. Jadi, jika urutan positif adalah a, b, c maka urutan negatif
akan menjadi a, c, b.
Urutan Nol
Anggauta dari bagian fasor berputar adalah selalu sama dalam besaran dan selalu sefasa
Kunci yang membuat pembagian kuantitas tiga-fasa tidak seimbang menjadi komponen-
komponen urutan praktis adalah ketidak tergantungan dari komponen-komponen pada suatu
rangkaian sistem yang seimbang. Untuk semua tujuan praktis sistem tenaga listrik yang
seimbang atau simetris dari generator ke titik pembebanan fasa tunggal kecuali pada suatu
daerah gangguan atau tak seimbang seperti penghantar terbuka. Pada dasarnya untuk daerah
yang seimbang, kondisi berikut ini yang ada :
1).Arus urutan positif yang mengalir pada rangkaian simetris atau seimbang hanya menghasilkan
jatuh tegangan urutan positif, dan tidak terjadi pada urutan nol maupun urutan negatif.
2).Aliran arus urutan negatif pada rangkaian yang seimbang hanya menghasilkan jatuh tegangan
urutan negatif, tidak pada arus urutan positif maupun urutan nol.
3).Aliran arus urutan nol pada rangkaian yang seimbang hanya akan menghasilkan jatuh
tegangan urutan nol dan tidak terjadi pada urutan tegangan positif maupun negatif.
Kondisi di atas adalah tidak benar untuk setiap titik yang tak seimbang atau tidak simetris atau
daerah yang mengalami gangguan tidak simetris, fasa terbuka dan atau gangguan lainnya.
4).Arus urutan positif yang mengalir pada suatu sistem yang tidak seimbang menghasilkan
tegangan jatuh urutan positif, negatif dan nol.
5).Arus urutan negatif yang mengalir pada suatu sistem yang tak seimbang menghasilkan
tegangan jatuh urutan positif, negatif dan kemungkinan tegangan urutan nol.
6).Arus urutan nol yang mengalir pada suatu sistem yang tak seimbang menghasilkan tegangan
jatuh urutan positif, negatif dan nol.
Dasar-dasar penting yang mengizinkan untuk membentuk tiga rangkaian bebas, satu untuk setiap
tiga urutan yang dapat saling dihubungkan hanya pada titik atau daerah yang tak seimbang.

Selamat bermalam minggu, emangnya nggak kemana-mana?

Sebenarnya saya kurang begitu ahli mengenai arus-arus tersebut.
Arus-arus tersebut sebenarnya digunakan memudahkan memahami kondisi tidak seimbang dengan
menggunakan matematik.
Dalam kenyataannya yg namanya jatuh tegangan yaitu I x Z saja, tanpa memperhatikan apa itu urutan
positif, negatif atau urutan nol.
Kalau kondisi tersebut ada, maka akan ada impedansi urutan positif, negatif dan nol.
Untuk lebih jelasnya, minta bantuan mbah Google mengenai Symmetrical component.
Dalam praktek itu penting dalam hal mengetahui kondisi gangguan fasa dan gangguan tanah.
Ambil Contoh arus urutan nol I = V/(X1 + X2 + Xo) dimana X1 = urutan positif, X2 = urutan negatif dan Xo
arus urutan nol.
Mungkin ini salah, nanti saya cariin yang benar deh kalau ada waktu, saya ini orang lapangan jadi
sebenarnya teman-teman dosen yang tahu ini secara lengkap.

In 1918 Charles Legeyt Fortescue presented a paper[2] which demonstrated that any set of N
unbalanced phasors (that is, any such polyphase signal) could be expressed as the sum of N
symmetrical sets of balanced phasors, for values of N that are prime. Only a single frequency
component is represented by the phasors. However, the credit for the first formal statement
should go to L.G. Stokvis[3] who explained the principal and gave experimental verification of its
correctness in 1915. In a three-phase system, one set of phasors has the same phase sequence as
the system under study (positive sequence; say ABC), the second set has the reverse phase
sequence (negative sequence; ACB), and in the third set the phasors A, B and C are in phase with
each other (zero sequence, the common-mode signal). Essentially, this method converts three
unbalanced phases into three independent sources, which makes asymmetric fault analysis more
tractable.

By expanding a one-line diagram to show the positive sequence, negative sequence and zero
sequence impedances of generators, transformers and other devices including overhead lines and
cables, analysis of such unbalanced conditions as a single line to ground short-circuit fault is
greatly simplified. The technique can also be extended to higher order phase systems.
Symmetrical components is a mathematical method for representing an unbalanced set of phasors into
three decoupled (independent) sets of phasors - two balanced sets and a third set with identical
phasors. The method was originally developed in 1918 by Charles LeGeyt Fortescue and simplifies the
analysis of unbalanced polyphase systems (e.g. commonly used for three-phase voltage, current and
impedance phasors)

In electrical engineering, the method of symmetrical components simplifies analysis of unbalanced

three-phase power systems under both normal and abnormal conditions. The basic idea is that an
asymmetrical set of N phasors can be expressed as a linear combination of N symmetrical sets of
phasors by means of a complex linear transformation.[1]

By expanding a one-line diagram to show the positive sequence, negative sequence and zero sequence
impedances of generators, transformers and other devices including overhead lines and cables, analysis
of such unbalanced conditions as a single line to ground short-circuit fault is greatly simplified. The
technique can also be extended to higher order phase systems.

Set of three unbalanced phasors, and the necessary symmetrical components that sum up to the
resulting plot at the bottom.

In 1918 Charles Legeyt Fortescue presented a paper[2] which demonstrated that any set of N
unbalanced phasors (that is, any such polyphase signal) could be expressed as the sum of N
symmetrical sets of balanced phasors, for values of N that are prime. Only a single frequency
component is represented by the phasors. However, the credit for the first formal statement
should go to L.G. Stokvis[3] who explained the principal and gave experimental verification of its
correctness in 1915. In a three-phase system, one set of phasors has the same phase sequence as
the system under study (positive sequence; say ABC), the second set has the reverse phase
sequence (negative sequence; ACB), and in the third set the phasors A, B and C are in phase with
each other (zero sequence, the common-mode signal). Essentially, this method converts three
unbalanced phases into three independent sources, which makes asymmetric fault analysis more
tractable.

