Thiele - Investigation of The in Uence of Thermally Induced Stress Gradients On Service Life of Nickel-Base Superalloys

Investigation of the influence of thermally
induced stress gradients on service

life of nickel-base superalloys
Von der Fakultät Maschinenwesen

der Technischen Universität Dresden
zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades
Doktoringenieur (Dr.-Ing.) vorgelegte
Dissertation
von Dipl.-Ing. Marcus Thiele

geboren am 06.08.1984 in Havelberg
Erster Gutachter: Prof. Dr.-Ing. Uwe Gampe

Zweiter Gutachter: Prof. Dr.-Ing. Samuel Forest
Tag der Einreichung: 23.06.2022

Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 22.11.2022
i
Versicherung
Hiermit versichere ich, dass ich die vorliegende Arbeit ohne unzulässige Hilfe Dritter und
ohne Benutzung anderer als der angegebenen Hilfsmittel angefertigt habe. Die aus fremden
Quellen direkt oder indirekt übernommenen Gedanken sind als solche kenntlich gemacht.
Weitere Personen waren an der Abfassung der vorliegenden Arbeit nicht beteiligt. Die Hilfe
eines Promotionsberaters habe ich nicht in Anspruch genommen. Weitere Personen haben
von mir keine geldwerten Leistungen für Arbeiten erhalten, die nicht als solche kenntlich
gemacht worden sind. Die Arbeit wurde bisher weder im Inland noch im Ausland in gleicher
oder ähnlicher Form einer anderen Prüfungsbe hörde vorgelegt.
Dresden, den 23 Juni 2022
Marcus Thiele
iii
Abstract
In order to further increase the performance and service life of components of the energy
technology, higher power densities and increasing process efficiencies are a central component
of future developments. As power densities increase, the loads on the individual components
also rise steadily. Together with new materials and technological progress, such as improved
cooling technologies or fluid dynamic optimizations, improved knowledge of the load condi-
tions and damage behaviour also enables increased performance and power densities.
In addition to mechanical and time-varying thermal stresses, current gas turbines and
often power plant components are subjected to large local thermal gradients that strongly
influence the service life of the components. On the one hand, these thermal gradients induce
additional stresses and, on the other hand, the locally variable temperature fields lead to
considerably varying material strengths.
In this work, a test rig for realistic tests of a typical gas turbine blade material Mar-
M247 is developed and a systematic experimental investigation of the influence of thermal
gradients on low-cycle fatigue strength under elevated temperatures is performed with this
test rig.
In the further part of the work, a visco-elasto-plastic material model is enhanced in order
to realistically represent the locally asymmetric stresses of the specimens under cyclic load.
With the help of literature experiments, the limitations and possibilities of the model are
first discussed and subsequently adapted to the specific material. The main advantage of the
developed model lies in the improved description of cyclic creep and relaxation (ratcheting),
especially under uniaxial loading and in the posterior adjustment possibility of the specific
ratcheting term after the adjustment of all other material parameters.
The analysis of the experimentally determined lifetimes is carried out using both engineering
methods based on the stress-dependent service life description according to Basquin and
Wöhler as well as by means of a local fracture mechanics approach. This enables both crack
initiation and crack propagation to be described under variable temperature and combined
creep and fatigue loading.
Material and fatigue life model are used together in the last part of the thesis to calculate
the deformation and fatigue life behavior of the specimens investigated and it can be shown
that the tests can be reproduced with excellent quality.
v
Kurzfassung
Um die Leistung und Lebensdauer von energietechnischen Komponenten weiter zu steigern,

sind höhere Leistungen, Leistungsdichten sowie Prozesswirkungsgrade zentrale Bestandteile
künftiger Entwicklungen. Mit steigernden Leistungsdichten erhöhen sich auch stetig die Belas-
tungen der einzelnen Komponenten. Zusammen mit neuen Werkstoffen und technologischem
Fortschritt, wie beispielsweise verbesserten Kühltechnologien oder strömungstechnischen
Optimierungen ermöglicht auch eine verbesserte Kenntnis der Belastungsbedingungen und
des Schädigungsverhaltens höhere Leistungen und Leistungsdichten.
Aktuelle Gasturbinen und oft auch Kraftwerkskomponenten unterliegen zusätzlich zu den

mechanischen und zeitlich variablen thermischen Beanspruchungen auch großen örtlichen
thermischen Gradienten, die die Lebensdauer der Komponenten stark beeinflussen. Diese
thermischen Gradienten induzieren zum einen zusätzliche Beanspruchungen und die örtlich
variablen Temperaturfelder führen zum anderen zu stark variierenden Werkstofffestigkeiten.
In dieser Arbeit wird ein Prüfstand zur realistischen Prüfung eines typischen Gasturbinen-
schaufelmaterials Mar-M247 entwickelt und mit diesem eine systematische experimentelle
Untersuchung des Einflusses thermischer Gradienten auf die niederzyklische Ermüdungsfes-
tigkeit unter erhöhten Temperaturen durchgeführt.
Im weiteren Teil der Arbeit wird ein visko-elasto-plastisches Materialmodell weiterentwickelt,

um die lokal unsymmetrische Beanspruchung der Proben unter zyklischer Last realistisch
abbilden zu können. Mit Hilfe von Experimenten aus der Literatur werden dabei zunächst die
Grenzen und Möglichkeiten des Modells diskutiert, um es dann auf den konkreten Werkstoff
anzupassen. Der wesentliche Vorteil des entwickelten Modells liegt in der verbesserten
Beschreibung des zyklischen Kriechens und zyklischen Relaxierens (Ratcheting) insbesondere
unter einachsiger Beanspruchung und in der nachträglichen Anpassungsmöglichkeit des
spezifischen Ratchetingterms nach der Anpassung aller anderen Materialparameter.
Die Analyse der experimentell ermittelten Lebensdauern erfolgt sowohl mit ingenieurmäßigen
Methoden basierend auf der spannungsabhängigen Lebensdauerbeschreibung nach Basquin
und Wöhler als auch mittels eines lokalen bruchmechanischen Ansatzes, der es ermöglicht,
Page vi of xx Marcus Thiele
sowohl die Rissinitiierung als auch den Rissfortschritt unter variabler Temperatur und kom-
binierter Kriech- und Ermüdungsbeanspruchung zu beschreiben.
Das Material- und Lebensdauermodell werden zusammen im letzten Teil der Arbeit einge-
setzt, um das Verformungs- und Lebensdauerverhalten der untersuchten Proben zu berechnen
und es kann gezeigt werden, dass sich die Versuche mit sehr guter Qualität wiedergeben lassen.
vii
Contents
Versicherung i
Abstract iii
Kurzfassung v
List of abbreviations and symbols xi
1 Introduction 1
2 Objective 5
3 State of the art 7

3.1 Thermal and mechanical loading of gas turbine components . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2 Material characterisation of nickel-based superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3 Deformation modelling based on constitutive material laws . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3.1 Ramberg-Osgood material law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3.2 Strain and stress tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3.3 Thermodynamic principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.4 Elasto-visco-plastic material models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.4.1 Isotropic hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.4.2 Kinematic hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.4.3 Kinematic hardening for improved simulation of ratcheting . . . . . . 18
3.4.4 Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.5 Failure at elevated temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.5.1 Fundamental fatigue life models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.5.2 Creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.5.3 Crack growth models for fatigue loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.5.4 Creep crack growth based on C(t) and C ∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.5.5 Temperature dependency and normalization methods . . . . . . . . . 35
3.5.6 Lifetime under temperature variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.5.7 Influence of mean stresses on lifetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.5.8 Influence of oxidation on failure at elevated temperatures . . . . . . . 42
3.5.9 Constitutive damage and crack growth models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Page viii of xx Marcus Thiele
3.6 Experimental methods for the generation of large homogeneously distributed

heat flux densities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.6.1 Resistance heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.6.2 Inductive heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.6.3 Convective heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.6.4 Laser based heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.6.5 Radiation heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.7 Conclusion on the state of the art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4 Development of a test system for cyclic fatigue tests under homogeneous surface
temperature conditions 59
4.1 Boundary conditions for the development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2 Concept for a test system with a new highly focusing heating . . . . . . . . . 60
4.2.1 Simulation of heat fluxes of different furnace geometries by ray-tracing 60
4.3 Definition of reflection and transmission coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.3.1 Simulation of the radiation behaviour for the furnace concepts . . . . 66
4.4 Analytical calculation of heat transfer inside the hollow specimen . . . . . . . 71
4.5 Finite element calculation of temperature distribution in the specimen wall . 73
4.6 Design and evaluation of the specimen internal cooling system . . . . . . . . . 75
4.6.1 Installation of heating and development of the load train . . . . . . . 81
5 Experimental investigation 85
5.1 Measurement of surface temperatures and thermal gradients . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.1.1 Measurement of surface temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.1.2 Axial surface temperature distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.1.3 Measurement of thermal gradients across specimen wall . . . . . . . . 92
5.2 Results of isothermal ratcheting tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.3 Deformation behaviour of cyclic tests with superimposed thermal gradients . 98
5.3.1 Variation of mean strain and mean stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.4 Termination criteria for the tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.4.1 Measurement of modulus of elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.5 Low cycle fatigue life of Mar-M247 with and without superimposed thermal
gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.6 Results of hollow cylindrical specimen testing with thermal gradients . . . . . 108
6 Microstructural investigation 113

Marcus Thiele Page ix of xx
7 Deformation modeling with improved ratcheting simulation based on small scale strain
theory 123
7.1 Modeling of ratcheting behaviour of Mar-M247 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.1.1 Improvement of uniaxial ratcheting description for the Armstrong-
Frederick-model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.1.2 Evaluation of the proposed model for multiaxiality . . . . . . . . . . . 129
7.2 Application of the deformation model on Mar-M247 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
8 Lifetime calculation of the nickel-base-superalloy Mar-M247 based on engineering

and crack growth methods 139
8.1 Modification of the Krämer crack growth model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
8.2 Choice of basic variable for the fatigue crack growth and crack initiation . . . 140
8.3 Oxidation based crack growth model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
8.4 Creep crack growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
8.5 Creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
8.6 Fatigue life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
8.6.1 Extension of the Paris crack growth model based on intrinsic defect size152
8.6.2 Crack length independent formulation of J-integral . . . . . . . . . . . 154
8.7 Combined model for comprehensive description of the crack-initiation and
-growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
8.7.1 Comparison to crack growth experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
8.7.2 Comparison to fatigue experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
9 Application of material and crack growth model to the experiments with superimposed
thermal gradient 167
9.1 Geometry function for the hollow specimen investigated . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
9.2 Application of the crack growth model on non-isothermal tests . . . . . . . . 170
9.2.1 Calculation of the stress strain field of hollow cylindrical specimen
subjected to thermally induced stress gradients with the elasto-visco-
plastic model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
9.2.2 Calculated crack growth behaviour under locally non-isothermal con-
ditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
10 Conclusion and outlook 181
Bibliography 185
xi
List of abbreviations and symbols
Abbreviations
CC Conventional Cast
DC Directional Cast
FEM Finite-Element-Method
FVV Research association for combustion engines
LCF Low-Cycle-Fatigue
LC Low Carbon
SX Single Crystal
TMF Thermo-Mechanical-Fatigue
A0ox oxide growth constant -
Determinations
Symbol Definition
a scalar
a vector
a matrix
a tensor of first order

e
a tensor of second order
A tensor of fourth order
~
A vector
Page xii of xx Marcus Thiele
General annotations
()90/10 90 to 10 probability
()a amplitude
()c compression
()calc calculated
()calc characteristic
()t convection
()cre creep
()CreGro creep growth
()t critical
()calc cyclic
()calc cylinder
()eff effective
()exp experimental
()fat fatigue
()FatGro fatigue growth
()FatIni fatigue initiation
()hc hold compression
()ht hold tension
()I mode 1
()ini initiation
()m mean value
()max maximum
()min minimum
()ox oxidation
Marcus Thiele Page xiii of xx
()OxInfGro oxidation influence growth
()OxInfIni oxidation influence initiation
()ref reference
()sec secondary
()t tension
()tot total
()Thresh threshold
()z correction
Notation
Greek symbols
Symbol Definition Unit

W
αconv heat transfer coefficient K
αN plain-strain / plain-stress correction factor of Newman -
αN plain-strain / plain-stress correction factor of Newman -
αOxCre thermal influence coefficient of DTMF damage concept -
αR non-isothermal stress ratio correction factor -
bφ exponent of the function φX (p) -
β indicator for plane strain or plane strain -
βf exponent of of Chaboche fatigue damage law -
χ ratcheting coefficient introduced in this work -
Abs absorption coefficient -

m
ε uniaxial strain m
m
εtech ; εtrue ; εtotal ; εelastic ; εplastic technical-; true-; total-; elastic-; plastic-strain; m
m
εD coefficient of of the Conway strain life equation m
Page xiv of xx Marcus Thiele
m
ε0 f coefficient of the Coffin-Manson-equation m
N
εfrac Ostergren-parameter mm2
m
ε infinitesimal strain tensor m
m
εe ; εp ; εt ; εth elastic-; plastic-; total-; thermal- strain tensor m
ηR reflection coefficient of a light ray -
γN Nihei mean stress exponent -
γW Walker mean stress exponent -
γX coefficient of static recovery of kinematic hardening -
λ Lagrange-multiplicator -
W
λconv thermal conductivity mK
MX coefficient of static recovery of kinematic hardening -
mX exponent of static recovery of kinematic hardening -
ν Poison ratio -
H
µmag absolute magnetic permeability m
µR transmission coefficient of a light ray -

m2
ν kinematic viscosity s
1
νε frequency of Coffin-Manson-frequency modified lifetime equation s
νOst frequency dependency of Ostergren-parameter -
Φi phase factor for in-/out-of-phase loading of Sehitoglu damage model -
φX coupling of kinematic hardening to p -
φs coefficient of the function φX (p) -
φ∗ dissipation potential -
Ψ free Helmholtz-energy W
g
ρ density cm3
N
σ uniaxial stress mm2
Marcus Thiele Page xv of xx
N
σa ;σy amplitude-; yield-; stress mm2
W
σSB Stefan-Boltzmann constant m2 K2
S
σc electrical conductivity m
N
σcy cyclic yield stress mm2
N
σD endurance limit mm2
N
σ0f coefficient of the Basquin-equation mm2
0 N
σl endurance limit Chaboche-model mm2
σligament ligament stress MPa

N
σu ultimate tensile strength mm2
N
σ Cauchy-stress tensor mm2
N
σov overstress mm2
τ cycle time s
N
τω fluid shear stress mm2
XC frequency factor by Gallernau -
ζ pressure loss coefficient -
Latin symbols
Symbol Definition Unit
a crack length mm
N
A general coefficient of lifetime formulation in section 3.5 mm2
N
A1 ; A2 Coefficients of strain components acc. to Cailletaud mm2
1
Acr creep constant of Monkman-Grant equation s
mm
ACr creep crack growth rate coefficient s
Acre coefficient of Kachanov-Rabotnov creep damage law -
afat saturation coefficient of Chaboche fatigue damage law -

Page xvi of xx Marcus Thiele
Aγ 0 ,0 γ 0 -depletion growth coefficient mm
AN0 ,AN1 ,AN2 ,AN3 mean stress influence factors of Newman -
AOxInf oxidation influence coefficient
Ak general conjugated force -
b exponent of isotropic hardening -

N
B general exponent of lifetime formulation in section 3.5 mm2
bB exponent of the Basquin-equation -
box exponent of Gallernau oxidation damage law -

N
C saturation value of kinematic hardening mm2
c exponent of the Coffin-Manson-equation -
Ĉ creep damage growth factor of Miller
CLM Larson-Miller coefficient ln(s)
Cox crack growth coefficient for oxidized material mm
Cox coefficient of Gallernau oxidation damage law -
C∗ C ∗ -integral
C(t) C(t)-integral
CTOD crack tip opening displacement mm
D saturation rate of kinematic hardening -
dγ 0 γ 0 -depletion thickness mm
~ Reflection
D reflection vector on a surface -
Dr coefficient of isotropic static recovery -

J
e specific inner energy g
N
E unixial engineering elastic modulus mm2
~ Ellipsoid
E surface of ellipsoid -
N
E general elasticity tensor mm2
Marcus Thiele Page xvii of xx
f flow surface value -
FOxCre thermal influence factor of DTMF damage concept -
FRSP boundary correlation factor -
hox oxide thickness of Sehitoglu damage model µm
hf average oxide thickness of Sehitoglu damage model at failure -
hf average oxide thickness of Sehitoglu damage model at failure µm
J J-integral MPa m
A
J0ind conduction current density m2
√
K stress intensity factor MPa m
KR1 ; KR2 ; KR3 Ramberg-Osgood-coefficients -
kB Bergmann coefficient -
kcre non-linearity coefficient of Kachanov-Rabotnov creep damage law for dam-

age interaction -
kε ; kε1 exponents of the Coffin-Manson-frequency modified lifetime equation -
KR Ramberg-Osgood coefficient -
N
Kv Norton-viscosity constant mm2
mCr creep crack growth rate exponent -
mγ 0 ,0 γ 0 -depletion growth exponent

g
ṁfluid fluid mass flow s
mOW exponent of nonlinear kinematic hardening acc. to Ohno-Wang -
mox 0 oxide growth exponent -
mr exponent of isotropic static recovery -
N number of cycles -
n Norton-viscosity exponent -
nR Ramberg-Osgood exponent -
~ Surface
N normal vector of a surface -
Page xviii of xx Marcus Thiele
n normal vector on surface -
Nu Nusselt-number -
~ Intersection intersection point on a surface

O -
N
P formative hardening mm2
m
p cumulated plastic strain m
p plastic multiplicator of viscous flow laws -

N
P ; P0 ligament load ; ligament limit load mm2
p pressure; bar
pGas gas-pressure; bar

N
PBergmann Bergmann parameter mm2
pdepth induction penetretation depth mm
PLM Larson-Miller parameter -

N
PNihei Nihei parameter mm2
N
POstergren ; POstergren1 Ostergren-parameter mm2
N
PSWT Smith-Watson-Topper-parameter mm2
PZamrik Zamrik-parameter -
N
Q saturation value of isotropic hardening mm2
W
q heat flux m
J
Qact specific activation energy mol
qcr creep exponent of Monkman-Grant equation -

MW
q̇ heat flux density m2
J
αox activation energy for oxide growth mol
N
Qr coefficient of isotropic static recovery mm2
N
R isotropic hardening mm2
m
r inner variable of isotropic hardening m
Marcus Thiele Page xix of xx
W
ṙ specific heat rate m3
R2 coefficient of determination -
R2 adjusted coefficient of determination -
rcre exponent of Kachanov-Rabotnov creep damage law -
~ Source
R vector of light ray -
Rε mean strain ratio -

J
Rgas universal gas constant molK
Rσ mean stress ratio -
Rσ∗ temperature corrected stress ratio -

N
Ru creep rupture strength mm2
ry plastic crack tip radius mm
Re Reynolds-number -
N
rOW threshold of nonlinear kinematic hardening acc. to Ohno-Wang mm2
J
s specific entropy gK
sR standard deviation -
N
t stress vector on surface mm2
e
T temperature °C
t time s
TTIT ,TCompr turbine inlet-, compressor outlet-temperature; °C
u displacement vector m
U internal elastic energy J
Uσ mean stress influence factor for crack growth -
Vk general inner variable -

N
X kinematic hardening mm2
Xl threshold of Chaboche-treshold function -

Page xx of xx Marcus Thiele
YGeo Geometry function -
y+ dimensionless wall distance -
ZD Fatigue damage parameter acc. to Heitmann -

1
1 Introduction
Climate change is currently one of the main central challenges of our time, with a great
impact on the life of almost every area of the earth’s population. According to the Paris
climate protection agreement, [1] global warming should be limited to 1.5 K. The share of
greenhouse gas emissions in industry, transport and energy production is currently more
than 70 %, whereby the emissions are largely coming from fossil fuels, figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: Global Manmade Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Sector, 2013 [2]
As early as the 1970s, Meyer-Abich [3] warned of the ecological limits to economic growth
• increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels,
• direct heating of the atmosphere by anthropogenic energy conversion processes,
• emission of aerosols.
As a result, even a 1% change in the energy supply to the earth and its atmosphere lead
to temperature increases of 1 to 1.5 % [4, 5]. These results were calculated already in the
1970’s as well.
Regenerative energy sources play a growing role in reducing the share of emissions from
energy generation, since only through them net emissions near zero can be achieved. However,
despite increasing production output, due to the still higher costs compared to conventional
energy sources, it has not been possible to replace them completely. Natural gas is the
Page 2 of 214 Marcus Thiele
lowest-emitting fossil energy source and thus offers, in addition to nuclear energy, a central
possibility for a cost-effective reduction of total emissions. The reduction in emissions for the
gross energy generation by utilizing natural gas instead of using lignite or hard coal is 60 %
and 50 %, respectively [6]. This replacement would result in a growth in gas consumption
between 2018 and 2040 of around 36 % in a realistic scenario and still -0.01 % in a scenario
holding the 1.5 °C global warming barrier [7]. Secondly, used as balancing energy sources,
gas-fired power stations serve as an excellent solution based on their fast power up capability
within less than 30 min from zero to full load on a multi-megawatt scale [8]. This ability is
necessary as regenerative energy sources face a high level of volatility [9–11], which must be
balanced.
This illustrates the enormous importance of disposable, load-flexible and highly efficient
energy conversion plants, especially gas turbines. An equivalent picture emerges in the area of
aviation, where kerosene is primarily used as fuel. Again, despite the global goal of reducing
emissions, the emissions will increase by more than 100 % depending on the calculated
scenario, even under the realistic assumption of significant technological improvements in the
efficiency of the engines. According to the calculated scenario, about 50 % of the emissions
are already saved through technological advances [12].
These studies show the significant role of technological change in the reduction of greenhouse
gas emissions. Gas turbines are today and in the midterm future, the technology with the
highest specific efficiency turning fossil fuel into usable work. Even fuel cell technologies
benefit from a gas turbine process, and thus this technology is one of the key technologies
on the way to a zero-emission economy c.f. [13, 14] or [15].
The efficiency of gas turbine processes is directly related to the combustion temperature and
compression ratio based on the underlying Brayton-cycle [16]. This is exemplarily shown
in figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2: Development history of Mitsubishi gas turbines [17]

Marcus Thiele Page 3 of 214
With increasing gas temperatures cooling technologies for gas turbine hot section components
have become a standard for highly efficient gas turbines. The maximum material temperatures
were rising only slightly during the last years but with increasing gas temperatures cooling
of components became more severe. The thermal cycle of a gas turbine leads to mechanical
loadings in form of creep and fatigue because of centrifugal forces and gas dynamic forces of
rotating components. The intensified cooling combined with an increasing number of load
ramps shifts the damage of gas turbines significantly from creep-based loads to cyclic loads
combined with large temperature gradients. Additionally, transient temperature variation
induces thermal loads on the components. Both of these load types have been studied
intensively since years and good understanding of damage mechanisms as well as theoretical
models to account for these effects have been gained. Figure 1.3 demonstrates exemplarily
the complexity that emerges in the design from the high loads on the components.
Figure 1.3: Modelling damage evolution and service life in general [18]
5
2 Objective
In this work, the central question to be answered is the influence of thermally induced stress
gradients on fatigue strength in the high-temperature range. Modern highly loaded gas
turbine parts are often intensively cooled to reduce surface temperature and increase material
strength. In cooled components in the high-temperature range, thermally induced secondary
stresses and stress gradients occur due to thermal gradients. The influence of these stress
gradients on fatigue behaviour has been investigated to a very limited extent. However, as
the efficiency of thermal components increases, cooling and thermally induced stresses also
increase. This work aims to provide a detailed physical understanding and quantification
of these effects, that assist the further development of the methods in the engineering and
design process of cooled high-temperature components.
Therefore, the following questions and challenges will be addressed in detail:
1. Development and validation of an experimental methodology for generating steady-

state temperature gradients in the metallic wall of nickel-base superalloy samples under
laboratory conditions. The test rig should be able to provide a temperature gradient
of >50K/mm at a maximum surface temperature of 950°C.
2. Development and validation of a test methodology, for investigations with superimposed

cyclic mechanical stresses and high steady-state thermal stresses
3. Generation of data base on fatigue tests with and without superimposed gradient for a
quantitative analysis of the effects
4. Quantification of the influence of high temperature gradients on component lifetime
5. Development of a deformation model with improved description of uniaxial and multi-

axial ratcheting effect
6. Development of a uniform fracture mechanics-based fatigue life and crack-growth

calculation model for creep-fatigue in connection with oxidation
7. Model validation for low cycle fatigue with superimposed local thermal stresses.
This work is strongly based on a long list of projects related to the high-temperature fatigue,
creep and crack growth behaviour for materials used in the hot gas path of gas turbine
components. Therefore, this work is connecting the existing knowledge and extending this
knowledge to understand the specific complex load case experimentally investigated here.
For the above challenges, the following solution steps are elaborated in the paper:
1. Based on existing knowledge a new test rig design concept is developed based on
raytracing calculations.
2. To enable tests comparable to literature results and to create a precisely describable

laboratory atmosphere technical solutions for load train, heating, cooling, measurement
equipment and control of the test rig are developed.
3. Experimentally the influence of thermal gradients and the resultant thermally induced
stress gradients on the low cycle fatigue life at elevated temperatures is studied by a
systematic variation of heating, loading and thermal gradient conditions.
4. As basis for the numerical investigations of the deformation and material behaviour,
material investigations were carried out and combined with available literature data.
5. For the numerical description of the local deformation behaviour, a refinement of the
material modelling is developed, and the model is used to adapt parameters to different
static, cyclic, symmetric and non-symmetric deformation experiments.
6. In order to enable a preliminary analysis of components, the experimental investigations

on service life with superimposed thermal gradients were analyzed in a simplified manner
using analytical lifetime estimations.
7. In addition, for the numerical analysis of components under complex stress conditions,
a uniform fracture mechanics-based fatigue life and crack-growth model was developed
and validated against a wide range of literature data.
8. Finally, the deformation and complex fatigue life model was used to investigate
and validate the fatigue life under superimposed thermally induced stress gradients
numerically.
7
3 State of the art
3.1 Thermal and mechanical loading of gas turbine components

