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Explosive spalling of concrete in

fire
Test report
Report
Author(s):
Klingsch, Eike; Frangi, Andrea; Fontana, Mario
Publication date:
2013-12
Permanent link:
https://doi.org/10.3929/ethz-a-010076314
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In Copyright - Non-Commercial Use Permitted
Originally published in:

IBK Bericht 351
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i bk
Institut für Baustatik und Konstruktion, ETH Zürich
Explosive spalling of concrete in fire
Eike Klingsch
Andrea Frangi
Mario Fontana
IBK Bericht Nr. 351, Dezember 2013

KEYWORDS:
Ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC), high performance concrete (HPC), explosive spalling,
PP-fibers, steel fibers, protective lining, ISO-fire tests, mercury intrusion porosimetry, permeability
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Eike Klingsch, Andrea Frangi, Mario Fontana:

Bericht IBK Nr. 351, Dezember 2013
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Test report
Eike Klingsch
Andrea Frangi
Mario Fontana
Institute of Structural Engineering
ETH Zurich
Zurich
December 2013
PREFACE
Structural reliability and fire safety are key aspects in the design of structures. Spalling of concrete, in
particular of highly stressed HPC and UHPC elements, has become a significant threat to fire safety but is
difficult to assess up to now. Significant advances in research and numerical simulations have increased the
theoretical knowledge of the behavior of structures in fire. However, relevant model to consider spalling of
concrete are not available to structural or fire safety engineers. Carefully performed tests under fire
conditions and well-documented experimental results that are repeatable are most important for validating
numerical and analytical models.
The structural resistance of members made of HPC or UHPC, in particular columns or beam-columns,
subjected to fire becomes random if extensive spalling occurs. This report presents results of fire tests, with
regard to material behavior of HPC and UHPC concrete cylinders as well as on slabs exposed to standard
and linear temperature-time curves, covering important measures, aspects and parameters regarding
spalling in fire.
The tests are part of two research projects, one on spalling of concrete in fire and one on residual strength
of different types of concrete after fire. Both projects fit to the overall research strategy of the institute on
the fundamental behavior of structures subjected to fire. The tests were performed at the Institute of
Structural Engineering (IBK) and the institute of Building Materials (IfB) of ETH Zurich. I would like to thank
Eike Klingsch, Patrik Morf, Dominik Werne, Christoph Gisler and Thomas Jaggi at IBK as well as Heinz
Richner and his team at IfB, who performed the tests. Eike Klingsch designed many of the tests and has
processed and evaluated the large amount of data and edited this report.
Research projects were supported by Industrial partners in particular Holcim, Sika and the Swiss
Commission for Technology and Innovation (CTI).
Zurich, December 2013 Prof. Dr. Mario Fontana
III
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE ......................................................................................................................................... III
TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................................................V
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................................... 1
KURZFASSUNG ....................................................................................................................................... 3
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 5
1.1 General.............................................................................................................................. 5
1.2 Research aims ................................................................................................................... 5
1.3 General test overview ....................................................................................................... 5
2 TESTS ON EXPLOSIVE SPALLING OF CONCRETE CYLINDERS WITHOUT PP-FIBERS ........... 7
2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Materials and methods ..................................................................................................... 7

2.2.1 Mixing procedure and specimens ..................................................................................... 8
2.2.2 Major mechanical properties ............................................................................................ 9
2.3 Testing procedure on explosive spalling ......................................................................... 13
2.4 Test results on explosive spalling .................................................................................... 14
2.5 Test results on losses in weight during heating .............................................................. 24
3 TESTS ON EXPLOSIVE SPALLING OF CONCRETE CYLINDERS CONTAINING PP-FIBERS .... 27
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 27
3.2 Materials and methods ................................................................................................... 27

3.2.1 Mixing procedure and specimens ................................................................................... 28
3.2.2 Major mechanical properties .......................................................................................... 29
3.3 Testing procedure on explosive spalling ......................................................................... 30
3.4 Test results on explosive spalling .................................................................................... 31
3.5 Test results on temperature dependent compressive strength ..................................... 35
4 TESTS ON POROSITY ........................................................................................................ 37
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 37
4.2 Test set-up ...................................................................................................................... 37
V
4.3 Materials and methods ................................................................................................... 37
4.3.1 Tests on concrete specimen without PP-fibers .............................................................. 37
4.3.2 Tests on concrete specimen with PP-fibers .................................................................... 38
4.4 Test results ...................................................................................................................... 39

4.4.1 Test results on concrete specimen without PP-fibers .................................................... 39
4.4.2 Test results on concrete specimens with PP-fibers ........................................................ 41
5 TESTS ON RESIDUAL PERMEABILITY OF CONCRETE AFTER EXPOSURE TO HIGH

TEMPERATURE ................................................................................................................ 45
5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 45
5.2 Test set-up ...................................................................................................................... 45
5.3 Materials and Methods ................................................................................................... 46
5.4 Test results on permeability ........................................................................................... 48

5.4.1 Test results on initial permeability at 20°C ..................................................................... 48
5.4.2 Test results on residual permeability after cooling from high temperatures ................ 49
5.4.3 Test results on Young’s modulus and compressive strength .......................................... 50
5.4.4 Test results on density, moisture content and losses in weight during heating ............ 52
6 TESTS ON INSULATING LINING ........................................................................................ 55
6.1 Test overview .................................................................................................................. 55
6.2 Material and methods .................................................................................................... 56
6.3 Test results ...................................................................................................................... 57

6.3.1 Test results on the initial thermal conductivity .............................................................. 57
6.3.2 Test results on the thermal conductivity at high temperatures ‐ general preparation.. 59
6.3.3 Test results on temperature-dependent density............................................................ 60
6.3.4 Test results on specific heat ............................................................................................ 62
6.3.5 Test results on the bond strength between the lining and the concrete ....................... 62
7 TESTS ON CONCRETE SLABS EXPOSED TO ISO-FIRE ........................................................ 65
7.1 Test overview .................................................................................................................. 65
7.2 Test set-up ...................................................................................................................... 65
7.3 Materials and Methods ................................................................................................... 67

7.3.1 Tests 1-4, HPC concrete with type 1 protective lining .................................................... 67
7.3.2 Tests 5+6, HPC concrete with type 2 protective lining ................................................... 69
7.3.3 Tests 7+8, UHPC concrete with Type C PP-fibers............................................................ 71
VI
7.4 Test results on ISO-fire tests ........................................................................................... 73
7.4.1 Test 1, HPC concrete without protective lining .............................................................. 73
7.4.2 Test 2, HPC concrete with 10 mm protective lining 1..................................................... 74
7.4.5 Test 5 + 6, HPC concrete with 15 mm and 25 mm protective lining 2............................ 78
7.4.6 Test 7 + 8, UHPC concrete with 3 kg/m3 and 2 kg/m3 Type C PP-fibers ......................... 79
8 OUTLOOK ........................................................................................................................ 81
9 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..................................................................................................... 81
10 LITERATURE ..................................................................................................................... 82
11 NOTATIONS ..................................................................................................................... 83
12 APPENDIX ........................................................................................................................ 85
VII
VIII
ABSTRACT
A sufficient resistance of concrete structures to fire was always taken for granted. The concrete’s low
thermal conductivity ensures an overall good thermal protection of the concrete’s reinforcement, even
during longer fire impact. In contrast to ordinary performance concrete used in most structures, the
behavior of high (HPC) and ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) at high temperatures exhibits an
increased tendency to explosive spalling and must be considered as critical. Explosive spalling might occur
at high temperatures, leading to a direct fire exposure onto the reinforcement steel and a reduction of the
cross section.
The risk of explosive spalling of HPC and UHPC can be reduced with a modified concrete mixture including
polypropylene fibers (PP-fibers); however, temperature-related damage cannot be excluded in general.
Another possibility is the use of fire protective concrete linings, acting as a thermal barrier or narrow
spaced stirrups. However, their application is still difficult due to the lack of existing design criteria.
Within the framework of a research project at the Institute of Structural Engineering (IBK) at ETH Zurich,
several tests on the analysis of the risk of temperature-related explosive spalling of HPC and UHPC was
carried out. In this report, the explosive spalling of unprotected concrete cylinders (ø = 150 mm,
h = 300 mm) was investigated using linear heating. Chapter 2 describes these tests. In chapter 3, the
behavior of HPC and UHPC containing PP-fibers was analyzed. Different amounts of PP-fibers with varying
fiber geometry were tested with the same base concrete mixture. The influence of the PP-fiber’s geometry
on the intensity of explosive spalling was clearly indicated.
Tests on the porosity and permeability of concrete after cooling from high temperatures are described in
chapters 4 and 5. Small concrete fragments (l = 4 mm) were used to determine the cumulative pore volume
using mercury intrusion porosimetry. Concrete before and after explosive spalling was analyzed, as well as
the influence of PP-fibers on the porosity at different temperature levels. Tests on permeability are
described in chapter 5. The gas permeability was analyzed for concrete discs (ø = 150 mm, h = 40 mm) at
room temperature, after cooling from high temperatures of up to T = 500°C. The influence of steel and PP-
fibers on the concrete’s permeability was studied in these tests.
Chapter 6 deals with the use of protective linings on concrete structures. The required material properties
as input material properties for modeling and dimensioning of the linings were determined experimentally
and analyzed.
A description of tests on UHPC slabs (l · w · h = 1100 · 900 · 150 mm3) protected either with PP-fibers or
protective lining is presented in the last part of this report (chapter 7). These slabs were heated according
to the standardized ISO-fire curve [1] for a period of t = 120 min.
The present test report describes the test set-up for all experimental investigations and summarizes the
results. Further analysis or design models will be given in a research publication.
1
2
KURZFASSUNG
Eine ausreichende Sicherheit von Bauwerken aus Beton im Brandfall wurde bislang immer als
selbstverständlich betrachtet, solange eine minimale Geometrie und Bewehrungsüberdeckung eingehalten
wurde. Die geringe thermische Leifähigkeit von Beton stellt bei genügender Betonüberdeckung einen
ausreichenden thermischen Schutz der Betonbewehrung sicher. Im Gegensatz zu den bisher im Hochbau
verwendeten normalfesten Betonen ist das Verhalten von hoch (HPC) und ultra-hochfestem Beton (UHPC)
bei hohen Temperaturen jedoch kritisch. Bei hohen Temperaturen kann es zu explosionsartigen
Abplatzungen der Betonoberfläche kommen, was den Querschnitt verkleinert und zu einer direkten
Brandeinwirkung auf den freigelegten Bewehrungsstahl sowie eine Verkleinerung des Querschnittes führt.
Das Abplatzrisiko von HPC und UHPC lässt sich durch eine angepasste Betonmischung und mit Hilfe von
Polypropylenfasern (PP-Fasern) reduzieren, wobei temperaturbedingte Schädigungen nicht komplett
ausgeschlossen werden können. Weitere Möglichkeiten bestehen in der Verwendung von
Brandschutzputzen auf Beton als thermische Barriere oder einer engeren Bügelbewehrung, deren
Anwendung derzeit auf Grund fehlender anerkannter Bemessungsmodelle auf Beton noch erschwert ist.
Im Rahmen eines Forschungsprojektes am Institut für Baustatik und Konstruktion (IBK) der ETH Zürich
wurden Versuche zur systematischen Analyse des temperaturbedingten explosiven Abplatzens von HPC
und UHPC durchgeführt. Hierbei wurde das Abplatzverhalten an ungeschützten Betonzylindern
(ø = 150 mm, h = 300 mm) durch lineares aufheizen systematisch untersucht. Kapitel 2 beschreibt die
durchgeführten Versuche, gefolgt von Kapitel 3, wo die Wirkung von PP-Fasern untersucht wurde. Hier
wurde einer gleichen Betongrundmischung in Menge und Geometrie verschiedene PP-Fasern zugemischt.
Ein Einfluss der Fasergeometrie auf die Abplatzintensität der Betonproben konnte deutlich gezeigt werden.
Versuche zur Bestimmung der Porosität und Permeabilität von Beton nach Abkühlen von hohen
Temperaturen werden in Kapitel 4 und 5 beschrieben. An kleinen Betonfragmenten (l = 4 mm) wurde das
kumulative Porenvolumen durch Quecksilberporosimetrie bestimmt. Hierbei wurden Proben vor und nach
dem explosiven Abplatzen getestet, sowie der Einfluss von PP-Fasern auf die Porosität bei
unterschiedlichen Temperaturen. Im Vergleich hierzu werden in Kapitel 5 Versuche zur Permeabilität von
Beton und deren Ergebnisse beschrieben. Es wurde an Betonscheiben (ø = 150 mm, h = 40 mm) die
Gaspermeabilität bei Raumtemperatur, nach Abkühlen von hohen Temperaturen von bis zu T = 500°C
analysiert. Insbesondere der Einfluss von Stahl- und PP-Fasern auf die Permeabilität wurde bei diesen
Versuchen untersucht.
In Kapitel 6 wird die Verwendung von Brandschutzputzen für bestehende Bauten untersucht. Die für eine
detaillierte Modellbildung und Dimensionierung dieser Putze erforderlichen Materialparameter wurden
experimentell erarbeitet und ausgewertet.
Im letzten Teil des Versuchsberichtes (Kapitel 7) erfolgt eine Beschreibung der Versuche an mit
Brandschutzputzen oder PP-Fasern geschützten Betonplatten (l · b · h = 1100 · 900 · 150 mm3) aus UHPC.
Diese wurden über t = 120 min entsprechend der genormten ISO-Temperaturzeitkurve [1] getestet.
Der vorliegende technische Bericht beschreibt die Durchführung der experimentellen Untersuchungen und
fasst die Ergebnisse zusammen. Auswertungen und Modellbildungen werden in einer
Forschungspublikation dargestellt.
3
4
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
The thermal and mechanical properties of building materials change at elevated temperatures. This change
of material properties has an important influence on the resistance and the deformation behaviour of
structures in case of fire. For a long time, the fire performance of concrete structures has been taken for
granted considering its non-combustible nature and ability to function as a thermal barrier, preventing heat
and fire spread [2]. The rate of temperature increase through the cross section in a concrete element is
relatively slow and therefore internal zones are protected against heat. Only a small part of the cross-
section is affected by the influences of temperature. For this reason reinforced concrete structures with
adequate structural detailing like minimum dimensions and cover thicknesses usually reach high fire
resistance without any additional fire protection [3, 4].
However, concrete is a complex material and its properties can change dramatically when exposed to high
temperatures. Further, concrete technology changed significantly in recent decades, with the development
of high (HPC) and ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC). The principal effects of fire on concrete are loss
of strength and spalling ‐ the violent or non-violent breaking off of layers or pieces of concrete from the
surface of a member [3] ‐ that can significantly reduce the resistance of reinforced concrete structures in
fire. Though much information has been gathered on the effects of thermal exposures on concrete, the
fundamental structural behaviour of concrete structures in fire is still not sufficiently understood. For
example, the inability to predict the occurrence of spalling is still a limiting factor in the development of
reliable models for the response of concrete structures to fire [5]. If spalling occurs, current calculation
models lack in precision, reliability and consistency. Therefore, fundamental data as well as advanced
computational models that accurately take into account all relevant parameters are of the utmost
importance. A fundamental approach based on extensive analytical and experimental research on the fire
behaviour of concrete structures is necessary.
1.2 Research aims

This test report summarizes a testing program on the explosive spalling of concrete, including materials and
methods, test set-up and results. All tests were performed on unloaded test samples during heating, in
particular on HPC and UHPC samples.
Apart from the detailed technical description of all tests, test results on explosive spalling of concrete are
given. The analysis and discussion of the results are subject of a future research report.
1.3 General test overview

This research project covers several test series on the explosive spalling of concrete and additional tests on
temperature-dependent changes of concrete properties related to explosive spalling. Concrete mixtures
with an average strength grade within the range of fc = 50 - 150 MPa were tested, including the use of steel
and polypropylene fibers (PP-fibers).
5
Introduction
These tests include in particular tests on explosive spalling by the linear heating of concrete cylinders and
monitoring the temperature development inside the concrete at different depths. Slow heating was used in
the tests on explosive spalling with linear heating rates between Ṫ = 0.25 ‐ 12.0 K/min (chapter 2).
In terms of temperature-dependent changes of concrete properties, changes in porosity considering the

melting of PP-fibers (chapter 4) was measured in addition to the residual permeability of concrete
(chapter 5).
Protective lining were experimentally analyzed in detail (chapter 6).
As a last test series, several protected and unprotected concrete slabs were exposed to the ISO-fire curve
[1], studying the spalling behavior and a possible analogy to results from tests on small cylinders
(chapter 7).
The following table 1 gives an overview on all major tests including the corresponding chapters within this
test report.
Table 1: Test overview

Tests Chapter
Tests on explosive spalling of concrete cylinders without PP-fibers 2
Test results on explosive spalling 2.4
Test results on losses in weight during heating 2.5
Tests on explosive spalling of concrete cylinders containing PP-fibers 3

Test results on explosive spalling 3.4
Test results on temperature dependent compressive strength 3.5
Tests on porosity 4
Test results on concrete specimen without PP-fibers 4.4.1
Test results on concrete specimens with PP-fibers 4.4.2
Tests on residual permeability of concrete after exposure to high temperature 5

Test results on initial permeability at 20°C 5.4.1
Test results on residual permeability after cooling from high temperatures 5.4.2
Test results on Young’s modulus and compressive strength 5.4.3
Test results on density, moisture content and losses in weight during heating 5.4.4
Tests on insulating lining 6

Test results on the initial thermal conductivity 6.3.1
Test results on the thermal conductivity at high temperatures 6.3.2
Test results on temperature-dependent density 6.3.3
Test results on specific heat 6.3.4
Test results on the bond strength between the lining and the concrete 6.3.5
Tests on concrete slabs exposed to ISO-fire 7

HPC concrete without protective lining 7.4.1
HPC concrete with 10 mm protective lining 1 7.4.2
HPC concrete with 15 mm and 25 mm protective lining 2 7.4.5
3 3
UHPC concrete with 3 kg/m and 2 kg/m PP-fibers 7.4.6
6
2 TESTS ON EXPLOSIVE SPALLING OF CONCRETE CYLINDERS WITHOUT PP-FIBERS
2.1 Introduction
The testing procedure on explosive spalling can be split into three different parts:
1. Tests on basic mechanical properties at ambient temperature.
2. Tests on cylindrical concrete specimens at elevated temperature studying the influence of the heating
rate on explosive spalling.
3. Study of changes of the pore volume before and after heating by mercury intrusion porosimetry as well
as on the residual gas permeability (see chapters 4 and 5).
This procedure is applied to two different groups of concrete: In the first group, only PP-fiber free concrete
mixtures are tested. Secondly, the influence of different types and amounts of PP-fibers on the spalling
behavior of UHPC was extensively analyzed (chapter 3). All tests were performed on concrete cylinders
(ø = 150 mm, l = 300 mm), made of high (HPC) or ultra-high performance concrete mixtures (UHPC)
covering strength levels of fc = 90 - 150 MPa.
The design parameters of the HPC and UHPC mixtures M1 - M3 were taken from the literature [6]. Two
major criteria were considered when selecting the different concrete mixtures: the concrete should be
mixed, cast and cured using standard practices and the silica fume content should cover different rates
between 0% up to 16% of the cement content or 0% to 6% compared to the mass of the concrete.
Table 2 gives an overview on the concrete mixtures for tests on explosive spalling, including approximate
compressive strength grades, silica fume content and the probable use of steel fibers.
Table 2: General overview on concrete mixtures for tests on

explosive spalling of PP-fiber free concrete
Concrete Mixture M1 M2 M3
1)
Cold strength fc in MPa 151-153 114-130 90-96
2)
silica content (cement content) 16.2% 11.0% none
3)
silica content (concrete mass) ≈ 5.71% ≈ 2.63% none
Steel fibers none and 2.5% in Vol.
PP-fibers none none none
No of tests on spalling 6 12 6
1) Compressive strength depending on the amount of steel fibers
2) In percent compared to the cement content
3) In percent compared to the total mass of the concrete
2.2 Materials and methods

The concrete mix design for the three different mixtures from the first series (M1, M2, M3) is shown in
table 3. Each concrete mixture was prepared either with Vsteel = 2.5% in volume of steel fibers or without
steel fibers. As steel fibers, common high strength fibers with a high content of carbon and manganese
were used. The fibers had an average length of l = 6 mm and a diameter of ø = 0.15 mm. According to the
manufacturer, the average tensile strength of a single fiber is ft = 2400 MPa. The steel fibers were added to
7
Tests on explosive spalling of concrete cylinders without PP-fibers
the fresh concrete with the aim of achieving a higher strength grade and ductility at ambient temperature
as well as at elevated temperature.
Table 3: Mix design of concrete without PP-fibers

Steel fibers in Vol.-% 2.5 0.0 2.5 0.0 2.5 0.0
3
Cement in kg/m 832 580 400
3
Microsilica in kg/m 135 63.8 -
3
Siliceous powder (< 2 mm) in kg/m 1182 769 650
3
Fine aggregates (2 mm ‐ 8 mm) in kg/m - 769 530
3
Coarse aggregates (> 8 mm) in kg/m - - 720
3
Water in kg/m 180 173 132
3
Superplasticizer in kg/m 35.2 7.2 5.8 5.0 5.0
w/c-ratio 0.22 0.30 0.33
For all mixes, a rapid hardening portland cement (CEM I-52.5 R) with a strength grade of fc = 52.5 MPa and
a high grinding fineness of 4670 cm2/g was chosen. This high Blaine value is required, since the unhydrated
cement also performs as high-strength aggregate. With a water/cement ratio between w/c = 0.22 and 0.33,
large amounts of the cement will remain unhydrated. As regular aggregates, very fine siliceous sand and
powder with a maximum grain size of d = 0.5 mm was added to the M1 concrete mix. This is the only type
of aggregate used for this concrete. The M2 and M3 concrete mix designs also contained siliceous powder
as well as ordinary siliceous and carbonate fine and coarse aggregates up to a size of ø = 16 mm.
The superplasticizer is based on polycarboxylates and according to the manufacturer, a dosage of 0.4 - 1.5%
of the cement content is recommended for ordinary performance concrete. Due to the low water cement
ratio and the mixing of steel fibers, a dosage of superplasticizer between 4.2% in mass of the cement
content for the M1 concrete mixture and 1.25% for the M2 and M3 concrete mixture was used in order to
ensure an adequate workability. According to the manufacturer, the higher dosage has no negative
influence on the durability or strength development of the concrete.
2.2.1 Mixing procedure and specimens