By expanding a one-line diagram to show the positive sequence, negative sequence and zero
sequence impedances of generators, transformers and other devices including overhead lines and
cables, analysis of such unbalanced conditions as a single line to ground short-circuit fault is
greatly simplified. The technique can also be extended to higher order phase systems.

Physically, in a three phase winding a positive sequence set of currents produces a normal
rotating field, a negative sequence set produces a field with the opposite rotation, and the zero
sequence set produces a field that oscillates but does not rotate between phase windings. Since
these effects can be detected physically with sequence filters, the mathematical tool became the
basis for the design of protective relays, which used negative-sequence voltages and currents as a
reliable indicator of fault conditions. Such relays may be used to trip circuit breakers or take
other steps to protect electrical systems.

In an electric power system, a fault or fault current is any abnormal electric current. For
example, a short circuit is a fault in which current bypasses the normal load. An open-circuit
fault occurs if a circuit is interrupted by some failure. In three-phase systems, a fault may involve
one or more phases and ground, or may occur only between phases. In a "ground fault" or "earth
fault", current flows into the earth. The prospective short circuit current of a predictable fault can
be calculated for most situations. In power systems, protective devices can detect fault conditions
and operate circuit breakers and other devices to limit the loss of service due to a failure.

In a polyphase system, a fault may affect all phases equally which is a "symmetrical fault". If
only some phases are affected, the resulting "asymmetrical fault" becomes more complicated to
analyse. The analysis of these types of faults is often simplified by using methods such as
symmetrical components.

Transient fault
A transient fault is a fault that is no longer present if power is disconnected for a short time and
then restored; or an insulation fault which only temporarily affects a device's dielectric properties
which are restored after a short time. Many faults in overhead power lines are transient in nature.
When a fault occurs, equipment used for power system protection operate to isolate the area of
the fault. A transient fault will then clear and the power-line can be returned to service. Typical
examples of transient faults include:

 momentary tree contact

  bird or other animal contact
 lightning strike
 conductor clashing

Transmission and distribution systems use an automatic re-close function which is commonly
used on overhead lines to attempt to restore power in the event of a transient fault. This
functionality is not as common on underground systems as faults there are typically of a
persistent nature. Transient faults may still cause damage both at the site of the original fault or
elsewhere in the network as fault current is generated.

Persistent fault
A persistent fault does not disappear when power is disconnected. Faults in underground power
cables are most often persistent due to mechanical damage to the cable, but are sometimes
transient in nature due to lightning.[1]

Symmetric fault
A symmetric or balanced fault affects each of the three phases equally. In transmission line
faults, roughly 5% are symmetric.[2] This is in contrast to an asymmetrical fault, where the three
phases are not affected equally.

Asymmetric fault
An asymmetric or unbalanced fault does not affect each of the three phases equally. Common
types of asymmetric faults, and their causes:

 line-to-line - a short circuit between lines, caused by ionization of air, or when lines come into
physical contact, for example due to a broken insulator. In transmission line faults, roughly 5% -
10% are asymmetric line-to-line faults. [3]
 line-to-ground - a short circuit between one line and ground, very often caused by physical
contact, for example due to lightning or other storm damage. In transmission line faults, roughly
65% - 70% are asymmetric line-to-ground faults. [4]
 double line-to-ground - two lines come into contact with the ground (and each other), also
commonly due to storm damage. In transmission line faults, roughly 15% - 20% are asymmetric
double line-to-ground. [5]

Bolted fault
One extreme is where the fault has zero impedance, giving the maximum prospective short-
circuit current. Notionally, all the conductors are considered connected to ground as if by a
metallic conductor; this is called a "bolted fault". It would be unusual in a well-designed power
system to have a metallic short circuit to ground but such faults can occur by mischance. In one
type of transmission line protection, a "bolted fault" is deliberately introduced to speed up
operation of protective devices.
Realistic faults
Realistically, the resistance in a fault can be from close to zero to fairly high. A large amount of
power may be consumed in the fault, compared with the zero-impedance case where the power is
zero. Also, arcs are highly non-linear, so a simple resistance is not a good model. All possible
cases need to be considered for a good analysis.[6]

Arcing fault
Where the system voltage is high enough, an electric arc may form between power system conductors
and ground. Such an arc can have a relatively high impedance (compared to the normal operating levels
of the system) and can be difficult to detect by simple overcurrent protection. For example, an arc of
several hundred amperes on a circuit normally carrying a thousand amperes may not trip overcurrent
circuit breakers but can do enormous damage to bus bars or cables before it becomes a complete short
circuit. Utility, industrial, and commercial power systems have additional protection devices to detect
relatively small but undesired currents escaping to ground. In residential wiring, electrical regulations
may now require Arc-fault circuit interrupters on building wiring circuits, to detect small arcs before
they cause damage or a fire.

Symmetric faults can be analyzed via the same methods as any other phenomena in power
systems, and in fact many software tools exist to accomplish this type of analysis automatically
(see power flow study). However, there is another method which is as accurate and is usually
more instructive.

First, some simplifying assumptions are made. It is assumed that all electrical generators in the
system are in phase, and operating at the nominal voltage of the system. Electric motors can also
be considered to be generators, because when a fault occurs, they usually supply rather than draw
power. The voltages and currents are then calculated for this base case.

Next, the location of the fault is considered to be supplied with a negative voltage source, equal
to the voltage at that location in the base case, while all other sources are set to zero. This
method makes use of the principle of superposition.