The thermal cycle of a gas turbine affects mechanical loadings with resulting creep and
fatigue caused by centrifugal forces and gas dynamic forces of rotating components under
high temperatures. Additionally, transient temperature variation induces thermal loads of
the components. These TMF load types - with transient temperature variation on the one
hand but nearly constant temperature distribution across specimen on the other hand - have
been studied intensively over the years in general especially in projects initiated within the
FVV research association. Several of those included the material under investigation in this
work [19–26]. A strong understanding of damage mechanisms regarding creep or fatigue as
well as theoretical models to account for these effects have been generated. The different
transient loading types of gas turbine blades are presented in figure 3.1 a) and b).
At the start-up of the gas turbine, the outer temperature of the blade is increasing faster than
the temperature inside the turbine blade, figure 3.1 a). Shortly after the gas temperature
reaches steady state, the temperature difference across the wall is decreasing to zero. Internal
calculation of the temperature difference shows less than 10 K difference between surface
and internal material temperature while heating up in the first turbine stage (uncooled)
of a 600 kW gas turbine [28]. In thermo-mechanical fatigue (TMF) tests of cylindrical
specimens, a similar temperature difference could be found that is less than 20 K in transient
conditions with temperature rates of maximum 10 K/s [29]. This temperature difference
generates secondary thermal stresses on the basis of restrained thermal expansion. During
shutdown or reduction of gas turbine load, this effect is reversed. For uncooled blades, the
resultant stresses induced by centrifugal loads and thermal constraint between leading and
trailing edge of blade and platform usually outnumber the effect of the secondary thermal
stresses e.g. [30]. Therefore, the main damaging mechanisms are the combination of low
cycle fatigue (LCF), creep and TMF, which are addressed in a number of research projects.
To keep the component temperature on a design value while further increasing the hot
gas temperature, the components feature hollow structures cooled with compressed air.
That air is extracted from a particular compressor stage with a pressure level compatible
with the component being cooled. Film cooling, also in combination with convective and
impingement cooling, is most efficient. Thus, it represents the key cooling technology for
thermally highest loaded gas turbine components. The thermo-mechanical relevant features

 
 
 
 
 
      
Figure 3.1: Temperature and stress transients of a non-cooled a) and a internally cooled b)
turbine blade during a typical load cycle, cycle, c.f. [27]
are the small cooling air holes generating mechanical stress concentrations and the thermal
gradient as a result of the internal component cooling. For a cooled blade, the transient
thermal cycle is shown in figure 3.1 b). While starting the machine, both the hot gas air
mass flow and temperature, as well as air mass flow and temperature of the internal cooling
are increasing. The maximum stationary temperature of the hot gas air is significantly
higher than for the internal cooling air. For stationary J-class gas turbines, the maximum
turbine inlet temperature (TTIT ) is larger than TTIT = 1600 °C whereas the temperature of
cooling air leaving the last stage of the compressor is TCompressor <460 °C for a gas turbine
with a compression ratio of approximately 23 [31, 32]. For aeroengines, the TTIT can be
larger than 1600 °C, whereas the temperature of cooling air leaving the last stage of the
compressor is TCompressor ≈ 630-650 °C for a gas turbine with a compression ratio of above 40
[33–35]. For the latest development, the pressure ratio of the compressor is further increased
to about 60 leading to a compressor outlet temperature of >730 °C [36, 37]. Thus, with an
increasing power output of the turbine, the surface temperature of the blade is increasing
faster than the temperature of the inner surface of a blade with a typical wall thickness of
<2 mm for aircraft engines, for example [38]. At steady state, the temperature difference
between the inner and outer surface reaches its maximum, as well as the secondary thermal
stresses. These thermal stresses are remaining during an operation cycle of the engine
and reducing significantly only during shut-down. The main difference between thermal
loading of cooled and uncooled blades is the fact that the thermal stresses are constant
over the whole operation cycle, while in an uncooled blade, they are the result of transient
temperature change and heat capacity of the material. Thus, the LCF, TMF and Creep
loading. These loadings are combined with an immanent temperature difference within the
component inducing additional constant loadings [39].
3.2 Material characterisation of nickel-based superalloys

The development of superalloys and, more specifically nickel-based superalloys is strongly
connected to the development of gas turbines and their need of heat resistant materials.
Thus, the development can be dated back to the beginning of the 20th century. The first
nickel-based alloys for the usage at elevated temperatures in electric heat conductors were
developed in 1906 [40]. At that time, the oxidation resistance was the main reason for the
use of a nickel-based alloy.
The breakthrough in application occurred with the development of jet engines [41] and
their needs for materials with increased high-temperature strength that were available in the
beginning of the 1950s [42–45].
The typical metallographic microstructure of nickel-based alloys is shown in figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2: Schematic representation of different microstructual phases of nickel-based alloys

[43]
The elementary reason for the high strength of nickel-based alloys is their capability to
be solid solution, dispersion and precipitation hardened. The precipitation hardening of
nickel-based alloys is based on γ 0 -precipitates formed by Ni3 (Al,Ti) embedded in a γ-matrix
and is the main reason for the high-temperature strength of the alloys.
The γ phase is an austenitic cubic face centred (fcc) matrix in which additionally, secondary
phases are embedded [46]. These phases essentially include fcc metal carbides MC, M23 C6
and M6 C as well as geometrically closed packed γ 0 -precipitates, consisting of Ni3 (Al,Ti).
The role and effect of the essential alloying elements are summarized according to [44, 46]
in table 3.2.
Table 3.1: Influence of alloying elements in nickel-based alloys [46]
1)
Influence Elements
Solid solution hardening Co, Cr, Fe, Mo, W, Ta, Re
MC W,Ta,Ti, Mo, Nb, Hf
Carbide formation M7 C3 Cr
M2 3C6 Cr, Mo, W
M8 C Mo, W, Nb
Formation of carbon nitrides C, N
0
Formation of γ -phase Ni3 (Al,Ti) Al, Ti
0
Increase of the solution temperature of the γ -phase Co
Precipitation hardening and/or formation of intermetallic phases Al, Ti, Nb
Oxidation resistance Al, Cr, Y, La, Ce
Improvement of hot corrosion resistance La, Th
Sulfidation resistance Cr, Co, Si
Improvement of creep properties B, Ta
Improvement of creep rupture strength B2)
Refinement of the grain B, C, Zr, Hf
0
Deceleration of the coarsening of the γ -phase. Re
1)
The effects do not necessarily have to occur in an alloy
2)
Formation of borides when present in large quantities
Detailed explanations on metallurgical information on nickel-based superalloys and the

alloying elements can be found in recent text books [42, 43, 46–48] or [49].
The scope of the present work is focusing on the investigation of the fatigue behaviour of
nickel-based alloys under thermally induced stress gradients. The investigated material is
the polycrystalline nickel-based alloy Mar-M247 , which has been used in several research
projects initiated by the research association for combustion engines (FVV) as an example
material for the class of cast nickel-based superalloys [19, 20, 24, 50–53] and [26].
Characterization of the nickel-based alloy Mar-M247
The material Mar-M247 CC was developed by the company Martin-Marietta-Corporation

at the end of the 1960s with the aim of increasing the ductility of the cast parts used at
that time [54]. Investigations on cast samples with large volumes and castings from melted
turbine material showed a clear decrease in ductility in the temperature range around
T =760 °C [42, 55]. The increased ductility with the same high strength could be achieved
by adding 1.5 % hafnium. According to the authors, this prevented "font-like" carbide phases
from developing. The increased ductility in the elevated temperature range consequently led
to a significantly increased fracture time in creep tests.
At the beginning of the 1970s, Martin-Marietta-Corporation emerged to Cannon-

Muskegon-Corporation. Additional developments further reduced the carbon content of the
alloy (CM247 LC CC ) in order to improve the grain boundary oxidation properties (1978),
technologically implemented a directionally solidified casting of the alloy (CM247 LC DC)
and finally, process refinement allowed the cast of a single-crystal solidified nickel-based
super alloy CMSX-2/3 and CMSX-4 (early 1980’s) [56–58].
The conventional solidification is called CC, the directional solidification with DC and the
reduced carbon content is marked with the designation LC.
Typical grain sizes of the Mar-M247 are shown in figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3: Grain sizes of Mar-M247 for different projects and the current investigation
[24–26, 40, 51, 59–62]
The alloy composition of CM 247 LC CC used within this work was not investigated for the
material batch delivered. The alloy composition from different literature sources is presented
in table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Chemical composition of Mar-M247 and derivatives tested in different research
projects
Source Material Co1) W1) Cr1) Al1) Ta1) Hf1) Ti1) Mo1) C1) Zr1) B1) Fe1)
[19] Mar-M247 CC LC FK (HIP) 9,32 9,51 8,15 5,62 - 1,41 0,7 0,47 0,08 0,02 0,15 0,05
[20] Mar-M247 CC LC (HIP) 9,32 9,51 8,15 5,62 - 1,41 0,7 0,47 0,08 0,02 0,15 0,05
[50] Mar-M247 CC LC 9,42 n/s 8,1 5,65 n/s n/s 0,75 0,48 0,08 n/s n/s 0,04
[53] Mar-M247 CC LC 9,24 9,44 8,19 5,6 3,18 n/s 0,67 0,5 0,07 0,02 n/s 0,04
4)
[51] Mar-M247 CC LC (HIP) 9,28 9,57 8,14 5,59 3,17 1,48 0,69 0,5 0,08 0,01 0,04
3)
[24] Mar-M247 CC LC 9,33 9,45 8,08 5,68 3,26 1,42 0,71 0,53 0,07 <0.01<0.060,04
[25] Mar-M247 CC LC (HIP) 10 9,99 8,34 5,59 2,99 1,41 0,98 0,65 0,15 n/s n/s 0,04
2)
[26] Mar-M247 CC LC (HIP) 8,96 9,57 7,56 5,02 3,6 0,76 0,43 0,36 0,12 <0.01n/s 0,08
[60] Mar-M247 CC 10 10 8,4 5,5 3,05 1,4 1,05 0,65 0,13 0,06 0,02 0,25
[44] Mar-M247 CC LC FK 10 10 8,25 5,5 3 1,5 1 0,7 0,15 0,05 0,02 n/s
[63] Mar-M247 CC 10 10 8,4 5,6 3 1,5 1 0,7 0,15 0,05 n/s n/s
[63] Mar-M247 CC LC 9,2 9,5 8,1 5,6 3,2 1,4 0,7 0,5 0,07 0,02 n/s n/s
1) 2) 3)
Elements in WT.-%; Si 0.13; Cu 0.05; Mn 0.04 ; Si 0.01; Mn <0.01; P <0.003; S <0.005; Nb <0.02;
4)
Si 0.01; Mn<0.01;V<0.01;
Analyses from previous projects with the same supplier and the same specifications are
[24–26, 51, 53]. An effect of the material variation on fatigue life could not be shown in the
previous projects and is excluded for the current work. The chemical composition within
different projects varies only slightly.
The ultimate tensile strength as well as the yield strength of Mar-M247 are shown in figure
3.4. The peak in yield and ultimate strength at around 760 ℃, is typical for the γ 0 content of
62 % for this alloy [42, 55, 57], together with a minimum in ductility at that temperature.
Figure 3.4: Temperature dependent yield and tensile strength of Mar-M247 [20, 51, 64,
65]
3.3 Deformation modelling based on constitutive material laws

The explanations in this section are limited to the key fundamentals required for an essential
understanding of the following discussion. For a detailed review of the basics of continuum
mechanics, the reader is referred to [66–68]. The constitutive material laws presented are
based on the concept of continuum mechanics that assumes the material as a homogeneous
continuous media.
The focus of the explanations in this chapter is generally focused on the small strain theory.
The materials of interest within this work are generally high participation strengthened
nickel-based alloys, e.g. Mar-M247 and derivatives c.f. 3.2. These alloys feature a generally
low fracture elongation of below 12 % for IN738 [69], 13 % for GTD111 [70] or 11 % for
Mar-M247 [71]. In engineering applications with cyclic loadings, the strain amplitude
is mostly significantly lower than 10 %. Therefore, the error between technical and true
εtech −εtrue
strain is around εtrue = 5 % for the maximum tensile elongation and 0.5 % for cyclic
deformation. Hence, following all formulations are completely based on the small strain
theory [72].
3.3.1 Ramberg-Osgood material law

Ramberg and Osgood proposed a uniaxial description for the deformation of material
that is widely used especially for crack growth, as well as damage models to account for
plastification of the material [73]. Different formulations can be found, but common for
all of them is the fact that the plastic strain is modelled based on a power law y = axb .
Different formulations are the following:
εt = εe + εpl (3.1)
1
σ σ nR
εt = + KR original formulation [73] (3.2)
E E
! 1
σ σ nR
εt = + 0.002 referring to σy [74] (3.3)
E σy
σ
εt = + KR1 (σ)nR simple power law form e.g. [75] (3.4)
E
These are phenomenological descriptions but important for the lifetime evaluations shown
later. In the following, only equation 3.4 will be used. Note that the yield strength can be
approximated by σy = (0.002)nR KR1 . This is utilized in section 8. The formulations above
can be formulated for the cyclic stress strain curve e.g. as
nR
∆σ ∆σ ∆σ
∆εt = + 2KR1 = + KR2 (∆σ)nR . (3.5)
E 2 E
3.3.2 Strain and stress tensor

The infinitesimal strain tensor can be described based on the deformation gradient tensor
(uk,l ) as
1
ε= ∇u + (∇u)T (3.6)
2
Further, it is assumed that the total distortion (ε) is additively composed of elastic- (εel ),
plastic- (εpl ) and here negligible thermal strain (εth ).
ε = εel + εpl + εth (3.7)
The response of the material to a stress vector t at the surface is the stress tensor
e
t = n · σ, (3.8)
e
where n is the outward normal vector on the surface [67]. The stress σ is proportional to
the elastic part of the strain εel via the elasticity tensor E on
σ = E : εel .
3.3.3 Thermodynamic principles

The first law of thermodynamics can be formulated locally neglecting the kinetic energy as
follows
1 1
ė
|{z} = σ : ε̇ + r
|{z} − ∇·q . (3.9)
ρ ρ
specific internal energy rate | {z } specific heat rate | {z }
specific internal power external heat flux
The second law of thermodynamics can be defined as
r 1 q
ṡ − + ∇· ≥0 (3.10)
T ρ T
with the entropy s. Utilizing the free Helmholtz-energy Ψ in the form Ψ = e − T s results
in the Clausius-Duhem-Inequality (CDI)
1 q
−Ψ̇ + Ṫ s + σ : ε̇ − · ∇T ≥ 0. (3.11)
ρ ρT
Material laws based on a problem specific number k of local internal variables (Vk ) are
related to the Helmholtzenergy Ψ according to Coleman-Noll [76] by

Ψ = Ψ εel , T, Vk and thus
∂Ψ ∂Ψ ∂Ψ ˙ (3.12)
Ψ̇ = · ε̇el + · Ṫ + · Vk .
∂εel ∂T ∂Vk
Thus, combining equation 3.11 gives

σ ∂Ψ σ ∂Ψ ∂Ψ ˙ q
− el : ε̇el + : ε̇pl − s + · Ṫ + · Vk − · ∇T ≥ 0 (3.13)
ρ ∂ε ρ ∂T ∂Vk ρT
| {z } | {z } | {z }
a b c
Each of the terms a,b, and c need to fulfil the CDI which results, for example, for a in
σ ∂Ψ
= . (3.14)
ρ ∂εel
Assuming that each local internal variable (Vk ) is related to a conjugated force Ak and
decoupling the mechanic (a) and the thermal (c) potential as well as assuming the conjugated
forces to be conservative a dissipation potential φ can be defined which is used instead of Ψ
utilizing the Legendre-Fenchel-Transformation
∂Ψ
Ak = ρ exchanging Ψ by φ (3.15)
∂Vk
(
∂φ∗ (f ) ∂f f =0
V̇k = if . (3.16)
∂f ∂Ak f˙ = 0
3.4 Elasto-visco-plastic material models

Based on kinematic and thermodynamic principles, material laws with discrete state variables
that reflect the macroscopic behaviour of the material can be defined. Many materials show
a characteristic relationship between stress and strain, as shown in figure 3.5 a). Thereby,
the stress-strain curve can be divided into an elastic and a viscous or plastic region. To
account for this fact, it is useful to introduce a yield surface f = f (σ,Ak ), which is used
to separate the elastic from the plastic region. The change of the yield surface is described
with the help of the inner variable Ak .
 s sD
s
s


s e s 
s>0


 
s<0
s
 s

e


e
 s s
s

s
 
 
s
 
s s s s s s
 
s s
s s
e e
s

s
 s

s

s
 
Figure 3.5: (a) Schematic representation of the yield surface in the stress space and the
associated stress-strain curve and (b-d) under different strain hardening modes.
[66]
The type of change of the flow surface can be distinguished in terms of continuum mechanics
into isotropic (Rk ), kinematic (X k ) and formative hardening (P k ) , c.f. figure 3.5. Here,
the variables correspond to the respective conjugate forces [77].
Based on these principles, a material law can be defined as follows. The stress tensor σ
depends via the elasticity tensor E on the elastic part of the strain tensor εel
σ = E : εel . (3.17)
The flow surface is defined depending on isotropic and kinematic hardening using a flow
criteria, e.g. the von Mises criterion
f = J (σ − X) − R − σy ≤ 0 (3.18)
r
3 0
J (σ − X) = (σ − X 0 ) : (σ 0 − X 0 ) and (3.19)
2
1
σ 0 = σkl
0
= σkl − δkl σmm (3.20)
3
f corresponds to a potential according to equation 3.16, which yields in
∂f
ε̇pl = H (f ) λ̇ with (3.21)
∂σ
(
1 if f ≥ 0
H (f ) = (3.22)
0 if f < 0
Including rate-dependent processes, the flow function can become f > 0 and above
formulation is extended by introducing an accumulated plastic multiplier ṗ and an overstress
r
2 pl pl
ṗ = ṗ (σov ) = ṗ (f ) = ε̇ : ε̇ . (3.23)
3
3.4.1 Isotropic hardening

Isotropic hardening or softening describes the change of yield strength, thus extension or
reduction of the elasticity domain, c.f. figure 3.5b). This effect can be described by at least
3 different forms, as a separate scalar variable R by
Ṙ = b (Q − R) ṗ with R |t=0 = 0 , (3.24)
together with a static recovery term for improved creep simulation by
Ṙ = b (Q − R) ṗ − Dr |R − Qr |mr −1 (R − Qr ) , (3.25)
coupled to the viscosity constant Kv of the viscosity function (c.f. equation 3.41)
K̇v = b (Q − Kv ) ṗ with Kv |t=0 = K0 (3.26)
or coupled to the kinematic hardening variable (X) using scalar function φX (c.f. equation
3.31).
φX (p) = φs + (1 − φs ) e−bφ ·p (3.27)
3.4.2 Kinematic hardening

Often a hardening approach published by Armstrong and Frederick (A-F) 1966 is used
in accumulative form
l
X
X= Xi (3.28)
i=1

2
Ẋ i = Di Ci ε̇pl − X i ṗ (3.29)
3
Extensions are then made to include isotropic hardening by [78]

2
Ẋ i = Di Ci ε̇pl − φX (p) X i ṗ with (3.30)
3
φX (p) = φs + (1 − φs ) e−bφ ·p acc. to 3.27
A static recovery term for improved creep simulation can be introduced by
l
X
Ẋ = Ẋ i + Ẋ si (3.31)
i=1
mi
J (X i )
Ẋ si = −Di γi (J (X i ))mi X i = −Di sign (X i ) . (3.32)
Mi
3.4.3 Kinematic hardening for improved simulation of ratcheting

A fundamental problem of modelling approaches based on kinematic hardening of the A-F
type is that ratcheting or cyclic mean stress relaxation cannot be correctly represented
[79–82]. Ratcheting can be described as accumulating plastic strain under unbalanced cyclic
stress-controlled uniaxial or multiaxial loading and cyclic creep as the corresponding stress-
relaxation under strain-controlled loading [83], c.f. figure 3.6. In this context, a combination
of strain and stress control for multiaxial loading is also investigated in experiments [85, 86].
Based on recent research results [86–90], it is evident that major problems still exist in the
mathematical description of ratcheting behaviour. Nevertheless, different approaches deliver
good results for uniaxial loads.
A simple way to extend the A-F approach is provided by Chaboche [79] by introducing a
threshold Xl for the kinematic hardening that is limited acc. to Bari and Hassam [91] to
uniaxial loading at
(
2 Xl 0 if x ≤ 0
Ẋ = D C ε̇pl − 1 − X ṗ with hxi = (3.33)
3 J (X) x if x > 0
| {z }
MacCauly-bracket
Similar approaches are used by Burlet and Cailletaud [92] or Bari and Hassan [91].
Ohno and Wang (O-W) [81] introduced two multiple approaches to kinematic hardening
Figure 3.6: Non-symmetric cyclic stress controlled experiment showing Continuous ratchet-
ing of 1070 Steel [84]
in which each hardening variable X i is fully activated only from a critical state ri . This
is done via a separate boundary fi for each X i (variant I) or via a nonlinear power term
(variant II):
l
X
X= Xi (3.34)
i=1
2 pl Xi

Ẋ i = Di ri ε̇ − H (fi ) ε̇pl : Xi variant I (3.35)
3 J (X i )
2 pl J (X i ) mOWi pl Xi

Ẋ i = Di ri ε̇ − ε̇ : Xi variant II. (3.36)
3 ri J (X i )
A third formulation was proposed by Cailletaud in [82]. In this approach, the global
stress or strain tensor is divided into several parts, for which separate mechanisms (own
hardening variables depending on the respective stress part) are chosen and are related to
several flow surfaces. A model with two criteria and two mechanisms can be written as
εpl = A1 εpl pl
1 + A2 ε2 (3.37)
σ = A1 σ 1 + A2 σ 2 . (3.38)
fi = J (σ i − X i ) − Ri − R0i (i = 1..n). (3.39)
n
" #!
X 2 3 σ 0i − X 0i
3 Dii
Ẋ i = Cij ṗ 0 0 − X i ṗ with(i = 1..n). (3.40)
j=1
3 2 J (σ i − X i ) 2 Cii
This model has been extended to multiple criteria and surfaces and applied to experiments
by [82, 87, 90, 93, 94] Current research is mainly concerned with the further development
of the three approaches described above [86, 89, 90, 95]. Other approaches are described,
for example, in [91] (Jiang-Sehitoglu model) or [79] (Henshall).
Capabilities and restrictions of the Ohno-Wang-model
The previous mentioned extension of the A-F model proposed by O-W (c.f. equation 3.36)
is widely used in the literature [96–98]. Exemplarily the capabilities and restriction for the
A-F and O-W are shown in the following.
To illustrate the features of the A-F kinematic hardening solution a non-symmetric uniaxial
loading path according to figure 3.7 in stress and strain control is used.
For the study a reduced model using only the kinematic hardening function (eq. 3.29) is
used. The parameters of the model are chosen as shown in Table 3.3.
Figure 3.8 illustrates the stress strain behaviour including the effect of ratcheting or cyclic
stress relaxation.
The ratcheting behaviour can be improved utilizing the O-W law by introducing two
90
=80 MPa
0,005 =0,5 %
60
30
[MPa]
=-0,1 %
0 0,000
[-]
=-16 MPa
-30
-60
-0,005 =-0,5 %
=-80 MPa sig eps_t
-90
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
t [s] t [s]
Figure 3.7: a) Stress versus time and b) Strain versus time for a non symmetric uniaxial
loading path to illustrate capabilities of different formulations for the modelling
of ratcheting
Table 3.3: Model parameter for simulation of uniaxial ratcheting behaviour
Model E [GPa] C [MPa] γ [−] m [−]

Armstrong-Frederick 100 100 300 -
Ohno-Wang-II a) 100 100 300 5
Ohno-Wang-II b) 100 85 300 5
 
 
 


 
 
 


 
        