As concrete mixer, a 60 liter positive mixer for the M1 concrete and a 120 liter positive mixer for the M2
and M3 concrete mixturewere used, since the M1 concrete specimens were cast at different laboratory
facilities. Firstly, cement, silica powder and all aggregates were mixed in the dry mixer for t = 4 min to
achieve a homogeneous mix. Since the amount of microsilica as used in the M1 and M2 concrete mix
design exceeded the usual dosage, the formation of lumps had to be avoided. Due to the very low water-
cement ratio and the high content of superplasticizer of the three concrete mixes, the use of silica slurry
was considered unsuitable. Water and superplasticizer were added at a second stage and mixed for an
additional t = 3 min.
As a final step, the steel fibers were added and the concrete was mixed for two more minutes. Since the
workability is very limited, the fresh concrete was directly poured into the molds. As formwork, non-
8
Materials and methods
absorbent plastic cylinders (ø = 150 mm, l = 300 mm) were used. The concrete was poured into the
formwork in two stages and was compacted after each stage using a vibrating table.
In order to measure the temperature distribution in the concrete during heating, type K thermocouples
were placed inside the molds before pouring the concrete. Four thermocouples were placed in the
formwork: two in the core, and additionally two at 30 mm depth. To minimize the possible risk of
perturbation due to electric fields, the thermocouples had a minimum distance of 30 mm between each
other. No malfunctions or irregularities using theses thermocouples were ever observed. The
thermocouples were fixed to a ø = 2 mm welding wire to ensure that the thermocouples will stay in
position during concreting and compacting. Figure 1 shows the layout of the thermocouples fixed to the
welding wire. This set-up followed a generally accepted guideline [7] as used in earlier tests [8].
Thermocouple
Thermocouple
Welding wire
Concrete Cylinder 50
75
45 30 45 30
Figure 1: Location of thermocouples inside concrete cylinders
The specimens were demolded three days after concreting and stored in humid conditions of T = 20°C and
95% relative humidity for a total of t = 28 d. To achieve a sufficient maturity the cylinders were then stored
in dryer conditions of T = 20°C and 50% relative humidity for an additional 90 d before testing. The loss in
weight was measured periodically from the time of demolding until testing. No significant changes in
weight were noticed. All tests were carried out within a short time frame of t = 20 d to minimize any
influences of the concrete age.
2.2.2 Major mechanical properties

At a concrete age at about t = 120 d the compressive and tensile strengths were determined
experimentally. Four small cylinders with a diameter of ø = 50 mm were drilled out of one regular cylinder
with a core driller. Each of these smaller cylinders was cut in half, leading to a total of eight small cylinders
with a diameter of ø = 50 mm and a height of l = 140 mm. Concreting these small cylinders directly would
lead to problems with compaction, especially for the concrete mixture containing steel fibers. Before
testing, all small cylinders were smoothened at both ends to ensure a centric force transmission when
testing. With the chosen geometry of the test specimen it is ensured that the diameter of ø = 50 mm is
about three times the maximum aggregate size and the specimen’s height of l = 140 mm ensures that the
restrictions in lateral strain are minimized.
9
The testing machine for the tests on compressive strength is a common testing device with a maximum
load of F = 4.0 MN. It is equipped with a calotte, allowing inclination by the tipping axis; hence no further
preparations were necessary. A general sketch of the test layout is shown in figure 2 and results are given
in table 4.
Pressure Plate
Load Cell
Calotte
Concrete Specimen
Traverse
Figure 2: Testing the compressive strength of small cylinders with ø = 50 mm, l = 145 mm
Figure 3 shows the test set-up for the tests on tensile strength. The cylinders chosen to determine the
tensile strength were glued to two aluminum tension plates. According to the specifications of the
manufacturer, the adhesive used has a tensile strength of at least ft = 12 MPa after t = 24 h curing. After
this time, each specimen was fixed into the testing machine with two eyebolts and screws to minimize any
eccentricity.
Load Cell
Eye Bold
Tension Plate
Glue
Concrete Specimen
Traverse
Figure 3: Testing the tensile strength of small cylinders with ø = 50 mm, l = 145 mm
The load for the tests on the tensile as well as the compressive strength was applied deformation-
controlled with a constant speed of the traverse of v = 0.005 mm/s and the deformation of the specimen
was directly assessed from the longitudinal displacement of the traverse, as no strain gauges or
displacement transducers were directly attached to the concrete sample. Due to the settlement of the
pressure plate and the deformation of the testing frame, the longitudinal displacement measured is higher
than the actual deformation of the concrete cylinders; hence the measured displacement cannot be used
to assess the Young’s modulus or to draw the actual stress-strain curve. For the tensile tests, the difference
10
in displacement is even higher due to the presence of the adhesive layer between the concrete cylinder and
the tension plate.
The Young's modulus was determined separately on the M1 - M3 concrete cylinders according to the
European design guides [9]. These tests were performed on the regularly cast cylinders (ø = 150 mm,
l = 300 mm), smoothened at both ends and equipped with displacement transducers mounted on the
specimens. As maximum load cycle, fmax = fc · 0.33 of the concrete’s cold strength was taken for all tests.
Table 4 gives an overview of the measured Young’s modulus for the concrete mixtures.
All tests on the mechanical properties were performed at ambient temperature. The direction of concreting
was taken into account for the tests on the concrete’s compressive and tensile strength. For this purpose,
two drilled small cylinders (ø = 50 mm; l = 140 mm) from the bottom section and two from the upper
section of the regularly concreted cylinder were taken for the tests on tensile strength and compressive
strength respectively. However, no significant differences of the stress-deformation curves were observed
between the specimens taken from the upper and lower part of the original concrete cylinder.
Table 4 summarizes all results from the tests on mechanical properties. All individual data, including all
stress-deformation curves of the test specimens is given in the appendix (figures A1 to A10). The stress-
deformation curve for one tensile test using M1 concrete was lost before saving. Here only the maximum
force could be recovered. Figure 4 and 5 show typical stress-deformation curves for the three different
concrete mixtures with and without steel fibers for the compressive and tensile tests. These curves are
close to the average value for all tests.
fc in MPa Compressive Tests ft in MPa Tensile Tests

160 8
with steel fibers with steel fibers
M1 M1
140 M2
7 M2
M3 M3
120 without steel fibers 6 without steel fibers
M1 M1
100 M2 5 M2
M3 M3
80 4
60 3
40 2
20 1
0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Deformation in mm Deformation in mm
Figure 4: M1 ‐ M3 concrete in compression Figure 5: M1 ‐ M3 concrete in tension

stress-deformation curve stress-deformation curve
The test results show the increase of compressive and tensile strength for the M2 and M3 concrete
mixtures with steel fibers in comparison to the mixtures without steel fibers. However, the M1 concrete
mixture without steel fibers showed a significantly higher tensile strength in comparison to the mixture
with steel fibers, while the compressive strength was about the same for both mixtures. A possible
explanation might be the limited workability of the M1 concrete mix, in particular with regard to the high
amount of steel fibers and low water cement ratio. The lower Young's modulus compared to the M1
concrete mixture without steel fibers supports this explanation.
11
Figure 6 shows a typical fracture pattern for a tested specimen from the M1 concrete mixture in
comparison to a specimen from the M2 concrete mixture after tensile testing.
Figure 6: M1 and M2 test specimens with and without steel fibers after the tensile tests
In all cases, visual inspection of the fracture pattern showed that the steel fibers slipped within the
concrete and did not fail by exceeding their tensile strength. Even though the steel fibers slipped within the
concrete, a very steep descending branch of the tensile stress-deformation curves for the M2 and M3
concrete cylinders with steel fibers was observed (figure 5). This behavior is in contrast to the expected
post-fracture deformation curve for concrete specimens with steel fibers in tension.
A possible reason might be insufficient compaction, leading to an insufficient bond between the steel fibers
and the cement matrix. Furthermore, it was noticed that the M2 concrete mixture has by far the lowest
Young's modulus compared to the M1 and M3 mixtures.
In terms of tensile strength it can be noticed, that the spread in results is rather high. Tests in direct tension
are always challenging, since the influence of eccentricities during testing small cylinders cannot always be
avoided. One possibility to minimize these influences is the use of “dogbone” shaped specimens. In
addition, more samples should be tests for more reliable results.
Table 4: Mechanical properties measured at ambient temperature

Steel fibers in Vol.-% 2.5 none 2.5 none 2.5 none
Tested samples 4 4 8 8 8 8
2
Compressive strength in N/mm 151.3 153.1 129.9 114.6 96.5 90.3
2
standard deviation σ in N/mm 8.71 10.63 4.87 19.58 2.78 5.85
coefficient of variation cov in % 5.75 6.95 3.75 17.09 2.88 6.48
2
Tensile strength in N/mm 5.2 7.1 5.3 4.2 5.8 5.6
2
standard deviation σ in N/mm 0.34 0.19 0.66 0.63 0.54 0.40
coefficient of variation cov in % 6.57 2.61 12.37 14.98 9.35 7.23
3
Bulk density in kg/m 2411 2318 2502 2353 2568 2436
2 1)
Young's modulus N/mm 46’600 47’700 43’300 41’250 48’150 46’550
Moisture content in % 2.45 2.09 3.75 3.99 2.68 2.89
1) Young's modulus from compressive tests
12
Testing procedure on explosive spalling
2.3 Testing procedure on explosive spalling

The tests on explosive spalling were performed using an electric-powered furnace as shown in figure 7. It
can be heated to a maximum temperature of T = 1000°C. For the planned test program it is beneficial to
use an electric furnace, since the power can be precisely controlled as a function of the surface
temperature of the concrete, providing a linear temperature increase. Furthermore, due to the absence of
an open flame no additional external air or moisture is introduced into the furnace.
Before testing the concrete cylinders, two additional type K thermocouples were attached to the cylinder’s
surface at mid-height. The two thermocouples were placed on opposite sides of the cylinder, as shown in
figure 1. The temperature was now measured at three different locations with a total of 6 thermocouples:
two thermocouples in the core, two at 30 mm depth from the concrete’s surface and two on the shell
surface of the concrete cylinder. Figure 8 shows a concrete cylinder prepared for the test on explosive
spalling.
The test specimen was placed in the middle of the oven to ensure a uniform heat transfer to the concrete’s
surface. A double layer cage from meshed metal baffle protects the heating elements of the furnace from
possible damages in case of spalling and minimizes the direct heat radiation on the concrete’s surface and
the thermocouples. Preliminary tests have shown that the concrete’s surface is protected from the direct
heat radiation due to the diffuse staged layout of the meshed metal baffle, thus no additional thermal
protection shields were placed in front of the thermocouples. By comparing the temperature inside and
outside this cage, it was noticed that the heat transfer to the concrete was only minimally disturbed.
The specimens remained unloaded during the whole test. The main parameter for the tests at elevated
temperature was the heating rate that was varied systematically between Ṫ = 0.25 and 8.0 K/min in order
to identify a possible correlation between the heating rate with the corresponding temperature distribution
in the concrete cross section and the occurrence of explosive spalling. The furnace temperature was
increased according to the measured concrete surface temperature to achieve a smooth and constant
linear increase in concrete temperature according to the selected heating rate.
The specimens were heated until explosive spalling was noticed or a maximum surface temperature of
T = 500°C. In addition to the concrete’s surface temperature, the temperature in the core and at a depth of
30 mm was measured. Table 5 summarizes the heating rate chosen for each test.
On M2 and M3 concrete specimens, changes in weight during heating to T = 500°C were monitored too.
The metal cage was fixed to a scale by a cantilever. With the help of lever rules, any changes in weight
during concrete heating could be measured. The general test scheme is shown in figure 9. The set-up for
measuring the changes in weight was calibrated up to a temperature of T = 500°C by comparing the results
from the scale with the measurements of the weight before and after the tests, as long as the specimens
didn’t spall. The difference between both measurements could then be compensated over the entire
measuring range as a linear error.
13
Figure 7: Electric furnace used for tests Figure 8: Prepared concrete specimen with two
on explosive spalling for M1 concrete thermocouples at shell surface for
cylinders (Tmax = 1000°C) temperature measurements
kg
Counter Weight Scale
Cantilever
Concrete Specimen
Furnace Protection
(Metal Cage)
Thermocouple
Heating Element
Figure 9: left: Furnace with test specimen and cantilever for monitoring losses in weight used for
M2 and M3 concrete cylinders
right: General scheme for measuring losses in weight during heating
2.4 Test results on explosive spalling

Heat gradient and fracture pattern
During heating of the concrete specimen, the temperature distribution at the concrete’s surface, at 30 mm
depth and at the core was measured. While the surface temperature increased linearly according to the
heating rate, a “plateau” phase at the core temperature was noticed. A significantly slower increase in
temperature during this phase was observed. For the temperatures measured at 30 mm depth, this plateau
phase is less pronounced. Figure 10 shows a typical temperature distribution measured at the core during
heating, including temperature during the plateau phase (plateau temperature) and temperature upon
spalling (spalling temperature). The results shown here serve only to illustrate the behavior and are not
taken from real tests. A clear definition for defining the different temperatures is not available.
14
Test results on explosive spalling
Temperature in °C Plateau phase

600
Spalling
500
temperature
400
End
300
Start Plateau phase
200
100
0
Time
Figure 10: Definition of temperature during plateau phase (plateau temperature)
temperature upon spalling (spalling temperature) (typical shape of curve)
Tables 5 to 7 give an overview of the main results (including heating rate and details of the temperature
development as well as a photo of the tested specimen) for the 24 tests at elevated temperature carried
out with the three different mixtures. The specimens were heated linearly with heating rates between
Ṫ = 0.25 and 8.0 K/min.
The temperatures measured during the start and end of the plateau phase or when spalling was noticed
are also included in tables 5 to 7. These temperatures were derived from the temperature measurements
during heating. Figure 11 shows two temperature curves for a M1 (Test 2) and a M2 (Test 4) concrete
specimen. The start and end temperature of the plateau phase is visible for the M2 specimen heated with
Ṫ = 1.0 K/min (left figure). The M1 concrete cylinder heated with Ṫ = 1.0 K/min (right figure) spalled before
the plateau phase was noticed, hence no temperatures are given. All individual temperature measurements
for the tested concrete specimens is shown in figures A11 ‐ A22 in the appendix.
Temperature in °C M2 + steel fibers - Test 2 Temperature in °C M1 + steel fibers - Test 4

600 600
Surface Temp. Surface Temp.
Temp. in 30mm depth Temp. in 30mm depth
500 Core Temp.
500 Core Temp.
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
Heating rate: 1.00 K/min Heating rate: 1.00 K/min
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0.00 1.25 2.50 3.75 5.00
Time in h Time in h
Figure 11: Temperature measured during heating in different depth of the specimen
left: plateau phase clearly visible with
right: specimen spalled before plateau phase
15
Table 5: Overview of test results at elevated temperature ‐ M1 concrete mixture

Heating Explosive
Test Temperature Test Specimen
rate spalling
M1 concrete mixture with steel fibers
start 255-265°C
Plateau temperature
end 299°C
1 0.25 K/min no spalling
surface -
Spalling temperature
core -
start 260-270°C
Plateau temperature
end 300°C
surface -
core -
start 260-270°C
Plateau temperature
end -
spalling
3 0.75 K/min
single bang
surface 368°C
core 304°C
start -
Plateau temperature
end -
spalling
4 1.0 K/min
popping
surface 297°C
core 256°C
16
Table 5 (cont.): Overview of test results at elevated temperature ‐ M1 concrete mixture

M1 concrete mixture without steel fibers
start 255-265°C
Plateau temperature
end 309°C
surface -
core -
start -
Plateau temperature
end -
spalling
6 0.5 K/min
single bang
surface 300°C
core 282°C
17

Heating Explosive
rate spalling
start 235-245°C
Plateau temperature
end 275°C
surface -
core -
start 245-255°C
Plateau temperature
end 277°C
surface -
core -
1)
start -
Plateau temperature
1)
end -
spalling
3 1.75 K/min
single bang
surface 366°C
1)
core -
start 250-260°C
Plateau temperature
end 267°C
spalling
4 2.0 K/min
single bang
surface 357°C
core 267°C
start 240-250°C
Plateau temperature
end 260°C
spalling
5 2.5 K/min surface 371°C
single bang
core 260°C
1)
start -
Plateau temperature
1)
end -
spalling
6 3.0 K/min
popping
surface 357°C
1)
core -
18
Table 6 (cont.): Overview of test results at elevated temperature ‐ M2 concrete mixture

start 235-240°C
Plateau temperature
end 265°C
surface -
core -
start 220-225°C
Plateau temperature
end 284°C
surface -
core -
start 225-230°C
Plateau temperature
end 275°C
surface -
core -
start 195-205°C
Plateau temperature
end 230°C
spalling
10 2.0 K/min
single bang
surface 427°C
core 296°C
start 205-215°C
Plateau temperature
end 277°C
spalling
11 2.5 K/min
single bang
surface 433°C
core 277°C
1)
start -
Plateau temperature
1)
end -
spalling
12 4.0 K/min
popping
surface 411°C
1)
core -
1) Temperature measured at concrete’s surface only
19

Heating Explosive
rate spalling
start 240-250°C
Plateau temperature
end 256°C
surface -
core -
start 210-220°C
Plateau temperature
end 242°C
surface -
core -
start 205-210°C
Plateau temperature
end 213°C
surface -
core -
start 165-175°C
Plateau temperature
end 185°C
surface -
core -
start 160-170°C
Plateau temperature
end 182°C
surface -
core -
start 135-145°C
Plateau temperature
end 164°C
surface -
core -
20
In terms of explosive spalling of the tested concrete cylinders by linear heating it can be noticed that the
specimens made of concrete mixture M1 with steel fibers heated at a rate of Ṫ = 0.75 and 1.0 K/min,
respectively, failed by explosive spalling, while no explosive spalling was observed when heating the
specimens with rates of Ṫ = 0.25 and 0.5 K/min. In the case of specimens without steel fibers, explosive
spalling already occurred at a heating rate of Ṫ = 0.5 K/min. No explosive spalling was observed when
reducing the heating rate to Ṫ = 0.25 K/min (see table 5). The tests were stopped manually after spalling
was noticed by cracking sounds or a single loud bang.
For the concrete mixture M2, explosive spalling was observed starting at a heating rate of Ṫ = 1.75 K/min
for the specimens containing steel fibers and Ṫ = 2.0 K/min for the specimens without steel fibers. Thus, the
use of steel fibers did not improve the resistance to spalling. In comparison to the concrete mixture M1,
spalling was observed at higher heating rates. The amount of silica fume in the concrete mixture M1 was
higher than in the concrete mixture M2.
The thermal gradient from the surface to the core of the concrete cylinder was obtained directly from the
temperatures measured at these positions. The gradient was less than ΔT 0.6 K/mm (i.e. ΔT ≤ 45 K) during
the entire heating cycle for all tests carried out with the M1 concrete mixture. For the M2 concrete
mixture, the greatest thermal gradient measured on the specimens that showed explosive spalling with the
lowest rate (i.e. Ṫ = 1.75 K/min (test 3)), was less than ΔT 1.2 K/mm (i.e. ΔT < 90 K).
Independent of the use of steel fibers, specimens made of concrete mixture M3 did not spall in all tests,
even though the heating rate was increased up to Ṫ = 8 K/min, being the highest possible rate that can be
reached with the electric furnace used for the tests. The highest thermal gradient from the surface to the
core of the concrete cylinder for the tests carried out with the heating rate of Ṫ = 8.0 K/min was about
ΔT 3.85 K/mm (i.e. ΔT < 288 K).
Figure 12 shows typical thermal gradients measured for surface temperatures of T = 150°C, 300°C and
500°C for two different heating cycles: M1 concrete heated with Ṫ = 0.25 K/min and M3 concrete heated
with Ṫ = 8.0 K/min. For low heating rates of up to Ṫ = 2.0 K/min a very low thermal gradient was measured
between the surface and the core for all temperature levels. Further, the additional temperature measured
at 30 mm depth demonstrates that the thermal gradient within the specimen’s cross-section is linear for
slow heating rates, while an increasing thermal gradient was measured with increasing temperatures and
the thermal gradient within the specimen’s cross-section became nonlinear.
21
Temperature in °C Thermal Gradient

600
M1 - 0.25K/min
M3 - 8.0K/min
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 15 30 45 60 75
Distance from Surface in mm
Figure 12: Thermal gradient during heating
The differences in fracture pattern of the specimens made of concrete mixture M1 with and without steel
fibers are shown in table 5. The use of steel fibers generally leads to better ductility of the concrete. The
specimen containing steel fibers and heated with Ṫ = 0.5 K/min remained intact, while the specimen heated
with Ṫ = 0.75 K/min was reduced to few large pieces of concrete, thus indicating explosive spalling initiated
from the core of the specimen and noticed by a single loud bang. The specimen heated with Ṫ = 1.0 K/min
exhibited smaller flakes upon spalling. It is assumed that spalling took place layer-by-layer beginning from
the surface.
Due to the brittle material behavior, the specimen composed of concrete mixture M1 without steel fibers
heated with Ṫ = 0.5 K/min spalled into a few medium-sized pieces. Since the entire cylinder was destroyed
completely by spalling and it was noticed by a single loud bang, it is assumed that spalling was initiated
from the core of the specimen.
Figure 14 shows fracture patterns for selected specimens made of concrete mixture M2 with steel fibers.
The fracture pattern for the entire testing series is shown in table 6. It is interesting to note that the size of
the spalled concrete pieces decreased with increasing heating rate confirming the results observed for the
specimens made of M1 (figure 13) concrete mixture. Since by increasing heating rates the concrete zones
close to the surface are exposed to rapidly increasing temperatures, explosive spalling characterized by
flaking off of the surface is more likely, i.e. the concrete specimen spalls layer-by-layer. The visual
observations after the tests confirm the noise observations during the tests, i.e. at high heating rates
spalling was noticed by popping, while a single loud bang characterized spalling at lower heating rates.
Independent of the spalling mechanism, the visual inspection of the spalled concrete segments showed
that the steel fibers slipped within the concrete and fiber ends with a fiber length of about l = 2-3 mm are
visible in the fracture zone.
As all specimens made of M3 concrete mixture did not spall, no figures are presented.
22
Figure 13: Fracture pattern from M1 test specimens with steel fibers heated with different heating rates
Figure 14: Fracture pattern from M2 test specimens with steel fibers heated with different heating rates
23
2.5 Test results on losses in weight during heating