To obtain a more accurate result, these calculations should be performed separately for three
separate time ranges:

 subtransient is first, and is associated with the largest currents

 transient comes between subtransient and steady-state
 steady-state occurs after all the transients have had time to settle
An asymmetric fault breaks the underlying assumptions used in three-phase power, namely that
the load is balanced on all three phases. Consequently, it is impossible to directly use tools such
as the one-line diagram, where only one phase is considered. However, due to the linearity of
power systems, it is usual to consider the resulting voltages and currents as a superposition of
symmetrical components, to which three-phase analysis can be applied.

In the method of symmetric components, the power system is seen as a superposition of three
components:

 a positive-sequence component, in which the phases are in the same order as the original
system, i.e., a-b-c
 a negative-sequence component, in which the phases are in the opposite order as the original
system, i.e., a-c-b
 a zero-sequence component, which is not truly a three-phase system, but instead all three
phases are in phase with each other.

To determine the currents resulting from an asymmetrical fault, one must first know the per-unit
zero-, positive-, and negative-sequence impedances of the transmission lines, generators, and
transformers involved. Three separate circuits are then constructed using these impedances. The
individual circuits are then connected together in a particular arrangement that depends upon the
type of fault being studied (this can be found in most power systems textbooks). Once the
sequence circuits are properly connected, the network can then be analyzed using classical circuit
analysis techniques. The solution results in voltages and currents that exist as symmetrical
components; these must be transformed back into phase values by using the A matrix.

Analysis of the prospective short-circuit current is required for selection of protective devices
such as fuses and circuit breakers. If a circuit is to be properly protected, the fault current must
be high enough to operate the protective device within as short a time as possible; also the
protective device must be able to withstand the fault current and extinguish any resulting arcs
without itself being destroyed or sustaining the arc for any significant length of time.

The magnitude of fault currents differ widely depending on the type of earthing system used, the
installation's supply type and earthing system, and its proximity to the supply. For example, for a
domestic UK 230 V, 60 A TN-S or USA 120 V/240 V supply, fault currents may be a few
thousand amperes. Large low-voltage networks with multiple sources may have fault levels of
300,000 amperes. A high-resistance-grounded system may restrict line to ground fault current to
only 5 amperes. Prior to selecting protective devices, prospective fault current must be measured
reliably at the origin of the installation and at the furthest point of each circuit, and this
information applied properly to the application of the circuits.

Detecting and locating faults

Overhead power lines are easiest to diagnose since the problem is usually obvious, e.g., a tree
has fallen across the line, or a utility pole is broken and the conductors are lying on the ground.
Locating faults in a cable system can be done either with the circuit de-energized, or in some
cases, with the circuit under power. Fault location techniques can be broadly divided into
terminal methods, which use voltages and currents measured at the ends of the cable, and tracer
methods, which require inspection along the length of the cable. Terminal methods can be used
to locate the general area of the fault, to expedite tracing on a long or buried cable.[7]

In very simple wiring systems, the fault location is often found through inspection of the wires.
In complex wiring systems (for example, aircraft wiring) where the wires may be hidden, wiring
faults are located with a Time-domain reflectometer.[8] The time domain reflectometer sends a
pulse down the wire and then analyzes the returning reflected pulse to identify faults within the
electrical wire.

In historic submarine telegraph cables, sensitive galvanometers were used to measure fault
currents; by testing at both ends of a faulted cable, the fault location could be isolated to within a
few miles, which allowed the cable to be grappled up and repaired. The Murray loop and the
Varley loop were two types of connections for locating faults in cables

Sometimes an insulation fault in a power cable will not show up at lower voltages. A "thumper"
test set applies a high-energy, high-voltage pulse to the cable. Fault location is done by listening
for the sound of the discharge at the fault. While this test contributes to damage at the cable site,
it is practical because the faulted location would have to be re-insulated when found in any case.
[9]

In a high resistance grounded distribution system, a feeder may develop a fault to ground but the
system continues in operation. The faulted, but energized, feeder can be found with a ring-type
current transformer collecting all the phase wires of the circuit; only the circuit containing a fault
to ground will show a net unbalanced current. To make the ground fault current easier to detect,
the grounding resistor of the system may be switched between two values so that the fault current
pulses.

Batteries
The prospective fault current of larger batteries, such as deep-cycle batteries used in stand-alone
power systems, is often given by the manufacturer.

In Australia, when this information is not given, the prospective fault current in amperes "should
be considered to be 6 times the nominal battery capacity at the C120 A·h rate," according to AS
4086 part 2 (Appendix H).

Analysis of the prospective short-circuit current is required for selection of protective devices
such as fuses and circuit breakers. If a circuit is to be properly protected, the fault current must
be high enough to operate the protective device within as short a time as possible; also the
protective device must be able to withstand the fault current and extinguish any resulting arcs
without itself being destroyed or sustaining the arc for any significant length of time.
The magnitude of fault currents differ widely depending on the type of earthing system used, the
installation's supply type and earthing system, and its proximity to the supply. For example, for a
domestic UK 230 V, 60 A TN-S or USA 120 V/240 V supply, fault currents may be a few
thousand amperes. Large low-voltage networks with multiple sources may have fault levels of
300,000 amperes. A high-resistance-grounded system may restrict line to ground fault current to
only 5 amperes. Prior to selecting protective devices, prospective fault current must be measured
reliably at the origin of the installation and at the furthest point of each circuit, and this
information applied properly to the application of the circuits.

Detecting and locating faults

Overhead power lines are easiest to diagnose since the problem is usually obvious, e.g., a tree
has fallen across the line, or a utility pole is broken and the conductors are lying on the ground.

Locating faults in a cable system can be done either with the circuit de-energized, or in some
cases, with the circuit under power. Fault location techniques can be broadly divided into
terminal methods, which use voltages and currents measured at the ends of the cable, and tracer
methods, which require inspection along the length of the cable. Terminal methods can be used
to locate the general area of the fault, to expedite tracing on a long or buried cable.[7]

In very simple wiring systems, the fault location is often found through inspection of the wires.
In complex wiring systems (for example, aircraft wiring) where the wires may be hidden, wiring
faults are located with a Time-domain reflectometer.[8] The time domain reflectometer sends a
pulse down the wire and then analyzes the returning reflected pulse to identify faults within the
electrical wire.