 
Figure 3.8: Hysteresis calculated by the Armstrong-Frederick kinematic hardening

model for a) stress controlled and b) strain controlled non symmetric uniaxial
loading path of figure 3.7
additional parameters m and χ. But adjustment of m and χ changes the slope of the
hysteresis and therefore the adaptation of material parameters need to be repeated each
time m and χ are adjusted, figure 3.9.
Additionally, a second parameter set was used that gives similar stress-amplitudes in strain
control compared to the original A-F-formulation approach. Both solutions for both cases
are plotted in figure 3.9. Obviously the ratcheting and relaxation behaviour can be influenced
easily, but at the same time the form of the hysteresis is changing and therefore for lower
values of relaxation behaviour and thus larger values of m the form of the hysteresis becomes
more and more linear. For large values of m > 20) the Ohno-Wang-II model converges to
the Ohno-I model with multi-linear behaviour. Thus, for larger values of m a larger number
of back-stresses Xi are needed to simulate realistic hysteresis. In figure 3.9 this is shown by
the thin hysteresis for the last plot. Very similar results were published by Abdel et al. [86]
3.4.4 Viscosity
At elevated temperature, the rate dependency of the deformation becomes relevant. To
account for this effect a functional relationship 3.23 between the overstress σov and the
plastic multiplier ṗ need to be defined based on the phenomenology of experiments. Creep
and relaxation experiments are particularly suitable for this purpose.
Popular formulations are based on the Norton flow law [99] given by
n n
σov J (σ − X) − R − σy

ṗ = = . (3.41)
Kv Kv
Another formulation with a wider use case was developed by Garofalo flow law [100] and




 







  
   
     

        
 
Figure 3.9: Hysteresis calculated by the Ohno-Wang kinematic hardening model for a)
stress controlled and b) strain controlled non symmetric uniaxial loading path of
figure 3.7
presented in a multiaxial form by e.g. Miller [101] that can be written as
3 n
 
J (σ − X) − R − σy 

2
ṗ = sinh . (3.42)
Kv
σ
Note, originally Miller normalized the stress tensor σ by the elastic modulus E E . A
third variant was given by Bodner [102] with an exponential relation of stress to the plastic
multiplier and can be written in a reduced form as
n
J (σ)

ṗ = exp . (3.43)
Kv
Of course, this is only an incomplete representation of the approaches of the literature Other
laws can be found in the corresponding literature, e.g. [67, 77, 103–105].
3.5 Failure at elevated temperatures

For structural components the lifetime under various load conditions is crucial for the design.
The lifetime limiting loading condition can have different forms that have to be precisely
known and considered depending on the application of the component, c.f. 1.3. A list of
different conditions influencing the service life of a component according to [46, 66, 106–108]
is given as follows:
• Temperature • Internal loading
• Temperature variation • Manufacturing induced residual

loadings
• Corrosion
• Oxidation • Radiation
• External loading • Geometry
For most of the components, the interaction of different influence factors is limiting the
service life. Especially external and internal loadings have a tremendous effect on the service
life and for different types of loading, the list can be further extended to
• Stress amplitude • Stress concentration
• Mean stress • Stress distribution
• Multiaxiality • Load sequence
At elevated temperatures, the loadings of components are often categorized into the three
types:
• Creep life or creep resistance, that characterizes the resistance against static mechanical
loads at higher temperatures
• Oxidation that characterizes the damaging effect of surface oxidation of the component
and
• Fatigue that characterizes the influence of cyclic loadings on the component service
life.
Based on the scope of this work the following explanation concentrate on cyclic loads at
elevated temperatures. The central idea of the service life calculation of a cyclically loaded
component is to express a functional relationship between a load or stress and a service life as
the number of cycles N = NF or a time until failure t = tC . The functional relationships can
be of phenomenological, continuum mechanical or metallographic origin and can be defined
for materials or components as well as for structures. Over the past, more than 100 years,
multiple research concepts for the evaluation of a load or stress with regard to their lifetime
have been presented [109] beginning with Wöhler [110] or Basquin [111]The interaction
of different loading conditions can be integrated accumulating different phenomenological
formulations for e.g. fatigue and creep or be integrated into complex constitutive models
[112], figure 3.10.
Additionally, from a fracture mechanics perspective, the lifetime of a component until failure
of the component can essentially be divided into three phases: the crack initiation phase,
the crack growth phase and the phase of the unstable crack growth [113]. Hereby only
the first two phases are technically relevant for design and safety evaluations. There are
separate calculation methods for both areas (fracture-mechanical concepts and damage
Figure 3.10: Distinction between accumulative and constitutive models for lifetime evalua-
tion [112]
mechanics concepts). However, some of the concepts can also be used in a cross-functional
way, and most damage mechanics concepts are combining stage I and II crack growth into
one damaging phase.
Most of the influence factors listed at the beginning of this chapter are used in both fracture
and damage mechanics in a very similar way, c.f. section 3.5.7.
3.5.1 Fundamental fatigue life models

Phenomenological models define a functional relation for a given load criteria to a defined
lifetime criterion. Usually, within a laboratory test, the definition of fatigue life follows a
certain drop in amplitude of strain, force or displacement that defines the failure of the
component [114, 115].
The objective of this section is a comprehensive description of the lifetime behaviour under
various loading conditions. The mathematical formulation aims to allow the calculation
of damage of virgin material, including different stages of damage or crack growth. The
explanations in this section are intended to provide a coherent way of describing the different
stages of material damage starting from the formation of cracks through crack growth to
failure of the complete structure.
Choice of descriptive variables
Generally, most of the models to calculate a specific lifetime can be categorized into 3
different classes:
• stress-based model N = f (σ), • energy-based model N = f (ε,σ),
• strain-based model N = f (ε),
The definition of "energy-based" models is used for models that give a measure for the stored
energy of a hysteresis or load and do not define the direct mathematical calculation of the
energy. Following this definition and the impact on lifetime calculation will be explained
more in detail.
Stress-based models
The most common relations to evaluate the lifetime under cyclic loading have been proposed
by Wöhler and Basquin for stress-based analyses, e.g. [106, 116]
σa = σ 0 f (N )bB (3.44)
Originally 2N instead of N was used [111] and Wöhler used aWo − bWo σa = lgN instead
of equation 3.44 [110].
Several other formulations and extensions of the aforementioned basic stress-based models
are given e.g. in [116]. At high loads, the lifetime tends towards the static strength σu
and for sufficiently low loads often an endurance limit σD is assumed. For loads below σD a
certain value, the lifetime tends towards infinity. Within this concept, failure modes at a
very high number of cycles N > 108 called very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) are neglected.
According to Stüssi [117] equation 3.44 can be extended to
σa − σD
= σ 0 f (N )b (3.45)
σu − σa
Similarly, the endurance limit and static fatigue or tensile strength can be included by
σD σmax

1− 1+ σa = σ 0 f (N )b (3.46)
σmax σu
For both formulations, the endurance factor needs to be limited to 0 if σa < σD
Strain-based models
Then, Coffin and Manson proposed the well-known relation for low cycle fatigue for
strain-based analysis [118, 119], Coffin-Manson-models (CM)
c
εpl 0
a = ε f (N ) (3.47)
Later this formulation was extended to high cycle fatigue by Morrow [120] known as
Coffin-Manson-Morrow-model (CMM)
c σ0f
εa = εel pl 0
a + εa = ε f (N ) + (N )b . (3.48)
E
The coefficients c and b are the fatigue exponents, ε0 f the fatigue ductility and σ 0 f the
endurance coefficient. In the literature, different experimentally motivated derivatives of
this formulation can be found, e.g. [121]
εa = ε0 f (N )c + εD (3.49)
Coffin included a frequency factor to account for hold time effects at high-temperatures
[122]
c σ0f
εa = εel pl 0
a + εa = ε f N ν ε
kε −1
+ (N )b νε kε1 (3.50)
E
Whereby νε accounts for the cycle frequency and can be related to hold the time of the load
reversal tc and a hold time at tension tht or compression thc as follow
1
νε = (3.51)
tc + thc + tht
For constant cycle frequencies and sufficiently small values of k, the influence of the frequency
variable becomes negligible and therefore (3.50) reduces to equation (3.48).
The described models are not able to incorporate the influence of mean stresses or explicitly
temperature variation within a load cycle.
Models based on an energy quantity
In order to improve the prediction under various and varying temperature, different ap-
proaches are presented. The introduction of a mean stress dependency at room temperature
proposed by Smith Watson and Topper [123] is not a true energy-based formulation but
is often mentioned as a starting point for further investigation [124–126]
q
PSWT = (σa + σm ) εa E (3.52)
A detailed evaluation of the influence of mean stresses on lifetime is given in section 3.5.7.
This formulation was modified later by Ostergren to describe high-temperature fatigue
behaviour with and without frequency dependency [127]
POstergren = σmax ∆εpl or (3.53)

POstergren1 = σmax ∆εpl νOst kOst −1 (3.54)
Both formulations are based on an energy quantity rather than on stress or strain. Another
modification of the first Ostergren formulation was proposed by Zamrik et al., who
normalized the energy quantity on the tensile strength and the fracture elongation [128]
σmax εmax
PZamrik = (3.55)
σu εfrac
This normalization implicates a temperature dependency based on ultimate strength and

fracture elongation, whereby especially the fracture elongation often is not available. A
newer evaluation for the nickel-based alloy Waspalloy was developed by Kulawinski who
proposed a modification of the Zamrik approach by adding an Arrhenius term and the
total plastic strain-energy to the above formula [124]
σmax εmax −Q act

PKulawinski = ∆σ ∆εpl e Rgas T (3.56)
σu εfrac
In general, the abovementioned damage parameters depend on the number of cycles to failure
as follows. For all the above models, the lifetime is related to the parameter by the following
relation
PKulawinski = A(N )B .
_ _
PSWT ∨ POstergren PZamrik (3.57)
The above models will be used for the analysis of the experimental data in section 5.5.
3.5.2 Creep
Above homologous temperatures of Th > 0.4, time-dependent deformation defined as creep
occurs as a result of a static load. After a finite time, this deformation leads to failure. For
a calculation of the lifetime relevant factors are on the one hand mechanical loadings and on
the other hand oxidation, corrosion and changes of material structure (e.g. rafting) which are
thermally activated processes, c.f. [129–133]. The effects of a change in material structure
are implicitly included in the following service life descriptions. Oxidation and corrosion will
be explained in their own section 3.5.8 . The maximum tolerable stress at a certain time to
rupture tR is called the creep rupture strength Ru . Monkman and Grant presented an
approach to describe the service life as a power-law function of the creep rate ε̇creep [134]
−qcr
ε̇creep
tR = with the exponent qcr ≈ 1. (3.58)
Acr
Equation 3.58 is temperature independent as long as the creep mechanism stays constant.
The secondary creep rate for technical relevant processes is often described based on a
Norton-flow law, c.f. section 3.4.4 Combining this equation with the Arrhenius-equation
3.89 equation 3.58 can be transformed to
Qact
σ n

−R
ε̇pl,sec = e gas T (t) resulting in (3.59)
K
" v 0 #
Q0act
−R σ n
tR ≈ e gas T (t) . (3.60)
Kv0
This relation is generally valid for dislocation creep, the Norton equation was developed for.
Diffusional creep (Nabarro-Hering [135], Harper-Dorn [136] or Coble [137]) are not
covered here nor are the material-mechanical correlations discussed. But they could could be
simulated by the Norton-relation with an exponent of n ≈ 1 . Kloos et al. proposed an
empirical adjusted formulation for the minimum creep rate ε̇pl,sec that allows a temperature
independent formulation and covers a wide range of stresses
n
Qact
σ

B− R σ
e( A0 )n .
0
ε̇pl,sec = e gas T (t) (3.61)
Kv
This equation has been successfully applied to a range of nickel-based alloys (i.a. IN939,Mar-
M247 , IN738, IN713, IN617) [61, 138, 139]. The creep life is calculated based on equation
3.58. Other equations for the secondary creep rate are presented by Webster et al. [140]
or Granacher [141].
Larson and Miller were able to describe equation 3.60 independently from the temperature
based on the fact that the creep rate depends on Arrhenius-equation, 3.89 . This introduces
the so-called Larson-Miller-parameter PLM
T
PLM = (CLM + ln (tu )) . (3.62)
1000
Equation 3.62 is often related to the tolerable stress from creep experiments and an empirical
fit of creep stress versus PLM .
This description simplifies the material science related processes of creep, but offers a
simplified summarized description for most technically relevant processes. Additionally, this
work concentrates on the description of lifetime under cyclic loads and for most cases, the
creep effects play only a small role in this field c.f. [142–144].
3.5.3 Crack growth models for fatigue loading

Most of the models for the analytical or numerical description of the crack growth are using
measures for the crack-tip stress field singularity, like the following:
• Elastic stress intensity factor K as stress-based criterion,
• elastic-plastic J-integral as energy-based criterion,
• crack tip opening displacement CT OD as phenomenological criterion,
• or visco-elasto-plastic C(t) and C ∗ -integral both as energy-based criterion.
For a detailed stress-mechanical derivation, please refer to the literature e.g. [145–147].
The descriptions in the following sections are referred to the cyclic representations of the
descriptive variables for crack growth criteria. Additionally, only the uniaxial measures are
used as all experimental data of this work are based on tests under uniaxial or nearly uniaxial
loading perpendicular to the crack-tip (mode I). For simplification, instead of KI for the
definition of stress intensity under mode I, only K and additionally the cyclic representation
∆K, ∆J, ∆CT OD, instead K, J, CT OD will be used.
Stress intensity factor ∆K
The first form for the description of pure elastic crack-tip singularities and the related crack
growth is based on the stress intensity factor according to
√
∆KI = σ πaYGeo (a). (3.63)
Where YGeo is an adaptation function to different crack shapes and specimen geometries.
For the simplest case of an infinite crack in a plate YGeo (a) equals 1.
Extending the elastic stress intensity factor to elasto-plasticity
Above equations are valid for the pure elastic case without plasticity in the region of the
crack-tip. For the extension to elastic plastic cracks the Ramberg-Osgood-law acc. to
equation 3.4 is used. For larger stress amplitude, an extension of the equation above
incorporating an effective crack length that covers the region of plasticity in front of the
crack-tip has been published by Irwin [148–150]
2 !−1
P

aeff = a + 1 + ry with (3.64)
P0

for plane stress
2 2
1 nR − 1 KR

ry = with β = (3.65)
βπ nR + 1 σ0 6 for plane strain .
P denotes the stress in the ligament and P0 the limit load according to [151, 152]. The
plastic radius ry is related to the Ramberg-Osgood deformation law.
Elastic-plastic J-integral
For materials for which the stress field near the crack-tip is not determined only by the
geometry of the crack-tip and the elastic stress intensity factor K, the elastic-plastic J-
integral was developed. For linear elastic materials, the J-integral is related to K according
to [153, 154] by
KI2
J= with (3.66)
E0

E for plane stress
E0 = (3.67)
 E for plane strain
1−2ν
The plane stress criteria are fulfilled only for thin structures and directly at the surface.
The stress intensity factor for a 3D structure mostly fulfils the plane strain criteria, c.f.
[155, 156].
Equation 3.66 is of special importance for the numerical evaluation of the geometric function
YGeo . The calculation of KI based on finite element solution includes a strong mesh
dependency, whereby the J-integral is less sensitive to the mesh size c.f. [157–159]. KI
√
requires a polynomial fit to separate the r dependency of the stress dependency from the
geometrical influence of the crack length a.
The J-integral is numerically evaluated based on the line integral
I
J= (U dy − ti ui,x dϕ) (3.68)
C
on a path C around the crack-tip, as illustrated in figure 3.11. U is the internal elastic
energy and t is the stress vector in direction i on the path integral.
Figure 3.11: Illustration of the calculation of the J-integral in front of the crack-tip [154]
The calculation of the J-integral can be automated with any finite element code and thus
offers an integrated method for a generalized evaluation [153] and is already included in
some finite element tools and will be used in section 9.1. Equation 3.63 is valid for the
linear elastic fracture region but can also be extended to elastic-plastic fracture mechanics
by replacing ∆K by ∆J. Many researchers show experimentally that ∆K can also be used
in the elastic-plastic domain. The difference can be explained by the adjustment factors C
and mP , c.f. section 3.79.
As explained already, the J integral for a specific load case need to be calculated based on
the analytically derived stress field around the crack-tip or by a numerical evaluation for
complex crack geometry and / or complex boundary conditions of J based on non-linear
elasto-plastic calculations.
To evaluate the congruence of ∆J and ∆K the approximate solution of Dugdale for the
elasto-plastic crack-tip field will be used.
It needs to be noted that depending on the material behaviour, the J-integral cannot be
simply substituted by K, because K is not taking into consideration any kind of hardening of
the material and is based purely on the geometrical linear elastic stress concentration around
the crack-tip. Nevertheless, for cyclic loading, the crack-growth per cycle is calculated based
da
utilizing an experimental power-law fitting for the crack growth rate dN based on a load
measure in terms of ∆J or ∆K. Reasoned by the power-law fit, the different formulations
can be interchanged, as far as the basic underlying deformation law is also of power-law
type.
The following derivation are written in terms of cyclic stresses ∆σ and strains ∆ε. Kon-
termann showed that the transformation to ∆J is valid only for materials with Masing-
behaviour [160]. Assuming that for the materials of interest this is approximately satisfied,
the cyclic J-integral for a specific geometry can be approximated according to Kumar [148]
as the sum of the elastic and plastic part. Dowling added a correction factor and thus
giving the sum of elastic, plastic and a plastic correction part [75]
2 2
∆Jtot = ∆Jel (YGeo (a)) + ∆Jpl (Ypl (a,nR ) + ∆Jz (YGeo (a),nR ) (3.69)

2 (a)∆σ 2 a
πYGeo 1 plane stress
∆Jel = C1 with C1 =
E 1 − ν 2 plane strain
(3.70)
2 
2 ∆σ 2 plane stress
YGeo (a) nR − 1 ∆σ

σy
∆Jz = ∆Jel 2 with C2 = (3.71)
C2 nR + 1 σ0

∆σ 6 plane strain
1+ σy
 1
∆εpl n 2 plane stress
∆Jpl = ∆Jel h0 el with h0 =
∆ε  3 n 12 plane strain
4
(3.72)
According to Dowling the correction term ∆Jz is small compared to the other parts and
thus usually neglected. n denotes the hardening coefficient of the Ramberg-Osgood-law.
a
Shih et al. [161, 162] defined an approximative function G and adjusted that function

b ,n
to numerical FE-simulations of Jpl for as follows
a ∆σ n+1

∆Jpl = G ,nR a (3.73)
b σy
with an optimum approximation given by
a √ 1 π

G ,nR ≈ 3.85 nR 1 − + . (3.74)
b nR nR
Furthermore, Shih noted that neglecting ∆Jz results in a calculated error of ∆J of maximum
2 % based on his calculations. A different formulation was given by He and Hutchinson
1−ν 2 4
[147, 163]. They used the elastic geometry function YGeo (a) = E π and a plastic correction
1 6
factor of Ypl (a) = q π .Approximating ν = 0.3, this leads to the following J-integral
1+ n3
R
 
∆σ 2 1
∆J = 1.45 + 2.4 q ∆σ∆εpl  a. (3.75)
E 1+ 3
nR
Vormwald evaluated the formulation of Dowling, for a semi-circular surface crack and
used constant functions for the elastic and plastic geometry function [164, 165]. The
equations above are approximated by
!
∆σ 2 √
∆J = 1.24 + 1.02 nR ∆σ∆εpl a. (3.76)
E
All formulations are related to the crack growth rate by equation 3.79. The elastic geometry
function of both approaches is based on the results of Tada et al. [166]. More generalized,
a geometry function Ypl (a,nR ) can be defined that are determined based on numerical or
analytical calculations.
∆Jpl = Ypl (a,nR )Kσ nR +1 a (3.77)
Cyclic crack-tip opening displacement ∆CTOD
The cyclic crack-tip opening displacement is another measure or variable for crack growth.
The ∆CTOD is experimentally good to measure, and can be converted to the J-integral for
short cracks and cyclic loadings according to [154]:
∆Jeff
∆CT OD = (3.78)
σcy
Hence, the ∆CTOD can be converted into a stress-based formulation. This parameter does
not add new information to the equations above.
Further crack growth concepts
Mostly the concepts stated above are used for crack growth calculations. Nevertheless,
additional concepts used for specific calculations are used for example,
• the local strain-energy concept SED-concept for brittle fracture and high-cycle fatigue
[106]
• or the ∆T ∗-integral and invariant energy integral for moving crack in inelastic materials
[167]
For these concepts, the reader is referred to the specific literature.

Crack growth rate relation
The crack growth rate is generally based on a power-law function named as Paris-law
da
= CP ∆f mP withf = K J CT OD.
_ _
(3.79)
dN
3.5.4 Creep crack growth based on C(t) and C ∗

At static loads at higher temperature creep deformation occurs. Relating this creep deforma-
tion to a crack is done based on the C ∗ -integral the modified J-integral for creep conditions
[147, 168].
A simple elastic-viscous material can be described by a power-law creep law (e.g. Norton-
law,c.f. section 3.4.4) as
n
3 J(σ)

ε̇ = E −1 : σ̇ + σ0. (3.80)
2 K
Therefore, analogue to the J-integral, a congruent time-dependent contour integral was

published by Saxena [169] [146] which is called C(t)-integral and defined as
I
C(t) = lim (U dy − ti u̇i,x dϕ) with (3.81)
r→0
Γ
ε̇tot
Z
U= σ : dε̇ (3.82)
0
Thus, the value of C(t) = f (t, σ, a) is time-dependent and not only a function of stress σ
and crack length a. Additionally, the evolving stress-strain field in front of the crack-tip
results in a path dependency of C(t) and makes it necessary to limit the integral to an
infinitesimal small radius in front of the crack lim . C(t) generally needs to be solved by
r→0
numerical simulations, including a representative non-linear material model for the complete
time history and the actual time dependent crack geometry.
For a short time at the beginning of a constant creep loading the crack-tip field is dominated
by the K parameter because elastic strains are significantly larger than the creep strains.
Congruent to the J-integral the creep crack growth rate can be related to K, [154] according
to
K2
C(t) ∝ (3.83)
Et
Evaluating equation 3.80 results finally in a relation [154, 170]
ȧ ∝ K n (3.84)
Cases with significant elasto-plastic deformation in front of the crack-tip are neglected
here. First, because the materials of interest feature only limit plasticity for engineering
applications and second, for large stresses, the creep crack growth will become irrelevant
high. With increasing time, the stress-strain field changes according to the outer loading
type (stress-relaxation at constant strain or increasing strains at constant stress). After a
specific time, the stress-strain field reaches nearly stationary conditions and does not change
in front of the crack-tip. This constant value C(t →, σ̇ = 0) is called C ∗ according to
I
C∗ = (U dy − ti u̇i,x dϕ) (3.85)
Γ
Similar to K for different standard geometries, analytical solutions for C ∗ can be found,
e.g. [147, 148]. Nevertheless, for complex geometries, C ∗ need to be calculated based on
numerical evaluations or approximations, e.g. given by Webster et al. [171–173] to
∗ K2
Cref =ε̇ref with ε̇ref given by the Norton-law (3.86)
σref
n
ε̇ref = Aσref (3.87)
Here, again K is introduced. Other approximations are given by He and Hutchinson [163]
with C ∗ ∝ σ ε̇creep . Adjusting the C ∗ parameter to test results in a power-law relation c.f.
[173] and equation 3.84. Therefore, a simplified approach successfully applied to creep crack
growth of Mar-M247 was presented in [174]
da −
Qact
= e Rgas T (t) ACr K mcr (3.88)
dt CreepCrack
The different domains for C(t), K and C ∗ are illustrated in figure 3.12 Based on the fact,
that C(t) requires complex calculations [175, 176], C ∗ is often approximated by K and less
ductile nickel-based alloys have been successfully adjusted based on K [174, 177, 178]. K
will be related to creep data in this work.
Figure 3.12: Temporal evolution of the creep crack-tip field according to [154]
Geometry function
One of the major difficulties of crack growth analysis is the evaluation the elastic and plastic
geometry functions for a specific geometric configuration. For the elastic geometry function
YGeo (a) analytical expressions for specific simple crack and specimen geometries can be
derived. For more complex cases, finite element calculations are used in order to evaluate
the geometric influence. Based on these results, semi-analytic functions are derived and can
be found in various manuals and textbooks, e.g. [166, 179, 180]. For the plastic geometry
function for the evaluation of the J-integral, for example, analytical expressions are existing
only for very simple cases [154]. For the other cases usually finite element calculations are
used to evaluate the function fpl (a, σ, etc.). Another possibility is the assumption that the
plastic geometry function is proportional to the elastic geometry function. This assumption
was used in equation 3.72, together with the assumption that the necessary correction factor
is negligible.
3.5.5 Temperature dependency and normalization methods