Changes in weight of concrete specimens were monitored during the heating phase on M2 and M3
concrete specimens. The test set-up is shown in figure 9. As mentioned above, the set-up for measuring the
changes in weight was calibrated up to a temperature of T = 500°C by comparing the results from the scale
with the measurements of the weight before and after the tests for those specimens which did not fail by
explosive spalling. The difference between both measurements, which was within the range of 5-10% of
the total loss in weight, could then be compensated over the entire measuring range as a linear error.
However, it seems that in some cases the metal cage connected with the scale couldn’t move freely.
Sudden jumps in the weight measurement were noticed leading to a significantly higher or lower total
weight and couldn’t be compensated. In terms of concrete specimens that fail by explosive spalling during
the test, the measured loss in weight was directly taken from the scale attached to the furnace without any
error compensation.
Figures 15 and 16 show a typical loss in weight during the heating phase for the specimens made of M2
concrete mixture with steel fibers heated with Ṫ = 0.5 K/min and Ṫ = 2.0 K/min, respectively. In both cases,
up to a concrete temperature of T = 100°C no significant change in weight was observed. For the concrete
specimen heated with Ṫ = 0.5 K/min (see figure 15), water started evaporating at T = 100°C. However, the
highest loss in weight was observed between T = 200°C and T = 300°C. At temperatures above T = 300°C
much lower changes in the concrete weight were observed. A very similar change in weight was measured
for specimens heated with Ṫ = 2.0 K/min (see figure 16) until explosive spalling occurred at a core
temperature of about T = 267°C. The time and temperature-dependent losses in weight for all tests are
shown in figures A23 to A36 in the appendix as far as available.
Temperature in °C M2 with steel fibers 0.5K/min Mass Loss in %

600 1.0
500 -0.5
Surface Temperature
400 Temperature in 30mm depth -2.0
Core Temperature
Loss in Mass
300 -3.5
200 -5.0
100 -6.5
0 -8.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time in h
Figure 15: Losses in weight during heating, M2 concrete with steel fibers (test 1)
heating rate Ṫ = 0.5 K/min
24
Test results on losses in weight during heating

600 1.0
500 -0.5
Surface Temperature
Core Temperature
Loss in Mass
300 -3.5
200 -5.0
100 -6.5
0 -8.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Time in h
Figure 16: Losses in weight during heating, M2 concrete with steel fibers (test 4)
heating rate Ṫ = 2.0 K/min
Referring to table 6 and 7, table 8 shows the average loss in weight in percent compared to the initial cold
weight. For a better comparison, the moisture content of the M1 concrete is given here too. However, the
maximum losses in weight weren’t measured in these tests. For tests 7 and 8 using M2 concrete without
steel fibers, the loss in weight could not be determined with the scale. No reasonable results could be taken
from the scale attached to the furnace.
The M2 specimen in test 5 and test 11 spalled. The loss in weight could not be verified by measuring the
weight before and after heating. Table 8 shows the maximum loss in weight according to the scale attached
to the furnace. However, the measurement did not provide any reasonable results; hence no figure for this
test is shown in the appendix.
25
Table 8: Losses in weight during heating

Tests Heating rate Spalling Moisture Max. loss in weight in %
content in % at temperature in °C
- 3.40% -
- 2.95% -
1 0.5 K/min no spalling 7.24%, 500°C
3 1.75 K/min spalling 4.63%, 366°C
3.75%
4 2.0 K/min spalling 4.57%, 357°C
1)
5 2.5 K/min spalling (1.25%), 367°C
6 3.0 K/min spalling 3.22%, 358°C
2)
2)
3.99%
10 2.0 K/min spalling 7.85%, 500°C
1)
11 2.5 K/min spalling (8.89%), 428°C
12 4.0 K/min spalling 3.65%, 407°C
2 4.0 K/min no spalling 2.68% 4.96%, 500°C
5 6.0 K/min no spalling 2.89% 5.22%, 500°C
1) Loss in weight by scale in furnace - unreasonable result ‐ no figure in appendix
2) Loss in weight by measurements outside the furnace ‐ no figure in appendix
26
3 TESTS ON EXPLOSIVE SPALLING OF CONCRETE CYLINDERS CONTAINING PP-
FIBERS
3.1 Introduction
As second part of the project, concrete cylinders with PP-fibers were tested. The influence of different
types and amounts of PP-fibers on the spalling behavior of HPC and UHPC was analyzed. Similar to the tests
on concrete cylinders without PP-fibers (chapter 2), all tests were performed on unloaded regular concrete
cylinders (ø = 150 mm, l = 300 mm), made of high (HPC) or ultra-high performance concrete mixtures
(UHPC) covering strength levels of fc = 85 - 160 MPa.
Two different concrete mixtures were used for these tests. The concrete P1-X is a self-compacting, pre-
packed dry UHPC mixture. Only water, superplasticizer and fibers (PP and steel) were added to the mix. The
individual components of the pre-packed concrete mixture are known by the manufacturer. Different
amounts and types of PP-fibers including different geometries are studied with the same base compound
(dry mixture). The “-X” indicates the type and amount (in kg/m3) of PP-fibers added to the mix. Fibers with
a length of l = 6 ‐ 20 mm and diameter of up to ø = 32 µm were tested; the fiber dosage varied between
mPP = 0 ‐ 4 kg/m3 PP-fibers.
The P2-X concrete is a self-compacting HPC mixture. Test specimen were concreted, cast and conditioned
by the manufacturer, hence the mix-design is unknown. Similar to the P1-X concrete, the “‐ X” indicates the
type and amount (in kg/m3) of PP-fibers added to the mix, which varied between mPP = 0 and 2 kg/m3.
Table 9 gives an overview on the concrete mixtures for tests on explosive spalling, including approximate
compressive strength grades, silica fume content and the probable use of steel and PP-fibers.
Table 9: General overview on concrete mixtures for tests on

explosive spalling of concrete containing PP-fibers
Concrete Mixture P1-X P2-X
1)
Cold strength fc in MPa 132-159 85-102
2)
silica content unknown unknown
Steel fibers 2% in Vol. none
PP-fibers yes yes
No of tests on spalling 8 3
1) Compressive strength depending on the amount of steel or PP-fibers
2) Similar to M1 concrete mixture

The influence of different types of PP-fibers was analyzed in this second part of tests on the explosive
spalling of concrete. The aim was to find out if the amount and geometry of the PP-fibers used have a
significant influence on explosive spalling.
Within this test series, two main concrete mixtures were tested. Both mixtures involve self-compacting
concrete with a compressive strength of about fc = 150 MPa for the PP-fiber free P1-0 reference concrete
27
Tests on explosive spalling of concrete cylinders containing PP-fibers
mixture and fc = 100 MPa for the P2-0 mixture, respectively. As previously mentioned, different amounts
and types of PP-fibers were tested. Table 10 summarizes the tested mixtures. While all four different types
of PP-fibers were used with the P1-concrete, only one type of PP-fiber was tested with the P2-concrete
mixture.
In addition to the PP-fibers, V = 2.0 Vol.-% of a common steel fiber was used for all P1 concrete mixes,
including the PP-fiber free reference mix. The P2-mixtures contained no steel fibers. Neither the fiber’s
geometry, nor the mechanical properties of these steel fibers are known.
Table 10: Concrete mixtures using PP-fibers

P1- P2-
Concrete Mixture
0 2A 3A 4A 3B 2C 3C 0 1 2
Steel fibers 2.0 Vol.-% none
Type of PP-Fibers - A A A* B C C - A* A*
3
PP-Fibers in kg/m 0 2 3 4 3 2 3 0 1 2
In total four different PP-fibers were used in these tests. Table 11 summarizes the main properties of the
PP-fibers used. Apart from the fiber’s length, type A and A* fibers are identical. Since all fibers are made of
PP, the melting temperature of T = 165°C is constant for all fibers.
The melt flow rate indicates the flowability of a thermoplastic polymer, here PP-fibers. The mass of polymer
is defined that flows in ten minutes through a capillary at a specific temperature and pressure. The value is
usually given in g/10 min. The higher this melt flow rate, the higher the ability of PP-fibers to evaporate out
of the concrete at high temperatures and provide sufficient permeability to minimize the risk of spalling.
MFR is only available for type B PP-fibers.
Table 11: Main properties of PP-fibers

Type of PP-Fiber A A* B C
fiber length in mm 20 6 6 6
fiber diameter in µm 32.0 32.0 15.4 18.0
2
tensile strength in N/mm 250 250 n.a. 400
2
Young’s modulus in N/mm ≈ 3500 ≈ 3500 n.a. 2250
3
density in kg/m 905 905 910 905
melting point in °C 165 165 165 165
Melt Flow Rate in g/10 min n.a. n.a. > 1000 n.a.
2
specific fiber length in m /kg 134 134 ≈ 280 244
3.2.1 Mixing procedure and specimens

The UHPC P1-X mix design is unknown. In contrast to the M1 ‐ M3 mixtures from the first testing series,
V = 2% in volume of steel fibers were added to all mixes. In addition to the steel fibers, different amounts
and types of PP-fibers were added to the fresh concrete while mixing except for the reference mixture
P1-0.
28
Details of the mixing procedure for the P1-X concrete are unknown. After mixing, the concrete the molds
were filled straightaway for concreting cylinders (ø = 150 mm, l = 300 mm). Due to the self-consolidating
properties of the mix, additional compaction wasn’t necessary. Similar to the M1-M3 concrete specimens,
thermocouples were placed in the mold when concreting. The concrete cylinders were demolded after
t = 4 d and stored at T = 20°C and 95% relative humidity for a total of t = 28 d. Specimens made with type
A*, B and C PP-fibers were stored in water for this time period. After this t = 28 d, the cylinders were
conditioned at T = 20°C and 50% relative humidity until testing. A sufficient maturity was usually achieved
after additional storage for t = 90 d at these conditions.
The mixing procedure of the P2-X concrete is unknown. Concrete cylinders (ø = 150 mm, l = 300 mm)
without any internal thermocouples were provided for testing. According to the manufacturer, these
specimens had an average age of about t = 28 d upon testing. The conditioning climate between concreting
and testing is not known.
Type K thermocouples were placed in the molds of the P1-X concrete, hence the temperature inside the
specimen, at 30 mm depth to the surface and in the core could be measured. No thermocouples were
placed in the P2-X concrete molds when concreting.
3.2.2 Major mechanical properties

Similar to the first testing series on PP-fiber-free concrete cylinders, the major mechanical properties were
tested on the concrete specimen containing PP-fibers. All tests were carried out on small concrete cylinders
of diameter ø = 50 mm and length of about l = 140 mm drilled out of the regularly cast cylinders. The
testing procedure was the same as described in chapter 2.2.2. Tables 12 and 13 summarize the main
mechanical properties of the two concrete mixtures. The tensile strength of the P2-X concrete mixture
wasn’t analyzed, as also the Young’s modulus for both main mixtures.
It is interesting to note that the compressive strength depends on the type and for some fibers even the
amount of PP-fibers added to the concrete. It seems that just the presence of the types A and A* PP-fibers
reduces the compressive strength of the P1-2A, P1-3A and P1-4A concrete by about 13%, independent of
the amount of fibers. Increasing losses in strength were observed with the P2-0 to P2-2 mixes with
increasing amount of PP-fibers. With a PP-fiber content of mPP = 2 kg/m3 for the P2-2 mix, the loss in
strength was a little higher (-17%) compared to the P1-2A concrete.
Table 12: Major mechanical properties of P1- concrete

P1-
Concrete Mixture
0 2A 3A 4A 3B 2C 3C
Steel fibers 2.0 Vol.-%
Type of PP-fibers - A A A* B C C
3
PP-fibers in kg/m 0 2 3 4 3 2 3
Compressive Strength MPa 154.1 132.0 135.1 133.5 159.8 146.2 135.2
Tensile strength in MPa 4.4 7.7 4.8 3.8 2.5 n.a. 4.0
3
Bulk density in kg/m 2450 2430 2403 2327 2355 2353 2362
Tested samples 3 4 4 4 4 4 3
29
No reduction in compressive strength was observed with the use of type B fibers; however even a minor
increase in compressive strength was noticed. In terms of type C fibers, an increasing amount of PP-fibers
caused a decrease in compressive strength of up to -12% compared to the initial strength with the use of
mPP = 3 kg/m3 PP-fibers (P1-3C).
Table 13: Major mechanical properties of P2- concrete

P2-
Concrete Mixture
0 1 2
Steel fibers none
Type of PP-fibers A*
3
PP-fibers in kg/m 0 1 2
Compressive strength MPa 102.6 97.4 85.0
Tested samples 4 4 4
3
Bulk density in kg/m 2468 2461 2423
The sudden increase in tensile strength of the P1-2A concrete to ft = 7.7 MPa compared to ft = 4.4 MPa for
the fiber free mixture cannot be explained at the moment, just like the very low strength of only
ft = 2.5 MPa for the 3B mix. In general, it is difficult to assess the tensile strength of the P1-concrete and the
possible influence of PP-fibers since the scatter of the results compared to the initial tensile strength is very
high. According to the concrete manufacturer, the concrete’s tensile strength is usually significantly higher
compared to these observations. One possible explanation might be the choice of testing samples. The
influence of eccentricities during testing small cylinders in direct tension cannot however always be
avoided. One possibility to minimize these influences is the use of “dogbone” shaped specimens.
3.3 Testing procedure on explosive spalling

The testing procedure using the electric furnace was the same as that in earlier tests on explosive spalling
described in chapter 2 and shown in figure 7.
Similar to the previous tests, two type K thermocouples were attached to the cylinder’s shell surface at
mid-height. The concrete cylinder was then placed into the furnace inside a double layer cage from meshed
metal baffle to protect the heating elements from damage in case of spalling.
The specimens were heated until explosive spalling was noticed or to a maximum surface temperature of
T = 700°C. In addition to the concrete’s surface temperature, the temperature in the core and at a depth of
30 mm was measured at the P1-X concrete mixture. For the P2-X concrete mixture only the surface
temperature was monitored during heating.
The specimens remained unloaded during the whole test.
30
3.4 Test results on explosive spalling

Tests on explosive spalling were carried out with the regularly cast concrete cylinders (ø = 150 mm,
l = 300 mm). Similar to the tests on explosive spalling as described in chapter 2 two thermocouples were
placed on the concrete’s shell surface before testing. In terms of the P2-X cylinders, these were the only
thermocouples attached to these specimens, since no thermocouples were placed in the concrete molds
during concreting.
All tests on P1-X concrete specimens were heated until explosive spalling was noticed or to a maximum of
T = 500°C with the constant heating rate as shown in table 14.
The P2-X concrete specimens were hated in two stages until explosive spalling was noticed or to a
maximum of T = 700°C. Since the furnace itself requires some time and energy for an increase in
temperature, the rate was set to Ṫ = 8 K/min up to a concrete surface temperature of T = 170°C. Then, in a
second stage, the heating rate was increased to Ṫ = 12 K/min.
All temperature curves during heating of these tests are given in table A37 ‐ A41 in the appendix. Tables 14
and 15 summarize the main results from the tests on explosive spalling using concrete cylinders with PP-
fibers.
Table 14: Overview of test results at elevated temperature ‐ P1-X concrete with PP-fibers
Mix Heating Explosive
PP-fibers rate spalling
P1 concrete
start 230°C
Plateau
temperature
P1-0 end -
spalling
1 no 3 K/min
popping
PP-fibers surface 320°C
Spalling
temperature
core 210°C
start 215°C
Plateau
temperature
P1-0 end -
1.5 spalling
2 no
K/min popping
PP-fibers surface 260°C
Spalling
temperature
core 210°C
31
Table 14 (cont.): Overview of test results at elevated temperature ‐ P1-X concrete with PP-fibers
P1 concrete
start 230°C
Plateau
temperature
P1-2A end 260°C
3 spalling at
3 2 kg/m 8 K/min
surface
Type A surface 350-400°C
Spalling
temperature
core 120-170°C
start 230°C
Plateau
temperature
P1-3A end 260°C
3 spalling at
4 3 kg/m 8 K/min
surface
Type A surface 350°C
Spalling
temperature
core 150°C
start -
Plateau
temperature
P1-4A end -
3 spalling at
5 4 kg/m 10 K/min
surface
Type A* surface 400°C
Spalling
temperature
core 130°C
start -
Plateau
temperature
single end -
P1-3B
3 parts at
6 3 kg/m 10 K/min
surface
Type B surface 410°C
spalled
Spalling
temperature
core 150°C
start -
Plateau
temperature
single end -
P1-3B
3 parts at
7 3 kg/m 10 K/min
surface
Type B surface 350°C
spalled
Spalling
temperature
core 120°C
32
Table 14 (cont.): Overview of test results at elevated temperature ‐ P1-X concrete with PP-fibers
start 175°C
Plateau
temperature
P1-3C end 260°C
3 no
8 3 kg/m 10 K/min
spalling
Type C surface -
Spalling
temperature
core -
Table 15: Overview of test results at elevated temperature ‐ P2-X concrete with PP-fibers
P2-X concrete
start -
Plateau
temperature
8.0 K/min end -
P2-0 local parts
(170°C)
1 no at surface
12 K/min
PP-fibers spalled surface 340°C
(340°C)
Spalling
temperature
core -
start -
Plateau
temperature
8.0 K/min end -
P2-1
3 (170°C) no
2 1 kg/m
12 K/min spalling
Type A* surface -
(700°C)
Spalling
temperature
core -
start -
Plateau
temperature
8.0 K/min end -
P2-2
3 (170°C) no
3 2 kg/m
12 K/min spalling
Type A* surface -
(700°C)
Spalling
temperature
core -
33
It could be observed that adding PP-fibers to the P1- concrete mixture significantly reduces the extent of
explosive spalling even for high heating rates. However, not all types of PP-fibers could reduce spalling to a
minimum.
No spalling was observed on specimens with mPP = 3 kg/m3 type C PP-fibers (test 8). A few cracks with an
average width of l = 0.2 mm were noticed after cooling. Figure 17 left shows the cracks in this specimen
after cooling to ambient temperature.
It is interesting to note that increasing the amount of type A and A* fibers has only minor influence on
explosive spalling. It seems, mPP = 4 kg/m3 type A* PP-fibers lead to a higher spalling content compared to
mPP = 3 kg/m3 type A PP-fibers.
The P2-0 concrete mixture without PP-fibers (test 1) exhibited some local spalling at the upper end (see
table 15) of the heated cylinder at a surface temperature of about T = 340°C.
No explosive spalling could be observed on the P2-1 and P2-2 concrete cylinders (tests 2 + 3). However, a
homogeneous crack pattern covering the entire concrete surface was noticed with an average crack width
in the range l = 0.1 ‐ 0.2 mm with single peaks of up to l = 0.35 mm width. Figure 17 right shows parts of a
P2-2 concrete cylinder (test 3) including cracks and scale.
Figure 17: Crack width on concrete cylinders after heating

left: P1-3C with mPP = 3 kg/m3 type C PP-fibers, heating rate Ṫ = 10 K/min
right: P2-2 with mPP = 2 kg/m3 type A* PP-fibers, heating rate Ṫ = 8.0 / 12 K/min
34
Test results on temperature dependent compressive strength
3.5 Test results on temperature dependent compressive strength

Apart from the tests on explosive spalling, the compressive strength of concrete for a full thermal cycle was
analyzed for the P1-X concrete series. The hot strength at temperatures of T = 300°C, 500°C and 700°C was
determined on small concrete cylinders (ø = 50 mm, l = 140 mm) similar to the ones as described in
chapter 3.2.2. In addition, the concrete cylinders were heated to the target temperatures, conditioned for
t = 3 h and cooled to ambient temperature before analyzing the residual compressive strength after cooling
from high temperatures.
To minimize the influences of thermal stresses during the thermal cycle, a heating rate of only Ṫ = 2.0 K/min
was chosen. The cooling rate was even lower with rates between Ṫ = 0.5 ‐1.3 K/min. Tests on the
compressive strength were performed deformation-controlled similar to the tests on mechanical properties
as described in chapter 2.2.2.
Figure 18 shows the main results in hot and residual compressive strength. The significant increase in both
compressive hot and residual strength after cooling from T = 300°C and 500°C for the P1-2A specimen is
noteworthy. A small increase in compressive strength up to a temperature of T = 500°C was observed for all
P1-X concrete mixtures. In addition, a significant influence of the presence of different PP-fibers was
noticed.
A profound technical report on the compressive strength development of concrete for a full thermal cycle is
planned, covering concrete strength grades between fc = 30 ‐150 MPa, including the influence of PP and
steel-fibers and different types of cement.
fc in MPa Hot Strength fc in MPa Residual Strength

275 275
250 250
225 225
200 200
175 175
150 150
125 Typ A - 2kg/m3 125 Typ A - 2kg/m3
100 Typ A - 3kg/m3 100 Typ A - 3kg/m3
Typ A* - 4kg/m3 Typ A* - 4kg/m3
75 Typ B - 3kg/m3 75 Typ B - 3kg/m3
Typ C - 2kg/m3 Typ C - 2kg/m3
50 50
Typ C - 3kg/m3 Typ C - 3kg/m3
25 ohne Fasern 25
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 0 200 400 600 800
Temperature in °C Temperature in °C
Figure 18: P1-X concrete temperature-dependent compressive strength development fc in MPa

left: hot strength at different temperature levels
right: residual strength at T = 20°C after cooling from high temperatures
35
36
4 TESTS ON POROSITY
4.1 Introduction
To quantify changes in pore volume, small parts of the concrete were tested by mercury intrusion
porosimetry. The main aim of this test was to find out differences in porosity from PP-fiber free concrete
samples that failed by explosive spalling or remained intact due to a low heating rate. In addition, changes
in the concrete’s porosity within the range of the melting temperature of PP-fibers were analyzed too. All
test results were compared to the pore size distribution and total porosity of unheated concrete samples.
4.2 Test set-up

At each test, several small concrete cubes with a rough edge length of approximate l = 4 mm were tested.
Before testing, the concrete specimens were dried at T = 105°C until a constant weight was achieved. Pores
filled with water cannot be analyzed by mercury intrusion and would lead to doubtful results. The tests
were carried out in two different testing units with a total maximum mercury pressure of fc = 400 MPa.
Figure 19 shows the two testing devices for determining the porosity as well as some concrete cubes
prepared for testing.
Figure 19: Test on temperature-dependent changes in porosity

left: high- and low pressure testing unit for determining the porosity (f.l.t.r.)
right: concrete cubes prepared for analysis and test dilatometer

4.3.1 Tests on concrete specimen without PP-fibers
All specimens were taken from samples concreted for the test on explosive spalling as described in
chapter 2. For the concrete specimens without PP-fibers that did not fail by explosive spalling, small
concrete cubes with a rough edge length of l = 4 mm were taken at a depth of 10 mm and 40 mm and from
the core of the concrete cylinder after it cooled to ambient temperature. These cubes were tested at once
to achieve an overall value for the concrete’s porosity; hence no judgment on the porosity of samples taken
from the different depths can be made. Since the original position of the remaining fragments of the
37
Tests on porosity
spalled concrete specimens is not known, small cubes were randomly cut out of the spalled concrete
fragments.
For each concrete mixture M1 ‐ M3, the porosity was tested of a heated concrete specimen that failed by
explosive spalling and of a specimen that remained intact up to a temperature of T = 500°C without
spalling. These results were compared with unheated concrete cubes. The entire test program is shown in
table 16, including the heating rates chosen for the tests on porosity. Usually, two tests were performed to
determine the porosity of the heated concrete pieces, while only one reference test was made. Specimens
made of M1 concrete mixture without steel fibers were not analyzed.
Table 16: Tests on pore volume after the heating cycle

Steel fibers in Vol.-% 2.5% in Vol. none 2.5% in Vol. none 2.5% in Vol. none
Reference tests on
1 test - 1 test 1 test 1 test 1 test
unheated concrete cubes
Heating rate causing no 0.5 K/min 1.0 K/min 1.0 K/min 8.0 K/min 6.0 K/min
-
explosive spalling 2 tests 2 tests 2 tests 2 tests 2 tests
Heating rate causing 1.0 K/min 2.0 K/min 2.0 K/min
- - -
explosive spalling 2 tests 2 tests 2 tests
4.3.2 Tests on concrete specimen with PP-fibers

In addition, the porosity of the P1-0, P1-2A and P1-3A concrete was tested as well. Changes in porosity and
the cumulative pore volume were analyzed on concrete cubes including the influence of the presence of
PP-fibers. Only type A PP-fibers with a length of l = 12 mm and a diameter of ø = 34 µm were tested.
The porosity and pore size distribution was analyzed at different temperature levels. Measurements were
taken at T = 120°C, 200°C, 275°C and 350°C. In contrast to the other test series, unheated small concrete
cubes with a rough edge length of l = 4 mm were directly cut from regular unheated concrete cylinders and
dried at T = 120°C until constant in mass before testing.
For the tests at temperatures of T = 200°C and above, the concrete cubes were heated in a china crucible
with a heating rate of Ṫ = 2 K/min gas temperature to the target temperature, conditioned for two hours
and naturally cooled by switching off the furnace electricity. These cubes were readily prepared for the
analysis and stored under dry conditions until testing. Table 17 summarizes the testing program for the P1
concrete specimens.