In historic submarine telegraph cables, sensitive galvanometers were used to measure fault
currents; by testing at both ends of a faulted cable, the fault location could be isolated to within a
few miles, which allowed the cable to be grappled up and repaired. The Murray loop and the
Varley loop were two types of connections for locating faults in cables

Sometimes an insulation fault in a power cable will not show up at lower voltages. A "thumper"
test set applies a high-energy, high-voltage pulse to the cable. Fault location is done by listening
for the sound of the discharge at the fault. While this test contributes to damage at the cable site,
it is practical because the faulted location would have to be re-insulated when found in any case.
[9]

In a high resistance grounded distribution system, a feeder may develop a fault to ground but the
system continues in operation. The faulted, but energized, feeder can be found with a ring-type
current transformer collecting all the phase wires of the circuit; only the circuit containing a fault
to ground will show a net unbalanced current. To make the ground fault current easier to detect,
the grounding resistor of the system may be switched between two values so that the fault current
pulses.

Batteries
The prospective fault current of larger batteries, such as deep-cycle batteries used in stand-alone
power systems, is often given by the manufacturer.

In Australia, when this information is not given, the prospective fault current in amperes "should
be considered to be 6 times the nominal battery capacity at the C120 A·h rate," according to AS
4086 part 2 (Appendix H).

In a three phase power system, the type of faults that can occur are classified by the combination
of conductors or buses that are faulted together. In addition, faults may be classified as either
bolted faults or faults that occur through some impedance such as an arc. Each of the basic
types of faults will be described and shown in Figure 1.

It must be noted that in a majority of cases, the fault current calculation required for the selection of
interrupting and withstand current capabilities of equipment is the three phase bolted fault with zero
impedance.

Let’s go through each of the four three phase faults //

1. Three phase bolted faults

2. Bolted line-to-line faults
3. Line-to-line-to-ground faults
4. Line-to-ground faults
 Figure 1 – Designation of
short-circuit categories

1. Three Phase Bolted Faults

A three phase bolted fault describes the condition where the three conductors are physically held
together with zero impedance between them, just as if they were bolted together. For a balanced
symmetrical system, the fault current magnitude is balanced equally within the three phases.

While this type of fault does not occur frequently, its results are used for protective device
selection, because this fault type generally yields the maximum short-circuit current values.

Figure 1(a) provides a graphical representation of a bolted three phase fault.

 Figure 1a – Three-phase short circuit

2. Bolted Line-To-Line Faults

Bolted line-to-line faults, Figure 1(b), are more common than three phase faults and have fault
currents that are approximately 87% of the three phase bolted fault current.

This type of fault is not balanced within the three phases and its fault current is seldom
calculated for equipment ratings because it does not provide the maximum fault current
magnitude. The line-to-line current can be calculated by multiplying the three phase value by
0.866, when the impedance Z1 = Z2.

Special symmetrical component calculating techniques are not required for this condition.
 Figure 1b – Bolted line-to-line faults

Go back to three phase faults ↑

3. Line-To-Line-To-Ground Faults

Line-to-line-to-ground faults, Figure 1(c), are typically line-to-ground faults that have escalated
to include a second phase conductor. This is an unbalanced fault. The magnitudes of double line-
to-ground fault currents are usually greater than those of line-to-line faults, but are less than
those of three phase faults.

Calculation of double line-to-ground fault currents requires the use of symmetrical components
analysis. The impedance of the ground return path will affect the result, and should be obtained
if possible.
 Figure 1c – Line-to-line-to-
ground faults

Go back to three phase faults ↑

4. Line-To-Ground Faults

Line-to-ground faults, Figure 1(d), are the most common type of faults and are usually the least
disturbing to the system. The current in the faulted phase can range from near zero to a value
slightly greater than the bolted three phase fault current.

The line-to-ground fault current magnitude is determined by the method in which the system is
grounded and the impedance of the ground return path of the fault current.
Calculation of the exact line-to-ground fault current magnitudes requires the special
calculating techniques of symmetrical components.

Figure 1d – Line-to-ground faults

However, close approximations can be made knowing the method of system grounding used. On
ungrounded distribution systems, the line-to-ground fault currents are near zero.

Line-to-ground fault current magnitudes in distribution systems with resistance grounded system
neutrals can be estimated by dividing the system line-to-neutral system voltage by the total value of
the system ground- to-neutral resistance.

Line-to-ground fault current magnitudes in distribution systems with a solidly grounded system
will be approximately equal to the three phase fault current magnitudes. Determining line-to-
ground fault currents on long cable runs or transmission lines will require detailed ground return
path impedance data and detailed calculation techniques.
Go back to three phase faults ↑

VConsider that a transmission line is working with a balanced load before the occurrence of
open circuit fault. If one of the phase gets melted, the actual loading of the alternator is reduced
and this cause to raise the acceleration of the alternator, thereby it runs at a speed slightly greater
than synchronous speed. This over speed causes over voltages in other transmission lines.

Thus, single and two phase open conditions can produce the unbalance of the power system
voltages and currents that causes great damage to the equipments.

Causes

Broken conductor and malfunctioning of circuit breaker in one or more phases.

Effects

 Abnormal operation of the system

 Danger to the personnel as well as animals
 Exceeding the voltages beyond normal values in certain parts of the network, which further
leads to insulation failures and developing of short circuit faults.

Although open circuit faults can be tolerated for longer periods than short circuit faults, these
must be removed as early as possible to reduce the greater damage.

Short Circuit Faults

A short circuit can be defined as an abnormal connection of very low impedance between two
points of different potential, whether made intentionally or accidentally.