Fatigue strength generally depends on temperature. Therefore, the different parameters of
lifetime evaluation formulations are usually functions of temperature. In the simplest case,
the temperature-dependence of the fatigue properties can be created by adjusting the fatigue
parameters for each temperature of interest.
Thus, for example equation (3.44) can be rewritten to
σa = σ 0 f (T ) (N )b(T )
A temperature-independent description of low cycle fatigue has been applied by a variety of

authors for the description of thermo-mechanical fatigue, c.f. [66, 125] .
Often the temperature-dependence of chemical processes is used according to Arrhenius
written here for the creep rate,
Qact
−R
ε̇ = ε̇0 e gas T . (3.89)
Above equation is written to evaluate the temperature-dependence of the strain rate. Instead
of ε̇ other state variables e.g. the oxidation rate ḣ could be used, c.f. [181]. Equation 3.89
has achieved general validity especially for the description of the temperature-dependence of
the creep rate, which in turn has a direct influence on the creep lifetime.
Furthermore, the modulus of elasticity or tensile strength can also be used as temperature-
dependent comparative values. It should be noted here that the tensile strength at elevated
temperatures is dependent on the strain rate due to the increasing viscosity of the material
[182]. Thus, this tensile strength itself is not only a constant depending on temperature but
as well on strain rate. This dependence can be clearly illustrated by measuring the tensile
strength of Mar-M247 at different temperatures. Lindholm et al. measured difference
of the tensile strength at 760 °C of around 15 % and at 982 °C of around 30 % between
1 1
ε̇Tensile = 10−4 s and ε̇Tensile = 10−5 s [183]. Similar results were found for the nickel-based
superalloy CMSX-4 [184, 185] or IN738 [186] for example. The difference in strain rate
between standard TMF and LCF tests is usually at least ε̇LCF /ε̇TMF 10. A temperature
dependency can be introduced normalizing the stress amplitude in the above formula on
static temperature-dependent parameters like yield- σy , tensile-strength σu , elastic modulus
E or using the Coffin-Manson relation on fracture elongation εf .
σa εpl
(N )b and = ε f (N )c with
0 a 0
=σ f (3.90)
fnorm fnorm
_ _ _
fnorm = σy (T ) σu (T ) εf (T ) E(T ) (3.91)
Thus, assumptions of the temperature dependency will be made, e.g. as a linear function
σa = (σu0 +σu1 T ) (N )b
This leads to a very simple and non-mechanism based pure mathematical inclusion of
the temperature by applying the temperature dependency on both coefficients linear on
temperature, which leads to the following strain-based formulation

εa = f (T ) = ε0 f0 +ε0 f1 T (N )(c0 +c1 T ) (3.92)
and to the corresponding stress-based formulation

σa = f (T ) = σ 0 f0 +σ 0 f1 T (N )(b0 +b1 T ) (3.93)
These formulations allow for a simplified temperature-dependent adaptation of the low

cycle fatigue results for a given constant strain rate, but of course, only implicitly including
oxidation and creep effects. As creep strength can be described by the use of an activation
energy-based on the Arrhenius law one could rewrite the above equations as follows
−Qact

εa = f (T ) = 1 + e Rgas T
ε0 f (N )c . (3.94)
And the corresponding stress-based formulation

−Qact

σa = f (T ) = 1 + e Rgas T
σ 0 f (N )b . (3.95)
This formulation can be used for a temperature related change in damage mechanism from
e.g. brittle to ductile failure. Formulas (3.92) and (3.93) can be considered as linearization
of the Arrhenius-formulations.
3.5.6 Lifetime under temperature variation

The above methods can be used for a combined description of test results under different
temperatures but not for a temperature variation within one load cycle. The variation
of temperature simultaneously to the loading called thermo-mechanical fatigue (TMF) is
still scope of current investigations as damage mechanisms of the material together with
oxidation and creep behaviour of the material varies within the load cycle. Nevertheless,
some simplified formulations are given here. Using a reference temperature as equivalent
cycle temperature is well established and can be given for the description of the fatigue
strength, e.g.
σa = σ 0 f (Tref ) (N )b(Tref ) with (3.96)

Tref = 0.25 T min + 0.75 T max . (3.97)
The reference temperature in equation (3.97) is based on the British R5 and R6 code but
included also in other standards and guidelines [179] [187]. Another approach would be the
time integration of the load cycle according to
Zt1
1
σa = σ 0 f (T (t)) (N )b(T (t)) d t (3.98)
∆t
t0
t is the actual time and the total time of the cycle is given by ∆ t = t1 − t0 . Of course, a
change in damage mechanism or the effect of creep cannot be described with this simplified
approach [103, 188].
Another approach was used by Baumann et al. with a reference temperature defined by
Ttime dependent + T max

TRef = (3.99)
2
Ttime dependent is defined by the temperature from which time-dependent processes are
activated for the current material [25].
The parameter PZamrik and PKulawinski are also indicated for the description of test results
with thermal cycling and described earlier.
A comparison of different normalizations and lifetime calculation methods is given in section
5.6. The formulation given in this chapter can be combined and used for a generic description
of the lifetime behaviour under a wide variation of the loading temperature.
3.5.7 Influence of mean stresses on lifetime

In a cyclic test, the mean stress has a significant influence on the life. A comprehensive
model predicting the service life of a component must therefore be able to characterize this
influence.
It should be noted in advance that the mean stress effect is discussed here both for life cycle
models, damage mechanic models, and crack propagation models. An evaluation of the mean
stresses existing in an experiment has been discussed for decades and most of the modelling
approaches introduce an effective load parameter (stress-, strain- or energy-quantity) that
evaluates the effect of mean stresses and strains. Additionally, often the stress- Rσ or rarely
the strain-ratio Rε of a cycle
σm − σa
Rσ = or (3.100)
σm + σa
εm − εa
Rε = (3.101)
εm + εa
is used for the evaluation of the actual mean stress. Reasoned by mean stress relaxation the
strain ratio Rε does not evaluate accurately the effect of non-symmetric loading. Therefore,
for a constant given stress ratio Rσ , the crack opening stress and thus the effective damaging
hysteresis are assumed to be constant .
In Table 3.4, different parameters for the calculation of the mean stress dependency are
compared. To fit the parameters to a service life, generally, equation 3.44 can be applied.
Nihei compares different approaches to determining the mean stress on the fatigue life [191].
Two parameters seem particularly suitable for mapping the mean stress sensitivity over a
range of steels, the Bergmann parameter [189] equation 3.102, which is an extension of
the Smith-Watson-Topper parameter of equation 3.52 with the adaptation parameter
k and the parameter defined by Walker [191], equation 3.103. Both parameters provide
improved fitting results compared to the Smith-Watson-Topper parameter by introducing
Table 3.4: Influence of mean stress on cyclic life based on a selection of different formula-
tions
source name material equation

p
[189] Bergmann StE70 PBergmann = (σa + kB σm ) εa tot E (3.102)
2
γW
[190] Walker Al 2024-T3,7075-T6 σeq = σa 1−Rσ
(3.103)
p
(1−γN )
[191] Nihei Different Fe- & Al-alloys PNihei = σa γN (σa + σm ) εa tot E (3.104)
3.72
[192] Heitmann Different Fe-alloys ∆σeff = ∆σ 3−R σ
1.74 (3.105)
σa
[193] Morrow AISI 4340 σeq = 0 (3.106)
1−σm /σf
c σ0 f σm
b
[194, Dowling - εa = ε0 f (N ) + E
1− σ0 f
(N ) (3.107)
195]
an influence parameter (γ, k).

Dowling performs a similar comparison of different parameters in [196], whereby equation
3.103 gives the smallest errors for both steel and aluminium materials reasoned by the
additional adjustment parameter γW . Nihei also discusses the mean stress sensitivity
according to Heitmann equation 3.105, who based his evaluation on crack closing effects
[191].
A mean strain generally does not primarily affect the lifetime, but a mean stress does for
most of the technical relevant materials. The inclusion of a mean stress into a strain-based
formulation could be done as proposed by Dowling [195] This leads to a mathemati-
cal inconsistent stress-strain mixed formulation and is therefore not included in further
investigations, c.f. [194].
A generally accepted representation of the mean stress sensitivity is provided by the Haigh-
diagram [197], in which for a constant lifetime N , the tolerable stress amplitude is shown as
a function of the mean stress, figure 3.13. In this figure the formulas of table 3.4 are evaluated
and plotted. Here the tolerable stress amplitude at zero mean stress is kept constant for all
the models compared. For the models combining a stress and strain amplitude the strain
was calculated based on the Ramberg-Osgood-formula shown in the figure.
According to [196] and [191], the approaches with adjustable coefficients (equation 3.103
and 3.102) yield the highest accuracies in the adaptation to the mean stress sensitivity of
the respective investigated material. In figure 3.13 a constant value of γW and k was used
for simplicity, but could be adjusted onto experimental results. Considering the curves in
figure 3.13, it can be expected that the parameter, according to Lemaitre, will also provide
a similarly good adaptation to measurement data, since the curves are almost identical.
The possible non-linearity of the Walker approach does not lead to an improvement of
Figure 3.13: Comparison of different approaches to describe mean stress sensitivity in form
of a Haigh-diagram
the fitting accuracy. Another approach discussed later in this work uses the concept of
effective stresses as established by Chaboche [198]. This more complex model is explained
in section 3.5.9 but the mean stress dependency is already shown in figure 3.13.
Mean stress in fracture mechanics
In the field of fracture mechanics for cyclic tests, the mean stress dependency is generally
referred to the crack-closure and the concept that fatigue crack growth only occurs when the
crack is not closed [199]. Usually, the crack closes before the minimum load level is reached.
Reasons for the crack-closure are classified into [145, 167, 200–202]
• Plasticity induced crack-closure is the most prominent crack-closure mechanism that is

driven by the fact, that plastification in front of the crack-tip at crack growth leads to
a kinematic incompatibility at reverse loads and thus early crack-closure.
• Asperity- or roughness induced crack-closure occurs due to a non-linear crack surface

given by micro-structural effects and is most prominent in the near-threshold regime
and at short crack growth.
• Oxide- or corrosion-induced crack-closure that occurs when the crack-tip surface is

exposed to an oxidizing atmosphere at sufficiently high-temperatures or cycle times.
This becomes of high relevance for the investigations later.
• Viscous crack-closure is of lesser importance as a result of a viscous fluid in front of

the crack-tip with a supporting effect.
• The last influence can be related to phase transformation induced crack-closure that is
a very specific phenomena, mainly for retained austenite and is of lesser importance
for the current investigation [203].
From the analytical point of view, the influence of crack-closure is easily introduced based
on an influence factor U that results in an effective crack-tip load measure (e.g. Keff , ∆Jeff )
∆Keff = ∆KUσ (3.108)
A constant effective load parameter results in a constant lifetime, since the actual load
parameter is exchanged with the effective value, e.g. for the Basquin-law σeff = σ 0 f (N )bB .
For the crack growth parameter, an additional Haigh-diagram is plotted using the following
formulas shown in table 3.5.
Table 3.5: Influence of crack-closure on effective ∆K based on different projects
source name material equation Uσ =

[204] Elber 2024-T3 0.5 + 0.4Rσ for −0.1 < Rσ < 0.7 (3.109)
[205] Katcher 219-T851 0.68 + 0.91Rσ (3.110)
[205] Katcher Ti-6Al-4V 0.73 + 0.82Rσ (3.111)
[206] Clerivet 7175-T651 0.4 + 0.4Rσ (not defined for Rσ < −1 ,thus not used) (3.112)
[207] Schijve 2024-T3 0.55 + 0.33Rσ + 0.12Rσ2 for −1 < Rσ < 1 (3.113)
[208] Dilling mild steel 1 0.69 + 0.45Rσ (3.114)
1
[209] Kurihara mild steel 2 1.5−Rσ
(3.115)
−0.72
[209] Kurihara mild steel 2 0.64 (1 − Rσ ) for Rσ ≤ 0.5 & U = 1 for Rσ > 0.5 (3.116)
[168] Zhang 7475-T73 0.618 + 0.365Rσ + 0.139Rσ2 (3.117)
−2
[23] Affeldt Mar-M247 DS 0.35 + (2.2 − Rσ ) (3.118)
A more complex approach was presented by Newman [210] that relates not only to Rσ but
includes a relation to the flow stress defined as a mean value of yield and tensile strength
σy +σu
σ0 = 2 and the constraint factor αN = 1 for plane stress and αN = 3 for plane strain
loading
1 − fconstraint
Uσ = (3.119)
1 − Rσ

AN0 + AN1 Rσ + AN2 R2 + AN3 R3 for Rσ ≥ 0
σ σ
fconstraint = (3.120)
A + A R for − 1 ≤ Rσ < 0
N0 N1 σ
1
2 πσmax αN
AN0 = (0.825 + 0.34αN + 0.05αN ) cos( )] (3.121)
2σ0
σmax
AN1 = (0.415 − 0.071αN ) (3.122)
σo
AN2 = 1 − AN0 − AN1 − AN3 (3.123)
AN3 = 2AN0 + AN1 − 1 (3.124)
Newman concluded that based on the results of Elber [211] and himself [212] the
applied stresses have a significant influence at Rσ on the crack-closure and thus on the mean
stress influence and therefore it is essential to include the flow stress as a measure into the
formulation. This formulation has been used frequently within different projects evaluating
the lifetime of Mar-M247 e.g. [26, 51, 53]. An extension eq. 3.124 can be found in
[213]. For non-isothermal cases, Rσ was replaced by a temperature dependent yield strength
corrected stress ratio

Rσ σy T |σmax
Rσ∗ = αR (3.125)
σy T |σmin
At large maximum stresses the function fconstraint can become larger 1 and thus U gets
negative. This is a major drawback of these formulations. Therefore, an extension of the
formulation to low cycle fatigue cases is not recommended.
As can be seen in figure 3.14, linear relations U = f (Rσ ) = aRσ + b cannot be used over
the complete range of typical technical relevant stress ratios. At mean stresses below 0,
the tolerable amplitude will growth to infinity. Most of the formulations are based on
experimental results at high Rσ ratios and feature a steady growth of tolerable amplitude
with decreasing mean stress. The phenomenon of crack-closure as a basis for mean stress
dependency is nowadays often numerically investigated by non-linear elasto-plastic and visco-
elasto-plastic investigations e.g. [160, 175, 213–216]. Additionally, Newman lists more
than 20 different authors publishing in this field already up to the 1990s [167] The detailed
analysis of non-linear crack growth is a numerically expensive field and thus excluded in this
study. Nevertheless, especially plasticity-induced crack-closure can be precisely modelled
today, c.f. [160].
Figure 3.14: Comparison of different approaches to describe crack-closure effect based on a

constant lifetime or crack growth rate in form of a Haigh-diagram
3.5.8 Influence of oxidation on failure at elevated temperatures

Oxidation is the chemical reaction of elements of metallic alloys with the oxygen in the
surrounding air [46, 217]. Two types of oxides are formed for the materials discussed here,
Al2 O2 and Cr2 O3 , whereby each form a dense protective layer and therefore hinder further
oxidation of the base material [218, 219]. In areas directly below the surface, oxidation of
the aluminium leads to a depletion of the y y 0 precipitate structure, which in turn influences
the plastic behaviour directly around any crack-tips. Cyclic deformation of the base material
causes the oxide layers to crack and chip off, which leads to cyclic new formation of the
oxide layer and further depletion of the precipitate structure in the immediate vicinity of
the surface [220]. For example, a 10 times higher density of surface cracks was measured in
fatigue tests of the alloys PM Astroloy and IN718 tested in air compared to tests under
vacuum at elevated temperatures [218, 221]. In addition to the oxidation of aluminium
and chromium, the presence of M C and M C23 carbides causes the oxidation of these first,
even before a closed surface oxide layer can be formed [130]. Reuchet correlated the
oxidation of MC carbides with the change in damage mechanism. It changes from pure
crystallographic crack initiation to crack initiation along oxidized interdendritic MC carbides
in the temperature range of 600-700 °C. Andrieu showed in [218] that the oxidation of the
base material nickel also has a significant influence on the crack propagation. Thus, for the
alloy IN718, the crack propagation rate increased by a factor of 1.5, if small amplitudes
below Kthreshold were additionally added for cyclic crack propagation with holding times
without load.Shahinian [222] reported a decrease of creep crack growth rate of up to a
factor of 8 and for fatigue a decrease of around 2 for tests under vacuum instead of air
testing IN738. For the quantitative determination of the oxidation influence on fatigue
in the high-temperature range, a distinction must be done between the oxidation of the
matrix and of carbides, since these have different kinetics and dependencies on the influence
variables T,σ, ε. The results of static and cyclic oxidation experiments show an increase of
the oxidation layer thickness with
−Qox 0 0 1
hox (t) = A0ox e RT tmox with mox 0 ≈ . (3.126)
2
1
dependent on time [130, 223]. Experimentally an exponent of mox 0 = 2 fits well for
different nickel-based alloys according to Chen et. al. [224] or Bensch et.al [225]. A
slightly different exponent was reported by Krämer et. al. for Mar-M247 in [26] with
noxidation = 13 . The oxidation of the surface region is linked to a depletion of the subsurface
area where the diffusion of elements towards the surface starts. Here the same functional
relation as equation 3.126 with hdepletion instead of hox is used. The exponents here are
1
reported to differ from 3 [26, 218] and partly a logarithmic growth law is applied instead
c.f. [225, 226].
The oxidation effect is always present within creep, fatigue and crack-growth tests, as tests
under non-oxidizing atmosphere are mostly not available. Therefore, the oxidation influence
is included by default.
Statistic deviations of test results
Fatigue data generally show an immanent scatter. Therefore, the lifetime for a given loading
is plotted with a scatter band of 2, 5 or 10 on the x-axis (lifetime) [227]. This interpretation
is generally valid for the LCF region, were for a given amplitude the lifetime can vary
significantly. At lower amplitudes in the high cycle fatigue (HCF) or very high cycle fatigue
(VHCF) region the scatter is expressed usually in terms of applicable load (usually stress)
amplitude for a given lifetime. For the measurements in this report the measured maximum
lifetime was Nf < 106 . Thus, test results in the high cycle fatigue region are generated
as well. Nevertheless, for a statistical interpretation of the test results assuming a normal
distribution of the lifetime data, the standard variation for all data against the calculated
lifetime can be calculated according to the following formula [227, 228]:
N90/10 = e(NCalc ±1. 2816 sR )

(3.127)
n
X 2
1
sR 2 = ln(N exp )−ln(N Calc (exp )) . (3.128)
n−2 i=1
This allows for a quantitatively measurable interpretation of the model accuracy for a given
material dependent scatter of lifetime data. In the following the 90 %/ 10 % confidence
intervals according to (3.128) will be calculated and plotted. This means that the lifetime of
80 % of all experiments can be accurately calculated within that given scatter.
Additionally for regression fit with a linear or linearised model of the experimental data
the adjusted coefficient of determination R2 Correlation is given to compare the quality of a fit
defined by [227]
k
R2 Correlation = R2 − 1−R2 with (3.129)
n − (k + 1)
Pn
2 [ − y) (ybi − y)]2
i=1 (yi
R = Pn P . (3.130)
[ i=1 (yi − y)]2 [ ni=1 (ybi − y)]2
yi is defined the actual value of an experiment, ybi is the calculated value with the model,
y the mean value of the data, n the number of experimental values and k the number of
independent variables.
Accumulation of phenomenological models
In addition to the simple linear models for lifetime description presented so far, there is a
variety of different damage models that enable a comprehensive description of the service
lifetime under varying loading conditions. Therefore, often an accumulated formulation for
different damage or crack growth components is used by linear
nmodel
X
1
= Dtotal = Di (3.131)
Ntotal i=1
or non-linear accumulation
nmodel
X dD nmodel
X da
dD da
= or = . (3.132)
dN total i=1
dN i dN total i=1
dN i
3.5.9 Constitutive damage and crack growth models

A general damage variable D represents the internal damage state of the material, [229].
The effective or ligament stress σ̃ can be introduced to cover the effect of area reduction due
to the damage
σ
σ̃ = . (3.133)
(1 − D)
Here, σ is the nominal stress of the section. Failure or rupture occurs when D = 1. Thus D
relates to the specimen area. This is of importance in section 8.
Chaboche damage model
One of these damage variable concepts was proposed by Chaboche [198], who used an
effective stress concept as a measure for the material damage. The concept of a damage
variable D represents the idea of an additional internal variable that represents the current
damage of the material with D = 0 for a virgin non damaged material and D ≤ 1 for the
material state at a defined failure criterion.
The complete model is presented in table 3.5.9 written for uniaxial loads. For a multiaxial
representation refer to the literature [198, 230]. Then the stress amplitude and mean stresses
should be exchanged by octaeder shear stress amplitude and the mean hydrostatic stress.
Table 3.6: Comprehensive description of the Chaboche damage model in uniaxial formula-
tion [66, 230, 231]
Part of the model equation
Damage evolution δD = δDcre + δDfat = Fcre δt + Ffat δN (3.134)

βf +1 α(σa ,σm )
Fatigue damage δDfat = 1 − (1 − D)
−βf
σa
0
M (σm )(1−D)
δN (3.135)
0
σa − σl (σm )
Saturation of the Wöhler curve for α (σa ,σm ) = 1 − afat . (3.136)
σS
static strength and endurance
0
Mean stress dependency of endurance σl (σm ) = σl (1 − b2 σm ) (3.137)
0
Mean stress dependency in LCF M (σm ) = M (1 − b1 σm ) (3.138)
C
rcre
1 σ
Creep damage δDcre = δt (3.139)
D)−kcre Acre
(1 − b
1 σa − σl0 (σm )(1 − Dox )
Oxidation assisted damage initiation ( δDIni = ∂N (3.140)
Cox (1 − Dox ) − σo ox
[230] )
Damage accumulation with damage ini- δD = δDcre + δDfat · hDini − 1i (3.141)

tiation
δX C X C − σcrit
Frequency factor ( [230] ) = (3.142)
δt τ 0
nox
1 −1 −
Qox
hσC − σloxi (σm )i
Oxidation damage initiation ∂Dox = Dox k0 e RGas T 1+ ∂t (3.143)
2 B
This concept was applied to different alloys in the past [66] and recently [231]. Gallerneau
added an oxidation assisted damage initiation that was applied in order to model the
oxidation assisted fatigue at low loads [230]. Major drawbacks are the facts that the fatigue
parameter is generally temperature-dependent, large in number and in thermo-mechanical
fatigue experiments with varying temperature a reference temperature (c.f. Taira in [232])
or normalization procedure as presented earlier need to be added. For the multiaxial
representation of the model the reader is referred to [198] and [230].
Sehitoglu damage model
Neu and Sehitoglu first presented a complex damage model originally for 1070 Steel in
1989, which takes into account the damage components due to fatigue, creep and oxidation
and thus is used to describe crack initiation under complex isothermal and anisothermal
loads such as TMF [233, 234]. This model is of particular importance in this work, since it
was also used to describe the failure under TMF for the test material Mar-M247 [181, 235].
The comprehensive description of the model is presented in table 3.7
Table 3.7: Comprehensive description of the Sehitoglu damage model in uniaxial formulation
[181, 234]

Definition of total damage with linear Dtot = Dfat + Dcre + Dox (3.144)
accumulation
−b −c
∆εme σ0 2 2
Fatigue damage = f + ε0f (3.145)
2 E Dfat Dfat
BKtot tβ
Oxidation thickness hox = (3.146)
hf
Average oxidation thickness at failure hf = δ0 ∆ε2tot Φox ε˙b (3.147)
ε̇th
!2 !
1 ε̇me
+1
Phase factor between ε̇th and ε̇mech Φi = exp − for i = oxi,cre (3.148)
2 ξi
− β1 2 (∆ε )2/β+1
hcr δ0 me
Oxidation damage Dox = (3.149)
BΦox Ktot ε̇1−a/β
Ztc m
1 −Qcre
α1 σ + α2 σH
Creep damage Dcre = Φcre A e RGas T
dt (3.150)
tc K
0
DTMF-Concept
The DTMF concept is based on the assumption that the crack-tip opening ∆CT OD can
be correlated with the crack propagation per cycle in the crack initiation phase. It is a
mechanism-based model which was first developed by Heitmann [192] and Riedel [147].
This model was extended to anisothermal conditions by Schmitt [236]. Based on the
correlation between crack-tip opening and crack propagation rate using the cyclic J-integral
of equation 3.75 for short cracks the model can be summarized as shown in table 3.8. The
model is based on the J-integral and the damage variable direct correlated to a lifetime based
on a power-law fit. Thus, this model is not exactly a damage based but an energy-based
lifetime model.
Table 3.8: Comprehensive description of the DTMF concept [236]