Concrete Mixture P1-0 P1-2A P1-3A
3 3 3 3
PP-fiber content in kg/m 0 kg/m 2 kg/m 3 kg/m
Type A PP-fiber geometry - l = 20 mm ø = 32 µm
Testing temperature 120°C, 200°C, 275°C, 350°C
38
Test results
4.4 Test results

4.4.1 Test results on concrete specimen without PP-fibers
All tests were analyzed with mercury intrusion porosimetry. With increasing mercury pressure on the
concrete specimen, smaller pores are filled with mercury; hence the corresponding cumulative pore
volume in relation to the pore radius is measured. All results were compiled based on an “ink-bottle” pore
system. However, details on crack orientation and the direction of crack growth cannot be estimated with
this testing method. Apart from the analysis on the unheated reference specimen, the procedure was
carried out twice.
The cumulative pore volume of the M2 concrete mixture as results from the mercury intrusion porosimetry
is shown in figure 20. The results for M1 and M3 concretes are shown in figures A42 and A43 in the
appendix. In addition, the pore size distribution for these three concrete mixes are shown in figures A44,
A45 and A46 in the appendix. These results are not discussed in detail.
Cumulatives pore volume in mm3/g Cumulatives pore volume in mm3/g

80 80
M2 with steel fibers M2 without steel fibers
70 unheated specimen 70 unheated specimen
1.0 K/min (1st test) 1.0 K/min (1st test)
1.0 K/min (2nd test) 1.0 K/min (2nd test)
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
100 101 102 103 104 105 100 101 102 103 104 105
Pore radius in nm Pore radius in nm
Figure 20: Cumulative pore volume for the M2 concrete mixture with and without steel fibers
Cold stage, rapidly heated to explosive spalling, slowly heated to T = 500°C without spalling
In general it can be seen that for all concrete mixtures, the highest increase in pore volume is observed in
the range of pore radius of r = 10 nm - 100 nm. The concrete’s capillary pores also lie within this range of
pore radius.
The average cumulative pore volume of the unheated concrete cubes is about 40 mm3/g for all three
concrete mixtures. It is interesting to note that the concrete mixture M1 has a steeper gradient in the pore
volume (see figure A42) in comparison to the M2 (figure 20) and M3 (figure A43) concrete mixtures,
indicating that most of the pores are in the range of up to r = 10 nm. This phenomenon can be explained
with the high amount of silica fume used for the M1 concrete mixture. Silica fume has an average particle
size [10] of ø = 100 - 200 nm, filling the pores in this range and causing smaller pores while the total pore
volume remains constant. For the M2 concrete, this shift in pore size distribution is less pronounced as for
the concrete mixture M1, since the concrete mixture M2 (figure 20) contains a smaller amount of silica
fume. The pore distributions for the concrete mixtures M2 and M3 are quite similar; furthermore no
significant differences were observed between concrete specimens with and without steel fibers.
39
Tests on porosity
For the specimens that failed due to explosive spalling, an average cumulative pore volume of
Vp = 50 - 55 mm3/g was observed for all the concrete mixtures tested, independent of the use of steel
fibers. For the specimens that did not show explosive spalling, this volume increased to Vp = 65 - 70 mm3/g
for the specimens containing steel fibers and Vp = 65 mm3/g for the M2 concrete mixture without steel
fibers. For the specimens made of concrete mixture M3 without steel fibers ‐ no specimen showed
explosive spalling ‐ a very low pore volume of only Vp = 50 mm3/g was measured. The difference in pore
volume observed between concrete specimens with and without steel fibers can be caused by the different
coefficients of thermal expansion of the steel fibers and the cement paste. A different thermal expansion
causes micro cracking leading to a higher pore volume at the boundary surfaces.
In addition to the cumulative pore distribution, the total porosity of the specimens was analyzed. Table 18
shows these values for the different PP-fiber-free concrete mixtures M1 to M3. If available, the average
values of the two measurements are given.
The porosity at cold stage is within the range of  = 10% for all mixtures, but mixtures without steel fibers
generally exhibited a lower porosity of about  = 8-9%. In addition, it seems that the use of silica fume as a
mix component slightly reduces the porosity of concrete as can be seen with the M1 and M2 concrete.
The results presented in table 18 show a significant increase in total porosity of the specimens that didn’t
fail by explosive spalling. For the M2 concrete with steel fibers, the porosity increased from  = 9.03% by
85% to  = 16.73%. For the M1 and M3 concrete mixtures, this increase is within the range of 50-60%
compared to the porosity in the cold stage. A less pronounced increase in porosity of 40 - 50% was noticed
for the two concrete mixes without steel fibers (M2, M3).
In contrast to these observations, a small decrease in porosity for the M1 concrete with steel fibers that
failed by explosive spalling during heating was noticed. An additional, temperature-dependent hardening,
closing the pores, might be a possible explanation for this lower porosity.
For the M2 concrete specimens that failed by explosive spalling, a smaller increase in total porosity from
about  = 9% at cold stage to about  = 12 ‐ 13% was noticed.
Table 18: Total porosity of PP-fiber free concrete specimen

Steel fibers in Vol.-% 2.5 - 2.5 - 2.5 -
Total porosity:
- unheated concrete (reference test) 9.63% - 9.03% 8.74% 10.18% 8.11%
- concrete failed by explosive spalling 8.88% - 12.98% 11.94% - -
- concrete remained intact at 500°C 15.64% - 16.73% 13.56% 15.86% 11.28%
40
Test results
4.4.2 Test results on concrete specimens with PP-fibers

Similar to the tests on PP-fiber free concrete specimens, all tests were analyzed with mercury intrusion
porosimetry based on an “ink-bottle” pore system with the same limitations mentioned before. The
cumulative pore volume gained from the tests is shown in figure 21.
Cumulatives pore volume in mm3/g Cumulatives pore volume in mm3/g Cumulatives pore volume in mm3/g
80 80 80
P1-0 P1-2A P1-3A
70 120°C 70 120°C 70 120°C
200°C 200°C 200°C
275°C 275°C 275°C
60 60 60
350°C 350°C 350°C
50 50 50
40 40 40
30 30 30
20 20 20
10 10 10
0 0 0
100 101 102 103 104 105 100 101 102 103 104 105 100 101 102 103 104 105
Pore radius in nm Pore radius in nm Pore radius in nm
Figure 21: Cumulative pore volume for the concrete mixture with different amounts of PP-fiber,
specimen heated to T = 120°C, 200°C, 275°C and 350°C
Figure 21 left indicates changes in the pore volume of the concrete specimen without PP-fibers. It can be
seen, that the cumulative pore volume increases when heating the concrete from T = 120°C to T = 200°C.
This increase takes place mainly in pores in the range of r = 100 nm and smaller. A second increase in pore
volume can be observed at the T = 270°C and T = 350°C temperature level. These temperature levels are in
the range of the critical temperatures causing explosive spalling. No significant differences in the pore
volume could be observed between these two levels. Microcracks are mainly developed and the concrete
breaks into smaller pieces caused by explosive spalling; in addition the cement paste starts to decompose.
The development of the cumulative pore volume of the concrete specimen with mPP = 2 kg/m3 PP-fibers is
similar to the concrete specimen without PP-fibers. However, an increase of pore radius of r = 1.7·104 nm
could be observed for the samples heated to and above T = 200°C. Since PP-fibers melt at about T = 160°C,
this sudden increase indicates the additional pore volume caused by the molten PP-fibers. This peak is
more pronounced for the concrete specimen with mPP = 3 kg/m3 PP-fibers concrete. Both specimens with
PP-fibers (figure 21, middle and right) a second step at a pore radius between r = 1 and 5·103 nm is visible,
mainly for the sample heated to T = 350°C. The concrete specimen without PP-fibers did not exhibit this
second step (or increase) at T = 350°C, since the specimens usually spalled at this temperature level and
pore widening has only a minor effect on the porosity at this temperature level.
The overall cumulative pore volume of the concrete specimen with mPP = 2 kg/m3 PP-fibers is rather low
compared to the other test results which cannot explained at the moment. However, a similar gradient of
the cumulative pore volume compared to specimens without PP-fibers can be observed. The pore volume
of the specimens heated to T = 275°C and T = 350°C is almost identical. The concrete specimen with
mPP = 3 kg/m3 PP-fibers has a similar cumulative pore volume, but the pore size distribution is shifted to
larger pores.
41
Tests on porosity
In addition to the cumulative pore volume, the pore size distribution for the tested concrete samples were
analyzed as well and are shown in figure 22. Each figure shows the pore radius in nm versus the probability
of spreading DV/log(DR) for the three different amounts of PP-fibers. Figure 22 left indicates the concrete
specimens without PP-fibers. The analyzed cubes show a significant increase in the pore size distribution
when it comes to explosive spalling. While the gradient of the curves for the specimen heated to T = 275°C
is very similar, the specimen heated to T = 350°C has more pores in the range up to r = 102 nm.
Furthermore, the specimen heated close to the critical temperature of T = 275°C has a large amount of very
small pores (r < 10 nm), which indicates that spalling seems to be initiated by the growth of very small
pores and cracks. By contrast, the concrete specimens with mPP = 2 kg/m3 PP-fibers have a very constant
pore size distribution for all temperature levels. The small peak for the melting PP-fibers is visible for the
specimen heated above T = 200°C. It is interesting to note, that these few additional rather large pores
provide a sufficient increase in pore volume to enable moisture and pressure release.
A different pore size distribution was measured for the concrete specimens with mPP = 3 kg PP-fibers. In
addition to the peak in size distribution caused by the melting PP-fibers, significant peaks between
r = 10-102 nm can be observed for the specimens heated to T = 275°C and T = 350°C.
Pore size distribution DV/log(DR) Pore size distribution DV/log(DR) Pore size distribution DV/log(DR)
120 120 120
P1-0 P1-2A P1-3A
120°C 120°C 120°C
100 200°C 100 200°C 100 200°C
275°C 275°C 275°C
350°C 350°C 350°C
80 80 80
60 60 60
40 40 40
20 20 20
0 0 0
100 101 102 103 104 105 100 101 102 103 104 105 100 101 102 103 104 105
Pore radius in nm Pore radius in nm Pore radius in nm
Figure 22: Pore size distribution for the concrete mixture with different amounts of PP-fibers,
specimen heated to T = 120°C, 200°C, 275°C and 350°C
The analysis showed that the use of PP-fibers increases the pore volume and protects the concrete from
explosive spalling. Whereas these PP-fibers provide additional pore volume with an average pore radius of
r = 1.7·104 nm, the main crack growth and deterioration processes take place in smaller pores with a radius
between r = 1 and 102 nm.
The overall total porosity of the tested samples is shown in figure 23. Significant changes were observed
between the three different specimens as well as during the heating of the specimens. The concrete
specimen without PP-fibers exhibited the lowest total porosity of just  = 7.5% at T = 120°C due to the
absence of fibers. It increased to  = 15% porosity at T = 275°C due to microcracking which can also be seen
in figures 21 and 22. At T = 350°C, a lower porosity was observed, since spalling and cracking divided the
sample in multiple fragments.
42
Test results
In contrast to this porosity development, the concrete specimens with mPP = 2 kg/m3 PP-fibers exhibited an
overall low porosity of just  = 9% which increases to  = 11% after exceeding the critical temperature at
around T = 300°C due to additional widening of the pores.
The concrete specimen with mPP = 3 kg PP-fibers had at T = 120°C a very high initial porosity of  = 15%,
which decreased to  = 11% at T = 200°C. At T = 275°C and T = 250°C, a similar development in the
specimens with mPP = 2 kg/m3 fibers was observed.
Total porosity in %
20
P1-0 no PP-fibers
P1-2A 2kg PP-fibers type A
P1-3A 3kg PP-fibers type A
16
12
0
0 100 200 300 400
Pore radius in nm
Figure 23: Total porosity of the P1 concrete specimens with and without PP-fibers
43
Tests on porosity
44
5 TESTS ON RESIDUAL PERMEABILITY OF CONCRETE AFTER EXPOSURE TO HIGH
TEMPERATURE
5.1 Introduction
Permeability of concrete at high temperature is assumed to be an important factor influencing the risk of
explosive spalling; hence measurements of the temperature-dependent changes in the concrete’s
permeability are essential for further analysis. Tests are challenging and are rarely described in literature in
particular for HPC, UHPC and different amount of fibers at high temperatures.
As first quantifying tests, the residual gas-permeability of concrete after cooling from high temperatures
was analyzed. As temperature levels, the range between T = 20°C and T = 500°C was chosen. Concrete disks
(ø = 150 mm, h = 40 mm) were heated slowly to different target temperatures, conditioned and cooled
again to ambient temperature, before gas-permeability was tested.
5.2 Test set-up

A standard, handheld permeability-meter with a suction cap including two coaxial chambers was used as
device for testing the permeability. The caps have to be placed on the concrete surface and a vacuum pump
outgases air from both chambers. The permeability was then determined by measuring the pressure
difference and the measured flow of air between both chambers. Figure 24 show the test set up. As output
parameter, the permeability coefficient within the range k = 0.001 ‐ 100 · 10-16 in m2 and the penetration
depth into the concrete in mm are displayed. The results can then be presented on a logarithmic scale. Due
to the wide measuring range and presentation of results with a logarithmic scale, a typical spread in single
results of up to 50% can be expected (e.g. from k = 5.0 · 10-16 to k = 7.5 · 10-16 m2) but this has only a minor
influence on the evaluation of test results.
Figure 24: Device and working scheme for measuring permeability
45
Tests on residual permeability of concrete after exposure to high temperature
5.3 Materials and Methods

Concrete mixtures M1, M2 and M3 were tested in a similar way to the tests on explosive spalling described
in chapter 2. The main mix design remained constant while both steel and PP-fibers were added to the
mixture according to table 19. The total number of concreted cylinders (ø = 150 mm, l = 300 mm) per
mixture is given here as well.
Table 19: Tested steel and PP-fiber combination and number of concreted cylinders
Sub-Mixture Mix design Number of cylinders
V1 no fibers 3 3 3
V2 2.0 Vol.-% steel fibers 3 3 3
3
V3 2.0 Vol.-% steel fibers + 2 kg/m PP-fibers type B 3 3 3
3
V4 2.0 Vol.-% steel fibers + 2 kg/m PP-fibers type C 3 3 3
Similar to previous tests, common steel fibers with a length of l = 6 mm and a diameter of ø = 15 µm were
used. Both PP-fibers had the same length of l = 6 mm, while the diameter varied. Type B PP-fiber had a
diameter of ø = 15.4 µm, while type C PP-fiber was ø = 18 µm in thickness.
In contrast to the concrete mixer used in earlier tests, a planetary mixer was used for these tests to
increase the amount of mixing energy. This leads to a better flowability of the fresh concrete due to the
better activation of the superplasticizer. In addition, a better distribution of the steel and PP-fibers was
achieved with the planetary mixer. As in previous tests, all solid mix components were pre-mixed first. In a
second stage, water and superplasticizer were added and the concrete mixed for an additional t = 3-5 min
at high speed. Finally, steel- and PP-fibers were added to the fresh concrete and mixed for additional
t = 3 min.
Due to the high amount of steel and PP-fibers, the dosage of superplasticizer had to be increased for the
M2 and M3 mix design, while the M1 concrete mixture exhibited overall good workability, even with the
large amount of steel and PP-fibers.
Additional modifications for the M3 concrete mixture had to be made. While the workability of the original
mixture without any fibers was fine, adding steel and PP-fibers reduced the flowability of the fresh concrete
significantly. In addition, significant bleeding and segregation of the concrete was noticed during
compacting. Since further increase in superplasticizer would worsen segregation during compacting, the
mix design was modified. The amount of fine aggregates was increased by m = 10% while the amount of
coarse aggregates was reduced accordingly. Table 20 summarizes all changes in mix design.
46
Materials and Methods
Table 20: Changes in mix-design compared to earlier tests as described in chapter 2.2
use of planetary concrete mixer for all mixes
3 3
9.0 kg/m 7.5 kg/m
V1 - increased use of superplasticizer for mixes without fibers -
(≈ +25%) (≈ +50%)
3 3
9.0 kg/m 10 kg/m
V2 - increased use of superplasticizer for mixes with steel fibers -
(≈ +25%) (≈ +100%)
3 3
V3 + V4 - increased use of superplasticizer for mixes with 10.8 kg/m 10 kg/m
-
steel and PP-fibers (≈ +50%) (≈ +100%)
3
V1 - use of stabilizer for the mixture without fibers - - 2 kg/m
3
750 kg/m
V1 + V4 - increased use of fine aggregates - -
(≈ +12%)
Regular cylinders (ø = 150 mm, l = 300 mm) were concreted, demolded after t = 2 days and stored at
T = 20°C and 95% relative humidity for a total of t = 28 d. For the analysis of the residual permeability small
concrete disks with a thickness of t = 40 mm were cut from the concrete cylinders. For M1 and M2 concrete
mixes, this thickness was at least five times the maximum aggregate size [11]. In addition, small concrete
cylinders (ø = 50 mm, l ≈ 100 mm) were drilled out of some spare parts from the regularly cast concrete
cylinders for additional tests on mechanical properties. Before testing, the concrete disks were conditioned
at T = 20°C and 50% relative humidity for a further week and had an average age of about t = 35 d when
tested.
Figure 25 shows the cut concrete discs, ready for permeability testing. The decrease in surface quality at
the M3 concrete with PP-fibers caused by the reduced flowability is clearly visible (right bottom disc).
Figure 25: Concrete Mixtures M1 ‐ M3 (left to right) and sub-mixtures V1 ‐ V4 (top to bottom)
As a first step, the initial permeability was tested on two concrete discs from each concrete mixture at
T = 20°C. This was followed by drying all concrete disks at T = 105°C to a constant mass. After a constant
mass was achieved, the permeability was measured again after cooling from T = 105°C.
For all tests at high temperature levels, a new pair of concrete discs was uses for each temperature level.
One of the two concrete discs used for each test was taken from the lower half of a regular concrete
cylinder, while the other one was from the upper section of another cylinder from the same mix. Any
possible influences caused by insufficient compaction or segregation could then be seen directly.
47
The dried specimens were heated to different target temperatures of T = 150°C, 175°C, 200°C, 250°C,
300°C, 400°C and 500°C. They were heated either by placing the specimen in the hot furnace or with a
constant heating rate of Ṫ = 2 K/min. For temperatures exceeding T = 250°C, the heating rate was reduced
to Ṫ = 0.5 K/min to minimize the risk of spalling. All concrete mixes M1 to M3 were heated under the same
conditions. Table 21 summarizes the selected target temperatures and heating rates.
Table 21: Heating rate for concrete specimens for permeability tests
Temperature Heating rate
20°C -
105°C drying until constant in mass
150°C placed directly in hot furnace
175°C placed directly in hot furnace
200°C 2 K/min from 20°C to 200°C
250°C 2 K/min from 20°C to 250°C
300°C 2 K/min to 250°C, 0.5 K/min to 300°C
After reaching the target temperature, specimens were conditioned for t = 4 h before they were cooled
inside the closed furnace to the ambient temperature by switching off the electric heating. The average
cooling rate was between Ṫ = 0.2 ‐ 0.5 K/min to avoid thermal shocks. Tests on the permeability were made
at a temperature of T = 50-60°C to minimize the intake of moisture.
The permeability tests were carried out by placing the suction cap on the surface of the concrete and
starting to outgas. Depending on the temperature level and permeability, the duration for each test varied
from t = 5 ‐ 12 min.
5.4 Test results on permeability