These are the most common and severe kind of faults, resulting in the flow of abnormal high
currents through the equipment or transmission lines. If these faults are allowed to persist even
for a short period, it leads to the extensive damage to the equipment.

Short circuit faults are also called as shunt faults. These faults are caused due to the insulation
failure between phase conductors or between earth and phase conductors or both.

The various possible short circuit fault conditions include three phase to earth, three phase clear
of earth, phase to phase, single phase to earth, two phase to earth and phase to phase plus single
phase to earth as shown in figure.

The three phase fault clear of earth and three phase fault to earth are balanced or symmetrical
short circuit faults while other remaining faults are unsymmetrical faults.
Causes

These may be due to internal or external effects

  Internal effects include breakdown of transmission lines or equipment, aging of insulation,
deterioration of insulation in generator, transformer and other electrical equipments, improper
installations and inadequate design.
 External effects include overloading of equipments, insulation failure due to lighting surges and
mechanical damage by public.

Effects

 Arcing faults can lead to fire and explosion in equipments such as transformers and circuit
breakers.
 Abnormal currents cause the equipments to get overheated, which further leads to reduction of
life span of their insulation.
 The operating voltages of the system can go below or above their acceptance values that
creates harmful effect to the service rendered by the power system.
 The power flow is severely restricted or even completely blocked as long as the short circuit
fault persists.

Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical Faults

As discussed above that faults are mainly classified into open and short circuit faults and again
these can be symmetrical or unsymmetrical faults.

Symmetrical Faults

A symmetrical fault gives rise to symmetrical fault currents that are displaced with 1200 each
other. Symmetrical fault is also called as balanced fault. This fault occurs when all the three
phases are simultaneously short circuited.

These faults rarely occur in practice as compared with unsymmetrical faults. Two kinds of
symmetrical faults include line to line to line (L-L-L) and line to line to line to ground (L-L-L-G)
as shown in figure below.
 A rough
occurrence of symmetrical faults is in the range of 2 to 5% of the total system faults. However, if
these faults occur, they cause a very severe damage to the equipments even though the system
remains in balanced condition.

The analysis of these faults is required for selecting the rupturing capacity of the circuit breakers,
choosing set-phase relays and other protective switchgear. These faults are analyzed on per phase
basis using bus impedance matrix or Thevenins’s theorem.

Unsymmetrical Faults

The most common faults that occur in the power system network are unsymmetrical faults. This
kind of fault gives rise to unsymmetrical fault currents (having different magnitudes with
unequal phase displacement). These faults are also called as unbalanced faults as it causes
unbalanced currents in the system.

Up to the above discussion, unsymmetrical faults include both open circuit faults (single and two
phase open condition) and short circuit faults (excluding L-L-L-G and L-L-L).

The figure below shows the three types of symmetrical faults occurred due to the short circuit
conditions, namely phase or line to ground (L-G) fault, phase to phase (L-L) fault and double
line to ground (L-L-G) fault.
A single line-to-ground (LG) fault is one of the most common faults and experiences show that
70-80 percent of the faults that occur in power system are of this type. This forms a short circuit
path between the line and ground. These are very less severe faults compared to other faults.

A line to line fault occur when a live conductor get in contact with other live conductor. Heavy
winds are the major cause for this fault during which swinging of overhead conductors may
touch together. These are less severe faults and its occurrence range may be between 15-20%.

In double line to ground faults, two lines come into the contact with each other as well as with
ground. These are severe faults and the occurrence these faults is about 10% when compared
with total system faults.

Unsymmetrical faults are analyzed using methods of unsymmetrical components in order to

determine the voltage and currents in all parts of the system. The analysis of these faults is more
difficult compared to symmetrical faults.

This analysis is necessary for determining the size of a circuit breaker for largest short circuit
current. The greater current usually occurs for either L-G or L-L fault.

Protection Devices against Faults

When the fault occurs in any part of the system, it must be cleared in a very short period in order
to avoid greater damage to equipments and personnel and also to avoid interruption of power to
the customers.

The fault clearing system uses various protection devices such as relays and circuit breakers to
detect and clear the fault.
Some of these fault clearing or faults limiting devices are given below.
Fuse

It opens the circuit whenever a fault exists in the system. It consists of a thin copper wire
enclosed in a glass or a casing with two metallic contacts. The high fault current rises the
temperature of the wire and hence it melts. A fuse necessitates the manual replacement of wire
each time when it blows.

Fuse

Circuit Breaker

It is the most common protection device that can make or break the circuit either manually or
through remote control under normal operating conditions.

There are several types of circuit breakers available depending on the operating voltage,
including air brake, oil, vacuum and SF6 circuit breakers. For more information on circuit
breakers, follow the link attached.

 
Circuit Breakers

Read :Different types of Circuit Breakers 

Protective Relays

These are the fault detecting devices. These devices detect the fault and initiate the operation of
the circuit breaker so as to isolate the faulty circuit. A relay consists of a magnetic coil and
contacts (NC and NO). The fault current energizes the coil and this causes to produce the field,
thereby the contacts get operated.
Some of the types of protective relays include

 Magnitude relays
 Impedance relays
 Directional relays
 Pilot relays
 Differential relays

Read :Classification of relays

Lighting Arrestor

Surges in the power system network caused when lightning strikes on transmission lines and
equipments. This causes high voltage and currents in the system. These lighting faults are
reduced by placing lighting arrestors at transmission equipments.

Image Contributors:

1)Electrical Faults: forschung-stromnetze.info 

In electrical engineering, ground or earth is the reference point in an electrical circuit from
which voltages are measured, a common return path for electric current, or a direct physical
connection to the Earth.
Electrical circuits may be connected to ground (earth) for several reasons. In mains powered
equipment, exposed metal parts are connected to ground to prevent user contact with dangerous
voltage when electrical insulation fails. In electrical power distribution systems, a protective
ground conductor is an essential part of the safety Earthing system. Connection to ground also
limits the build-up of static electricity when handling flammable products or electrostatic-
sensitive devices. In some telegraph and power transmission circuits, the earth itself can be used
as one conductor of the circuit, saving the cost of installing a separate return conductor (see
single-wire earth return).