ZD
DTMF = FOxCre (t,T,σ) (3.151)
σcy
Definition of the damage parameter
2

∆σI,eff ∆σI2 ∆εeq,pl
Definition of the fatigue damage ZD ∆Jeff = ZD a = 1.45 + 2.4 √ a. (3.152)
E ∆σeq 1 + 3n0
3.72 1.74
Mean stress dependency acc. to [192] ∆σeff = ∆σ (3.153)
3−R
Alternatively mean stress dependency ∆σeff = 0.35 + (2.2 − R)−2 ∆σ (3.154)
acc. to [51]
  m1
−Qcr
Ztc
−Qcr
Definition of the creep and oxidation in- FOxCre = 1 + αOxCre e RTref m−2
σcy δσe RT dt (3.155)
fluence 0
Linear accumulative crack growth model O.C.F. and Miller-crack growth model
A complex model that is developed for the calculation of crack growth under combined
creep fatigue as well as non-isothermal conditions is the linear accumulative crack growth
model O.C.F.-model proposed by Krämer [174]. They used a combination of creep, fatigue
and oxidative crack growth, that is based on the idea of Sehitoglu et al. [181, 235]
for cumulative linear accumulation of damage components to calculate the lifetime under
thermo-mechanical loads. Krämer extended this idea to a crack growth formulation. This
approach is very similar to the differential damage formulation proposed by [230]. The
model given by Krämer is shown in table 3.9.
One of the main advantages of an approach separating the different basic damage mechanisms
is the fact that the constants for each partial model can be derived separately. The model of
Krämer gives very precise results for the experimental database it is adjusted to, c.f. figure
3.15. Nevertheless crack growth is calculated even without existence of stresses reasoned by
da
.
dN Ox
Table 3.9: Comprehensive description of the O.C.F. crack growth concept [174]

da da da da
Linear accumulation rule = + + (3.156)
dN O.C.F. dN fat dN ox dN cre
da
Fatigue crack growth = Afat ∆KI,eff mfat (3.157)
dN Fatigue
Effective stress-concentration ∆KI,eff = U (Rσ )∆KI,a∗ 1),2) (3.158)
!2
1 KI |σ max 3)
Effective crack length aeff = a + (3.159)
2π Rp0.2 T (σmax )
1−f
1−Rσ
for Rσ > −1
Crack closure effect U(Rσ ) = (3.160)
0.35 + (2.2 − Rσ )−2 for Rσ ≤ −1
da X
Creep crack growth = ∆acre,ti =
dN cre
(
ti
0 for σi < 0
∆acre,ti = −Qcre
mcre
(3.161)
Acre,0 e RTi
ti ∆KI,a∗ ti for σi ≥ 0
−Q 0
m1
da γ γ0
Oxidative crack growth = ∆aox,tcycle = dγ 0 = Aγ 0 ,0 e RTmax tcycle (3.162)
dN ox
1)
∆KI according to equation 3.63; 2) The Irwin-plastic crack length correction is introduced, c.f. equation 3.65;
3)
a∗ is calculated at maximum stress and at the corresponding value of Rp0.2 at that temperature ; 4) equations
and 3.124 and 3.118 are combined
Figure 3.15: Comparison of experimental calculated lifetime vs. calculated lifetime based on
Krämer-accumulation model [174]
A very similar approach has been presented in 1992 by Miller et al. [162] as shown in
table 3.10.
da
This approach was used to calculate the TMF-life of Mar-M247 integrating dN from a
fixed value a0 to aEnd . The oxidative induced crack growth is related to the J-integral and
therefore crack growth is present only in the presence of stress amplitudes. Because the
O.C.F.-model and the Miller -model are very similar the evaluation and investigation will
be restricted to the O.C.F.-model.
Table 3.10: Comprehensive description of the Crack growth concept of Miller et al. [162]

da da da da
Linear accumulation = + + (3.163)
dN tot dN fat dN cre dN ox
rule
da
Fatigue crack growth = Cfat ∆J mfat (3.164)
dN fat
da
Creep Crack growth = CCre Ĉ mcre (3.165)
dN cre  +1)
* Ztt Ztc
1 1
Creep factor Ĉ = a σ ε̇cre dt − σ ε̇cre dt (3.166)
tt tc
0 0
Z
tmax
−Qox −B h σ|Tmin i
da 1 1
Oxide crack growth = Cox e RT (t) dt∆J mox [∆t] 2 −ξ 2) (3.167)
dN ox ∆t
tmin
1)
tt , tc time within a cycle during which tensile-going and compressive-going strain accumulates ; 2) ∆t = tmax −tmin
time of the cycle
Limitations of the Krämer model
The main drawback of the Krämer model is the fact that constant crack growth induced
by oxidation will be calculated without any mechanical loading.
Evaluating the model for two different tests provided by the project TMF Risswachstum
gives the following results. As stated by Krämer the crack growth rate at temperatures
above 850 °C is driven mainly by oxidation. Thus, interpreting the crack growth law for
low ∆K values the crack growth has a minimum rate given by the cycle time due to the
oxidative crack growth. Thus, the model calculates a crack growth rate for infinite small
amplitudes. Given by
" Qγ 0
# 1
mγ 0
da − RTmax
= Aγ 0 ,0 tcycle e ,
dN
da mm da mm
above equation leads to a crack growth rate of = 0.45 and = 1.08
dt 950 ◦ C h dt 1050 ◦ C h
based on the material constants of [174].
This can be stated as one of the major limitations for this model: The model cannot be
extrapolated to very small cycle and / or very long test times. This can be visualized
calculating the crack growth rate at 950 °C tested by [26], figure 3.16. For a strain controlled
test with a steady state stress maxima and minima of σmax =277 MPa and σmin =-168 MPa
at a cycle period of tcycle =4 s the crack growth rate for the different parts of the model as
well as the material constants given in [174] was calculated. The parameters were taken
from [174] The total growth rate is given correctly, but especially for lower values of ∆K
the total growth rate is defined completely by the oxidation rate.


 
 

Figure 3.16: Comparison of calculated crack growth rate for the loading condition of speci-
men No. dBJ95cc1 according to [26] vs. experimental crack growth rates given
by [23]
Second, the model is limited to loads with limited local yielding. The model features the
extension of the elastic crack length according to the Irwin-modification with an extended
crack length depending on the plastic zone radius rpl . According to Dowling this extension
of the crack length does not account for large scale yielding condition [75, 237]. These
conditions can be met, when the crack length is small and the load amplitude sufficiently
high enough for plastification of the whole specimen ligament. This condition can be met by
LCF tests at standard smooth specimens. Here, the calculation of the crack growth rate
based on LEFM could lead to inaccuracy, because it doesn’t meet the conditions needed
[113, 146, 153].
And third, the model was written to simulate crack growth behaviour whereas in this work,
a generalized formulation to simulate crack initiation and crack growth behaviour with the
same model will be proposed.
Conclusion
These complex damage models were chosen as they all have been applied for the simulation
of lifetime under complex loadings at high and variable temperatures and thus deliver a
basis for the investigations of this work.
3.6 Experimental methods for the generation of large homogeneously

distributed heat flux densities
This work aims to experimentally and numerically evaluate the influence of thermally in-
duced stress gradients on the fatigue life. Based on the fact, that tests under larger thermal
gradients are rarely done in a laboratory environment different test rig concepts are evaluated
in this section.
To achieve high heat fluxes close to gas turbine conditions, several experimental set-ups
are possible. For purpose of comparison all concepts are evaluated to heat up a hollow
cylindrical specimen with an outer diameter of 16 mm and an inner diameter of 10 mm made
of nickel-based superalloy.
3.6.1 Resistance heating

In the industrial application in materials testing, resistance furnaces for tests under low heat
flux densities of q̇ ≤ 0.25 MW
m2
are used. On the one hand, the achievable heat flux densities
are too small for the planned experiments. On the other hand, the experiments are not
suitable for high thermal transients in the sample material.
3.6.2 Inductive heating

Inductive heating systems are standard in many high temperature test systems because
of their high thermal output and their good control properties. Such system was already
successfully used by Chaboche et al. [238] and Degeilh et al. [239] for investigation
of thermal induced stress gradients. In inductive heating systems the heat flux source is
generated by eddy currents inside of the specimen. The heat generation rate depends on
frequency and can be approximated for a cylinder using the following formula [240]:
J02 p−2x
q̇(x) = e dep (3.168)
2σcon
Whereby J0 is the conduction current density and pdep is the frequency (f ) dependent
penetration depth:
s
1
pdep = (3.169)
σcon πf µmag
µmag denote the absolute magnetic permeability and σcon the electrical conductivity of the
material.
This heat generation rate can be used as a boundary condition for a simple finite element
model (FEM) to calculate the temperature field in a hollow coated cylinder for a comparison
of the thermal gradient by surface heating and induction heating, figure 3.17.
Using an induction heated system, it would become necessary to utilize 2 or 3 coils for a
homogeneous temperature distribution on the specimen surface. The results of Chaboche
et al. show that generation of a homogeneous temperature distribution is difficult based
on a single induction coil system [238]. The major drawback of induction heating for
  






 




 
 

      
Figure 3.17: Temperature distribution in the cross-section of a hollow TBC-coated specimen

subjected to inductive heating and surface heating with identical heat flux on
the inner surface
cooled specimens is the fact that the temperature is not uniform increasing from inner to
outer surface as it is the case in real components. Similar problems with inductive heating
systems were detected for thermo-mechanical-fatigue (TMF) tests at high temperature rate
e.g. in [241]. A second drawback is the fact that the tested specimens needs to be electrical
conductive and therefore insulating materials e.g. ceramic materials cannot be tested.
3.6.3 Convective heating

A first convective heating system utilizing sodium as fluid was set up in 1968 for creep
rupture life evaluation on reactor pipes made of 304 stainless steel by Shiveley [242].
Similar to gas turbine hot path a hot gas flow can be used to achieve the necessary heat
fluxes. Such test set-up as used by Weser et al. [185, 243] is investigated to generate a
hot gas flow. The heat flux for a transverse flow of a cylinder according to [244] at a fixed
realistic gas temperature of THotgas =1300 °C was calculated analytically according to the
following formulas:
q̇conv = αconv (Tfluid − Tsurface ) (3.170)

λconv lcha π
αconv = N u ; Re = w ; lcha = dcyl (3.171)
lcha ν 2
v !2
u
u √
3 √ 2 0.037Re0.8 P r
N u = 0.3 + t (0.664 Re P r + 2 . (3.172)
1 + 2.443Re−0.1 (P r 3 − 1)
The result is shown in Figure 3.18. The maximum material temperature was set to
TMaterial =950 °C. Thus, a test rig operating at nearly ambient pressure cannot generate a
MW
heat flux above q̇ ≥ 0.3 m2
. Test rigs operating at high pressures and temperatures are
expensive in investment and operation. Another drawback of such systems is the asymmetric
thermal loading of the specimen caused by the transverse flow.


 
 ≤
 





















 

Figure 3.18: Dependency of convective heat flux for transverse flow of a cylinder
(TGas =1300 °C; outer diameter da = 16 mm) in hot gas test rigs
Convection heated systems are based on a hot air or hot fluid flow transporting the necessary
heat flux to the tested surface. This category of heating systems could be found in power
plant piping test rigs, where hot steam or pressurized water is used for heating. On the
other hand, hot usually pressurized air is used as a heat transporting media e.g. in hot gas
test rigs.
3.6.4 Laser based heating

Heating based on laser sources were not analysed for cost reasons. A strong radiation source
with a radiative power output of Pradiation >3 kW << Pelectric would be needed and a complex
mirror and lens scheme would be necessary to give a homogeneous radiation distribution on
the cylindrical specimen.
3.6.5 Radiation heating

In radiation heating systems the heat source is a thermal radiator e.g. a resistance furnace
or passive radiating heat source [245]. Another option is to use quartz or halogen bulbs
to heat up the specimen [246]. The higher the temperature of the thermal radiator the
larger the heat flux according to the source increases the thermal radiation according to the
Stefan-Boltzmann-law:
q̇Source = σSB T 4 (3.173)
σSB is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant. Thus, the higher the surface temperature the
higher the heat flux density. The highest surface temperature is achieved with tungsten
halogen lamps Tmax =3200 K.
Laser or discharge lamps would offer a discontinuous radiation spectrum with high intensity.
But laser usually provide a high intensity only on a very small area. Thus, they aren’t used
for heating of large areas with large homogeneous heat fluxes.
Discharge lamps e.g. xenon lamps deliver a larger spot at a high radiative output and are
better suited for these kinds of tests [20]. Most of these thermal radiators can be used
in an array with focusing reflectors to increase thermal efficiency. Table 3.11 provides a
comparison of different test rigs and their maximum heat flux. Usually, the test rigs are
characterized by the thermal gradients achieved on the specific specimens.
Most research has been done for coated specimens. The gradients on the different specimens
can be used to calculate the heat flux on the specimen surface [22]:
q̇Conv
q̇Radiation = (3.174)
Abs
q̇Conv Plate = P ∆T
sj
j λj
(3.175)
q̇Conv Cylinder = P ∆T
1
2
da
(3.176)
j da j
j ln dij
Two types of specimen are used, flat specimens for tests under pure thermal loads and
cylindrical specimens for tests with superimposed thermal loads onto a mechanical loading,
table 3.11. Common feature of all test rigs is that the radiation of the heat source is focused
with opened reflectors arranged in front of the specimen. This concept leads to a limited
radiation intensity on the specimen surface because of space restrictions. With increasing
distance and increasing area of heat source and specimen, the heat flux on the specimen
surface decreases [21].
Elliptic or ellipsoidal reflectors are the standard for highly focused reflector application,
as they allow focusing the radiation from one focus to another, whereby heat source and
specimen are situated in one of the focus each. Therefore, the distance between source and
target should be as small as possible. The heat source developed for this project should have
a maximum source intensity and should be able to be used for metallic and non-metallic
materials.
Table 3.11: Heating systems for the generation of large heat flux densities
Location Pel [kW] ∆T [K]1 q̇ [ MW

m2
]2 Heating solution Comments Source
3 3 4
DLR Cologne 16 70-170 0.36-0.86 Quartz rad Thermal gradients vary sig- [246,
nificantly depending on 247]
publication
FZ- Jülich 6 0 - Quartz rad4 Suitability only for TMF [248]
tests
FZ- Jülich 24 ca. 100 0.52 Halogen rad4 [249]
TU-Darmstadt 26 ca. 80 0.31 Infrared rad4 [250]
4
TU-Dresden 6 0 - Halogen rad Suitability only for [251]
LCF/TMF tests
Northwestern 10 90 1.83 Halogen rad4 ∆T wasn’t measured, but [252]
Polytechnical only calculated. Results
University are questionable
Snecma 10 200 1.8 Induction heat- Induction heating at a fre- [238]
ing quency of 200 kHz
University of ? 150 0.6 Thermal rad4 Induction heating of a [245]
Tokyo temperature radiator
(Al2 O3 )in front of flat
specimen
University of 8 80 0.51 Quartz rad4 Heat flux calculated with [253]
Central Florida the heat flow balance of
cooling air
ETH Zürich 15 ? 10 Xenon emitter Control of power output [254]
not possible / Use for
thermo-chemical processes
ETH Zürich 150 ? 10 Xenon emitter [255]
1
Except for Snecma all temperature differences relate to coated specimen
2 W W W
Heat transfer coefficient used for calculation: λSubstrate = 21 mK ; λBondcoat = 18 mK ; λTBC = 2 mK
3
Heat flux calculated for surface without thermal paint. Absorption coefficient used: εFeO = 0.956; εTBC = 0.215.
4
rad=radiator
3.7 Conclusion on the state of the art

In the state of the art, the different aspects of typical loads of gas turbines and the material
characteristics of nickel-based superalloys with the focus on the investigated Mar-M247
have been discussed.
Additionally special attention was placed on the uniaxial and multiaxial deformation behavior
at high temperatures. A wide variety of modelling approaches exist, but nevertheless the
realistic modeling of cyclic non-symmetric loadings is still object of current research. Often
in the recent literature the Ohno-Wang model is used for viscoplastic modeling at elevated
temperature. As shown, the adjustment of its parameters is a time consuming and difficult
process. The loads of gas turbine components are often multiaxial and non-symmetric as it
is the case for the current experiments. Thus, the modelling and parameter adjustment is of
great interest for the current work. In section 7 an improvement with simplified parameter
adjustment for viscoplastic deformation behaviour and special attention to non symmetric
loading will be presented.
Furthermore a review of lifetime calculation based on engineering approaches as well as
different damage models was done. In combination with crack growth models a comprehensive
review different fatigue, creep and oxidation models was done. The influence of oxidation,
static loads and mean stresses was included as well and serves as the basis for a comprehensive
crack growth model enabling the combined description of fatigue, cyclic crack growth, creep
and creep crack growth in different atmospheric conditions. This comprehensive model is
motivated, developed and applied to Mar-M247 in section 8.
The last part of the literature review investigated methods for the experimental generation
of large heat fluxes that enable large thermal gradients and thus relevant thermally induced
stress gradients. None of the existing test rigs is able to provide thermal gradients of
dT
dx >30 K/mm which are to be found in actual industrial gas turbine. Therefore, a new test
rig concept was developed and used for the experiments of the current work, section 4.
59
4 Development of a test system for cyclic fatigue

tests under homogeneous surface temperature
conditions
Since the test rig of this thesis is a completely new development with a very specific test
objective. A detailed description of the development of the test rig from the engineering side
of the load train and the hollow sample, the aerodynamic design of the cooling of the hollow
sample, as well as the development of the heating system is presented in the following.
Based on the results of the literature research in the previous chapter the radiation heating
was chosen as test rig concept.
4.1 Boundary conditions for the development

Heat fluxes of above q̇ = 0.5 MW
m2
are achieved in current cooled gas turbines components
with current cooling techniques [256]. This correlates to stationary temperature gradients
of up to dT /dx = 30 − 50 K/mm for nickel base alloys.
For a systematic investigation of the lifetime of materials, homogeneous load and temperature
conditions in a defined specimen volume of a representative size are required to provide statis-
tical reliable data for the lifetime depending on different load scenarios. These requirements
are documented in several national and international codes of practice e.g. [257, 258]. The
maximum deviation of temperature in the measurement length is suggested to be less than
±2 % of maximum test temperature or less than ±10 K according to the TMF ISO Norm
12111 [259]. In the code of practice for TMF testing the boundary for the axial temperature
deviation are even closer with ±1 % of maximum test temperature or less than ±3 K [258].
In the code of practise for LCF testing a maximum deviation of the constant temperature
during the test of ±6 K for 800-1000 °C and ±2 % within each cycle is set [257]. Throughout
a TMF test the deviation should be less than ±1 % of maximum test temperature or less
than ±5 K [259]. These suggestions are used as constraints for the development of the
heating, as this new type of testing is not covered by any of these codes of practise.
Additional restrictions from a technical point of view have been added. The test rig should
be manufactured in the workshop of the research institute and the manufacturing costs on a
low level. For this reason, radiant heating was chosen as a proven technology that enables
very high radiant densities through advantageous design of the geometry.
4.2 Concept for a test system with a new highly focusing heating
The test system contains of:
1. a heating that achieves large thermal heat fluxes on the specimen outer wall,
2. a cooling system that enables the generation of thermal gradient in the specimen wall,
3. a load train to apply cyclic mechanical loadings to the specimen and
4. an electronic test rig control system.
The different components are shown in figure 4.1. The development of the different compo-
nents will be described in the following sections.
 
 


 



  

 
a) b)
Figure 4.1: a) Scheme of the test rig developed for this work and b) resulting temperature
and stress fields for hollow cylindrical specimen
4.2.1 Simulation of heat fluxes of different furnace geometries by ray-tracing

Based on the previous analysis, a heating was designed for the tests under large homogeneous
thermal heat fluxes.
The halogen radiation heating system was chosen as a concept within this work due to
experiences with this heating system already existed from previous designed test rigs by
the author [251, 260, 261]. Furthermore, the electric circuit design is quite simple and the
manufacturing of a radiation heated system less expensive.
For the simulation of different heating designs an object-oriented ray-tracing tool was built
up. The ray-tracing simulation enables the calculation of the heat flux distribution for
various geometries as well as calculation of energetic losses during reflections of the radiation
emitted by the halogen lamps. This makes an efficient modelling of the radiation space
of the furnace and the calculation of the resulting radiation density distribution on the
sample surface possible. By geometrical variation of the individual furnace parts, different
configurations can be compared and a configuration with maximum efficiency of the entire
heating can be identified. The optical properties of the respective surfaces are determined
with transmittance, reflectance and absorption coefficients for each pre-defined geometrical
configuration. For the calculation, each body is defined by its 3-dimensional surfaces radiation.
The ray-tracing calculation is based on analysing single radiation vectors originating on a

radiation source and interacting with predefined objects.
The furnace is defined by multiple volumes, whereby each volume is defined by its surrounding
surfaces. Additionally, the opening surfaces connecting the different volumes need to be
defined, figure 4.2. For the emitting source, a single ray can be defined in parameter form
Plane
Cylinder Ellipsoid
(Target Surface) Ellipsoid
͢
NEllipspiod
͢
R Source R Source
.
qabsorbed
͢ ͢ . D
qemitted
R2 R1
.
qreflected Coil Coil
͢ (Emitting Surfac
NPlane (Emitting Surface)
.
qabsorbed
Figure 4.2: Ray-tracing calculation scheme used in the program written for the development
of the heating
with the radiation energy q̇Ray as
~ Source (s) = O
R ~ + sD
~ (4.1)
The emitting heat flux density for the light bulb depends on the emitting angle of the source
according to [244]
q̇Ray = q̇Source cos ρ with 0 ≤ ρ < π. (4.2)
α is the angle to the normal vector surface of the square filament. The surfaces of each
object in 3D space are given in Cartesian coordinates for example for an ellipsoid by
 
b sin ϑ cos ϕ
~ Ellipsoid = Q
~ + R  b sin ϑ sin ϕ 
 
E   with 0 ≤ ϕ < 2π and 0 ≤ θ ≤ π (4.3)
a cos ϑ
The surface description uses a local coordinate system with advantageous orientation of
the normal axis. To transfer the surface into a global coordinate system, an additional
coordinate transformation between the ray and the surface was performed. The local
coordinate system significantly simplified the calculation of intersection and normal vectors
compared to arbitrarily oriented surfaces.
Additionally surface definitions have been implemented for planes, cylinders, elliptic cylinders,
elliptic cones and spheres. This allows to calculate a wide variation of possible furnace
geometries.
For the intersection of the calculated ray and the surfaces the closest distance for each surface
and the normal vector need to be found by solving
~ Source (s) = E
R ~ Ellipsoid . (4.4)
This leads to the quadratic equation by converting angles ϕ and ϑ to Cartesian coordinates
y
e.g. cos ϕ = √ and
x2 +y 2
s
p p 2
sIntersection = − ± −q with (4.5)
2 2
(Oz − Qz ) Dz (Ox − Qx ) Dx + (Oy − Qy ) Dy 1

p =2 + , (4.6)
a2 b2 C
2 2 2
" #
(Oz − Qz ) (Ox − Qx ) + (Oy − Qy ) 1
q = −1 + 2
+ and (4.7)
a b2 C
Dz 2 Dx 2 + Dy 2
C= + . (4.8)
a2 b2
The intersection is found for s > 0. While intersecting the losses due to absorption can be
calculated by
q̇Ray = q̇Ray η ∗ with η ∗ = ηR in case of reflection and η ∗ = µR in case of transmission .

(4.9)
ηR denotes the reflection and µR the transmission coefficient of transparent media. For the
current investigation diffraction effects were neglected. To calculate the direction of the
~ Reflection , the normal vector on the surface at the intersection point O
reflected ray D ~ Intersection
is multiplied to the striking ray by
~ ~
~ Surface = dN x dN
N (4.10)
dx dy
 
1
~
dN 

0


=  (4.11)
dx 
−sign (Oz − Qz ) (O x −Q x )a q 1 
b2

2
(Ox −Qx )2 +(Oy −Qy )
1−
b2
 
0
~
dN 

q


=  (4.12)
dy −sign (Oz − Qz ) (Oy −Q
 y )a 1 
b2
q 
2
(Ox −Qx )2 +(Oy −Qy )
1−
b2
Based on the normal vector the direction of the reflected ray can be easily calculated by
~ Intersection = O
O ~
~ + sIntersection D (4.13)

~ Reflection = D
D ~ − 2D
~ ·N
~ Surface (4.14)
~ Reflection (s) = O
R ~ Intersection + sD
~ Reflection (4.15)
Next, the total heat flux density distribution on the specimen surface is calculated. Therefore,
a normal distribution of emitting rays on the emitting surface (halogen filament) under
varying angles is calculated. For the definition of the normal distribution the Sobol sequence
in the multidimensional space is used [262] and the simulation was based on the quasi-
Monte-Carlo method [263]. 4 variation parameters, the positions on the emitter x
and y and the two angles φ and ρ are used for the rays emitting on the halogen filament.
Thus, the normal distribution is defined in a 4-dimensional space. The total number of rays
calculated was chosen as Nray = 1e7 . Based on symmetry conditions the calculations for a
furnace consisting of several heat sources is reduced to the calculation of a single heating
source. Thus, mirroring surface is integrated into the calculation allowing to account for
the interaction of different reflector parts. The calculations for each ray are stopped when
the energy of a ray decreases below a threshold value of Emin <0.1 % or the number of
calculations is Ncalculations = 1e3 .
4.3 Definition of reflection and transmission coefficient

The efficiency of a furnace greatly depends on the surface reflection and on transmission
coefficients. The reflectance of different materials can be found in the literature and, together
with the known spectral emissivity, the total reflectance of different coatings can be integrated
over the relevant spectra, figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3: a) Reflectance for different materials measured under laboratory conditions. b)
Spectral reflected energy for a thermal radiator at T =3400 K [264–267]
The plots are presented for the three mirror materials aluminium, silver and gold often
used. The reflectance decrease for aluminium coincides with the maximum spectral energy
density of the tungsten heat source. Therefore, the total efficiency is significantly reduced
compared to silver or gold. For gold, the reflectance reduces below 600 nm reducing the
total reflectivity from 99 % for silver down to 96 %. For multiple reflections this could have a
tremendous effect on total furnace efficiency.
For the heating reported in this work, it was planned to manufacture the furnace parts
in-house and galvanize the parts at a supplier. An experimental set-up was carried out to
compare the efficiencies of different surface treatments, figure 4.4. The setup consists of a
halogen lamp housed in a prototype ellipsoidal reflector and a water-cooled plate situated
in front of the halogen lamp. In contrast to the ideal reflectance coefficients measured in a
laboratory environment, this setup allows the measurement under more realistic technical
surface treatment (surface roughness, oxidation, ageing effect etc.) and realistic heat source
(thermal wolfram-halogen emitter with realistic filament temperature). Measuring the cooling
water heat flux for each plate and comparing this value to a plate with known spectral
absorption coefficient (black Pyromark-2500 colored plate) [267]. The total absorption
coefficient for the different surfaces at nominal heat load are presented in table 4.1.
C
o
o
l
i
n
g
p
l
a
t
e
Pc
ao
l
t
et
si
wg
i
t
h
d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
t
a
n
s

W
a
t
e
r
i
n
l
e
t
W
a
t
e
r
o
u
t
l
e
t
S
a
m
p
l
e
r
a
y
R
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n
s
o
u
r
c
e
Figure 4.4: Test setup to determine the reflection coefficient under realistic testing condi-
tions (Insulation of the system is not shown
Table 4.1: Absorption coefficients εabsorption for different technical surfaces
1 3 5
Pyromark Aluminium Aluminium Silver Silver Gold
unpolished polished 2 +Rhodium3,4
real εabsorption [%] 95 12 9 5 8 7
1
All surfaces were oxidized in Air for about a week after coating / polishing ; Reference value calculated based
on given spectral emissivity ; 2 Roughness Ra 0.3 µm; 3 thickness 16 µm; 4 thickness 3 µm ; 5 thickness 3 µm
4.3.1 Simulation of the radiation behaviour for the furnace concepts

Based on this principle, the furnace concept of Forschungszentrum-Jülich FZJ (table 3.11)
is analyzed as a promising starting point of the investigation, figure 4.5 a) and b).
The furnace concept has been simplified according to figure 4.5b). In order to quantitatively
investigate the influence of geometric parameters of the different furnace geometries, a second
Monte-Carlo-simulation varying different geometric input parameters were analyzed.
Based on this calculation, the total efficiency of different geometries is calculated.
H
e
a
t
s
o
u
r
c
e
s R
e
f
l
e
c
t
o
r
E
l
l
i
p
s
o
i
d
F
o
c
a
l
p
o
i
n
t
B
o
t
t
o
m
o
f
f
u
r
n
a
c
e
C
y
l
i
n
d
r
i
c
a
l
s
p
e
c
i
m
e
n
a)
T
o
p
o
f
f
u
r
n
a
c
e
R
e
f
l
e
c
t
o
r
H
e
a
t
s
o
u
r
c
e
s
E
l
l
i
p
s
e
B
o
t
t
o
m
o
f
f
u
r
n
a
c
e
C
y
l
i
n
d
r
i
c
a
l
s
p
e
c
i
m
e
n
b)
Figure 4.5: Geometry of the simplified DLR and FJZ furnace geometry used for the calcula-
tions
Figure 4.6 shows the results for different geometries of the furnace concept.
Both concepts are normalized to the same reference heat flux density q̇. Generally, the
efficiency of the FZJ concept is higher than the DLR concept. The halogen sources used here
feature a more compact emitting filament the ellipsoidal reflectors deliver a better focusing
on the specimen. The smaller the heat source the better will be the light concentration for
a given focusing reflector [268]. Further development of the furnace concept utilizes the
ellipsoid reflectors. The concept is developed on the findings that, first, a compact design of
the reflector results in a likely larger heat flux output, Figure 4.6 a) and b). Second, the
ellipsoidal reflector form significantly increases the heat flux on the specimen. Third, a large
eccentricity of the reflector results in a larger heat flux output which correlates to a more
circular form of the reflector. Additionally, the heat flux on the specimen is larger, if the
focal point of the ellipsis is close to the specimen surface.