5.4.1 Test results on initial permeability at 20°C
As a first step, before measuring the permeability at high temperatures, the initial permeability at T = 20°C
was tested on two selected concrete discs. Experience from other tests showed that the testing device for
permeability is rather sensitive to moisture; hence water from the cutting process and moisture from the
surface had to be removed. This was ensured by storing the specimen at T = 60°C for t = 48 h. The
permeability was then determined after the specimens cooled again to T = 20°C in an unconditioned
environment.
Table 22: Initial permeability at 20°C

Concrete mixture V1 V2 V3 V4
2 2 2 2
M1 1.40E-18 m 1.35E-18 m 1.20E-18 m 1.25E-18 m
2 2 2 2
M2 4.50E-19 m 4.50E-19 m 5.00E-19 m 7.00E-19 m
2 2 2 2
M3 5.95E-18 m 1.05E-18 m 4.90E-18 m 5.62E-17 m
48
Test results on permeability
In terms of the M1 concrete mix, no differences in permeability between the four mixes can be seen. For
the M2 concrete a slightly higher permeability for the M2-V4 mixture containing type C PP-fibers was
noticed, however in general the initial permeability for all M2 concrete mixes was slightly lower than that
of the M1 concrete. These differences are close to the usual spread in results for the testing device used.
The initial permeability of the M3 concrete is different. For the M2-V2 mixture containing only steel fibers a
similar initial permeability compared to the M1 and M2 concrete mixes was measured, most probably due
to the increased use of superplasticizer. Clear differences were noticed for concrete mixes M3-V1 and M3‐
V3 in which an increased initial permeability of 500% was observed. This was even exceeded by the M3-V4
mixture with an increase of 5300% in permeability compared to the M2-V2 mix. For the M3 concrete, the
influence of fibers and the tendency to segregation and bleeding during compaction is obvious.
5.4.2 Test results on residual permeability after cooling from high temperatures
Figure 26 shows the residual permeability for the three concrete mixtures on a logarithmic scale. Several
tests on concrete disks containing PP-fibers could not be analyzed, since the device’s range is limited to
k = 1 · 10-14 m2. In these cases, the figures showing permeability are limited to this value.
In terms of initial permeability it can be seen that the difference in permeability between the T = 20°C and
T = 105°C temperature level doesn’t differ significantly.
In general for temperatures exceeding T = 150°C, the test results show a significant difference in
temperature-dependent permeability development for concrete mixtures with and without PP-fibers. Both
types of PP-fiber perform almost the same in terms of increase in permeability, however the type B PP-fiber
(V3 mixture) seems to perform a bit slower compared to type C PP-fiber (V4 mixture). This can be seen for
the M1 and M3 concrete within the T = 175°C - 300°C temperature range. The reactivity of the PP-fibers
increases in terms of providing additional permeability with decreasing concrete strength (M1 to M3
concrete). While the upper range of permeability measurement of k = 1 · 10-14 m2 is reached only at
T = 500°C for the M1 concrete mix, this value is observed for the M3 concrete directly after exceeding the
PP-fiber’s melting temperature.
It is interesting to note a decrease in permeability for the M1 ‐ V1 and M1 ‐ V2 concrete for temperatures
between T = 175°C and 250°C and between T = 100°C and 175°C for the M2 ‐ V2 concrete, respectively.
Compared to the significant increase in permeability at higher temperatures, this temporary decrease is
rather small.
In addition, a significant increase in permeability can be observed for the M3 ‐ V3 and V4 mixes containing
PP-fibers starting with temperatures of T = 150°C, even though the melting temperature for both types of
PP-fiber is about T = 170°C.
Comparing the two PP-fiber-free mixtures V1 and V2 it may be observed that both the decrease in
permeability to T = 250°C and the increase for higher temperatures is more pronounced for the mixture
without any fibers (V1) compared to the mixture containing steel fibers only (V2). For the M1 concrete, this
phenomenon is clearly visible; however it is less relevant for the M2 and M3 concrete mixtures.
49
For the M1 and M2 concrete mixtures, the initial permeability at T = 20°C and T = 105°C doesn’t depend on
the use of steel or PP-fibers. In contrast to these mixtures, a noticeable higher initial permeability for the
M3 ‐ V4 concrete of k = 5.6 · 10-17 m2 was measured, which is significantly above the average initial
permeability of all other tested concrete mixtures. The limited workability together with bleeding might be
one explanation for these results. In addition, it was noticed that the M3 ‐ V4 concrete exhibits the lowest
compressive strength and Young’s modulus compared to the other M3 mixtures.
Permeability in m2 M1 Permeability in m2 M2 Permeability in m2 M3

10-13 10-13 10-13
V1 - no fibers V1 - no fibers
V2 - steel fibers V2 - steel fibers
-14 -14
10 V3 - steel + Type B PP-fibers 10 V3 - steel + Type B PP-fibers 10-14
V4 - steel + Type C PP-fibers V4 - steel + Type C PP-fibers
10-15 10-15 10-15
10-16 10-16 10-16
10-17 10-17 10-17

V1 - no fibers
V2 - steel fibers
10-18 10-18 10-18 V3 - steel + Type B PP-fibers
V4 - steel + Type C PP-fibers
10-19 10-19 10-19
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
Temperature in °C Temperature in °C Temperature in °C
Figure 26: Permeability for concrete mixtures M1 (left), M2 (center) and M3 (right)
with increasing temperature, logarithmic scale
5.4.3 Test results on Young’s modulus and compressive strength

In addition to tests on permeability, the Young’s modulus and compressive strength of all mixtures were
tested. Four smaller concrete cylinders drilled out of some remaining parts of the regularly cast specimens
were taken. These cylinders were smoothened at both ends. The tested specimen had a diameter of
ø = 50 mm and a length of about l = 100 mm ±10 mm, depending on the length of the remaining part of the
originally concreted concrete cylinder. Some specimens were shorter than the required l = 100 mm,
however the variation in length between specimens from one series didn’t differ significantly. The Young’s
modulus was tested by loading the cylinders in cycles between 0.3 - 0.6 · fc with the deformation directly
measured at the specimen’s surface. The compressive strength was tested load-controlled with a constant
rate of Ḟ = 2 kN/s to the maximum strength. Table 23 shows the summarized results from these tests with
graphical illustrations in figure 27. All individual data including the specimen’s size is given in tables A3 to
A5 in the appendix.
50
Table 23: Concrete Young’s modulus, compressive strength and density for tests on permeability
tested after 28 d
Concrete Mix V1 V2 V3 V4
2 2 2 2
Young’s modulus 51’959 N/mm 48’243 N/mm 48’037 N/mm 51’820 N/mm
fc 108.2 MPa 148.7 MPa 147.6 MPa 147.1 MPa
M1 standard deviation 11.4 MPa 4.1 MPa 15.9 MPa 8.7 MPa
coefficient of variation 10.5 % 2.7 % 10.8 % 5.9 %
3 3 3 3
density 2280 kg/m 2422 kg/m 2414 kg/m 2425 kg/m
2 2 2 2
Young’s modulus 43’749 N/mm 41’478 N/mm 47’214 N/mm 44’855 N/mm
fc 91.1 MPa 120.0 MPa 115.2 MPa 116.3 MPa
3 3 3 3
2332 kg/m 2494 kg/m 2492 kg/m 2476 kg/m
2 2 2 2
Young’s Modulus 41’783 N/mm 52’601 N/mm 45’252 N/mm 40’462 N/mm
fc 65.7 MPa 93.3 MPa 82.0 MPa 78.9 MPa
3 3 3 3
2400 kg/m 2593 kg/m 2541 kg/m 2531 kg/m
Compressive strength in MPa Young's modulus in N/mm 2

160 60000
M1
140 M2
M3 50000
120
40000
100
80 30000
60
20000
40
10000
20
0 0
0 V1 V2 V3 V4 0 V1 V2 V3 V4
Figure 27: Concrete mixtures M1 ‐ M3 and their sub-mixtures V1 ‐ V4
left: compressive strength
right: Young’s modulus
Figure 27 shows the concrete’s compressive strength and the Young’s modulus. In terms of compressive
strength, the influence of the steel fibers added to the concrete is clearly visible for all the main mixtures
M1 ‐ M3. An increase in compressive strength within the range 25% - 30% by adding steel fibers was
evident. In addition, the presence of PP-fibers seems to have no negative influence on the compressive
strength for the M1 and M2 concrete mix. Similar observations were made with the UHPC P1-2B and P1-2C
mix, where the compressive strength was hardly affected by the presence of these two types of PP-fiber
(figure 18).
In terms of the M3 mix, a decrease in compressive strength caused by PP-fibers to the concrete is visible.
These losses are slightly more pronounced with the type C PP-fibers (V4). With losses within the
51
range 10% ‐ 15% compared to the PP-fiber free mixture (V2), these results are still within the usual spread
for tests on compressive strength.
Comparing these results with the mechanical properties obtained from the tests on explosive spalling
(table 4) it can be seen that the compressive strength of the fiber free mixture (V1) is significantly lower
with these permeability tests. In terms of the mixture with steel fibers (V2), the strength grades are within
a very close range. The difference in strength of the fiber free concrete cannot be explained at the moment.
The results from the tests on the Young’s modulus draw a different picture. The Young’s modulus for the
M1 and M2 concrete mixture is within the usual 10% spread compared to the results from earlier tests
(table 4). Changes in the mix design seem to have no significant influence on the Young’s modulus for these
mixes. The slightly lower modulus for the M2-V3 and M2‐V4 concrete might be caused by changes in the
mixture. The extensive use of superplasticizer and the increased use of fine aggregates might also be
causes.
5.4.4 Test results on density, moisture content and losses in weight during heating
During testing, the permeability, the initial moisture content as well as losses in weight during heating were
analyzed. The initial moisture content was determined by drying the concrete disks at T = 105°C until
constant in mass, which corresponds to a decrease in mass of less than m = 0.2% within a t = 24 h period.
Table 24 shows the initial moisture content for the tested concrete. A decrease in moisture content for the
mixtures containing fibers (V2 ‐ V4) is evident.
Table 24: Initial moisture content of concrete disks

Initial moisture content in % in mass
Concrete mixture V1 V2 V3 V4 Average
M1 1.22 1.03 1.06 0.90 1.05
M2 3.17 2.31 2.49 2.72 2.67
M3 2.95 2.32 2.45 2.59 2.57
After each permeability test at the different temperature levels, the additional losses in weight after
heating were measured as well. The results of this analysis are summarized in Figure 28. Additional losses in
percent of the dry concrete samples are shown. It is interesting to note that the total losses in weight
increase with increasing concrete strength. While the M3 concrete loses only about m = 2.0% in weight at
T = 500°C, the M1 concrete decreases by m = 6.0%.
For the M3 concrete, the loss in weight with increasing temperature is a nearly linear function, regardless
of any fiber content. For the M1 and M2 concrete mixes, the slope changes between T = 200°C and
T = 300°C. The majority of losses are already completed at this temperature level. At higher temperatures,
additional losses in weight are less pronounced.
52
Loss in weight in % M1 Loss in weight in % M2 Loss in weight in % M3

0 0 0
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2
-3 -3 -3
-4 -4 -4
-5 -5 -5
V1 - no fibers V1 - no fibers V1 - no fibers
V2 - steel fibers V2 - steel fibers V2 - steel fibers
-6 V3 - steel + B PP-fibers -6 V3 - steel + B PP-fibers -6 V3 - steel + B PP-fibers
V4 - steel + C PP-fibers V4 - steel + C PP-fibers V4 - steel + C PP-fibers
-7 -7 -7
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
Temperature in °C Temperature in °C Temperature in °C
Figure 28: Temperature-dependent losses in weight after drying to constant mass

M1 (left), M2 (center) and M3 (right) concrete mixtures
A few exceptions were observed. These can be found mainly in the M1 concrete within the temperature
range of T = 175°C ‐ 200°C and at T = 400°C.
It is interesting to note that for the M1 and M2 concretes the majority (60%) of losses in weight can be
observed up to temperatures of T = 250°C. For temperature levels exceeding this level, the losses in weight
are less pronounced. In contrast, the M3 concrete shows an almost linear increase of losses in weight at
high temperature.
53
54
6 TESTS ON INSULATING LINING
6.1 Test overview
The tests on the explosive spalling behavior of HPC and UHPC protected with PP-fibers showed that the use
of PP-fibers can significantly reduce the risk of explosive spalling. However, it was shown that the use of PP-
fibers increases the initial permeability of OPC, even in the cold stage. As an alternative to PP-fibers in
concrete, protective lining can be used in favor to minimize the risk of explosive spalling.
In collaboration with an industry partner, the thermal and mechanical properties of two different
protective linings for concrete were analyzed. Both linings were cement-based fire protection mortar.
Table 25 summarizes the main technical data of both linings as provided by the manufacturer.
Table 25: Fire protection lining ‐ product overview and specifications by manufacturer
Protective Lining 1 Protective Lining 2
1)
Application to concrete Wet spray with machine Wet spray with machine
2)
by hand with a trowel
3
density after application wet 1170 kg/m -
3 3 3)
dry density (28 d) dry 610 ±50 kg/m 490 ±50 kg/m
base material cement cement
insulating material unknown vermiculite
2 2
compressive strength fc (28d) 2.6 N/mm > 0.5 N/mm
2 2
bond strength on concrete f (28d) 0.2 N/mm >0.0025 N/mm
preparation of concrete surface sandblast, dry, clean dry, clean

use of primer yes - cementitious yes - cementitious
1) For application to steel and concrete structures
2) Alternative application method for concrete structures
3) Density for use on steel structures and applied with a machine, while density might be lower in concrete structures
due to lower compaction when applied with a trowel
The aim of these tests is to provide basic data for the development of a numerical model for the design of
insulating linings on HPC as a protective measure and to verify the results of the model.
The model will be developed on experimentally-determined material properties from small-scale tests. As
input parameter, the thermal conductivity, density and specific heat as temperature-dependent material
properties are required. The numerical model is not part of this technical report. For practical use of the
lining as a protective measure, also the bond strength between the lining and the concrete of one of the
products was analyzed.
55
Tests on insulating lining
6.2 Material and methods

Different specimens were required for the tests on temperature-related material properties of the two
different protective linings. For the thermal conductivity tests, concrete cylinders (ø = 150 mm, l = 300 mm)
were used that were covered with the lining in different thicknesses of d = 10 mm, 30 mm and 50 mm. In
addition to the protected concrete cylinders, prisms of each lining with an edge length of
l·w·h = 200·50·50 mm3 were made. These were used to determine the initial thermal conductivity 0 at cold
stage (T = 20°C) and temperature-dependent material properties like density and specific heat. Table 26
gives an overview on the test specimens produced for all tests on protective linings 1 and 2.
Table 26: Test specimens using protective linings 1 and 2

Protective Lining 1 Protective Lining 2
1)
2 cylinders with 10 mm coating 2 cylinders with 10 mm coating
lining prisms l·b·h = 200·50·50 mm

20 prisms in 4 batches 15 prisms in 3 batches
1) Cylinders with d = 10 mm protective lining 2 could not be analyzed due to insufficient bond
of the lining, causing flaking
The lining’s thermal conductivity was analyzed using regular concrete cylinders, protected with a lining in
different thicknesses. The set-up of these protected specimens is divided into three different steps:
Firstly, concrete cylinders were made from common C30/37 ready-mixture concrete using a CEM II-A-LL
cement. The concrete was poured into the cylindrical rubber molds, compacted and stored at T = 20°C and
95% relative humidity for t = 2 d before demolding. The cylinders remained in this humid environment for a
total of t = 28 d before they were conditioned at T = 20°C and 50% relative humidity for an additional
t = 90 d. The compressive strength of these cylinders was fc = 34.5 MPa after t = 28 d with a spread of
± 3.8%. Three cylinders were tested.
After conditioning, the concrete cylinders were prepared for the application of the lining. For protective
lining 1 all cylinders were sandblasted to roughen the surface to obtain an adequate bond between the
concrete and the lining. All cylinders for both protective linings were then cleaned with water to remove
dust and grease from the surface. Sufficient time of about one week for drying the wet cylinders was
allowed.
As second step, two thermocouples were glued with a special two component, heat-resistant adhesive
onto the concrete’s curved surface area, at mid-height and offset by ∢ = 180°. Fine sand was poured onto
the wet glue to ensure an adequate bond to the lining in these places. One additional thermocouple was
glued onto the cylinder’s flat end. Metal discs were then placed at both flat ends of the cylinder and
tightened. These disks were of greater diameter than the concrete cylinder in order to set and adjust the
lining thickness. Figure 29 (left) shows a concrete cylinder with thermocouple and metal disc ready for
applying the protective lining. For both linings, three different layer thicknesses of d = 10 mm, 30 mm and
50 mm were chosen, with two specimens per thickness.
56
Test results
One of the main differences between the two linings is the different method of applying the fresh lining to
the concrete. Lining 1 is wet-sprayed with a machine, while lining 2 is manually applied with a trowel. In
both cases, the cement-based primer is applied first with a brush and cured for t = 24 h. This primer is more
workable for lining 1; however 100% of the concrete’s surface has to be coated while a 75% cover for
lining 2 is sufficient. After the curing time, the lining could be applied. Figure 29 (middle) shows the
application of linings 1 by spraying the lining onto a concrete cylinder for the tests. Figure 29 (right) shows
the specimen inside the electric furnace.
After protecting the curved surfaces of the concrete cylinders for thermal conductivity tests as third step,
the metal discs were removed and an additional top and bottom layer of lining was applied to the cylinder.
These end caps had always a thickness of d = 56 mm to ensure a heat penetration via the curved surface
only. The specimen were then stored for t = 28 d at an ambient temperature of T = 20°C and 50% relative
humidity. The cylinders weren’t covered during storage but protected from drafts. After this storage time,
the manufacturer ensures the designed properties and resistance against high temperatures. The lining 2
prisms were constructed in the same way, either by spraying or by “throwing” the fresh lining into the
mold. It was observed that an adequate compaction of the fresh lining 2 was almost impossible due to the
soft consistency of the lining.
Figure 29: left: prepared concrete cylinder with distance disk for application of lining (50 mm lining)
middle: application of the protective lining 1 onto concrete cylinder by spaying
right: protected concrete cylinder (50 mm lining) installed in electric furnace
6.3 Test results

6.3.1 Test results on the initial thermal conductivity
The initial thermal conductivity 0 in W/(m·K) at T = 20°C is given by the manufacturer for lining 1. Two
lining plates of l·h·w = 500 · 500 · 40 mm3 were analyzed within a standardized test according to ISO 8302
[12]. As output, an initial thermal conductivity of 0 = 0.227 W/(m·K) for a sprayed lining with a density of
 = 711.4 kg/m3 was determined in these tests. For an unsprayed lining with a density of  = 550.1 kg/m3 an
lower initial thermal conductivity of 0 = 0.149 W/(m·K) could be determined, however an unsprayed lining
isn’t used in practice. The measuring uncertainty is below 2% for these tests.
57
No information on the initial thermal conductivity of lining 2 is available from the manufacturer, therefore
the initial thermal conductivity of 0 was determined by using a handheld KEMTHERM QTM-D3 device.
With inductive measurements on four lining prisms, the initial thermal conductivity 0 was analyzed. The
tests were performed inside a laboratory at T = 20°C and 50% relative humidity. At the time of testing, the
prisms had an average age of t = 90 d. The KEMTHERM scanner is simply placed on the lining’s surface and
a thermal shock analyzes the thermal conductivity, which is then displayed. All four lateral surfaces were
analyzed to determine possible changes in the thermal conductivity, which might be caused by a different
compaction of the prism inside the mold. Figure 30 shows the test set-up using the handheld scanner.
Figure 30: Measurement of initial thermal conductivity with handheld device
Table 27 summarizes the results for lining 2 from the tests on the four prisms. All single values are given in
table A6 in the appendix. The measurements show that the spread in results in thermal conductivity from
the different sides of the prism is rather low. In addition, the density of the tested prism is with the usual
spread, too.
The average initial thermal conductivity of 0 = 0.1277 W/(m·K) for protective lining 2 is significantly lower
than that of lining 1. One possible reason contributing to this low thermal conductivity might be the
compaction of the prisms, since the density of the specimen is slightly below the minimum requirement
according to the manufacturer’s factsheet (see table 25) but still within the usual spread of density for
concrete structures.
Table 27: Initial thermal conductivity 0 at 20°C for lining 2

Specimen Dimensions Density 0 at 20°C
3
- mm kg/m W/(m·K)
1 198.80 · 48.77 · 50.23 341.2 0.1229
2 198.96 · 49.80 · 50.17 362.2 0.1187
3 199.10 · 48.70 · 50.71 371.1 0.1205
4 199.48 · 49.40 · 49.07 324.8 0.1227
average value 0.1227 W/(m·K)
standard deviation σ = 0.01006 W/(m·K)
coefficient of variation cov = 8.12%
58
Test results
In both cases, this initial thermal conductivity determined at 20°C was used for temperatures up to 100°C.
For higher temperature levels, changes in the lining’s mineralogy lead to a different conductivity. For these
temperatures ranges, concrete cylinders protected by the lining were tested by means of linear heating.
6.3.2 Test results on the thermal conductivity at high temperatures ‐ general preparation
The thermal conductivity  in W/(m·K) for temperatures exceeding T = 100°C was analyzed using the
protected concrete cylinders (see table 26). The cylinders were heated inside an electric furnace and the
temperature development was measured. Table 28 shows the tests carried out on concrete cylinders
protected by linings 1 and 2. No tests on concrete cylinders protected by d = 10 mm lining 2 were carried
out due to the extreme curvature of the cylinder with this thin cover. Significant cracks at the lining’s
surface and the detachment of parts of the lining made an analysis impossible.
Table 28: Tests on thermal conductivity