For measurement purposes, the Earth serves as a (reasonably) constant potential reference
against which other potentials can be measured. An electrical ground system should have an
appropriate current-carrying capability to serve as an adequate zero-voltage reference level. In
electronic circuit theory, a "ground" is usually idealized as an infinite source or sink for charge,
which can absorb an unlimited amount of current without changing its potential. Where a real
ground connection has a significant resistance, the approximation of zero potential is no longer
valid. Stray voltages or earth potential rise effects will occur, which may create noise in signals
or if large enough will produce an electric shock hazard.

The use of the term ground (or earth) is so common in electrical and electronics applications that
circuits in portable electronic devices such as cell phones and media players as well as circuits in
vehicles may be spoken of as having a "ground" connection without any actual connection to the
Earth, despite "common" being a more appropriate term for such a connection. This is usually a
large conductor attached to one side of the power supply (such as the "ground plane" on a printed
circuit board) which serves as the common return path for current from many different
components in the circuit.

Contents
 1 History
 2 Radio communications
 3 Building wiring installations
o 3.1 Earthing systems
o 3.2 Impedance grounding
o 3.3 Ungrounded systems
 4 Power transmission
 5 Electronics
o 5.1 Circuit ground versus earth
o 5.2 Functional grounds
o 5.3 Separating low signal ground from a noisy ground
 6 Lightning protection systems
 7 Bonding
 8 Ground (earth) mat
 9 Isolation
 10 See also
 11 Notes
 12 References
  13 External links

History
Long-distance electromagnetic telegraph systems from 1820 onwards[1] used two or more wires
to carry the signal and return currents. It was then discovered, probably by the German scientist
Carl August Steinheil in 1836–1837,[2] that the ground could be used as the return path to
complete the circuit, making the return wire unnecessary. However, there were problems with
this system, exemplified by the transcontinental telegraph line constructed in 1861 by the
Western Union Company between Saint Joseph, Missouri, and Sacramento, California. During
dry weather, the ground connection often developed a high resistance, requiring water to be
poured on the ground rod to enable the telegraph to work or phones to ring.

Later, when telephony began to replace telegraphy, it was found that the currents in the earth
induced by power systems, electrical railways, other telephone and telegraph circuits, and natural
sources including lightning caused unacceptable interference to the audio signals, and the two-
wire or 'metallic circuit' system was reintroduced around 1883.[3]

Radio communications
An electrical connection to earth can be used as a reference potential for radio frequency signals
for certain kinds of antennas. The part directly in contact with the earth - the "earth electrode" -
can be as simple as a metal rod or stake driven into the earth, or a connection to buried metal
water piping (the pipe must be conductive). Because high frequency signals can flow to earth due
to capacitative effects, capacitance to ground is an important factor in effectiveness of signal
grounds. Because of this, a complex system of buried rods and wires can be effective. An ideal
signal ground maintains a fixed potential (zero) regardless of how much electric current flows
into ground or out of ground. Low impedance at the signal frequency of the electrode-to-earth
connection determines its quality, and that quality is improved by increasing the surface area of
the electrode in contact with the earth, increasing the depth to which it is driven, using several
connected ground rods, increasing the moisture content of the soil, improving the conductive
mineral content of the soil, and increasing the land area covered by the ground system.

Some types of transmitting antenna systems in the VLF, LF, MF and lower SW range must have
a good ground to operate efficiently. For example, a vertical monopole antenna requires a ground
plane that often consists of an interconnected network of wires running radially away from the
base of the antenna for a distance about equal to the height of the antenna. Sometimes a
counterpoise is used as a ground plane, supported above the ground.

Building wiring installations

See also: Earthing system

Electrical power distribution systems are often connected to ground to limit the voltage that can
appear on distribution circuits. A distribution system insulated from ground may attain a high
potential due to transient voltages caused by arcing, static electricity, or accidental contact with
higher potential circuits. A ground connection of the system dissipates such potentials and limits
the rise in voltage of the grounded system.

In a mains electricity (AC power) wiring installation, the term ground conductor typically refers
to three different conductors or conductor systems as listed below.

Equipment earthing conductors provide an electrical connection between non-current-carrying

metallic parts of equipment and the earth. According to the U.S. National Electrical Code (NEC),
the reason for doing this is to limit the voltage imposed by lightning, line surges, and contact
with higher voltage lines. The equipment earthing conductor is usually also used as the
equipment bonding conductor (see below).

Equipment bonding conductors provide a low impedance path between non-current-carrying

metallic parts of equipment and one of the conductors of that electrical system's source, so that if
a part becomes energized for any reason, such as a frayed or damaged conductor, a short circuit
will occur and operate a circuit breaker or fuse to disconnect the faulted circuit. The earth itself
has no role in this fault-clearing process[4] since current must return to its source; however, the
sources are very frequently connected to earth.[5] (see Kirchhoff's circuit laws). By bonding
(interconnecting) all exposed non-current carrying metal objects together, they should remain
near the same potential thus reducing the chance of a shock. This is especially important in
bathrooms where one may be in contact with several different metallic systems such as supply
and drain pipes and appliance frames. The equipment bonding conductor is usually also used as
the equipment earthing conductor (see above).

Metal water pipe used as grounding electrode

A grounding electrode conductor (GEC) connects one leg of an electrical system to one or
more earth electrodes. This is called "system grounding" and most systems are required to be
grounded. The U.S. NEC and the UK's BS 7671 list systems that are required to be grounded.
The grounding electrode conductor connects the leg of the electrical system that is the "neutral
wire" to the grounding electrode(s).[6] The grounding electrode conductor is also usually bonded
to pipework and structural steel in larger structures. According to the NEC, the purpose of
earthing an electrical system is to limit the voltage to earth imposed by lightning events and
contact with higher voltage lines, and also to stabilize the voltage to earth during normal
operation. In the past, water supply pipes were often used as grounding electrodes, but this was
banned where plastic pipes are popular. This type of ground applies to radio antennas and to
lightning protection systems.