  

 
 

 
  







 
         
 
a) b)
   
 


 
 
 
            
 
c) d)
Figure 4.6: Efficiency of different geometric configurations for a) the cylindrical test rig
concept (DLR) and b)-d) the ellipsoid test rig concept (FZJ)
The combination of large numerical eccentricity, compact size and minimum distance to
the target can be achieved by integration of a light conduction tunnel. This enables the
decoupling of numerical eccentricity and sample distance. Furthermore, the size of filament
wires in case of the halogen heating significantly influences the maximum focus on a specimen
with given size. Concerning this matter, a market analysis turned out the 2500 W heat
source of the company OSRAM [269] is smallest in size of filament and glass bulb at a
power output between 500-5000 W.
Established by the squared flat form of the filament the form of the reflector has been
compared for an elliptical and ellipsoidal geometry. The heat flux density on the flat site of
the filament is significantly smaller than on the squared site.
These findings and estimates result in the patented furnace concept used in the TISG project
[270]. The schematic view of the heating is shown in Figure 4.7. The patented concept
consists of 12 reflectors with an elliptical inner contour in compact modular form that allow
a maximum focusing. The 12 heat sources surrounding the specimen ensure a homogeneous
circumferential temperature distribution.




 
 
 
  
 

 


  
Figure 4.7: Schematic concept of radiation inside the test rig

The maximum power efficiency is achieved by optimizing the axis ratio of the elliptical
reflector. The radiation from the heat source at the first focal point is guided into a light
tunnel at the second focal point. As an example, figure 4.8 shows the dependence of the
efficiency ηRad on the edge lengths a and b of the ellipses as two of the examined parameters.
A light tunnel guides the highly focused radiation of the reflector to the sample without
losses due to defocusing. Therefore, the length of the light tunnel is kept as small as possible
according to the constructive restrictions of the test rig. In combination with the light
tunnel connecting all other reflectors, the total efficiency of the system for different geometric
configurations and thus to develop an optimum geometry of the heating could be calculated.
The influence of several design parameters is shown in figure 4.9. The calculations comprise
the reflector, the light conduction tunnel and the specimen. For the reflector width, the
channel height and the channel width it is clear, the smaller the geometric dimensions the
higher the heat flux density. For the numerical eccentricity the picture is not that clear. A
large eccentricity of 0.7-0.9, thus near cylindrical shape, offers a large heat flux density. Still
the combination of all parameters needs to be chosen carefully, otherwise the total efficiency
drops significantly.
Figure 4.8: Efficiency of the reflectors depending on the edge lengths of the ellipses for an
exemplary reflector configuration
Figure 4.9: Efficiency of the heating for different geometric configurations (variation of
tunnel height, tunnel width, eccentricity [ratio of elliptic axes a and b], length of
reflector, width of reflector)
Combined with design restrictions, e.g. minimum distance between light bulb and any surface,
fixed diameter of the specimen of DSpecimen =16 mm and a resultant cylindrical length of the
specimen of LSpecimen =40 mm (2DSpecimen < LSpecimen < 4DSpecimen according the code of
practice for LCF testing [257, 271]), the final test rig design results in a calculated total heat
flux density of q̇ =1.5 MW
m2
. With this result a comparison of achievable thermal gradients for
different materials can be carried out, figure 4.10. The thermal gradient and the maximum
thermally induced axial stress are calculated for a specimen wall thickness of 3 mm. All
calculations were performed by linear elastic finite element calculations and therefore the
thermal induced stresses will decrease in case of plastification.
Figure 4.10: Calculated maximum thermal gradients for different types of material and
thermal induced maximum axial stresses for a hollow cylinder with an outer
diameter of 16 mm and a wall thickness of 3 mm
4.4 Analytical calculation of heat transfer inside the hollow specimen

The heat transfer coefficient on the inner surface was calculated according to equation for
a cylindrical gap, thus for a configuration utilizing an insert to intensify the internal heat
transfer and thus reduce the necessary cooling air amount, c.f. figure 4.1. In the design phase
the maximum heat transfer and therefore maximum thermal gradient has been calculated
by modifying equation 3.171 to 3.172 to
λconv
αconv = N uturb (4.16)
dh
dh is the hydraulic diameter dh = di − dsleeve and N uturb is the mean turbulent Nusselt
number for a hydro- and thermodynamically fully developed flow for a given length lchar
according [244] and [272] resp. to
" 2 #
ζReP r dh

3
N uturb = √ 2 1+ FRSP (4.17)
1.07 + 900
− 0.63
+ 12.7 ζ P r 3 − 1 lchar
Re 1+10P r
P r is the Prandl number, the ratio of dynamic viscosity to thermal diffusivity. The pressure
loss coefficient ζ is defined for a given correlated Reynolds number Re∗ as follows
(1.82log10 (Re∗ ) − 1.64)2

ζ= (4.18)
8
di
with the Reynolds number Re∗ depending on the ratio of inner and sleeve diameter asl = dsl
(1 + asl ) ln (asl ) + 1 − asl 2

∗
Re =Re (4.19)
(1 − asl )2 ln (asl )
FRSP is a correlation factor for different boundary conditions and for heat flux on the outer
ring given to

0.75 (asls )−0.17 + 0.9 − 0.15(asl )0.6
FRSP = (4.20)
1 + asl
The Reynolds number in the gap can be calculated for a given mass flow ṁfluid and kinematic
viscosity ηfluid by
ṁfluid dh
Re= (4.21)
π
4 (di )2 − (dsl )2 ηfluid
For dh = 2 mm, lheat = 40 mm, a fluid pressure of pfluid = 20 bar at Tfluid = 20 ◦ C and the
W
reference mass flow of 30g/s the mean heat transfer coefficient is αheattransfer = 4720 K m2
.
The equations given above satisfy all validity constraints according to [272] ( 104 = 5
10.9 ≤
dh
106 , 0.6 = 0.69 ≤ 1000, 0 ≤ lheat = 0.025 ≤ 1 for the given conditions. According to the
formulation for specific heat flux on the inner surface
rinner surface
q̇Outer surface = αconv ∆T Wall−Fluid (4.22)
router surface
The maximum specific heat flux on the inner surface for a given minimum temperature
difference of ∆T Wall−Fluid = TWalloutside −∆T Wall −TFluid = 950◦ C −300 K−50 ◦ C = 600 K is
MW
q̇Outer surface = 1.77 m2
. At the beginning of the project TISG a maximum thermal gradient
∆T
of ∆r ≥ 50 K/mm was set for the design of the test rig and thus the wall temperature
difference above is exceeding the design considerations for the heating and therefore, neither
the diameter of the sleeve nor the cooling air mass flow is design restrictions for the project.
The hydro and thermodynamically development of fluid flow will be discussed later with the
help of numerical fluid dynamic calculations. At this point the heat transfer was kept as a
locally constant value adapted for a given thermal gradient.
4.5 Finite element calculation of temperature distribution in the specimen

wall
In a third step the axial temperature distribution on the specimen outer surface was
determined and optimized. A FE model including the specimen and load train was set up to
calculate the temperature distribution in the specimen. The heat flow on the outer surface
was determined by the ray-tracing simulation explained before. The heat dissipation on the
inner surface of the hollow cylindrical specimen was determined from the analytical viewpoint
with a constant heat flow on the inner surface. The FE model and the resulting temperature
field are shown in Figure 4.11 a). The ideal temperature distribution was defined to be an
axially homogeneous temperature field with the maximum situated close to the centre and a
temperature variation of less than ±1 % of maximum temperature within a maximum axial
length on the specimen surface. For the initial configuration, the maximum temperature
was not in the middle of the specimen length. In addition, axial temperature drop in the
direction of the clamping is clearly visible. To shift the maximum temperature to the centre
a uniform irradiation in the test centre is necessary. Additionally, an increased radiation
heat flux in the area of the grips is necessary in order to compensate the high axial heat
flow in the area of the grips.
The minimum homogenous temperature area should have a length of twice the extensometer
distance according to the LCF code of practise [114, 271]. With the current extensometer the
measurement length can be chosen between l0Extensometer = 9 mm,13 mm,17 mm and 21 mm

 





 
 


  




 

 



 
 
  







 

              

Figure 4.11: a) Finite element simulation of the temperature field with constant heat flux
on the inner surface; b) temperature and thermal gradient distribution of the
finite element calculation (Note: only one half of the specimen is plotted in a)
and b)
figure 4.11 b), whereby for each configuration the measurement length can be adjusted by
∆l0Extensometer = ±0.4 mm. Here these conditions are met only for the smallest measurement
length of l0Extensometer = 9 mm. The shorter the measurement length the higher the noise to
signal ratio. Therefore, the l0Extensometer was set to 13 mm.
The necessary change in the radiation density distribution can be achieved by geometrically
changing the shape of the heating. For this reason, no design changes were made to the
reflectors. Instead, the light tunnels of the collector were selected for variation, since
subsequent design changes are possible here with considerably less time and cost. In a
parameter study it was investigated to what extent a variation of the radiation density
distribution can be achieved by changing the geometry of the light tunnel. Figure 4.12 shows
the investigated parameters schematically. With the help of these geometrical changes, the
radiation density distribution on the specimen surface can be adjusted. However, it should
be noted that increasing geometric deviation from a "straight tunnel", results in a decrease
of efficiency (ηRad ) of the overall system (ηRad = 13 % in "Reference" and ηRad = 10 % with
configuration "30/-2" Figure 4.12 b)). Figure 4.12 b) shows exemplary 4 different variations
of the tunnel geometry and their influence on the heat flux distribution. At a radial position
x the height of the tunnel was changed by a value y between +2 and -2 mm to change the
axial distribution z on the specimen surface, Figure 4.12 a). These heat-flux distribution were
used for FE-calculation of the temperature field as shown earlier. Finally, the configuration
"50/-2" was chosen as best solution for the investigation. The radiation on the outer surface
has been investigated experimentally as well. Details are given in [273]. The result is shown
in figure 4.13. Details of the measurement technique are reported in [273].








  
 
 

 

 
           
     
Figure 4.12: a)Geometric variation of the geometry of the light tunnel to achieve a homo-
geneous temperature distribution on the sample (representation of the tunnel
geometry) b) influence of the variations on the radiation density distribution
Figure 4.13: a) Measured heat flux distribution on the specimen outer surface utilizing
thermal paint and type B thermocouples b) comparison of measured heat flux
distribution with numerical calculations
4.6 Design and evaluation of the specimen internal cooling system

In addition to radiation heating of the outer surface, heat dissipation on the inner wall is
essential for the temperature distribution in longitudinal direction and the temperature
gradient across the wall. For this purpose, the inner heat transfer has to be controlled locally.
The heat transport on the inner surface should be controlled without any influence on the
mechanical loading. Therefore, only convective cooling concepts can be used, as any solid
material contact could induce additional mechanical stresses.
For the calculation of the necessary cooling fluid flow on the inner specimen surface a heat
transport of app. q̇inner surface ≈ 1 MW
m2
is assumed. Based on equations 4.16 to 4.22 the
heat transfer for different media and geometrical specification of the internal cooling can
be analysed analytically. First the heat transfer is calculated without internal sleeve. For
g
use of a fluid medium like deionized water a fluid flow of ṁfluid = 3.3 s would result in
the requested heat transport, but for this calculation the outlet temperature of the medium
would be Tfluid | Outlet = 81 ◦ C at a fluid velocity of vfluid = 0.43 ms . Thus, local boiling of
the fluid with unstable heat transfer would be the result.
MW
If air as medium is used the heat transfer of q̇inner surface = 1 m2 would be achieved at a mass
g
flow of ṁfluid = 23 s with a velocity of vfluid = 55 ms . Both calculations have been performed
without internal sleeve. Other technical gases e.g. helium or CO2 that would provide a
higher heat capacity and thus larger convection coefficient are not used for economic and
safety reasons.
Therefore, air as easy-to-handle medium was used as cooling fluid. For the local control
of the heat transfer coefficient a sleeve was designed with centering. That allows a precise
centered position. In addition, the sleeve can be used to modify the axial position manually
during the experiment and consequently the local heat flux at inlet and outlet, Figure 4.14.
For the calculation of the local heat transfer with Reynolds-Averaged-Navier-Stokes
(RANS) equations, thus quasi static, a CFD model was set up using ANSYS CFX [274].
The turbulence model used for the analysis was the Menter Shear Stress Transport (SST)
model that provides a high resolution of the near-wall turbulence and includes the k-ε model
for bulk fluid flow, the k-ω model for boundary layer flow and a transition function between
both areas [275]. The model has been shown to have a high accuracy in aerodynamic
applications [276] as it allows a more accurate description of flow separation phenomena
compared to the k-ε models.
The geometry was calculated quasi 2D as rotational symmetric problem. The 0 inlet and
outlet holes with a diameter of 2mm (Pos 6 in Figure 4.14) have been simulated by a circular
inlet with the same flow area. Thus, additional turbulence induced by mixing of the different
fluid flows of the inlet holes cannot be predicted. The centering is connected to the insert by
a thread at position 7. This thread was neglected in the simulation for simplification. Hence,
the turbulence inside boundary layer at the beginning of the insert cannot be predicted
quantitatively. Additionally, the connection between centering and specimen was assumed to
be thermal ideal without resistivity (Pos 8). The centering is installed with a clearance fit,
but a quantitative description of the heat transfer at this position was not accessible for the
current installation. Nevertheless, the model allows a high resolution of the flow field within
the specimen and therefore a precise description of the flow phenomena. The variation of the
Figure 4.14: a) Schematic representation and b) photograph of the sleeve used for control of
the local heat flux in the specimen
geometry was done manually. The geometry was modified in the CAD program Solidworks
[277], then imported to ANSYS and meshed and calculated automatically, Figure 4.15 b).
The solution mesh resolution is shown in Figure 4.15 b). The mesh resolution was chosen to
guarantee dimensionless wall distance y + below 1 at all boundary surfaces as suggested for
the model by [278, 279]. y + is used to determine whether the influences in the wall-adjacent
cells are laminar or turbulent according to
yτω
y+ = . (4.23)
ρf η fluid
Here, y is the absolute distance from the wall, τω the wall shear stress. A typical plot of the
y + values for these calculations made here is shown in figure 4.16 e).
 


 
 

 


 

Figure 4.15: a) Geometric parameter modified for variation of local heat transfer b) typical
grid for fluid dynamic simulation of flow field and local heat transfer
 
 
 
Figure 4.16: a) Local heat transfer coefficients b) Pressure variation c) fluid temperature
along flow field d) fluid velocity e) typical Y+ values, f) geometrical configura-
tion calculated
Additionally, the mesh resolution of the bulk fluid flow was kept high, to ensure a numerically
good approximation of flow separation areas, e.g. Figure 4.15 b) left side.
The grow rate of the inflation was kept below 1.25 as suggested to accurately simulate the
boundary layer with at least 10 Elements by various authors [280–282]. The heat transfer
coefficient, pressure and temperature distribution of the fluid for a gradient of 50 K/mm as
well as 30 K/mm are shown in figure 4.20 and 4.19.
At the end of inlet centering as well as at the end of the outlet centering a large area
with flow separation occurs. Regions with flow separation are generally difficult to predict
[283, 284]. Therefore, deviations between calculated and measured heat transfer are expected
in these regions. The accuracy of the numerical calculation of flow separations significantly
depends on the problem that has to be solved and intensive research effort is still ongoing
to solve that problem. Large eddy simulations and direct numerical simulations of the
Navier-Stokes-equations significantly increase the accuracy in such fields, but at the
same time increase the calculation effort with typical mesh sizes NElements 107 [285]. In
contrast to an increased calculation effort all parts of the internal cooling can be moved
in axial direction and thus allow an experimental modification of the local heat transfer
experimentally as shown in section 6.5. Finally, two out of 5 different inserts were used in
the tests, figure 4.17. The geometry of one exemplary insert together with the centerings
used is shown in figure 4.18.
 

dT
Figure 4.17: Final geometry of the inserts used in the tests a) for gradients dx ≤30 K/mm
and b) >30 K/mm
Sleeve b
9,3
9,14
M4
7,2
R 50
M4
4
17,5
18,5
25,5
26,5 35,1
89
Centering
Centering
10°
6°
10
8,5
8,5
9
O-ring groove
O-ring groove
1,5
28 30
Centering < 40K/mm Centering >40K/mm
dT
Figure 4.18: Exemplary drawing of an insert for dx >30 K/mm and the corresponding
centerings used in the tests
dT
The calculated temperature field for the different sleeves for a gradient of dx =30 K/mm
dT
is shown in 4.19 and for dx =50 K/mm in figure 4.20. The other 3 types of inserts have
been used experimentally for comparison purposes but not pursued for the fatigue tests.
Additionally, for smaller thermal gradients an inlet insert with a smaller diffusor angle of 6°
was used, figure 4.18 . This change in diffusor angle was used to reduce the flow separation
vortex at the beginning of the cylindrical measurement length. As a result of increased
turbulence, the thermal gradient in the vortex region is larger than the thermal gradient in
the region with purely convective heat transfer, figure 4.20. For more details on the flow
separation please refer to figure 5.4.

 

  




  


  


   
     

Figure 4.19: Temperature field and thermal gradient for tests at 30K/mm with sleeve form
b and centering for small gradients
 
 

 



 






   

     

Figure 4.20: Temperature field and thermal gradient for tests at 50K/mm with sleeve form
d and centering for large gradients
4.6.1 Installation of heating and development of the load train

Heating
The manufactured and installed test rig is shown in figure 4.21.

As can be seen in figure 4.21 the heating device consists of a significant amount of installation
tubes used for water (5) and air cooling (8,9) for a secure operation of the heat sources. The
heat sources are installed in very compact reflector housings. According to the manufacturer
and to early experiences this tight installation leads to severe overheating of parts of the
filament as well as the glass bulb of the heat sources. To avoid premature failure the air and
water cooling system was designed and optimized depending on the current electric power
output in order to keep the bulb temperature at its operating temperature above 250 °C
for a stable halogen process [286] and limited by the maximum temperature of the bulb
800-950 °C [287, 288]. Additionally critical parts on filament, bulb and socket were cooled
separately. The influence of the cooling on the heat source lifetime was studied and optimized
in an intensive experimental process. The lifetime could be increased from tlifeBulb =10 h at
nominal load Pel =2500 W up to tlifeBulb = 120 h at Pel =2900 W for a single heat source.
The power dependent regulated cooling was included in the final control system of the test
rig.
Figure 4.21: Manufactured installation of the patented heating for very high thermal heat
fluxes
Load train
The mechanical test setup with load frame and test specimen is shown in figure 4.22.
Figure 4.22: New designed load train for test under thermal gradients
The load train of the test system was installed on the basis of an existing load frame. The
load train features replaceable specimen clamping with a standard thread of M24x1. For
axial clamping of the specimen a screw driven compression counter sleeve was designed that
is centred with close tolerance fit in the outer load frame to ensure precise axial alignment
of the specimen. The hollow clamping allows installation of measurement equipment and
positioning of the sleeve used to control the internal heat flux on the inner surface of
the specimen. Pressure probes and thermocouples were installed at inlet and outlet for
measurement and control. The measuring probes were installed in the hollow chamber above
and below the specimen clamping. The flow velocity of the cooling fluid in the supply pipe
is below v < 10 ms for a maximum design mass flow of ṁ < 30 gs and a pressure of p = 20 bar.
At the position of the measuring probes the velocity is lower as the diameter of the hollow
chamber is significantly larger than that of the supply pipes (12.7 mm). Hence, difference
between static and total pressure and temperature measurement can be neglected. The load
train features a water-cooling system close to the specimen thread. Therefore, the specimen
thread temperature is kept below T <200 °C and thus oxidation problems can be avoided.
The design of the load frame was carried out utilizing linear elastic FEM calculations and
the stress-mechanical design was carried out based on the guideline of the German Research
Board for Mechanical Engineering (FKM) [289] and respectively [290].
Control system
For the operation of the heating together with the servo hydraulic cylinder a control system
was developed written in Labview [291]. It consists of a full automatic control of heating,
cooling of the furnace as well as air cooling of the specimen and mechanical control of the
test system. Additionally, sub-programs for various test sequences to enable static and cyclic
tests under
• varying temperatures,
• temperature gradients,
• arbitrary static loads as well as
• cyclic loading conditions with predefined stop criteria were developed.
Special attention was payed to safe termination and shutdown criteria in emergency cases or
at normal failure of the specimen according to the ASTM and ISO standards [114, 115, 228,
271]. Additionally, a continous automatic modal analysis is performed to indicate dynamic
instabilities in advance. The developed graphic user interface enables full and independent
control of the test rig with all its electric and mechanic components.
85
5 Experimental investigation
The experimental investigations concentrate on investigation of the fatigue life at high

constant temperatures with superimposed thermal gradients and thermal induced stress
gradients. Based on the novel test facility LCF experiments with stationary superimposed
thermal gradients were done. In previous studies, the phenomena of deformation, creep,
fatigue and crack growth behaviour at elevated and varying temperatures were investigated.
The experimental results presented here address an additional effect to a large spectrum
of phenomena already investigated in the previous projects. Thus, for the description of
deformation behaviour and baseline characterisation of fatigue and creep behaviour already
existing data will be used. The experimental program is presented in the tables 5.1 - 5.3.
Table 5.1: Test parameter of isothermal LCF tests without thermal gradient
1)
Sample ID rwall 2) T [°C] force-/ strain-control εa [%] σa [MPa] NEnd [-]
T1 - 950 ε 0.2 284.3 4298
T2 - 950 ε 0.2 349.5 1560
T3 - 950 ε 0.2 276.7 3264
H1 3 950 ε 0.3 388.8 954
H2 3 950 ε 0.4 472.7 281
H3 3 950 ε 0.25 320.5 1740
H7 3 950 F 0.1525 251.7 12902
H13 1.5 950 F 0.398 482.7 244
H14 1.5 950 F 0.161 277.9 5464
H8 3 875 F 0.3385 497 1281
H9 3 875 F 0.289 397.5 8036
H10 3 875 F 0.2155 350 15007
H4 3 800 ε 0.4 662.8 911
H5 3 800 ε 0.3 516.8 4120
H6 3 800 ε 0.25 393.4 54470
H11 3 800 F 0.2865 488 7894
1) 2)
Sample Type: Tx cylindrical specimen Hx hollow cylindrical specimen ; Wall thickness
Rε = −1 for all strain-controlled tests and Rσ = −1 for all stress-controlled tests; ε̇ = −0.001 1s
The material test conducted here consist of
• Isothermal low cycle fatigue tests with non-symmetric loading conditions
• Isothermal low cycle fatigue tests under strain and stress-control with symmetric
loading of hollow and standard specimen
• Stationary non isothermal low cycle fatigue tests under strain control with symmetric
loading on hollow specimen.
Table 5.2: Test parameter of isothermal LCF tests with superimposed thermal gradient
Sample ID 1) rwall 2) [mm] Tsurface [°C] dT

dr
[°C/mm] εa [%] σa [MPa] NEnd [-] Main crack
18THM1 3 770 50 0.3 435 3025 -
18THM4 3 950 45 0.3 490 1173 Outside
18THM5 3 950 50 0.3 485 1519 -
18THM7 3 950 50 0.3 435 1670 Outside
18THM8 3 950 50 0.39 595 470 Outside
18THM10 3 950 50 0.246 390 4336 Outside
18THM21 3 950 50 0.227 320 32454 Outside
18THM22 3 950 50 0.231 324 5767 Outside
18THM23 3 950 50 0.22 323 10113 Outside
18THM11 3 800 50 0.413 640 1970 Outside
18THM12 3 800 50 0.275 512 6246 Inside
18THM13 3 800 50 0.277 488 14668 Inside
18THM14 3 800 50 0.295 514 9933 Outside
18THM2 3 785 30 0.3 475 2788 -
18THM3 3 980 30 0.3 430 617 -
18THM6 3 950 30 0.3 423 1461 Outside
18THM9 3 950 30 0.39 505 600 Outside
18THM15 3 950 30 0.357 481 609 2 x Outside
18THM16 3 950 30 0.332 479 970 Outside
18THM17 3 950 30 0.205 320 6698 Outside
18THM18 3 800 30 0.414 639 1010 Inside
18THM19 3 800 30 0.414 639 1280 Inside
18THM20 3 750 50 0.342 521 8180 Inside
18THM24 3 980 50 0.295 430 1716 Outside
18THM25 3 800 65 0.4 639 2364 Inside
18THM26 1.5 950 50 0.416 492 366 Outside
18THM27 1.5 950 50 0.32 490 2034 Outside
1) 2)
Sample Type: hollow cylindrical specimen; Wall thickness
Rε = −1 for all strain-controlled tests and Rσ = −1 for all stress-controlled tests; ε̇ = −0.001 1s
Table 5.3: Test parameter of isothermal ratcheting tests
1)
1
Sample ID T [°C] εa [%] ε̇ s
Rε [-] NEnd [-]
T6 750 0.1/0.2/0.3/0.4 0.001 -1,0,0.5,-∞,2 2000
T7 850 0.1/0.2/0.3/0.4 0.001 -1,0,0.5,-∞,2 1900
T8 950 0.15/0.2/0.25/0.3 0.001 -1,0,0.5,-∞,2 2000
1)
Sample Type: cylindrical specimen
5.1 Measurement of surface temperatures and thermal gradients