Lining 1 Lining 2
lining Heating Temperature lining Heating Temperature
Test Test
thickness rate range thickness rate range
- mm K/min °C - mm K/min °C
2 20 - 200 - 10 not tested
1.1 10 3 200 - 700 2.1 30 2.5
2 700 - 900 2.2 30 5.0
20 ‐ 900
1.2 30 2 20 - 800 2.3 50 2.5
1.3 30 2 20 - 800 2.4 50 5.0
1.4 50 1 20 - 800
1.5 50 2 20 - 800
Two additional thermocouples were glued onto the outer lining surface of the protected cylinder. The
specimens were then ready for testing. The same electric furnace as used for the tests on explosive spalling
(see chapter 2) was used. For each test, the cylinder was placed in the middle of the furnace and covered
with a metal mesh for protection. The cylinders were then heated linearly with the different heating rates
shown in table 28 to a maximum temperature of T = 800°C or 900°C. Higher temperatures were avoided to
minimize damages to the furnace. At the maximum temperature, the specimen remained at this
temperature level for an additional t = 3 h inside the furnace to analyze the influence of longer fire duration
on the general workability of the lining. All specimens remained unloaded during the entire test. The
furnace temperature, the temperature at the lining’s surface and at the interface between the lining and
the concrete were measured continuously. Figure 31 shows the furnace with a protected cylinder inside
and during testing at high temperatures.
59
Figure 31: left: electric furnace, open with protected cylinder prepared for testing
middle: concrete cylinder protected by 50 mm lining
right: 10 mm lining at 700°C inside the furnace
The temperatures measured at the lining’s surface and at the interface during test 1.3 and test 2.1 are
shown in figure 32. Both specimens were protected by the d = 30 mm lining 1 and lining 2, respectively.
Only for tests using lining 1, a plateau phase is observed at an interface temperature of 100°C. The slower
and delayed increase in interface temperature is clearly visible.
Temperature in °C Lining 1 - 30mm Temperature in °C Lining 2 - 30mm

1000 1000
Interface Temp. Interface Temp.
800 800
600 600
400 400
200 200
Heating rate: 2.0 - K/min Heating rate: 2.5 K/min

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time in h Time in h
Figure 32: left: temperature development for d = 30 mm lining 1 (Test 1.3)

right: temperature development for d = 30 mm lining 2 (Test 2.1)
Figures A47 to A51 in the appendix show the time-temperature development for all tests.
6.3.3 Test results on temperature-dependent density

Tests on temperature-dependent density of the two linings were carried out on eight prisms (lining 1) and
six prisms (lining 2) following storage at T = 20°C and 50% relative humidity for t = 90 d. Firstly, the
dimensions and the weight at the ambient temperature were measured. While the density for lining 1 was
within the specific range of the required density according to the manufacturer’s factsheet, the density for
60
Test results
lining 2 was significantly lower. Then the prisms were dried to a constant mass by heating them to
T = 105°C, at which the density was taken again. In the next step, the density at T = 150°C, 300°C, 600°C and
900°C was analyzed by heating the specimen with Ṫ = 5 K/min up to the target temperature. At these target
temperature levels, the prisms were conditioned for t = 12 h. The weight was taken and the temperature
cycle repeated for an additional t = 12 h. If the difference in weight was less than 0.1% in mass between the
two cycles, the prisms were cooled to the ambient temperature of T = 20°C, the weight was taken and the
specimens were heated to the next temperature level. The cooling was done in a moisture-free
environment. Two temperature cycles were sufficient for all target levels. The density at T = 1200°C could
not be measured. Here the density was derived from the general density development with
1 = 510.0 kg/m3 for lining 1 and 2 = 240.0 kg/m3 for lining 2. These values are not presented in the graph
in figure 33.
Figure 33 shows the temperature-dependent density development to T = 1200°C, which can be used as an
input parameter for further analysis. Table 29 gives an overview of the main results including basic
statistical evaluation. All individual data from this analysis, including the specimen dimensions and the
density measured at each temperature level are shown in table A7 in the appendix.
Density in kg/m3 Lining 1 Density in kg/m3 Lining 2

800 800
700 700
600 600
500 500
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Figure 33: Temperature dependent density to T = 1200°C

left: protective lining 1
right: protective lining 2
Table 29: Temperature dependent density, including standard deviation and variation coefficient
Lining 1 Lining 2
Temp Density Standard coefficient Temp Density Standard coefficient
deviation of variation deviation of variation
3 3
 in kg/m  in kg/m
3 3
°C σ in kg/m cov in % °C σ in kg/m cov in %
20°C 664.20 12.16 1.83 20°C 343.30 15.79 4.60
105°C 610.13 10.56 1.73 105°C 318.83 13.26 4.16
150°C 601.12 8.57 1.43 150°C 313.18 12.95 4.14
300°C 595.63 9.23 1.55 300°C 306.83 13.15 4.28
600°C 562.05 8.50 1.51 600°C 295.13 12.58 4.26
900°C 523.37 8.07 1.54 900°C 265.27 14.55 5.49
1) 1)
1200°C 510.00 - 1200°C 240.00 -
1) Density at T = 1200°C not measured
61
6.3.4 Test results on specific heat

Tests on the temperature-dependent specific heat cp in J/(kg·K) were carried out using the differential
scanning calorimetry (DSC) thermal analysis. The lining is analyzed as finely ground powder.
Each lining was tested separately. The tests were carried out on four prisms (l·h·w = 200·50·50 mm) after
storage at T = 20°C and 50% relative humidity for t = 90 d. For the analysis, only the inner parts of these
prisms were used by cutting-off about d = 15 mm of lining from all edges. This ensures minimized
influences like formwork oil or irregular compaction of the fresh lining. The smaller specimens were then
ground in a common swing mill to a fine and homogenous powder, which was then prepared for the
following analysis.
The DSC thermal analysis was carried out at the Institute for Polymers (D-MAT) at ETH Zurich. Powder
portions in the range of m = 5 - 10 mg were analyzed twice to a temperature of T = 550°C. The second cycle
gives just an idea on the general development of the specific heat. Due to the use of aluminum cups for the
analysis, the specific heat analysis is limited to a temperature of T = 550°C. For temperatures up to
T = 1200°C, the specific heat was assumed to remain constant. Figure 34 shows the temperature-
dependent specific heat development for the two linings.
Specific heat in J/(kgK) Lining 1 Specific heat in J/(kgK) Lining 2

4000 4000
3500 3500
3000 3000
2500 2500
2000 2000
1500 1500
1000 1000
500 500
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Figure 34: Temperature-dependent specific heat to T = 1200°C

left: protective lining 1
right: protective lining 2
6.3.5 Test results on the bond strength between the lining and the concrete
In addition to the temperature-dependent material properties, the bond strength between the lining and
the concrete before (cold bond strength) and after fire exposure (residual bond strength) was analyzed.
These tests were performed on concrete slabs protected by the two different linings. The concrete slabs
were prepared and protected using the same procedure as for the concrete cylinders for determining the
thermal conductivity.
All tests on the cold bond strength were carried out after a hardening time of t = 28 d. For the test on the
residual bond strength, the protected concrete slabs were exposed to the ISO-fire curve for t = 120 min.
62
Test results
The ISO-fire curve is described in chapter 7 in detail and figure 38 shows the temperature development
according to the ISO-fire curve. The fire tests were carried out after storing the protected concrete slabs for
t = 35 - 42 d (lining 1) and 28 d (lining 2), respectively. The bond strength was then determined after cooling
to the ambient temperature and additional storage of t = 5 d at T = 20°C and 50% relative humidity. This
storage allows the complete formation of microcracks during cooling. In addition, the rapid cooling after
the fire impact delays the decrease in strength during cooling by days. The additional conditioning time
ensures that minimum strength is reached [8].
For the protective lining 1, the cold bond strength was taken from tests carried out by the manufacturer.
The residual bond strength was carried out on a concrete slab protected by a d = 20 mm lining after
t = 120 min ISO-fire exposure. The bond strength was measured at 15 different measuring points.
For the protective lining 2, only tests on the cold bond strength were performed, with lining thicknesses of
d = 15 mm and d = 25 mm. Six tests were carried out for each lining thickness. The residual bond strength
of lining 2 was below the measurable level and could not be analyzed.
To determine the bond strength, aluminum disks with a diameter of ø = 50 mm were glued with a silicone-
based adhesive onto the lining surface. For the tests on the residual bond strength, the top layer of the
lining was removed by scraping. The matrix of the heat-damaged lining is entirely damaged here; hence no
bond capacity is left. The scraped surface is cleaned using compressed air before the aluminum disks were
placed on the surface. As a next step, the lining was cut along the edges of the disks to the concrete. A
threaded bar was connected to a load cell at the upper end and fixed to the aluminum disk at the lower
end. The tensile strength at the disk could be increased by rotating the threaded bar. The tensile force was
constantly measured using the load cell until bond failure occurred. Figure 35 shows the test set-up
including the protected concrete slab with the aluminum disks.
For protective lining 2, the ø = 50 mm disks were considered to be too small for an in-depth analysis due to
disturbances and damage within the border area where the lining was cut to the concrete’s surface.
Therefore aluminum disks with a diameter of ø = 90 mm were chosen for the tests.
Figure 35: Test set-up for determining the bond strength between lining and concrete;
the figure shows the test set-up for lining 2 with ø = 90 mm disks
The load was continuously increased by rotating the threaded bar. The maximum force was usually reached
after t = 2 min testing time, which corresponds to a loading speed within the range of Ḟ = 1.0 ‐ 1.3 N/s.
63
Table 30 summarizes the main findings from all tests, including statistical data wherever possible. For
protective lining 2, the mean values for the two different lining thicknesses are shown. All individual test
results including the type of failure are given in tables A9 and A10 in the appendix.
The results show that even after scraping the heat-damaged surface, the test specimen used to determine
the residual bond strength usually failed at the adhesive layer. In contrast, lining 2 test specimens usually
failed at the interface between the lining and the primer applied to the concrete. Figure 36 shows a typical
fracture pattern for protective lining 1, which failed at the adhesive and for lining 2 which failed at the
interface.
Figure 36: Fracture pattern for protective lining after testing bond strength
left: protective lining 1, failure at adhesive layer
right: protective lining 2, failure at interface between lining and primer (concrete)
Table 30: Bond strength between lining and concrete cover

Standard deviation coefficient of
Protective lining 1 Bond strength
σ variation
1)
bond strength at cold stage f 0.28 MPa - -
residual bond strength f(residual)
0.085 MPa 0.0208 MPa 24.6%
after 2 h ISO-fire exposure
Protective lining 2
bond strength at cold stage f
0.0134 MPa 0.0052 MPa 38.7%
(mean from d = 15 + 25mm)
residual bond strength f(residual) 2)
n. a. - -
after t = 2 h ISO-fire exposure
1) bond strength tested by manufacturer after t = 28 d
2) bond strength below measurable level
64
7 TESTS ON CONCRETE SLABS EXPOSED TO ISO-FIRE
7.1 Test overview
In order to study the explosive spalling behavior of high-performance concrete, several tests on concrete
slabs (l·w·h = 1100·900·150 mm3) were carried out. These concrete slabs were heated according to the ISO-
fire curve [1] at the fire laboratory at EMPA (Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and
Technology) in Dübendorf.
To analyze the explosive spalling behavior of HPC concrete slabs exposed to the ISO-Fire curve, tests on
protected concrete slabs were carried out as well. UHPC mixes with PP-fibers and HPC concrete slabs with
different reinforcement cover and protective lining thicknesses were analyzed.
Table 31 gives a general overview of all tests on concrete slabs exposed to the ISO-Fire curve. A total of
eight tests were performed in the small horizontal furnace at EMPA. As test specimens for tests 1 - 6,
concrete slabs with dimensions of l·w·h = 1100·900·150 mm3 were used. Main test parameters were
different reinforcement cover and protective layer thicknesses, to find out the temperature distribution for
protected and unprotected concrete slabs with insufficient reinforcement cover.
For tests 7 + 8, one regular concrete slab was divided into smaller strips of l·w·h = 1100·450·150 mm3. One
strip was made with the P1-2C concrete mixture with mPP = 2 kg/m3 type C PP-fibers, while the other strip
was made with P1-3C concrete with mPP = 3 kg/m3. This different amount of PP-fibers was the only test
parameter. Both strips were tested at once.

Test Concrete Fire duration Reinforcement cover Protection measures
1 30 min 10 mm, 20 mm none
2 119 min 10 mm, 20 mm 10 mm protective lining (1)
1)
3 M2 120 min 0 mm, 10 mm 20 mm protective lining (1)
2) 3
7 P1-3C 120 min no reinforcement bars 3 kg/mm PP-fibers Type C
2) 3
8 P1-2C 120 min no reinforcement bars 2 kg/mm PP-fibers Type C
3
1) Concrete slab of l·w·h = 1100·900·150 mm without any steel- or PP-fibers
3
2) One regular concrete slab divided into smaller strips of l·w·h = 1100·450·150 mm for tests 7+8
7.2 Test set-up

In contrast to the electric furnace used for tests on explosive spalling of concrete cylinders as described in
chapters 2 and 3, a gas / oil furnace was used for the tests on concrete slabs. The burners are usually
started with gas and then switched to oil due to its higher energy content. All tests were performed on the
small horizontal furnace at EMPA. It can take specimens with maximum dimensions of 1100 · 900 mm2,
where 100 mm at each edge is used for supporting the test specimen; hence the fire exposed surface is
1000 · 800 mm2 wide. Figure 37 shows the small horizontal furnace at EMPA.
65
Tests on concrete slabs exposed to ISO-fire
2 Burners
Figure 37: Small horizontal furnace at EMPA
Two gas / oil burners are located at one side of the furnace, which can be controlled independently
according to the required temperature inside the furnace. The furnace temperature followed the ISO-Fire
curve [1] for 120 min with the temperature development shown in figure 38. All tests followed this
temperature curve for t = 120 min unless the test was stopped manually.
A low pressure of P = -10 Pa compared to the ambient air pressure was set and kept constant inside the
furnace for the duration of the test. This lower pressure increases the risk of sloughing off the lining or
concrete parts during the test.
Temperature in °C ISO-Fire Curve

1200
1000
800
600
400
ISO-Fire Curve
max. Temperature
200 min. Temperature
0
0 30 60 90 120
Time in min
Figure 38: ISO-Fire curve [1] for t = 120 min including upper and lower temperature limits
All tests at the EMPA fire laboratory were carried out on unloaded specimens.
66
7.3 Materials and Methods

7.3.1 Tests 1-4, HPC concrete with type 1 protective lining
As concrete mix, the HPC mixture M2 was used for these four tests. Neither steel nor PP-fibers were added
to the fresh concrete. In contrast to the mixing procedure as described in chapter 2.2.1, a 200 l positive
mixer was used for the mix. All aggregates and the cement were dry premixed before superplasticizer,
water and silica fume prepared as slurry was added to the mix. The fresh concrete was then mixed for
t = 3 min. Due to the large amount of concrete; stabilizer was added to the fresh mix. According to the
manufacturer, the dosage was m = 1% stabilizer in relation to the amount of mixing water.
Apart from the four concrete slabs, cylinders (ø = 150 mm, L = 300 mm) were cast to determine the
reference concrete strength. Smaller cylinders (ø = 50 mm, L = 150 mm) were drilled out of these cylinders
and the compressive strength was determined on 8 small cylinders per mix. Before testing, the cylinders
were stored for t = 28 d at T = 20°C and 95% relative humidity.
The compressive strength was determined load-controlled with a speed of Ḟ = 0.5 N/(mm2·s) using a
universal testing machine. The average compressive strength was determined as fc = 101.0 MPa with a
standard deviation of σ = 10.33 MPa and a coefficient of variation of cov = 10.2%.
Different reinforcement covers between c = 0 mm and 20 mm were chosen for the tests as shown in
table 31. Reinforcement bars (BSt 500) with a diameter of ø = 10 mm and a spacing of a = 150 mm were
used for the concrete slabs. The concrete cover to the reinforcement bars was adjusted using cementitious
spacers, grinded to the specific height.
In addition, type K thermocouples were mounted on the reinforcement bars and placed in the mold to
measure the temperature distribution at different heights of the concrete slab, including the interface
temperature between the concrete and the protective lining. Figure 39 shows a ready prepared mold
before concreting, which was used for tests 1-4 and 5+6.
Figure 39: Mold for concrete slabs;

reinforcement bars placed on distance pieces for with different concrete cover;
thermocouples for measuring temperature distribution at different parts of the specimen
Figures 40 and 41 shows the location of the thermocouples placed inside the concrete and the different
reinforcement cover and the layer thickness of the protective lining for the four different tests. Apart from
test 3, c = 10 mm and 20 mm reinforcement cover was chosen for all tests.
67
900
75 150 150 150 150 150 75
Thermocouples
Interface [I]
270
-10mm (lining) [P]

reinforcement (high)[B]
I-1 I-2 I-7 I-6 I-5
reinforcement (low) [B]
570
30mm (concrete) [30]

95
50-1 30-1 50-2 50-3 30-4

50mm (concrete) [50]
86
B20-2 B20-4 B10-3 B10-4
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
1100
B20-1 B20-3 B10-2 B10-1

180
84
30-2 50-4 30-3 30-5 50-5
I-4 I-3 I-8

310
270
fire exposed surface 1000· 800mm
reinforcement (high) reinforcement (low)

ø = 10mm ø = 10mm
cconcrete = 20mm - 10mm cconcrete = 10mm - 0mm
d lining = 0-30mm d lining = 0-30mm
Figure 40: Layout of thermocouples in concrete slab
steel reinforcement ø = 10mm, a = 150mm

Test 1 Test 2
reinforcement (high) reinforcement (low) reinforcement (high) reinforcement (low)
c concrete= 20mm c concrete= 20mm

cconcrete = 10mm cconcrete = 10mm
no lining lining d = 10 mm
Test 3 Test 4

lining d = 20 mm lining d = 30 mm
Figure 41: Reinforcement layout for type 1 protective lining
The concrete slabs were cast and then conditioned at an ambient temperature of T = 20°C and 50% relative
humidity for 90 d before the lining was applied to the surface. According to the manufacturer, the sprayed
protective lining requires an additional t = 28 d of conditioning in a frost and wind-free environment.
68
The protective coating requires a rough and clean surface for a sufficient bond between the lining and the
concrete; hence the concrete slabs were sand blasted and cleaned with water as a first step. Then, a
cementitious primer was applied to the surface with a brush. A 30 l positive mixer was used for preparation
of the lining, which was supplied as a dry pre-packed mixture. By adding water to the mixture and adjusting
the mixing time, the consistency could be modified according to the required grade. The lining was then
placed in a mortaring machine and sprayed using compressed air onto the concrete’s surface. The direction
of the spray was perpendicular to the surface, starting at the bottom side, to ensure a sufficient and
constant compaction of the lining. The density and air content of the lining changed during compacting (see
table 32). The different lining thicknesses between d = 10 mm and 30 mm were achieved by mounting slats
at the sides of each concrete slab. These slats overlap the concrete surface according to the required lining
thickness. This lining can then be stripped and smoothened using a plaster float with the aid of these slats.
A second thin layer of lining was sprayed onto the surface after smoothing for visual reasons only. Figure 42
shows a concrete slab during and after applying type 1 protective coating.
The slabs were ready for further testing at EMPA and stored for t = 35-42 d at about T = 17°C inside the
draught-free laboratory facilities. According to the manufacture’s guide, the lining shouldn’t be covered
during this hardening time, but protected from rain or temperatures below freezing point.
Figure 42: Test specimen with type 1 protective lining

left: applying the lining with primer visible on the concrete’s surface
right: coated concrete slab with smoothened surface
Table 32: Density and air content of type 1 protective lining before and after compaction
After mixing After spraying
3 3
density  764 kg/m 1132 kg/m
air content 30% 15%
7.3.2 Tests 5+6, HPC concrete with type 2 protective lining

Similar to tests 1-4, concrete slabs with M2 mixture were cast and covered with protective lining. In
contrast to the first testing series, only two specimens protected with d = 15 mm and 25 mm linings,
respectively, were tested. In preliminary tests, it was found that a coating of d = 10 mm or less cannot be
69
applied properly to the concrete. Thermocouples were attached to the reinforcement bars (ø = 12 mm) and
placed into the mold for monitoring the interface temperature. Temperatures at different depths in the
concrete were not measured. Figures 43 and 44 show the location of the thermocouples and the
reinforcement layout with the corresponding thickness of the protective lining. During concreting test
specimen 5, the lower reinforcement level moved leading to a concrete cover of c = 21 mm instead of
c = 15 mm. This cover thickness was checked after completing all tests by removing the concrete down to
this reinforcement level.
900
75 150 150 150 150 150 75
Thermocouples
Interface [I]
reinforcement(high)[B]
280
370
reinforcement (low) [B]

I-1 I-2 I-3
B25-1 B25-2 B15-2 B15-1

1100
I-4 I-5 I-6
B25-3 B25-4 B15-4 B15-3

420
370
reinforcement (high) reinforcement (low)

ø = 12mm ø = 12mm
cconcrete = 25mm cconcrete = 15mm - 21mm
dlining = 15-25mm d lining = 15-25mm
Figure 43: Layout of thermocouples in concrete slab for tests on type 2 protective lining
steel reinforcement ø = 12mm, a = 150mm
Test 5 Test 6

lining d = 15 mm
lining d = 25 mm
Figure 44: Reinforcement layout for type B protective lining
Applying type 2 protective lining was different than for type 1 lining. The concrete’s surface was cleaned
with water only and a cementitious primer was applied with a brush covering about 80% of the concrete’s
70
surface. Sandblasting the surface was not required. The primer required a hardening time of t = 24 h before
the protective lining could be applied. It was mixed according to the manufacture’s requirements and
applied to the concrete slab with a mason's trowel. Similar to the other lining, the thickness was adjusted
by the mounted slats. Figure 45 shows a concrete slab during and after applying the type 2 protective
coating. Storage was identical to tests 1-4; however the fire tests were carried out directly after the
minimum storage time of t = 28 d.
Figure 45: Test specimen with type 2 protective lining

left: applying the lining with primer visible on the concrete’s surface
right: coated concrete slab with smoothened surface
7.3.3 Tests 7+8, UHPC concrete with Type C PP-fibers