Permanently installed electrical equipment usually also has permanently connected grounding
conductors. Portable electrical devices with metal cases may have them connected to earth
ground by a pin in the interconnecting plug (see Domestic AC power plugs and sockets). The
size of power ground conductors is usually regulated by local or national wiring regulations.

Earthing systems
Main article: Earthing system

In electricity supply systems, an earthing (grounding) system defines the electrical potential of
the conductors relative to that of the Earth's conductive surface. The choice of earthing system
has implications for the safety and electromagnetic compatibility of the power supply.
Regulations for earthing systems vary considerably between different countries.

A functional earth connection serves a purpose other than providing protection against electrical
shock. In contrast to a protective earth connection, a functional earth connection may carry a
current during the normal operation of a device. Functional earth connections may be required by
devices such as surge suppression and electromagnetic-compatibility filters, some types of
antennas and various measurement instruments. Generally the protective earth is also used as a
functional earth, though this requires care in some situations.

Impedance grounding

Distribution power systems may be solidly grounded, with one circuit conductor directly
connected to an earth grounding electrode system. Alternatively, some amount of electrical
impedance may be connected between the distribution system and ground, to limit the current
that can flow to earth. The impedance may be a resistor, or an inductor (coil). In a high-
impedance grounded system, the fault current is limited to a few amperes (exact values depend
on the voltage class of the system); a low-impedance grounded system will permit several
hundred amperes to flow on a fault. A large solidly grounded distribution system may have
thousands of amperes of ground fault current.

In a polyphase AC system, an artificial neutral grounding system may be used. Although no

phase conductor is directly connected to ground, a specially constructed transformer (a "zig zag"
transformer) blocks the power frequency current from flowing to earth, but allows any leakage or
transient current to flow to ground.

Low-resistance grounding systems use a neutral grounding resistor (NGR) to limit the fault
current to 25 A or greater. Low resistance grounding systems will have a time rating (say, 10
seconds) that indicates how long the resistor can carry the fault current before overheating. A
ground fault protection relay must trip the breaker to protect the circuit before overheating of the
resistor occurs.

High-resistance grounding (HRG) systems use an NGR to limit the fault current to 25 A or less.
They have a continuous rating, and are designed to operate with a single-ground fault. This
means that the system will not immediately trip on the first ground fault. If a second ground fault
occurs, a ground fault protection relay must trip the breaker to protect the circuit. On an HRG
system, a sensing resistor is used to continuously monitor system continuity. If an open-circuit is
detected (e.g., due to a broken weld on the NGR), the monitoring device will sense voltage
through the sensing resistor and trip the breaker. Without a sensing resistor, the system could
continue to operate without ground protection (since an open circuit condition would mask the
ground fault) and transient overvoltages could occur.[7]

Ungrounded systems

Where the danger of electric shock is high, special ungrounded power systems may be used to
minimize possible leakage current to ground. Examples of such installations include patient care
areas in hospitals, where medical equipment is directly connected to a patient and must not
permit any power-line current to pass into the patient's body. Medical systems include
monitoring devices to warn of any increase of leakage current. On wet construction sites or in
shipyards, isolation transformers may be provided so that a fault in a power tool or its cable does
not expose users to shock hazard.

Circuits used to feed sensitive audio/video production equipment or measurement instruments

may be fed from an isolated ungrounded technical power system to limit the injection of noise
from the power system.

Power transmission
In single-wire earth return (SWER) AC electrical distribution systems, costs are saved by using
just a single high voltage conductor for the power grid, while routing the AC return current
through the earth. This system is mostly used in rural areas where large earth currents will not
otherwise cause hazards.

Some high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) power transmission systems use the ground as second
conductor. This is especially common in schemes with submarine cables, as sea water is a good
conductor. Buried grounding electrodes are used to make the connection to the earth. The site of
these electrodes must be chosen carefully to prevent electrochemical corrosion on underground
structures.

A particular concern in design of electrical substations is earth potential rise. When very large
fault currents are injected into the earth, the area around the point of injection may rise to a high
potential with respect to distant points. This is due to the limited finite conductivity of the layers
of soil in the earth. The gradient of the voltage (changing voltage within a distance) may be so
high that two points on the ground may be at significantly different potentials, creating a hazard
to anyone standing on the ground in the area. Pipes, rails, or communication wires entering a
substation may see different ground potentials inside and outside the substation, creating a
dangerous touch voltage.

Electronics

Signal Chassis Earth

ground ground ground

Ground symbols[8]

Signal grounds serve as return paths for signals and power (at extra low voltages, less than about
50 V) within equipment, and on the signal interconnections between equipment. Many electronic
designs feature a single return that acts as a reference for all signals. Power and signal grounds
often get connected, usually through the metal case of the equipment. Designers of printed circuit
boards must take care in the layout of electronic systems so that high-power or rapidly switching
currents in one part of a system do not inject noise into low-level sensitive parts of a system due
to some common impedance in the grounding traces of the layout.

Circuit ground versus earth

Voltage is measured on an interval scale, which means that only differences can be measured. To
measure the voltage of a single point, a reference point must be selected to measure against. This
common reference point is called "ground" and considered to have zero voltage. This signal
ground may or may not be connected to a power ground. A system where the system ground is
not connected to another circuit or to earth (though there may still be AC coupling) is often
referred to as a floating ground or double-insulated.