A reliable determination of the local temperatures on the specimen surface and in the wall is
the necessary prerequisite to characterize the influence of thermally induced stress gradients
on fatigue. This is one of the major experimental challenges. For this reason, several
measurement techniques have been applied and tested to measure surface temperature as
well as thermal gradients.
5.1.1 Measurement of surface temperature

For measurements at high temperatures thermo-wires are the standard measurement method
[292]. Above 800 °C Platinum-based thermocouples (type-S, R, B) are preferred over nickel-
chromium based thermocouples based on their superior oxidation resistance [292]. On the
other hand side nickel-chromium offer significantly higher sensitivity (e.g. ≈41 µV
K for type-K
and ≈9.5 µV
K for type-S) and a lower price [16].
First type-K thermocouples were used for the experiments.
The large heat fluxes in combination with an undefined cooling air fluid flow of the halogen
heat sources lead to a difficult thermal situation of the thermocouple wires positioned inside
the heating. The temperature signals and positioning of the wires inside the heating are
shown in figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1: Application methods of Type K thermocouple wires
Different thermocouples have been applied for the same specimen at the same axial position
and the position of the thermocouple wires was changed from measurement to measurement
in order to find the optimum application method. Three different application methods and
two different wire diameters have been used, figure 5.1. The x-axis in figure 5.1 is defined by
different measurements under the same conditions. Between the measurements the heating
was opened and closed again. At measurement No. 2 one wire of M3 has been welded
again on specimen surface. After each measurement the positions of the wires was changed
subsequently. The smallest deviation could be found in the case that all wires were pressed
on the specimen surface and horizontally put in place.
All measurements were carried out under constant power output of Pel = 15 kW and a
cooling air mass flow of ṁSpecimen = 10 gs . This can be correlated to a thermal gradient of
∆T K
about ∆x = 30 mm .
The findings can be summarized as follows:
• Application of thermocouples with previous welded tip in form of a pearl (M1 P0.1;
M2 P 0.25) welded on the surface. These measurements had the largest deviations
from the temperature set point with a maximum deviation of ∆T ≤ 20 %.
• Application of single-ended thermocouple wires welded directly on the specimen surface

with a maximum distance of 0.25 mm (M3 0.1; M4 0.1; M5 0.25). In comparison to
the tip-thermocouples the measurement accuracy was increased but still the deviation
was significant.
• Application of thermocouples with previous welded tip in form of a pearl pressed on

the surface. This application method often used in standard test machines could not be
applied, because the wires could not be pressed on the specimen surface with enough
pressure to keep them in place and ensure a reliable measurement signal. The wires
had measured temperatures close to 1000 °C.
• At measurements 5 to 9 the temperature of M1 was above 1000◦ C as the wires were

connected to each other.
At high electrical power output of the heating, the temperature signal of the type-K thermo-
wires was lost after a number of minutes because of failure of the wires. This is a result of
the large heat fluxes and severe oxidation of the wires. At these tests the specimen surface
∆T K
temperature was Ta =950 °C and the gradient ∆x > 25 mm . It is assumed that the wires
not contacting the specimen surface faced significant higher temperatures compared to the
specimen itself.
After failure of the type-K thermocouples only type-S thermocouples were used for further
investigation.
Additionally, in previous measurements it could be observed, that the measurement signal
deviates from the set point when the pure wires came into contact with the specimen
surface.Therefore, ceramic tubes were applied to the wires. Furthermore, a new spot-welding
technique with constant current welding process instead of capacitor discharge welding was
used delivering a more reliable quality of the welds. Based on these results the following
procedure was applied:
• use of 0.2 mm Type S thermocouple wires as good compromise between oxidation

resistance, long term stability and output voltage,
• welding of the thermocouple wires separately (according to [293]) on the specimen

surface with a minimum distance (typical less than <0.2 mm) in place after installation
of the specimen with constant current welding process,
• painting of the specimen surface with insulating thermo-color before welding process
so that a possible contact between wire and specimen will not lead to measurement
errors,
• application of ceramic tubes on the thermocouple wire to define a fixed distance

between specimen and wire, and
• putting the wires horizontally in place for an angle of 90◦ and turning the wires to the
outlet of the test rig axially at the top or bottom only afterwards.
In a next step, the final application was tested for different thermal loads in the test
rig. The surface temperature was kept constant between the different measurements with
a deviation of ∆T Measurement ≤ ±2 %. For lower thermal power output of the heating,

without cooling air applied, thus with comparatively low heat fluxes into the specimen, the
measured temperatures showed a very small deviation from each other (∆T Thermocouple ≤
±0.25 %), figure 5.2. This deviation increased significantly with increasing thermal gradient.
Under full load condition a temperature deviation slightly above the maximum value of
∆T CodeOfPractice = ±1 % could be achieved [258]. However, the results show a high reliability
under these very severe conditions with a maximum deviation of ∆T Thermocouple ≤ ±1.3 %.
This deviation is only slightly larger than the recommendation by the code of practice.
Figure 5.2: Measured temperature signals of Type S thermocouples for different thermal
loads for the final solution of temperature measurement in the test rig.
5.1.2 Axial surface temperature distribution

The axial surface temperature distribution was carefully examined for all tests. Five thermo-
wires were welded onto the specimen surface for a pre-test. Additionally, the electric power
output of the heating for the correct surface temperature was measured. In a second step the
thermo-wires inside the measurement length of 14 mm were removed and the surface polished
again. Two thermocouples outside of the measurement length remained on the specimen.
Together with the electric power output of the heating the remaining thermocouples were
used to control the test.
The position of the inserts and centering was adjusted experimentally in order to ensure a
homogeneous surface temperature, cf. figure 15. Comparative numerical calculation for the
experimental determined position of sleeve and insert is in figure 5.3.
 
  

 
 
 
 



 
 

   
     
a) 
 
  

 
 


 






   

     
b) 
Figure 5.3: Temperature and thermal gradient distribution for a) 30 K/mm and b)
50 K/mm and 950 ◦ C surface temperature
The reason for the deviation of surface temperatures between CFD calculations and experi-
ments is that for the CFD calculations Reynolds Average Navier Stokes (RANS) equations
for sake of simplicity were used that are barely able to describe correctly the heat transfer
in regions with flow separation near the centering sleeves, figure 5.4. A development of the
cooling system using unsteady RANS or LES with superior accuracy of the calculation was
not done for reasons of increasing calculation effort [75, 76]. Nevertheless, the measurements
and calculated results show the reliability of the proposed test method. Especially for large
thermal gradients the temperature distribution is homogeneous over a large axial distance.
For the smaller gradient of 30 K/mm the distribution is shifted to the outlet of the specimen,
but a homogeneous distribution could be achieved within 13 mm of axial length.
a) Local flow separation Local flow separation
b) Local flow separation Local flow separation
Figure 5.4: Temperature and velocity for a) 30 K/mm and b) 50 K/mm thermal gradient
and the region with separated flow
5.1.3 Measurement of thermal gradients across specimen wall

Measurement of thermal gradients in the thin-wall specimen is extremely challenging. Two
different techniques were applied. First, Uniform Crystal Temperature Sensors (UCTS) were
used [294]. UCTS allow for determination of the maximum exposure temperature. For this
purpose, lattice defects are introduced into SIC crystals during the production process by the
manufacturer, which are annealed depending on time and temperature. X-ray diffractometer
analysis allow a determination of the maximum crystal temperature [295].
Figure 5.5: Measurement of thermal gradient with a) thermocouples and b) UCTS
A test with UCTS and additional type-S surface thermo-wires was conducted at a maximum
surface temperature of 950 ◦ C and a cooling air mass flow of 16 g/s that was calculated to
result in a thermal gradient of around 52 K/mm. This calculation has been carried out by
means of FEM and CFD simulations. The installation of thermocouples as well as crystals
is shown in figure 5.5. After that test, maximum crystal temperature was determined and
the thermal gradient of 63.4 K/mm was found as presented in Table 5.4. The evaluation
was carried out at LG-Tech a company specialized for temperature measurements in rough
environments under extreme temperatures e.g. [296, 297].
At the test, the high temperature cement surrounding the crystals failed for the stacked
position and therefore the measurements of the third position couldn’t be evaluated. Hence,
the crystals in the stacked method were exposed to direct radiation and their measured
temperatures could differ from the experimental results. Additionally, the bottom crystal in
Pos. a got heavily damaged and could not be used for the evaluation, figure 5.6.
Table 5.4: Temperatures and thermal gradients measured with UCTS
Pos. a (staircase) Pos. b (staircase) Pos. c (stacked)

Tuppercrystal [°C] 870 867 972
Crystal position [mm] 0.961 0.943 0.097
Tbottomcrystal [°C] - 774 911
Crystal position [mm] 2.427 2.414 0.857
dT K
dx
[ mm ] - 63.4 76.6
Figure 5.6: Specimen with a) UCTS applied in staircase method b) UCTS applied in
stacked method c) crystals and cement before installation d) crystal and ce-
ment after the test
For the second measurement technique three thermocouples were brazed inside the specimen
wall, figure 5.8. Two of them were arranged in the sink eroded holes from the outer sur-
face and the third thermocouple was brazed axially in a wire eroded borehole of the specimen.
The sheath of the two thermocouples did not withstand the large heat fluxes and failed
after heating up. This resulted in incorrect temperature readings of the thermo-wires and
finally failure of the thermocouples. The sheath of the thermocouple after the test is shown
in figure 5.7. For the thermocouple brazed inside the specimen wall an axial bore hole was
eroded. Therefore, the thermocouple was not exposed to radiation heat flux of the heating
and the temperature could be measured directly inside the specimen wall. The results of the
measurements and the corresponding CFD calculations are shown in figure 5.8.
Figure 5.7: Specimen with brazed thermocouples applied a) before the test (the internal
thermocouple is not visible) b) after the tests c) broken surface mantle thermo-
couples
T12 was the measured temperature of the brazed thermocouple (in a radial distance of 2 mm
from the outer surface). T15 and T11 are two surface thermocouples welded on the specimen
surface. The measurements and numerical CFD simulations were conducted with variation
of surface temperatures and cooling air mass flow rates, figure 5.8 a). The maximum gradient
is calculated depending on maximum surface temperature and mass flow rate. The graph
clearly indicates increasing thermal gradients with increasing outer surface temperature
for constant cooling air mass flow rate. In figure 5.8 b) only measurement points for a
surface temperature between 750 ◦ C and 950 ◦ C are shown. With regard to the measurement
uncertainties under high thermal gradients, the measurements correspond well with the
calculated thermal gradients.







 


 

 




      
 
Figure 5.8: Measurements of thermal gradient and the corresponding numerical calcula-
tion for tests with brazed thermocouple and UCTS a) depending on maximum
surface temperature and mass flow and b) for experimental data points with a
maximum surface temperature between 750 ◦ C and 950 ◦ C
5.2 Results of isothermal ratcheting tests

In order to consider the ratcheting effect in the numerical modelling, three specific ratcheting
tests under strain control, respectively isothermally tested at 750 ◦ C, 850 ◦ C and 950 ◦ C,
were carried out at Materials testing institute Stuttgart (MPA). The same specimen geometry
as in the CLCF tests was used. The test programs consist of twenty blocks with 100 cycles
each block, figure 5.9. For each block whether the strain amplitude or the strain-ratio Rε
was varied and in total three different temperatures were tested 750, 850 and 950 ◦ .

e e e e

ε
ε
ε
ε
ε∞
ε


 
    


Figure 5.9: Definition of cyclic strain-controlled tests under non-symmetric loading condi-
tions to examine the ratcheting behaviour of Mar-M247
From the ratcheting tests, the mean stress relaxation effect for non-symmetrical strain
loading was observed under all test temperatures. The stress-strain hysteresis curves for
each strain amplitude level are presented in figure 5.10. These data were used in section 7.2
for fitting the influence parameter to describe the ratcheting effect for the tested nickel-based
alloy.
6 0 0
T [ ° C ] s
T [ ° C ] s E x p
E x p
7 5 0
7 5 0
8 5 0
8 0 0
8 5 0
4 0 0
9 5 0
9 5 0
2 0 0
6 0 0
]
]
A
A
P
0
M
M
[
a
m
4 0 0
s
s
- 2 0 0
2 0 0
- 4 0 0
- 6 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0
a ) b )
t i m e [ s ]
t i m e [ s ]
8 0 0 1 2 0 0
8 0 0
4 0 0
4 0 0
]
A
P
]
0 0
A
M
[
P
s
M
[
s
- 4 0 0
- 4 0 0
- 8 0 0
c c c c c c
c c c c c c
- 8 0 0 - 1 2 0 0
- 1 , 5 - 1 , 0 - 0 , 5 0 , 0 0 , 5 1 , 0 1 , 5 - 2 , 0 - 1 , 5 - 1 , 0 - 0 , 5 0 , 0 0 , 5 1 , 0 1 , 5 2 , 0
c c c c c c
c ) d )
e [ % ]
c c c c c c
e [ % ]
c c c c c c c
Figure 5.10: Result of strain-controlled ratcheting tests at different temperatures a) mean

stress, b) stress amplitude, c) stress-strain hysteris at 950 ◦ C and d) 750 ◦ C
(carried out at MPA)
c c c c c c
5.3 Deformation behaviour of cyclic tests with superimposed thermal

gradients
In the next step, tests with superimposed thermal gradients have been performed in the
TISG-test rig. The resultant cyclic deformation curves of the different tests are shown
exemplary in figure 5.11 for a surface temperature of Ta =950 °C and a thermal gradient of
∆T K
∆x =50 mm .




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s 
s s



 


      




∆

e e
e 


 


      
Figure 5.11: Exemplary cyclic deformation behaviour of 3mm hollow specimen at a surface
temperature of Ta =950 °C and ∆T K
∆x = 50 mm a) mean axial stress and b) mean
axial strain
5.3.1 Variation of mean strain and mean stress

As for tests with superimposed thermal gradients a large amount of cooling air flow through
the specimen is necessary, a pressure and mass flow control system were necessary. The
control parameters of this system resulted in a cooling air mass flow variation of around 1%
measured with a mass flow measurement system positioned at the outlet of the test rig. This
variation of the mass flow caused a variation of the mean stress, as the thermal gradient
varied due to cooling air variation. The mean stress variation was about ∆σm ≤ ±50 MPa
independent on the applied stress amplitude for most of the tests. An influence on the total
lifetime of the tests was not observed.
Additionally, the mean elastic modulus of the samples varied significantly and therefore the
stress amplitude for a given strain changes. This difference can be seen in figure 5.12 for
tests with εa =0.39 % and 0.3 %. An evaluation of the lifetime for Mar-M247 in terms of
stress amplitude has shown to reduce the scatter between the test data, c.f. section 6.6.3.
Cyclic hardening wasn’t apparent for the test and therefore the control mode for later tests
was changed to stress control. A typical result for the stress and strain amplitude for a test
under stress control vs. strain control is shown in figure 5.13.
 s s
∆ ∆
∆ ∆
 

s s 

ee ee
s


   
Figure 5.12: Cyclic deformation behaviour of Mar-M247 at two strain amplitudes with
and without superimposed thermal gradients
 
 s s  s s
 ∆ ∆  ∆ ∆
 
 

s 

e e
s s


e
e 
s


 
         
Figure 5.13: Comparison of a) axial stress and b) axial strain amplitudes and mean values
over cycles for stress or strain-controlled tests
In strain control σmean varies less than ±50 MPa, which significantly reduces under stress
control. For tests under strain control the mean strain varies usually by less than ∆m ≤
±0.02 %. In some tests instabilities of the cooling air system induced larger variations of the
mean strain up ∆m ≤ ±0.1 %. Additionally, the mean strain varied according to a change
in power output of the heat sources to ensure a constant surface temperature measured by
the reference thermocouple. Due to the fact that the mean strain is very sensitive to the
changes in temperature field, an additional software module has been implemented in the
test system, allowing a correction of the mean strain while the test is running.
5.4 Termination criteria for the tests

For most tests the number of cycles between the first measurable damage, visible due to a
change in stress or strain amplitude and final fracture of the specimen was only a few cycles
and therefore less than 1% of the total lifetime. For the end of the test two criteria were
defined:
• Load drop ∆F > ±10 % or strain amplitude drop ∆a > ±10 % between the actual
cycle and the extrapolated regression line of all amplitudes. (The first 100 cycles have
been excluded)
• Pressure drop between inlet and outlet of the specimen of larger than ∆pSpecimen > 2 bar
or deviation of mass flow from the set value larger than ∆ṁCoolAir > 1 gs .
Usually at the end of the test, the crack already grew through the specimen wall. At this
point compressed air started to blow out of the crack changing the temperature field of the
specimen and finally leading to failure within a few cycles. This change in pressure drop and
mass flow over the specimen was detected by the control system as well. This variation in
pressure drop is shown in figure 5.14. A drop in force or strain was not observed in this test.
This observation can be seen in figure 5.13 instead.
In figure 5.14 strain amplitude, mass flow and pressure of specimen inlet and outlet are
presented. The cyclic variation of inlet pressure induced by the booster compressor can clearly
be seen in the pressure signal. The variation in mass flow was kept below ∆ṁCoolAir < ±1.5 %.
At the end of the tests at last 20 cycles before shutdown of the rig, the strain amplitude
starts to vary. The pressure signal already at the last 50 cycles show a larger variation in
pressure, but the pressure difference is constant. In the last cycle the crack growth through
the specimen and the pressure drop increases from 0.5 bar up to 1 bar. After reaching a
stop criterion the cooling air mass flow is increased and the heat flux reduced to zero to cool
down the specimen.




 

e 
e

  

 

  

  
       
Figure 5.14: Typical pressure drop at the end of the fatigue test shown together with strain
amplitude increase and temperature increase for test No. 18THM17
5.4.1 Measurement of modulus of elasticity

For a number of tests, the cyclic elastic modulus was measured in a pre-test as a function of
temperature. In a pre-test 20 cycles in stress control with an amplitude of σa = 300 MPa,
temperatures below T ≤600 °C and an amplitude of σa = 200 MPa for temperatures above
T >600 °C were carried out. The resultant stress strain curve was used for calculation of the
modulus of elasticity.
The results are shown in figure 5.15. The cyclic elastic modulus varied about ∆E =
Emax −Emin
Emean ≈ 25% independent of temperature. The mean value corresponds well with the
literature results. Nevertheless, the large variation of the elastic modulus has a large effect
on the stress amplitudes both of the isothermal and non-isothermal fatigue tests, c.f. section
5.5. Engel has measured the elastic modulus of a single specimen at different positions and
found a variation of E of around 20 % for the coarse-grained nickel-based alloy Rene80 [298].
For the single-crystal CMSX-4 developed from Marm-247 and PWA1480, E-moduli are
measured directionally from 125 GPa in < 001 > up to 320 GPa in the < 111 > orientation
at room temperature and 80 GPa in < 001 > up to 230 GPa in the < 111 > at T = 950 řC
[299, 300]. Accordingly, the E-moduli measured here lie excellently within these extrema.

  
   
 ∆   
   
  
   
 ∆  


 







      
a)
b)
Figure 5.15: Elastic moduli as a function of temperature for selected tests
Stress-strain behaviour of tests with superimposed thermal gradients
The stress strain curves at half-life are shown in figure 5.16. As a result of the thermal
gradient the mean temperature of the specimen ligament reduces and therefore the stiffness
of the specimens increases. This stiffness increase leads to a reduced plastic strain amplitude
of the hysteresis for tests with superimposed thermal gradient compared to isothermal tests.
Nevertheless, the plasticity of test No. 18THM8 is smaller than that of 18THM9 that has a
smaller thermal gradient. This is caused by variation of the elastic modulus as a result of
the variation in grain size and orientation between the specimens, c.f. section 6.
The hysteresis of the tests with superimposed thermal gradients shows a larger noise of the
stress-strain signal compared to tests without thermal gradient. This can be explained as
follows:
• The high temperature extensometer features sapphire rods with a length of lRod =
248 mm. This length is twice as long as the length of standard rods. In combination
with the cooling air flow inside the reflectors these long extensometer rods induce a
high level of vibration into the measured strains. These vibrations are reflected as
noise in the strain measurement signal and cannot be avoided due to constructive
restrictions of the test rig.
• Additionally, the variation of the cooling air mass flow inside the hollow specimen
induces slight variations in thermal strain and together with the hydro dynamically
induced vibrations increase the measured noise of the extensometer.
The plastic strain measured in the experiment is the mean strain of the specimen integrated
over the ligament. Therefore, it cannot directly be used for the interpretation of the test
results. The local plasticity can be calculated based on numerical visco-plastic simulations.
Thus, the global plastic strain is of minor importance for the current tests. Different
representative cyclic stress strain curves of three different tests are shown in figure 5.16
 e

∆


∆


s 
∆


 e



  e     
Figure 5.16: Representative cyclic axial stress-strain curves of three different tests
5.5 Low cycle fatigue life of Mar-M247 with and without superimposed
thermal gradient
The stress and strain response of the tests have already been presented in the previous
chapter. Figure 5.17 shows the isothermal LCF test data of the current and predecessors
project with application both of strain amplitude and stress amplitude vs. number of cycles
to failure [26, 51].
The data were fitted according to a modified Coffin Manson law a = 0 f (N )c (3.48) for the
strain based plot and for stress based presentation according to the Wöhler equation σa =
σ f (N )b (3.44).
0

 



e



 
 
  
 
      

 
 




s



  
  
   
      
Figure 5.17: a) axial strain amplitude and b) axial stress amplitude vs. lifetime of LCF re-
sults of the tests without thermal gradient for different temperatures specimen
geometries including test results from predecessor projects
The parameter and standard deviations for the fits are presented in Table 5.5.
The graphs clearly show that the adaptation in terms of stress amplitude offers a superior
accuracy compared to a strain-based investigation. This is explained by the coarse-grained
structure and therefore the large variation in elastic modulus. An application of the strain-
based formula (3.48) on any lifetime calculation based on the above database should be
avoided for any temperature except T ≥ 950 ◦ C, because of the large scatter of the test
results and the small statistically not proven database.
The stress amplitudes show a lower scatter than the strain amplitudes for the different testing
temperatures. This is explained by the scatter of the elastic modulus of the investigated
material. Therefore, test results with thermal gradient will be presented in the form of
stress amplitudes versus number of cycles to failure in the following. In addition, the tests
of hollow and standard cylindrical specimens at 950 ◦ C show no difference (hollow and filled
symbols in figure 5.17 b). The graph also shows similar lifetime for testing temperatures
850 ◦ C and 875 ◦ C. The same applies to the temperatures 750 ◦ C and 800 ◦ C.
Table 5.5: Parameter of Coffin-Manson and Basquin fit on the isothermal test results
T [°C] 30 300 750 800 850 875 950 1050

0
εf [-/-] 2.759 1.078 1.667 0.872 1.560 0.978 2.951 1.387
c [-] -0.214 -0.131 -0.196 -0.119 -0.189 -0.146 -0.326 -0.264
2 1)
R 1 1 0.99 0.85 0.99 1 0.89 0.95
b [-] -0.147 -0.109 -0.154 -0.131 -0.181 -0.136 -0.186 -0.211
0
σf [MPa] 2577 1707 1992 1584 1788 1317 1368 902.3
1)
R2 1 1 0.99 0.98 0.98 1 0.98 0.99
1)
Evaluation of correlation coefficient not meaningful for temperatures with less than 3 experimental tests
In section 3.5.1 different methods of lifetime calculation have been presented to give a
temperature independent description of the lifetime of isothermal test results at different
temperature levels. In Figure 5.18 equations 3.53-3.56 and 3.90 are fitted for the test data
and a scatter band of factor 10 in terms of lifetime is plotted for comparison purposes. For
the stress normalization of the Zamrik and Kulawinski formulation the tensile, yield strength
and fracture elongation according to figure 5.19 and the presented approximations have been
used. The factors of the fits of Figure 5.18 are given in Table 5.6 . Figure 5.18 shows, that
none of the models allows a comprehensive description of the test data.
   