Specimens 7+8 were made with ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) slabs containing different
amounts of PP-fibers to protect the specimen from explosive spalling. Here the mixtures P1-2C and P1-3C
as described in chapter 3 were used, however only the mix design P1-3C was in addition analyzed in small-
scale tests. For comparison of the results, the same height of specimen of h = 150 mm was chosen.
The mix design and the procedure are known by the concrete manufacturer. Similar to the tests on
cylinders, the pre-packed dry mixture was used. In contrast to the other concrete slabs, no reinforcement
bars were placed in the mold but msteel = 2% in volume of steel fibers (l = 13 mm, ø = 0.16 mm) were added
to the fresh concrete. Both concrete mixtures were tested simultaneously in one concrete slab with the
regular dimension of l·w·h = 1100·900·150 mm as shown in figure 46. The slab consists of two smaller
strips, each measuring l·w·h = 1100·450·150 mm. The left strip was made with the P1-3C concrete mixture,
the right one with P1-3C concrete. During concreting, the two segments were separated by a meshed metal
baffle. Similar to the other tests, thermocouples were placed in the mold, for measuring the temperature
distribution in different sections of the concrete specimen as shown in figure 46.
The test specimen was kept in a humid environment of T = 20°C and 95% relative humidity for t = 28 d,
before it was stored at T = 20°C and 50% relative humidity for an additional t = 60 d before testing.
71
450 450
100 180 180 100
50 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 50
Thermocouples
bottom side [U]
37.5mm [3]
300
75.0 mm [7]
425
7-1-1 11-1-1 3-1-1 3-1-2 11-1-2 7-1-2 112.5mm [11]

top side [O]
U-1-1 U-2-1 O-1-1 O-1-2 U-2-2 U-1-2
250
11-2-1 3-2-1 7-2-1 7-2-2 3-2-2 11-2-2

1100
U-3-1 U-4-1 U-4-2 U-3-2

250
3-3-1 7-3-1 11-3-1 11-3-2 7-3-2 3-3-2

425
300
Concrete Stripe 1 - Test 7 Concrete Stripe 2 - Test 8

3kg PP-fibers /m 3 2kg PP-fibers /m 3
Figure 46: Layout of thermocouples in concrete slab
72
Test results on ISO-fire tests
7.4 Test results on ISO-fire tests

7.4.1 Test 1, HPC concrete without protective lining
The concrete slab was exposed according to ISO-fire. After t = 15 min of fire exposure, first explosive
spalling was noticed by irregular loud “cracking” sounds. Small concrete segments were released from the
concrete surface and spalled into the furnace. This spalling increased within the next couple of minutes
leading to a nearly continuous explosive spalling until the test was stopped manually after a total fire
exposure time of t = 30 min. At this time, the furnace temperature was measured as T = 840°C. Figure 47
shows the temperature distribution inside the concrete measured during the tests. It is interesting to note
the sudden jump in surface temperature at T = 400°C; this temperature was also found to be the critical
surface temperature with the tests on small cylinders causing explosive spalling with the same concrete
mixture. A rapid increase in temperature was measured at the reinforcement bars t = 5 min after the
surface started spalling. This shows the progress in spalling, reaching deeper sections of the concrete.
Temperature in °C Test 1 - 0mm Lining 1 Temperature in °C Test 1 - 0mm Lining 1

1100 ISO fire curve 500 Interface
Furnace temperature Reinforcement (high)
1000 Interface Reinforcement (low)
Reinforcement (high) 30mm (concrete)
900 Reinforcement (low)
30mm (concrete) 400
50mm (concrete)
Concrete surface (cold)
50mm (concrete)
800 Concrete surface (cold)
700
300
600
500
200
400
300
200 100
100
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time in h Time in h
Figure 47: Test 1, HPC concrete without protective lining - temperature distribution during test
left: all measured temperatures
right: interface, reinforcement, concrete and cold surface temperature
The test was stopped manually after a total fire exposure time of t = 30 min. Even after the burners were
switched off, explosive spalling at the surface continued for a few more minutes until it ceased. After the
specimen cooled to the ambient temperature, the spalling depth was measured along the spalled surface
with a grid spacing of a = 100 mm. Figure 48 shows the test specimen after the tests as well as the
measured spalling depth. As maximum spalling depth, a loss of up to s = 63 mm concrete cover was
observed with more concrete spalling at the section with a reinforcement cover of c = 10 mm.
73
Spalling depth - Test 1

10 10
1000 20 0
30 2
10
20
40 50
10 3 0
20
30
40 50
Plate length in mm
30
40
800
2 01 0
30 2 0
0
20
0
4 30
450
50 4 0
40
30
600
6 040
30
10
30
50
20
10
50
40
400
20
0 10
30
10
10
30
1 0 230
200 10
20
20
10 10 10
10
0
0 200 400 600 800
Plate width in mm
Figure 48: Test 1, HPC concrete without protective lining

left: concrete slab with explosive spalling after t = 30 min ISO-fire exposure
right: measured spalling depth with a grid spacing of a = 100 mm
During these tests, some moisture absorbance was noticed at the upper, cold side of the specimen. First
moisture was noticed t = 10 min after fire exposure, when water appeared along the thermocouple wires,
since vapor migrates from the hot to the cooler section of the concrete and condenses there. The migration
is pronounced along these wires due to capillary conductivity. With ongoing fire exposure, small cracks on
top of and along the sides of the concrete slab led to additional moisture absorbance. The moisture
absorbance continued until the end of the test.
7.4.2 Test 2, HPC concrete with 10 mm protective lining 1

The temperature distribution measured during the test is shown in figure 49. The test was aborted
manually after a fire exposure time of t = 119 min since the fire-exposed concrete surface was detached by
severe and sudden explosive spalling including the protective lining. No spalling was noticed before
t = 119 min.
The temperature measured at the interface showed almost no moisture plateau at T = 100°C. A nearly
linear increase in temperature was monitored up to an interface temperature of T = 407°C, when spalling
occurred, with reinforcement temperatures of T = 315°C (c = 20 mm) and T = 266°C (c = 10 mm),
respectively. Similar to test 1, the temperature measured at the surface upon spalling is also within the
range of the critical temperature observed in the small-scale tests (see chapter 2).
74

-10mm (lining) 400
50mm (concrete)
30mm (concrete)
800 50mm (concrete)
700
300
600
500
200
400
300
200 100
100
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in h Time in h
Figure 49: Test 2, HPC concrete with d = 10 mm protective lining

right: Interface, reinforcement, concrete and cold surface temperature
The first moisture absorbance was observed after a fire exposure time of about t = 15 min, which reached a
peak after a total time of t = 45 min. The surface remained wet until the test was stopped manually.
Sudden explosive spalling accompanied by a single loud bang was observed after a fire-exposure time of
t = 119 min. The burners were stopped immediately and the concrete slab was lifted from the furnace. It
was noticed that the entire concrete surface had spalled, including the protective lining. Figure 50 shows
the test specimen after explosive spalling and the measured spalling depth. It was noticed that the spalling
depth was similar to test 1 with a maximum depth of s = 63 mm. In addition, the amount of spalled
concrete volume didn’t differ significantly. The spalling depth of the concrete was measured on the cold
specimen after removing the remaining protective lining.
Spalling depth - Test 2
1000
10
Plate length in mm
800 1 0 3020
40
10
2
30 0 50
20 4 5 0 50 640
14302000
0 0 50 50
30
600 0 50
40
40
40
3 40
40
2100
40
400 320
0
10
40
40
40
3 0
30
200 2
1 00 30
30
1 02 0
20
0 10
0 200 400 600 800
Plate width in mm

left: concrete slab with explosive spalling after t = 119 min ISO-fire exposure
right: measured spalling depth with a grid spacing of a = 100 mm
75

As with the other tests, concrete slab 3 protected by a d = 20 mm protective lining was exposed to the ISO-
fire for t = 120 min. The temperature distribution inside the specimen is shown in figure 51 including the
moisture plateau measured at the interface. This plateau phase started after about t = 30 min of fire
exposure and lasted for about t = 17 min until a more rapid increase in temperature was measured.

-10mm (lining) 400
50mm (concrete)
30mm (concrete)
800 50mm (concrete)
700
300
600
500
200
400
300
200 100
100
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in h Time in h

Moisture absorbance was noticed after about t = 90 min of fire exposure, but only within the area of the
thermocouple wires. This moisture absorbance continued until the test was stopped. Immediately after the
test was stopped, the concrete specimen was taken from the furnace and inspected for spalling and crack
width. No spalling was noticed and only very small cracks were visible as shown in figure 52. However,
these cracks started to widen immediately due to thermal expansion and restraint forces. After a cooling
time of t = 24 h, the crack pattern was analyzed. Here widths between l = 0.1 mm and 0.3 mm were
measured. In addition, the protective lining including the primer were removed from the concrete surface
to analyze the concrete surface after the test. Only some minor cracks within the range of l = 0.05 mm were
noticed along the edges of the specimen as well as on its surface.

concrete slab after t = 120 min ISO-fire exposure (no spalling)
76

Test specimen 4 covered with d = 30 mm protective lining was exposed to the ISO-fire for t = 120 min. The
temperature distribution inside the specimen is shown in figure 53. The moisture plateau starting at an
interface temperature of T = 100°C is fully developed; hence only a minor increase in interface temperature
is observable up to t = 80 min of fire exposure. After the test was stopped, an interface temperature of
T = 170°C was measured. During the entire test, no explosive spalling was noticed.

-10mm (lining) 400
50mm (concrete)
30mm (concrete)
800 50mm (concrete)
700
300
600
500
200
400
300
200 100
100
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in h Time in h

In contrast to the other tests, no moisture absorbance was noticed during the test. Similar to test 3, the
concrete specimen was taken from the furnace and inspected for spalling and crack width immediately
after the test. No spalling was noticed and only very small cracks were visible as shown in figure 54. With a
width of l = 0.15 mm and 0.35 mm, these cracks were slightly wider compared to those of test 3 after a
storage time of t = 24 h. At the concrete’s surface and along the edges, no significant cracks with a width of
l = 0.05 mm or wider could be found. During the removal of the specimen, the lining at the edge of the
specimen was particularly damaged (see figure 54)
Figure 54: Test 4, HPC concrete with d = 30 mm protective lining;

concrete slab after t = 120 min ISO-fire exposure (no spalling)
77
7.4.5 Test 5 + 6, HPC concrete with 15 mm and 25 mm protective lining 2

Both specimens were exposed to the ISO-fire curve for t = 120 min. Figure 55 and 56 shows the
temperature distribution for the two tested concrete slabs, covered with protective lining 2 and tested for
t = 120 min. In contrast to the tests with protective lining 1, no moisture plateau at an interface
temperature of T = 100°C was observed. The difference in reinforcement temperature in test specimen 5
with d = 15 mm coating is caused by a movement of the reinforcement from c = 15 mm to c = 21 mm.
During both tests, no explosive spalling or missing parts of the concrete or protective lining could be
observed. Some minor moisture absorbance was noticed for the specimen covered by a d = 15 mm lining,
starting after exposure time of t = 70 min. This moisture absorbance was only locally within the area of the
thermocouple wires, whereas the slab protected by a d = 25 mm lining remained dry at the surface during
the concreting.

Furnace temperature Reinfocement (high)
Reinfocement (high) 350 Concrete surface (cold)
800 300
700 250
600
200
500
400 150
300 100
200
50
100
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in h Time in h
Figure 55: Test 5, HPC concrete with d = 15mm protective lining 2 - Temperature distribution during test

Furnace temperature Reinfocement (high)
Reinfocement (high) 350 Concrete surface (cold)
800 300
700 250
600
200
500
400 150
300 100
200
50
100
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in h Time in h
Figure 56: Test 6, HPC concrete with d = 25mm protective lining 2 - temperature distribution during test
78
After the tests, the protective coating was removed from the surface to analyze cracks on top of the
concrete slab. Significant cracks were not observed on the surface, or along the edges of the specimen. The
two slabs after the tests are shown in figure 57. Some parts of the protective lining were damaged during
the handling of the specimen after the fire test.
Figure 57: Test 5+6, HPC concrete slab with protective lining 2 after t = 120 min ISO-fire exposure
left: Test 5, HPC concrete with d = 15 mm protective lining
right: Test 6, HPC concrete with d = 25 mm protective lining
7.4.6 Test 7 + 8, UHPC concrete with 3 kg/m3 and 2 kg/m3 Type C PP-fibers
The concrete slab containing the two segments with different amount of PP-fibers was tested for
t = 120 min. Figure 58 shows the temperature distribution for both segments. The mm-indication refers to
the distance from the fire-exposed surface to the thermocouple in mm. Some thermocouples failed to
operate and are not included in the measurements (thermocouples No.: 3 2 1, 3 3 1, 3 3 2).
Temperature in °C P1-3C Temperature in °C P1-2C

1100 ISO fire curve 1100 ISO fire curve
Furnace temperature Furnace temperature
1000 Concrete surface (hot) 1000 Concrete surface (hot)
37.5mm (concrete) 37.5mm (concrete)
900 75mm (concrete)
112.5mm (concrete)
900 75mm (concrete)
112.5mm (concrete)
Concrete surface (cold) Concrete surface (cold)
800 800
700 700
600 600
500 500
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in h Time in h
Figure 58: Tests 7+8, P1 concrete with mPP = 3 kg/m3 and mPP = 2 kg/m3 type C PP-fibers;
temperature distribution during test
left: Test 7, P1-3C concrete with mPP = 3 kg/m3 Type C PP-fibers
right: Test 8, P1-2C concrete with mPP = 2 kg/m3 Type C PP-fibers
79
It is interesting to note the difference in the moisture plateaus for both tests at 37.5 mm distance from the
exposed surface after t = 40 min testing time, which is more pronounced with the specimen containing
mPP = 3 kg/m3 PP-fibers. Furthermore, differences in temperature in the two segments were noticed, mainly
at temperatures above the melting point of the PP-fibers of about T = 160°C.
Moisture absorbance was noticed along the meshed baffle after a fire exposure time of about t = 45 min.
The amount of water at the cold surface increased with the time until it ceased after a total testing time of
about t = 90 min. No additional moisture coming from inner parts of the specimen via the thermocouple
cables or cracks could be seen.
Shortly before the test was stopped after t = 120 min exposure time, all moisture from the surface
evaporated and the concrete was completely dry again. It is interesting to note that the temperature at the
cold surface increased significantly during the last t = 30 min of the tests. When the moisture absorbance
ceased, the surface temperature was about T = 60°C and increased to T = 88°C in just t = 30 min.
No spalling was observed during the test of t = 120 min duration. Both parts of the concrete slab remained
intact. After the specimen cooled to ambient temperature of T = 20°C some minor cracks were noticed at
the concrete’s surface with crack widths between l = 0.05 ‐0.1 mm.
Figure 59: Test 7+8, P1 concrete slab with PP-fibers after t = 120 min ISO-fire exposure
80
8 OUTLOOK
The tests described in this test report focused on several critical parameters related to explosive spalling of
concrete at high temperature. The data and results gained from these test can be used as input parameter
for modeling explosive spalling or the development and dimensioning of protective measures.
However, for an in-depth understanding and a complete modeling of the explosive spalling of concrete,
several input parameter are still missing; hence among others, additional tests should include:
- Tests on explosive spalling involving preloaded concrete specimens, including the influence of different
preload levels [3, 13, 14].
- The analysis of moisture migration inside heated concrete including the effect of PP-fibers, different
heating rates and geometry (cylinders, slabs).
- The hot vapor permeability of concrete in different temperature stages and at different pressure levels.
- The determination of the melt-flow rate (MFR) of PP-fibers.
- The analysis of crack growths and crack orientation during heating and after the first spalling.
9 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The support by the Swiss Commission for Technology and Innovation (CTI), Berne and SIKA (Schweiz) AG,
Zurich is highly appreciated. Their generous funding made this research project possible.
In addition, our gratitude is expressed to Holcim (Schweiz) AG, Bekaert (Schweiz) AG, Baumhueter Extrusion
GmbH, BASF (Schweiz) AG and the Bergische Universität Wuppertal for providing samples of their products
and supporting the project.
Several tests were carried out at the Institute of Polymers (D-MAT), and the Institute for Geotechnical
Engineering (IGT) and the Institute for Building Materials (IfB), all at ETH Zurich. Their support and effort
during these tests is gratefully acknowledged.
81
10 LITERATURE
1. ISO 834-1-1999 Fire-resistance test - elements of building construction. 2002: International
Organization for Standardization.
2. Fletcher, I.A., et al., Behaviour of concrete structures in fire. Thermal Science, 2007. 11(2): p. 37-52.
3. International Federation for Structural Concrete Working Party 4.3.1 Materials Structures and
Modelling, Fire design of concrete structures - materials, structures and modelling. Bulletin 38.
2007, Lausanne: Fédération internationale du béton (fib). 97 S.
4. Kordina, K., C. Meyer-Ottens, and E. Richter, Beton Brandschutz Handbuch. 2. Aufl. ed. 1999,
Düsseldorf: Verlag Bau + Technik. 284 S.
5. Khoury, G.A. and Y. Anderberg, Concrete Spalling Review, in FSD - Fire Safety Design, Report
submitted to the Swedish National Road Administration. 2000.
6. Klingsch, E., A. Frangi, and M. Fontana, High- and Ultrahigh- Performance Concrete: A systematic
experimental analysis on spalling ACI Materials Journal, 2011(SP 279).
7. ABM-Paper 2A internal communication by German Federal Institute for Materials Research and
Testing, BAM Berlin. 1990: Berlin.
8. Klingsch, E.W., A. Frangi, and M. Fontana, Concrete residual strength in compression: blended
cements versus ordinary portland cement. Studies and Researches - Annual Review of Structural
Concrete, 2009. 29: p. 23.
9. DIN EN 12390-13 - Testing hardened concrete - Part 13: Determination of secant modulus of
elasticity in compression. 2012, DIN German Institute for Standardization.
10. Bergna, H.E., Colloid Chemistry of Silica - an Overview. Colloid Chemistry of Silica, 1994. 234: p. 1-
47.
11. Schneider, U. and H.-J. Herbst, Permeabilität und Porosität von Beton bei hohen Temperaturen.
Deutscher Ausschuss für Stahlbeton, 1989. Heft 403.
12. ISO 8302 - Thermal insulation; determination of steady-state thermal resistance and related
properties; guarded hot plate apparatus. 1991, International Organization for Standardization.
13. Hertz, K.D., Limits of spalling of fire-exposed concrete. Fire Safety Journal, 2003. 38(2): p. 103-116.
14. Kodur, V.K.R. Spalling in High Strength Concrete Exposed to Fire --- Concerns, Causes, Critical
Parameters and Cures. 2000: ASCE.
82
11 NOTATIONS
a reinforcement spacing
c concrete cover
d protection cover (lining) thickness
ft tensile strength
fc compressive strength
f bond strength
h height
k permeability
l length
mPP mass of PP-fibers
msteel mass of steel fibers
r radius
s spalling depth
v speed of deflection (speed of traverse)
w width
ø diameter
 density
wet density of wet lining after compaction
dry density of dry lining after compaction
Ḟ loading rate
P pressure
T temperature
Ṫ heating rate
ΔT temperature gradient
V volume content
Vp cumulative pore volume
Vsteel volume of steel fiber content
83
84
12 APPENDIX
Table A1 Compressive Strength of M1, M2 and M2 concrete, partly with steel fibers
3
Concrete Mixture Specimen length in mm diameter in mm density in kg/m fc in MPa
1 138.46 49.56 2434 161.7
M1 with
2 137.15 49.56 2442 140.4
2.5% in Vol.
3 142.84 49.56 2431 151.9
Steel fibers 1)
4 138.35 49.56 2443 151.2
1 149.82 49.56 2171 142.5
M1 without 2 136.94 49.56 2332 167.7
Steel fibers 3 140.90 49.56 2296 149.4
1)
4 141.00 49.56 2332 152.9
1 149.50 50.61 2507 132.9
2 152.37 50.66 2504 129.4
3 138.32 49.58 2513 125.2
M2 with
4 141.51 50.66 2503 127.2
2.5% in Vol.
5 144.30 50.72 2521 132.0
Steel fibers
6 143.74 51.01 2516 138.7
7 140.04 50.67 2511 123.2
8 142.63 50.68 2509 130.9
1 151.95 51.17 2381 121.3
2 151.18 51.31 2377 117.1
3 144.14 51.24 2372 123.6
M2 without 4 144.37 51.22 2370 105.6
Steel fibers 5 146.30 51.36 2379 120.8
6 150.78 51.38 2386 97.4
7 144.19 51.40 2374 116.8
2)
8 143.52 51.38 2369 65.3
1 146.18 49.71 2573 97.3
2 145.85 49.53 2583 101.4
3 144.80 49.56 2592 93.3
M3 with
4 145.39 49.51 2576 93.6
2.5% in Vol.
5 146.68 49.50 2593 94.0
Steel fibers
6 142.52 49.52 2587 97.7
7 137.88 49.53 2567 96.8
8 137.37 49.46 2585 98.2
1 141.65 49.52 2493 96.35
2 146.51 49.56 2484 87.90
3 143.58 49.54 2447 84.79
M3 without 4 143.44 49.44 2459 85.91
Steel fibers 5 135.13 49.65 2465 100.58
6 137.47 49.59 2460 90.93
7 140.98 49.49 2437 91.56
8 144.68 49.56 2440 83.97
1) Stress-deflection curve not presented in graph (missing data)
2) Test not valid
85
Appendix
Table A2 Tensile Strength of M1, M2 and M2 concrete, partly with steel fibers
3
Concrete Mixture Specimen length in mm diameter in mm density in kg/m ft in MPa
1 146.57 37.56 2440 5.14
M1 with
2 148.26 49.56 2410 5.54
2.5% in Vol.
3 147.36 49.56 2417 5.27
Steel fibers
4 151.86 49.56 2410 4.72
1 143.74 49.56 2298 7.04
M1 without 2 143.32 49.56 2328 7.38
Steel fibers 3 142.68 49.56 2315 6.95
1)
4 146.42 49.56 2304 7.12
1 151.00 50.14 2499 4.24
2 149.50 50.47 2522 5.98
3 138.52 50.50 2509 6.18
M2 with
4 139.38 50.58 2507 4.79
2.5% in Vol.
5 145.16 50.83 2506 4.89
Steel fibers
6 142.78 50.61 2535 4.69
7 142.64 50.77 2514 5.21
8 140.81 50.70 2519 5.29
1 152.58 51.18 2380 4.39
2 153.23 51.26 2372 4.77
3 143.38 51.29 2360 4.06
M2 without 4 143.90 51.23 2380 3.94
Steel fibers 5 148.65 51.41 2375 4.28
6 150.63 51.37 2377 4.64
7 145.28 51.40 2366 3.59
8 148.77 51.31 2370 2.82
1 143.81 49.55 2596 6.12
2 144.23 49.55 2596 6.45
3 145.27 49.55 2570 5.00
M3 with
4 144.41 49.59 2571 6.17
2.5% in Vol.
5 149.00 49.47 2591 6.20
Steel fibers
6 143.96 49.56 2593 5.19
7 140.87 49.59 2576 5.33
8 139.29 49.56 2580 5.87
1 145.73 49.52 2495 5.66
2 147.27 49.46 2478 6.30
3 147.72 49.50 2452 5.84
M3 without 4 143.68 49.60 2464 5.69
Steel fibers 5 141.57 49.58 2462 5.67
6 144.62 49.60 2466 4.94
7 136.34 49.54 2443 5.30
8 139.96 49.53 2436 5.36
1) Stress-deflection curve not presented in graph (missing data)
86
Appendix
fc in MPa M1 with steel fibers fc in MPa M1 without steel fibers