Functional grounds

Some devices require a connection to the mass of earth to function correctly, as distinct from any
purely protective role. Such a connection is known as a functional earth- for example some long
wavelength antenna structures require a functional earth connection, which generally should not
be indiscriminately connected to the supply protective earth, as the introduction of transmitted
radio frequencies into the electrical distribution network is both illegal and potentially
dangerous. Because of this separation, a purely functional ground should not normally be relied
upon to perform a protective function. To avoid accidents, such functional grounds are normally
wired in white or cream cable, and not green or green/yellow.
Separating low signal ground from a noisy ground

In television stations, recording studios, and other installations where signal quality is critical, a
special signal ground known as a "technical ground" (or "technical earth", "special earth", and
"audio earth") is often installed, to prevent ground loops. This is basically the same thing as an
AC power ground, but no general appliance ground wires are allowed any connection to it, as
they may carry electrical interference. For example, only audio equipment is connected to the
technical ground in a recording studio.[9] In most cases, the studio's metal equipment racks are all
joined together with heavy copper cables (or flattened copper tubing or busbars) and similar
connections are made to the technical ground. Great care is taken that no general chassis
grounded appliances are placed on the racks, as a single AC ground connection to the technical
ground will destroy its effectiveness. For particularly demanding applications, the main technical
ground may consist of a heavy copper pipe, if necessary fitted by drilling through several
concrete floors, such that all technical grounds may be connected by the shortest possible path to
a grounding rod in the basement.

Lightning protection systems

Busbars are used for ground conductors in high-current circuits.

Lightning protection systems are designed to mitigate the effects of lightning through connection
to extensive grounding systems that provide a large surface area connection to earth. The large
area is required to dissipate the high current of a lightning strike without damaging the system
conductors by excess heat. Since lightning strikes are pulses of energy with very high frequency
components, grounding systems for lightning protection tend to use short straight runs of
conductors to reduce the self-inductance and skin effect.
Bonding
Main article: Electrical bonding

Strictly speaking, the terms grounding or earthing are meant to refer to an electrical connection
to ground/earth. Bonding is the practice of intentionally electrically connecting metallic items
not designed to carry electricity. This brings all the bonded items to the same electrical potential
as a protection from electrical shock. The bonded items can then be connected to ground to bring
them to earth potential.[10]

Ground (earth) mat

Main article: Ground mat

In an electrical substation a ground (earth) mat is a mesh of conductive material installed at

places where a person would stand to operate a switch or other apparatus; it is bonded to the
local supporting metal structure and to the handle of the switchgear, so that the operator will not
be exposed to a high differential voltage due to a fault in the substation.

In the vicinity of electrostatic sensitive devices, a ground (earth) mat or grounding (earthing) mat
is used to ground static electricity generated by people and moving equipment.[11] There are two
types used in static control: Static Dissipative Mats, and Conductive Mats.

A static dissipative mat that rests on a conductive surface (commonly the case in military
facilities) are typically made of 3 layers (3-ply) with static dissipative vinyl layers surrounding a
conductive substrate which is electrically attached to ground (earth). For commercial uses, static
dissipative rubber mats are traditionally used that are made of 2 layers (2-ply) with a tough
solder resistant top static dissipative layer that makes them last longer than the vinyl mats, and a
conductive rubber bottom. Conductive mats are made of carbon and used only on floors for the
purpose of drawing static electricity to ground as quickly as possible. Normally conductive mats
are made with cushioning for standing and are referred to as "anti-fatigue" mats.

3 ply static dissipative vinyl grounding mat shown at macro scale

For a static dissipative mat to be reliably grounded it must be attached to a path to ground.
Normally, both the mat and the wrist strap are connected to ground by using a common point
ground system (CPGS).[12]

In computer repair shops and electronics manufacturing workers must be grounded before
working on devices sensitive to voltages capable of being generated by humans. For that reason
static dissipative mats can be and are also used on production assembly floors as "floor runner"
along the assembly line to draw static generated by people walking up and down.

Isolation
See also: Galvanic isolation

Isolation is not a mechanism that defeats grounding. It is frequently used with low-power
consumer devices, and when electronics engineers, hobbyists, or repairmen are working on
circuits that would normally be operated using the power line voltage. Isolation can be
accomplished by simply placing a "1:1 wire ratio" transformer with an equal number of turns
between the device and the regular power service, but applies to any type of transformer using
two or more coils electrically insulated from each other.

For an isolated device, touching a single powered conductor does not cause a severe shock,
because there is no path back to the other conductor through the ground. However, shocks and
electrocution may still occur if both poles of the transformer are contacted by bare skin.
Previously it was suggested that repairmen "work with one hand behind their back" to avoid
touching two parts of the device under test at the same time, thereby preventing a circuit from
crossing through the chest and interrupting cardiac rhythms/ causing cardiac arrest.

Generally every AC power line transformer acts as an isolation transformer, and every step up or
down has the potential to form an isolated circuit. However, this isolation would prevent failed
devices from blowing fuses when shorted to their ground conductor. The isolation that could be
created by each transformer is defeated by always having one leg of the transformers grounded,
on both sides of the input and output transformer coils. Power lines also typically ground one
specific wire at every pole, to ensure current equalization from pole to pole if a short to ground is
occurring.

In the past, grounded appliances have been designed with internal isolation to a degree that
allowed the simple disconnection of ground by cheater plugs without apparent problem (a
dangerous practice, since the safety of the resulting floating equipment relies on the insulation in
its power transformer). Modern appliances however often include power entry modules which
are designed with deliberate capacitive coupling between the AC power lines and chassis, to
suppress electromagnetic interference. This results in a significant leakage current from the
power lines to ground. If the ground is disconnected by a cheater plug or by accident, the
resulting leakage current can cause mild shocks, even without any fault in the equipment.[13]
Even small leakage currents are a significant concern in medical settings, as the accidental
disconnection of ground can introduce these currents into sensitive parts of the human body. As a
result, medical power supplies are designed to have low capacitance.[14]
Class II appliances and power supplies (such as cell phone chargers) do not provide any ground
connection, and are designed to isolate the output from input. Safety is ensured by double-
insulation, so that two failures of insulation are required to cause a shock.