175 175
Specimen 1 Specimen 1
150 Specimen 2
150 Specimen 2
125 125
100 100
75 75
50 50
25 25
0 0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25
Figure A1: M1 concrete ‐ compressive strength
left: M1 concrete with 2.5% in vol. of steel fibers
right: M1 concrete without steel fibers
fc in MPa M2 with steel fibers fc in MPa M2 with steel fibers

150 150
125 Specimen 3 125 Specimen 7
100 100
75 75
50 50
25 25
0 0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50
Figure A2: M2 concrete with 2.5% in vol. of steel fibers ‐ compressive strength
87
Appendix
fc in MPa M2 without steel fibers fc in MPa M2 without steel fibers

150 150
100 100
75 75
50 50
25 25
0 0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50
Figure A3: M2 concrete without steel fibers ‐ compressive strength
fc in MPa M3 with steel fibers fc in MPa M3 with steel fibers

125 125
75 75
50 50
25 25
0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Figure A4: M3 concrete without steel fibers ‐ compressive strength
88
Appendix
fc in MPa M3 without steel fibers fc in MPa M3 without steel fibers

125 125
75 75
50 50
25 25
0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Figure A5: M3 concrete with 2.5% in vol. of steel fibers ‐ compressive strength
89
Appendix
ft in MPa M1 with steel fibers ft in MPa M1 without steel fibers

8 8
6 6
Specimen 4
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25
Figure A6: M1 concrete ‐ tensile strength
left: M1 concrete with 2.5% in vol. of steel fibers
right: M1 concrete without steel fibers
ft in MPa M2 with steel fibers ft in MPa M2 with steel fibers

8 8
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25
Figure A7: M2 concrete with 2.5% in vol. of steel fibers ‐ tensile strength
90
Appendix
ft in MPa M2 without steel fibers ft in MPa M2 without steel fibers

8 8
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25
Figure A8: M2 concrete without steel fibers ‐ tensile strength
ft in MPa M3 with steel fibers ft in MPa M3 with steel fibers

8 8
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25
Figure A9: M3 concrete with 2.5% in vol. of steel fibers ‐ tensile strength
91
Appendix
ft in MPa M3 without steel fibers ft in MPa M3 without steel fibers

8 8
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25
Figure A10: M3 concrete without steel fibers ‐ tensile strength
92
Appendix

600 600
500 Core Temp.
500 Core Temp.
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 4 8 12 16
Time in h Time in h
Figure A11: Temperature development during spalling test
Left: Test 1, M1 concrete with steel fibers, heating rate 0.25 K/min
Right: Test 2, M1 concrete with steel fibers, heating rate 0.50 K/min

600 600
500 Core Temp.
500 Core Temp.
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0.00 1.25 2.50 3.75 5.00
Time in h Time in h
93
Appendix
Temperature in °C M1 no steel fibers - Test 5 Temperature in °C M1 no steel fibers - Test 6

600 600
500 Core Temp.
500 Core Temp.
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0
Time in h Time in h
Left: Test 5, M1 concrete without steel fibers, heating rate 0.25 K/min
Right: Test 6, M1 concrete without steel fibers, heating rate 0.50 K/min

600 600
500 Core Temp.
500 Core Temp.
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time in h Time in h
94
Appendix

600 600
500 Core Temp.
500 Core Temp.
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Time in h Time in h

600 600
500 Core Temp.
500 Core Temp.
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Time in h Time in h
95
Appendix

600 600
500 Core Temp.
500 Core Temp.
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time in h Time in h

600 600
500 Core Temp.
500 Core Temp.
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time in h Time in h
96
Appendix

600 600
500 Core Temp.
500 Core Temp.
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Time in h Time in h

600 600
500 Core Temp.
500 Core Temp.
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Time in h Time in h
97
Appendix
Temperature in °C M3 + steel fibers - Test 3 Temperature in °C M3 no steel fibers - Test 4

600 600
500 Core Temp.
500 Core Temp.
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Time in h Time in h

600 800
Temp. in 30mm depth 700 Temp. in 30mm depth
500 Core Temp. Core Temp.
600
400
500
300 400
300
200
200
100
100
0 0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75
Time in h Time in h
98
Appendix

600 1.0
500 -0.5
Surface Temperature
Core Temperature
Loss in Mass
300 -3.5
200 -5.0
100 -6.5
0 -8.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time in h
Figure A23: Losses in weight ‐ M2 with steel fibers, 0.5 K/min

600 0
500 -2
Surface Temperature
400 Temperature in 30mm depth -4
Core Temperature
Loss in Mass
300 -6
200 -8
100 -10
0 -12
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time in h
99
Appendix

600 1.0
500 -0.5
Surface Temperature
Core Temperature
Loss in Mass
300 -3.5
200 -5.0
100 -6.5
0 -8.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Time in h

600 1.0
500 -0.5
Surface Temperature
Core Temperature
Loss in Mass
300 -3.5
200 -5.0
100 -6.5
0 -8.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Time in h
100
Appendix

600 1.0
500 -0.5
Surface Temperature
Core Temperature
Loss in Mass
300 -3.5
200 -5.0
100 -6.5
0 -8.0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00
Time in h
Temperature in °C M2 without steel fibers 1.5K/min Mass Loss in %

600 1.0
500 -0.5
Surface Temperature
Core Temperature
Loss in Mass
300 -3.5
200 -5.0
100 -6.5
0 -8.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
Time in h
Figure A28: Losses in weight ‐ M2 without steel fibers, 1.5 K/min
101
Appendix

600 1.0
500 -0.5
Surface Temperature
Core Temperature
Loss in Mass
300 -3.5
200 -5.0
100 -6.5
0 -8.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Time in h

600 1.0
500 -0.5
Surface Temperature
Core Temperature
Loss in Mass
300 -3.5
200 -5.0
100 -6.5
0 -8.0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75
Time in h
102
Appendix

600 1.0
500 -0.5
Surface Temperature
Core Temperature
Loss in Mass
300 -3.5
200 -5.0
100 -6.5
0 -8.0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75
Time in h

600 1.0
500 -0.5
Surface Temperature
Core Temperature
Loss in Mass
300 -3.5
200 -5.0
100 -6.5
0 -8.0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00
Time in h
103
Appendix

600 2.0
500 0.5
Surface Temperature
Core Temperature
Loss in Mass
300 -2.5
200 -4.0
100 -5.5
0 -7.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Time in h

600 1.0
500 -0.5
Surface Temperature
Core Temperature
Loss in Mass
300 -3.5
200 -5.0
100 -6.5
0 -8.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Time in h
104
Appendix

600 1.0
500 -0.5
Surface Temperature
Core Temperature
Loss in Mass
300 -3.5
200 -5.0
100 -6.5
0 -8.0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25
Time in h

600 1.0
500 -0.5
Surface Temperature
Core Temperature
Loss in Mass
300 -3.5
200 -5.0
100 -6.5
0 -8.0
0.000 0.125 0.250 0.375 0.500 0.625 0.750 0.875 1.000 1.125
Time in h
105
Appendix
Temperature in °C P1-0 - Test 1 Temperature in °C P1-0 - Test 2

500 500
400 Core Temp. 400 Core Temp.
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Time in h Time in h
Left: Test 1, P1-0 concrete without PP-fibers
Right: Test 2, P1-0 concrete without PP-fibers
Temperature in °C P1-2A - Test 3 Temperature in °C P1-3A - Test 4

800 800
700 700
600 600
500 500
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
Core Temp. Core Temp.
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0 1 2 3 4
Time in h Time in h
Left: Test 3, P1-2A concrete with 2 kg/m3 type A PP-fibers
Right: Test 4, P1-3A concrete with 3 kg/m3 type A PP-fibers
106
Appendix
Temperature in °C P1-4A* - Test 5 Temperature in °C P1-3B - Test 6

600 500
Surface Temp.
Surface Temp.
Temp. in 30mm depth
Temp. in 30mm
500 Core Temp.
Core Temp. 400
400
300
300
200
200
100
100
0 0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
Time in h Time in h
Left: Test 5, P1-4A* concrete with 4 kg/m3 type A* PP-fibers
Right: Test 6, P1-3B concrete with 3 kg/m3 type B PP-fibers
Temperature in °C P1-3B - Test 7 Temperature in °C P1-3C - Test 8

500 800
Surface Temp.
Temp. in 30mm
700
Core Temp.
400
600
300 500
400
200 300
200
100 Surface Temp.
100 Temp. in 30mm
Core Temp.
0 0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Time in h Time in h
Left: Test 7, P1-3B concrete with 3 kg/m3 type B PP-fibers
Right: Test 8, P1-3C concrete with 3 kg/m3 type C PP-fibers
107
Appendix
Temperature in °C
800
Surface Temperatures
P2-0 no PP-fibers
700
P2-1 1kg/m3 Type A* PP-fibers
P2-2 2kg/m3 Type A* PP-fibers
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25
Figure A41: Temperature development at surface during spalling test on P2 concrete
108
Appendix
Table A3 Tests on permeability

Mechanical parameter of M1 concrete (UHPC)
Sub-mixture specimen length diameter density fc Young’s Modulus
3 2 2
- - mm mm kg/m N/mm N/mm
1 88.88 50.38 2296 92.7 50663
V1 2 89.11 50.61 2280 106.6 53944
(no fibers) 3 89.01 50.52 2304 116.0 52137
4 88.52 50.19 2305 117.4 51093
1 88.43 50.75 2419 153.8 46872
V2 2 87.96 50.75 2407 147.4 49958
(steel fibers) 3 86.56 50.50 2442 149.5 47819
4 88.62 50.70 2411 144.0 48322
1 88.71 50.61 2426 130.8 43504
V3 2 86.54 50.65 2429 137.5 55314
(steel + PP-fibers) 3 86.68 50.69 2426 158.4 46447
4 85.72 50.69 2431 163.6 46882
1 88.82 49.60 2430 147.8 51354
V4 2 88.50 49.60 2447 142.1 54768
(steel + PP-fibers) 3 88.55 49.60 2433 139.6 48994
4 88.68 50.62 2438 159.1 52162

Mechanical parameter of M2 concrete (HPC)
3 2 2
1 81.03 50.20 2325 82.8 44147
V1 2 81.09 50.20 2349 102.2 48536
(no fibers) 3 77.62 50.20 2354 87.0 45363
4 79.38 50.20 2327 92.5 36950
1 81.32 50.41 2522 122.4 41601
V2 2 80.01 50.41 2494 117.6 38364
(steel fibers) 3 80.00 50.41 2522 117.1 39719
4 80.75 50.41 2523 122.7 46228
1 97.15 50.25 2566 118.5 48797
V3 2 96.42 49.79 2505 100.0 45904
(steel + PP-fibers) 3 96.69 50.50 2520 120.5 47363
4 96.66 50.50 2532 121.6 46793
1 97.54 49.65 2484 119.3 43635
V4 2 97.60 49.65 2506 122.9 46535
(steel + PP-fibers) 3 97.81 49.72 2492 111.6 44327
4 97.69 49.65 2476 111.5 44925
109
Appendix

Mechanical parameter of M3 concrete (OPC)
3 2 2
1 97.35 49.70 2413 64.4 34905
V1 2 96.37 49.70 2429 67.3 38894
(no fibers) 3 97.24 49.70 2418 70.5 45950
4 97.69 49.70 2430 60.6 47384
1 97.36 49.64 2596 92.2 53159
V2 2 97.28 49.64 2596 96.8 49106
(steel fibers) 3 97.34 49.68 2598 94.3 51648
4 97.23 49.68 2569 89.8 56492
1 97.10 49.65 2528 79.6 46735
V3 2 97.17 49.72 2543 81.6 47389
(steel + PP-fibers) 3 97.35 49.72 2538 85.4 42052
4 97.65 49.72 2549 81.4 44830
1 96.84 49.71 2514 80.9 42451
V4 2 97.17 49.71 2511 84.6 42246
(steel + PP-fibers) 3 96.63 49.71 2526 73.9 36635
4 97.22 49.71 2529 76.2 40514
110
Appendix
Cumulatives pore volume in mm3/g

80
M1 with steel fibers
70 unheated specimen
0.5 K/min
1.0 K/min
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
100 101 102 103 104 105
Pore radius in nm
Figure A42: Cumulative pore volume for the M1 concrete mixture with steel fibers
Cold stage, rapidly heated to explosive spalling, slowly heated to 500°C without spalling
Cumulatives pore volume in mm3/g Cumulatives pore volume in mm3/g

80 80
70 unheated specimen 70 unheated specimen
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
100 101 102 103 104 105 100 101 102 103 104 105
Figure A43: Cumulative pore volume for the M3 concrete mixture with and without steel fibers
111
Appendix
Pore size distribution DV/log(DR)

180
M1 with steel fibers
160 unheated specimen
0.5 K/min
140 1.0 K/min
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
100 101 102 103 104 105
Pore radius in nm
Figure A44: Pore size distribution for the M1 concrete mixture with steel fibers
Pore size distribution DV/log(DR) Pore size distribution DV/log(DR)

140 140
unheated specimen unheated specimen
120 1.0 K/min (1st test)
100 2.0 K/min (1st test) 100 2.0 K/min (1st test)
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
100 101 102 103 104 105 100 101 102 103 104 105
Figure A45: Pore size distribution for the M2 concrete mixture with and without steel fibers
112
Appendix
Pore size distribution DV/log(DR) Pore size distribution DV/log(DR)

140 140
unheated specimen unheated specimen
100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
100 101 102 103 104 105 100 101 102 103 104 105
Figure A46: Pore size distribution for the M3 concrete mixture with and without steel fibers
113
Appendix

1000 1000
800 800
600 600
400 400
200 200
Heating rate: 2.0 - 3.0 K/min Heating rate: 2.0 - K/min

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time in h Time in h
Figure A47: Temperature development for linear heated concrete cylinders with protective lining 1
left: Test 1 ‐ 10 mm lining
right: Test 2 ‐ 20 mm lining

1000 1000
800 800
600 600
400 400
200 200
Heating rate: 2.0 - K/min Heating rate: 1.0 - K/min

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time in h Time in h
114
Appendix
Temperature in °C Lining 1 - 50mm

1000
Surface Temp.
Interface Temp.
800
600
400
200
Heating rate: 2.0 - K/min

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time in h

1000 1000
800 800
600 600
400 400
200 200

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Time in h Time in h
115
Appendix

1000 1000
800 800
600 600
400 400
200 200

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Time in h Time in h
Table A6: Initial thermal conductivity 0 for lining 2

Specimen Surface Dimensions Density 0 at 20°C
3
- - mm kg/m W/(m·K)
top 0.1474
side left 0.1434
1 198.80 · 48.77 · 50.23 341.2
side right 0.1115
bottom 0.1138
top 0.1161
side left 0.1161
2 198.96 · 49.80 · 50.17 362.2
side right 0.1204
bottom 0.1223
top 0.1260
side left 0.1240
3 199.10 · 48.70 · 50.71 371.1
side right 0.1194
bottom 0.1125
top 0.1273
side left 0.1253
4 199.48 · 49.40 · 49.07 324.8
side right 0.1187
bottom 0.1193
average value 0.1227 W/(m·K)
standard deviation σ = 0.01006 W/(m·K)
coefficient of variation cov = 8.12%
116
Appendix
Table A7 Protective lining, temperature dependent density

protective lining 1
Prism length width height mass Density at temperature
20°C 105°C 150°C 300°C 600°C 900°C
3 3 3 3 3 3
mm mm mm g kg/m kg/m kg/m kg/m kg/m kg/m
1 198.00 49.88 51.66 337.87 662.22 612.03 603.19 598.19 565.63 522.14
2 198.00 51.66 51.32 348.52 663.93 610.65 611.75 604.51 573.33 532.41
3 199.50 49.87 52.31 355.35 682.79 626.82 584.99 578.32 546.60 507.25
4 199.00 49.23 52.56 338.26 656.92 601.57 600.99 597.01 564.73 524.59
5 200.00 50.08 52.14 335.67 642.76 592.91 604.75 600.94 563.50 526.47
6 200.00 49.40 52.02 339.19 659.96 604.25 594.89 587.77 554.73 519.32
7 199.00 50.01 51.52 343.37 669.69 613.70 598.49 592.27 558.62 522.27
8 199.00 49.27 52.46 347.37 675.35 619.14 609.93 606.02 569.27 532.51
mean 199.21 49.93 52.00 343.20 664.20 610.13 601.12 595.63 562.05 523.37
Table A8 Protective lining, temperature dependent density

protective lining 2
Prism length width height mass Density at temperature
20°C 105°C 150°C 300°C 600°C 900°C
3 3 3 3 3 3
mm mm mm g kg/m kg/m kg/m kg/m kg/m kg/m
1 199.10 48.70 50.71 182.48 371.13 341.13 334.92 328.17 315.58 284.61
2 198.82 49.70 50.49 174.94 350.64 326.79 321.00 314.97 302.94 272.94
3 198.94 49.40 50.92 164.09 327.90 306.74 301.19 291.83 280.54 -
4 199.30 51.12 49.90 173.78 341.82 319.24 313.56 307.62 295.44 265.05
5 198.98 50.13 50.55 167.27 331.73 309.46 304.23 298.85 287.19 257.11
6 199.88 49.32 49.69 164.86 336.55 309.63 304.20 299.54 289.09 246.63
mean 199.17 49.73 50.38 171.24 343.30 318.83 313.18 306.83 295.13 265.27
Table A9 Protective lining 1, residual bond strength

Protective lining 1 - residual bond strength - 20 mm thickness
2
Test f in N/mm Failure
1 0.08860 mid-lining
2 0.12614 interface
3 0.10961 adhesive layer
9 0.06380 interface
11 0.08963 interface
2
mean value 0.085 N/mm
-2 2
standard deviation 2.0792·10 N/mm
coefficient of variation 24.61%
117
Appendix
Table A10 Protective lining 2, cold bond strength

Protective lining 2 - cold bond strength
15 mm lining thickness 25 mm thickness
2 2
Test f in N/mm Failure f in N/mm Failure
1 0.0124 mid-lining 0.0206 interface
2 0.0106 interface 0.0058 interface
6 0.0182 interface 0.0187 mid-lining
2 2
mean value 0.0121 N/mm 0.0147 N/mm
-3 2 -3 2
standard deviation 4.0841·10 N/mm 6.2274·10 N/mm
coefficient of variation 33.6% 42.4%
118

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Explosive spalling of concrete in

Originally published in:

Explosive spalling of concrete in fire

IBK Bericht Nr. 351, Dezember 2013

Eike Klingsch, Andrea Frangi, Mario Fontana:

Bericht IBK Nr. 351, Dezember 2013

Tel. ++41 44 762 42 00

Institute of Structural Engineering

Zurich, December 2013 Prof. Dr. Mario Fontana

PREFACE ......................................................................................................................................... III

TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................................................V

1.2 Research aims ................................................................................................................... 5

1.3 General test overview ....................................................................................................... 5

2 TESTS ON EXPLOSIVE SPALLING OF CONCRETE CYLINDERS WITHOUT PP-FIBERS ........... 7

2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 7

2.2 Materials and methods ..................................................................................................... 7

2.3 Testing procedure on explosive spalling ......................................................................... 13

2.4 Test results on explosive spalling .................................................................................... 14

2.5 Test results on losses in weight during heating .............................................................. 24

3 TESTS ON EXPLOSIVE SPALLING OF CONCRETE CYLINDERS CONTAINING PP-FIBERS .... 27

3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 27

3.2 Materials and methods ................................................................................................... 27

3.3 Testing procedure on explosive spalling ......................................................................... 30

3.4 Test results on explosive spalling .................................................................................... 31

3.5 Test results on temperature dependent compressive strength ..................................... 35

4 TESTS ON POROSITY ........................................................................................................ 37

4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 37

4.2 Test set-up ...................................................................................................................... 37

4.4 Test results ...................................................................................................................... 39

5 TESTS ON RESIDUAL PERMEABILITY OF CONCRETE AFTER EXPOSURE TO HIGH

5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 45

5.2 Test set-up ...................................................................................................................... 45

5.3 Materials and Methods ................................................................................................... 46

5.4 Test results on permeability ........................................................................................... 48

6 TESTS ON INSULATING LINING ........................................................................................ 55

6.1 Test overview .................................................................................................................. 55

6.2 Material and methods .................................................................................................... 56

6.3 Test results ...................................................................................................................... 57

7 TESTS ON CONCRETE SLABS EXPOSED TO ISO-FIRE ........................................................ 65

7.1 Test overview .................................................................................................................. 65

7.2 Test set-up ...................................................................................................................... 65

7.3 Materials and Methods ................................................................................................... 67

1.2 Research aims

1.3 General test overview

In terms of temperature-dependent changes of concrete properties, changes in porosity considering the

Protective lining were experimentally analyzed in detail (chapter 6).

Table 1: Test overview

Tests on explosive spalling of concrete cylinders containing PP-fibers 3

Tests on residual permeability of concrete after exposure to high temperature 5

Tests on insulating lining 6

Tests on concrete slabs exposed to ISO-fire 7

Table 2: General overview on concrete mixtures for tests on

2.2 Materials and methods

Table 3: Mix design of concrete without PP-fibers

2.2.1 Mixing procedure and specimens

Figure 1: Location of thermocouples inside concrete cylinders

2.2.2 Major mechanical properties

fc in MPa Compressive Tests ft in MPa Tensile Tests

Figure 4: M1 ‐ M3 concrete in compression Figure 5: M1 ‐ M3 concrete in tension

Table 4: Mechanical properties measured at ambient temperature

2.3 Testing procedure on explosive spalling

2.4 Test results on explosive spalling