 
  
 


s



 
 
   
    
  
 
   
          
  
 
  
 
 

 

 





  
  
  
    
    
  
 
   
        
    
Figure 5.18: Fit of isothermal test data based on a) yield stress normalized amplitude b)
Ostergren, c) Zamrik and d) Kulawinski approach
Table 5.6: Parameter of temperature independent fit-formulations of Figure 5.18 and the
corresponding adjusted coefficient of determination
A b R2
σ/Rp02 (Normalized stress) [-] 2,479e−1 -1,568 0,92
−4
POsergren [MPa] 9,883e -1,241 0,78
−2
PZamrik [-] 5,502e -3,047 0,43
PKulawinski [MPa] 3,765e−3 -8,744e−1 0,78
 
 

 
 



s 
 


 

 


  

 
 

    
        
  
Figure 5.19: Fit functions of a) Rm and Rp02 and b) A5 for Mar-M247 LC based on litera-
ture data evaluation
Another pure phenomenological approach utilizes equation 3.92 and 3.93. For the adaptation,
only the temperatures above 750 ◦ C were used.
The data fit is shown in figure 5.20 a) and b). Again, strain-based evaluation of the test data
shows a correlation coefficient with significantly worse accuracy compared to the stress-based
formulation. The parameter for the adaptation is given in Table 5.7.
Figure 5.20: Fit of isothermal experiments using a) equation 3.92 (temperature dependent
Wöhler approach) and b) equation 3.93 (temperature dependent Coffin-Manson
approach)
Table 5.7: Parameter of temperature independent modified Coffin-Manson and Basquin fit
on the isothermal test results according to eq. 3.92 and 3.93
0 0
εf0 [-/-] εf1 [-/-/K]1) c0 [-] c1 [1/K]1) R2
Modified Coffin-Manson -3.164 5.895e−3 4.142e−1 -7.540e−4 0.91
0 0
1) 1)
σf0 [MPa] σf1 [MPa/K] b0 [-] b1 [1/K] R2
Modified Basquin 5446.8 -4.533 -1.179e−1 -4.636e−3 0.978
1)
T in °C for the fit
The comparison of calculated versus experimental lifetime can be calculated and the 10 % /
90 % confidence intervals can be added. The data are plotted only for the modified Wöhler
approach as it give significantly lower scatter compared to the Coffin Manson approach,
Figure 5.21.
The reason for the previous analysis is the possibility to describe the lifetime at locally
variable temperatures. These simplified description enables a fast interpretation of the test
results in the following section.








   
Figure 5.21: Comparison of calculated and experimental lifetime for all isothermal tests in
the temperature range between 750 ◦ C and 1050 ◦ C calculated with equation
3.93
5.6 Results of hollow cylindrical specimen testing with thermal gradients

In a second step the results of tests with thermal gradient are added to the isothermal
fatigue data, Figure 5.22. For different stress amplitudes the thermal gradient was varied


  

 


  
 

s



 


     
Figure 5.22: Low cycle fatigue data at 980 and 950 ◦ C surface temperature with superim-
posed thermal gradient
for a constant surface temperature of Ta =950 ◦ C. For a thermal gradient of 30 K/mm the
lifetime of the specimen increased by a factor of about 3 and for 50 K/mm an increase of
the lifetime by a factor of about 5. Additionally, the two tests at 980 ◦ C are also presented
in the diagram. The lifetime of the specimen with 30 K/mm gradient is in the same scatter
as the 950 ◦ C data and the specimen with 50 K/mm gradient fall into the mean line of data
with 30 K/mm at 950 ◦ C.
Finally, two data points with a wall thickness of 1.5 mm instead of 3 mm standard wall
thickness are plotted. The lifetime of the two specimens differed significantly although the
stress amplitude was the same. Therefore, a quantitative analysis of the influence of the wall
thickness could not be made. A possible explanation of that large scatter can be found in the
large grain size of the material, c.f. figure 3.3 or 6.7. Results of the lower temperature tests
are shown in Figure 5.23. Less tests have been conducted compared to the higher surface
temperature of 950 ◦ C. Nevertheless, the influence of the thermal gradient is obvious for
large thermal gradients. Effect of thermal gradient on lifetime is hard to see for low thermal
gradient of 30 K/mm. For the large stress amplitude of 600 MPa a lifetime extending effect
of the thermal gradient was observed. The lifetime increased by a factor of about 2. At lower
surface temperature of 800 ◦ C the thermal gradient has been increased up to 65 K/mm. The
lifetime of this test was slightly higher than for the test with a gradient of 50 K/mm. At
lower stress amplitudes, 3 tests with 50 K/mm at 800 ◦ C and one additional test with a
surface temperature of only 750 ◦ C were carried out. At the tested stress amplitudes, test
results for different gradients and temperatures fall together in the same scatter.
 
  
  
  

 




 
s

 


     
Figure 5.23: Axial stress based low cycle fatigue data at 800 and 750 ◦ C surface tempera-
ture with superimposed thermal gradient
For better illustration, mean temperature of the specimen is plotted vs. lifetime in Figure
5.24.
In Figure 5.24 a) all data are presented for a constant outer surface temperature of 950 ◦ C
and 980 ◦ C and in b) test results for constant outer surface temperature of 800 ◦ C are shown.
S l i g h t d i f f e r e n c e o f t h e s l o p e
9 7 5
a t T = 9 5 0 ° C
T = 9 8 0 ° C ; s = 4 3 0 M P a
a
9 5 0
T = 9 5 0 ° C ; s » 5 0 0 M P a
9 2 5
T = 9 5 0 ° C ; s » 4 3 0 M P a
a
]
9 0 0
T = 9 5 0 ° C ; s = 3 2 0 M P a
C
a
°
[
T = 8 0 0 ° C ; s » 6 4 0 M P a
a
8 7 5
a
e
8 0 0
m
T = 8 0 0 ° C ; s » 5 2 0 M P a
a
T
F i t c o n s t . t e m p e r a t u r e
7 7 5
F i t
7 5 0
7 2 5 T g o o d m e a s u r e
m e a n
a t l o w e r t e m p e r a t u r e s
1 0 0 0 N [ - ] 1 0 0 0 0
Figure 5.24: Mean specimen temperature vs. number of cycles for different axial stress
amplitudes and a) a constant surface temperature of 980/950 ◦ C and b) a
constant surface temperature of 800 ◦ C
Color and shape of points define a constant or similar stress amplitude. The dotted lines are
the fit of the isothermal test data for different temperatures. For the fit of all isothermal
test data with a single empirical fit the simplified Basquin equation 3.93 was used.
For a given stress amplitude and temperature the lifetime can easily been observed by a
phenomenological fitting function. Additionally, each pair of test data was fitted as follows:
Tmean = A (N )c (5.1)
Comparing both fits it is obvious, that for the higher temperatures in a) the slope of equation
3.93 (isothermal fit for a given temperature) has a steeper slope compared to the direct
fit of the test results using equation (5.1). For lower temperatures the fit for a constant
mean temperature fits well with the results of the fit of isothermal test data. As a simplified
approach the mean temperature of the specimen wall seem to be a rough measure for
calculation of the low cycle fatigue life. The lifetime calculated using the temperature
modified Wöhler approach 3.93 and the mean temperature according to equation 3.93 can
be compared to the experimental lifetime, Figure 5.25.








   
Figure 5.25: Comparison of calculated lifetime using the temperature modified Basquin
equation based on the area average mean temperature of the specimens to the
experimental lifetime of specimens with thermal gradients
As can be seen, this simple approach enables to arrange most of the measured and calculated
numbers of cycles to failure in a scatter band with factor 2. The 10/90 percent percentile is
even closer than the scatter band factor of 2 as can be observed in Figure 5.24. Figure 5.25
does not indicate the temperatures or stress amplitudes for each test. Thus, conservative or
non-conservative results cannot be related to different test conditions. Therefore, the data
can be plotted versus lifetime as well as mean temperature of the specimen, Figure 5.26.
The surface indicates the calculated lifetime whereas the points are the experimental deter-
mined lifetimes. The color of the dots indicates the surface temperature and the position
on the x-axis the mean specimen temperature. Experiments situated above the surface
of calculated lifetime are conservative calculations whereas points below the surface are
non-conservative calculations. As can be seen, most of the test data are on the conservative
site at 950 ◦ C surface temperature. At lower surface temperature, the lifetime is generally
overestimated for most of the test results. However, the test results indicate very low scatter
band below 2 as stated already in Figure 5.25 . The test results with the largest deviation
are the one test at 750 ◦ C surface temperature and 2 experiments with the longest lifetime
at 950 ◦ C.



σ




 


 
























Figure 5.26: Calculated lifetime of temperature modified Basquin equation vs. lifetime of
specimens with superimposed thermal gradients
113
6 Microstructural investigation
Evolution of the microstructure
The microstructure of the applied material Mar-M247 LC CC (HIP) in the studied

temperature range was characterized by analyzing cross-sections along the longitudinal
direction (force direction) of the standard cylindrical specimens in different states. Figure
6.1 shows the micrographs of the virgin state a), b) and the states after isothermal cyclic
tests at T =950 °C c), d).The data were provided by the MPA-Stuttgart.
The typical dendritic structures with secondary dendrite arms and interdendritically located
carbides are observed in all states.
 
 
Figure 6.1: Characterization of micro structure in crack-free zones along the longitudinal
direction of specimens at a),b) delivered state before testing and after cyclic
strain-controlled testing at T =950 °C c),d)
After the test duration at high temperatures, new precipitation at grain boundary pre-
dominantly in coarse γ’ and partly in fine γ’ zones can be observed as well, figure 6.1
d).
These results are typical ageing effects at elevated temperatures and are common for LCF
tests at temperatures above T =850 °C . For the short test durations below t <<100 h at
T =950 °C more pronounced effect like ratcheting generally is observed rarely. On the other
hand, the diffusion of carbides is clearly visible 6.1 d).
Fractography of the hollow cylindrical specimens tested
For the identification of the characteristic damage mechanisms, fractographic investigations

were carried out on selected specimens with and without thermal gradients. The fracture
surfaces of three exemplary specimens isothermally tested with different loading levels for
three test temperatures are shown in figure 6.2.
The specimen tested under the highest loading level (left) at each temperature show main
crack initiation zones both at outer and inner surface. The other specimen under lower
load levels (middle and right) exhibits all main crack sources from or near the outer surface.
Fracture surfaces of the tests with superimposed thermal gradients are shown in figure 6.3.
For tests with superimposed thermal gradient it was found, that for the highest temperature
of T =950 °C all cracks initiated from the outer surface independent of thermal gradient.
Whereas, for the lower temperature of T =800 °C and T =750 °C most of the cracks initiated
from the inner surface. For tests with a gradient of dT/dx = 50 K/mm and T =800 °C the
crack initiation varied between inner and outer surface.
Figure 6.2: Fracture surface of isothermally tested hollow cylinders (0 K/mm, T =950 °C),
under different mechanical loading at a) εa = 0.4 %, b) εa = 0.3 % and c)
εa = 0.25 %, with marked main fatigue crack sources
Figure 6.3: Fracture surface of non-isothermal tested hollow cylinders under different stress
amplitudes; temperatures and thermal gradients (18THM4-15)
Distribution and characterization of secondary cracks
For specific specimens, micro sections were prepared in order to evaluate the distribution
and length of secondary cracks. First, a macroscopic crack surface photography of specimen
18THM8 with high contrast was taken to visualize macroscopic secondary cracks, figure 6.4.
Figure 6.4: Macroscopic view of the polished surface of specimen 18THM8 after the fatigue
for measurement of macroscopic secondary cracks
For visualization in figure 6.4, thermal color of the specimen surface was removed by polishing
after the test. The specimen was located in a rotation fixture and rotated by an angle of
α≈14 ◦ for each photography. A homogeneous distribution of secondary surface cracks with
a maximum length of 8 mm can be observed. The minimum detectable crack length of this
technique is limited lcrack ≥ 0.2 mm. In the left part of the picture the crack density was
lower than in the centre of the specimen. That could be an effect of the cracking of the
specimen after the test had been finished. To open the crack surface, all specimens were
broken after the test. Therefore, axially above or below the crack the crack tip opening is
smaller as force can be transferred only in regions outside of the main crack.
Another question that has to be answered is the following: Are the cracks located only in the
area of highest temperature or lowest thermal gradient? For this purpose, the axial position
of the main crack has been measured for all specimens, figure 6.5.

 



∆∆

 


? 
 ∆∆
∆∆

   
Figure 6.5: Position of main and secondary cracks on the specimen surface compared to
extensometer rod position and point of highest temperature determined by
means of CFD
As can be seen, for most of the specimens the main crack was situated within the position
of the extensometer. The secondary cracks visible in figure 6.5 are cracks that could be
observed on the fracture surface after breaking the specimen. Because of the coarse grain
structure and the stress fields of the cracks at some specimens more than one crack started
to growth macroscopically before failure of the specimen in total. These secondary cracks
had different positions than the final crack and could be measured as well. For specimens
with a thermal gradient of 30 K/mm the cracks were oriented mostly close to the centre
of the specimen. At the region with the temperature maximum the thermal gradient was
around 30 K/mm. In the upper part of the specimen, the calculated thermal gradient was
higher and therefore the specimen temperature decreased significantly by 30 K. For tests
with the larger thermal gradient of 50 K/mm, the cracks were observed near the thermal
maximum temperature as well.
The experimental results show that the influence of maximum temperature supported by
the maximum thermal gradient clearly point to the area with maximum failure probability.
Nevertheless, secondary cracks are evenly distributed in an area with various temperature
and figure 6.6 and 6.7 shows the crack initiation region according to the grain distribution
on the surface of specimen 18THM8.
Figure 6.6: Crack initiation of secondary cracks on specimen No. 18THM8 (Contrast image)
Figure 6.7: Details of crack initiation of secondary cracks on specimen No. 18THM8
For all small cracks the initiation starts at grain boundaries (d, e, g). When the crack length
reaches a critical value, the crack front is driven by the cyclic stress intensity factor ∆K
and therefore more perpendicular to the loading axis. Weak grain boundary and the stress
intensity are playing a concurring role driving the crack front in circumferential direction.
Analysing the radial direction this finding is supported by the cross section polishing, figure
6.8.
In figure 6.8 a longitudinal micro section is presented. The main crack initiated on the
specimen outer surface on the left upper edge of the picture. On this picture the length of
the secondary cracks on the inner surface is larger (bottom of the figure) than on the outer
surface. At a larger distance of the main crack another long secondary crack can be observed,
    



  
 



  
Figure 6.8: Primary and secondary cracks on specimen No 18THM8 Ta =950 ◦ C,

dT /dx=50 K/mm σa =595 MPa, Nf =470
figure 6.8 b). The reason for the short secondary cracks close to the main crack is explained
by the fact that the main crack reduces the stress field on the specimen surface acting as a
relief notch [301]. The etched microsection of the same specimen is given in figure 6.9. Based
on the thermal gradient of dT /dx=50 K/mm and the corresponding decrease in material
temperature from outer to inner surface, oxidation at the crack tip takes place only at the
crack tip near the outer surface. The temperature dependent oxidation process is used in
section 8.3 for the development of an oxidation-based crack growth rate formulation.
These micrographs were provided by the Fraunhofer Institute of Mechanics of Materials
(IWM).
Tensile mean stresses are apparent on the inner surface for tests with thermal gradient. On
the other hand, the material strength is lower on the outer surface as a result of the increased

  
Figure 6.9: Etched microsection of secondary cracks on specimen No 18THM8 Ta =950 ◦ C,

dT /dx=50 K/mm σa =595 MPa, Nf =470
material temperature compared to the inner surface. These two effects are concurring while
crack initiation. As shown in figure 3.4, the material strength does change for a test with
Ta =950 ◦ C and dT/dx = 50 K/mm by nearly 50% between inner and outer surface. For tests
at lower outer temperature of Ta =800 ◦ C and dT/dx = 50 K/mm the strength changes only
by 20%. That could be a simplified explanation for these findings. For tests at Ta =800 ◦ C
and dT/dx = 50 K/mm the cracks initiated only on the inner surface and for Ta =800 ◦ C
and dT/dx = 30 K/mm the cracks initiated at both surfaces. Here, the compressive mean
stress on the outer surface could outnumber the influence of material strength. This can be
quantified only by the numerical investigations shown later.
By means of scanning electron microscope (SEM) investigation conducted at the IWM it
was possible to measure the distance between fatigue striation marks on the fracture surface
and thus the crack growth rate for specimens with and without thermal gradients. In figure
6.10 a) an average crack growth rate of 10.9 µm/cycle for an isothermally tested specimen
(0 K/mm) is shown. In contrast, a rate of about 8.5 µm/cycle at a crack length of 2 mm for
a specimen tested with thermal gradient (50 K/mm) can be found in figure 6.10 b). Both
experiments were carried out under the same mechanical loading of ε = 0.3[%] at 950 ◦ C.
By this comparison, the thermal gradient along the radial direction leads to a slower crack
propagation and therefore a longer fatigue lifetime.
a) b)
Figure 6.10: SEM images of a) specimen H1 (T = 950 ◦ C; dT/dx = 0 K/mm, σa =389 MPa,
Nf =954) and b) 18THM7 (T = 950◦ C; dT/dx = 50 K/mm, σa =435 MPa,
Nf =1670), with measured average distance of the fatigue striation marks
Figure 6.11 and figure 6.12 are showing the distance of striation marks for two different
specimens with superimposed thermal gradient. These results can be utilized later to compare
the calculated crack growth rate by the crack growth model presented in section 8.3
Figure 6.11: SEM images of specimen 18THM6 (T =950 °C ; dT K

dx =30 mm , σa =423 MPa,
Nf =1461) with measured average distance of the fatigue striation marks
Figure 6.12: SEM images of specimen 18THM8 (T =950 °C ; dT K

dx =50 mm , σa =595 MPa,
Nf =470) with measured average distance of the fatigue striation marks
123
7 Deformation modeling with improved ratcheting

simulation based on small scale strain theory
As was explained in section 3.3 over the last decades a pool of modelling methodologies has
been developed that enable a comprehensive description of the deformation behaviour at
different loadings.
Based on the existing database from FVV related projects the material Mar-M247 shows
the following characteristics that should be covered by the model [24, 26, 51, 53]:
• slight isotropic softening throughout a cyclic test,
• cyclic non-linear deformation behaviour under cyclic loadings,
• material viscosity pronounced under high temperatures, therefore the model should be
visco-plastic,
• linear dependency of the strain rate on stress in double logarithmic presentation (no
data at higher strain rates ε̇ > 0.01 1s or at lower strain rates ε̇ < 1−8 1
s are available)
• cyclic ratcheting is observed, but needs special attention as shown later in this chapter.
7.1 Modeling of ratcheting behaviour of Mar-M247

As stated in section 3.4.3 ratcheting behaviour is still topic of current research not yet fully
understood. In order to be able to adapt the ratcheting behaviour for the current material
Mar-M247 an extension of the existing laws is presented, that allows an adaptation of the
ratcheting behaviour onto an arbitrary material behaviour.
One of the main drawbacks of the often-used Ohno-Wang ratcheting extension is the fact,
that adapting the ratcheting parameter changes the form of the hysteresis. Therefore, each
time the ratcheting is adapted, the hysteresis needs to be adapted as well. Combined with
the fact, that for multiaxial behaviour the model misses the applicability an extension with
two main ideas shall be presented:
• Ratcheting behaviour should be adapted independently of cyclic behaviour.

• Uniaxial ratcheting is on the main focus for the adaptation of the behaviour.
• Multiaxial ratcheting should be implemented based on a proper choice of a multiaxiality

criteria, so that the uniaxial law can be extended on multiaxial case if a database is
existing.
• The number of additional parameters should be restricted.
7.1.1 Improvement of uniaxial ratcheting description for the

Armstrong-Frederick-model
The explanation of the ratcheting behaviour in the previous section clearly identifies the
difficulties in parameter adaptation for uniaxial ratcheting. The influence of the ratcheting
formulation on multiaxial ratcheting is excluded for the current chapter, as this is an
additional increase of complexity for the model theory. Analysing the original Armstrong-
Frederick approach and the form of the hysteresis in figure 7.1 it is obvious that in subsequent
loading for non-symmetric loading condition the slope of the hysteresis for reloading is lower
than for unloading.
Utilizing the example model parameter of table 3.3 for the stress-controlled case of figure 3.7
the evolution of X and Ẋ over the time is visualized in figure 7.1. Instead of the strain-based
loading a stress-based loading could be used for interpretation without difference.
For symmetric loading of the first cycle the peak values of both Ẋ and X have the same
maximum values and the same slope. For non-symmetric loadings at point 1. Ẋ is significantly
larger compared to the beginning of the reloading path at point 2. This is obvious interpreting



 







 




 
 

           
 
Figure 7.1: a) Ẋ versus p and b) X versus p for the non-symmetric strain-controlled loading
simulating the relaxation behaviour for the loading path of figure 3.7 for the
standard Armstrong Frederick model
the evolution equation for the inner variable X (Note: formulation written for the uniaxial
case):
Ẋ = C ε̇p − D |{z}
X ṗ
only difference between first and reversal point
Here the non-linear evolution depends only on the current status of X that is X = 84.5 MPa
at point 1. and X = −23 MPa at point 2. A symmetric inner hysteresis would lead to a
non ratcheting behaviour as defined by the well known Masing behaviour . This could be
achieved if Ẋ would have the same value for 1. and 2.. The slope of Ẋ in figure 7.1 is the
same except the fact that the starting point after load reversal is shifted. This is illustrated
by the dotted red curve that is the mirrored line of the outer hysteresis. The starting point
of Ẋ after load reversal depends on the current state of X. According to the Masing-theory
the slope of the hysteresis should be symmetric. That is achieved if X = 84.5 MPa at point
2., the same value as at point 1.
Formulating a law for simulating this behaviour needs a memory of the last state of X at a
load reversal. According to the Armstrong-Frederick law only X is different between point 1.
and 2.A loading memory can be defined as follows:

D [C ε̇p − (X − χXj−1 ) ṗ + χ|X0 |ε̇p ] if j > 0
Ẋ = (7.1)
D [C ε̇p − (X) ṗ] otherwise.
In above equation, Xj defines the last reversal point in the cyclic path, χ is a variable
allowing the adaptation on a certain ratcheting behaviour and X0 is the last maximum
value of the initial loading hysteresis. j is a counter of the embedded hysteresis counting
the loading reversals and need to be defined to distinguish between embedded and outer
hysteresis as well as to account for closed hysteresis. This can be done in space of strain
according to

ε̇p



j+1 if ε̇p
<0
 j−1
j= j−2 |X| > |Xj−2 | and j > 2 (7.2)





j otherwise.
An inner hysteresis is opened if the loading direction is changed. Then i will be incremented.
When an embedded hysteresis is closed the direction is constant, but the absolute value of
the actual kinematic back-stress is larger than at the point the hysteresis was opened j − 2.
A strain-based formulation would give similar results for the isothermal case. The actual
value of the active kinematic hardening memory is calculated by
Xj = X (7.3)
Because j = 0 for the initial loading equation 7.1 need to be separated for numerical reason.
Xj is the memory of the current state of kinematic hardening and equal to the current value
of the Xj . At load reversal the hysteresis counting variable j is incremented and therefore
Xj in equation 7.1 is pointing at all loading states to the last load reversal.
XrevPos and XrevNeg are the discrete memory values of the material, and can be interpreted
as the current memory of the dislocation density after load reversal. This is also the main
difference to other material formulation, because the evolution of the internal variables does
not only depend on the current status of the variables but also on the history in form of the
last value from the last load reversal. The presented modification has two main advantages.
First, the form of symmetric hysteresis don’t change introducing the ratcheting term. Second,
the model is generating fully non-linear hysteresis with saturated at a maximum value of C.
This is not possible with the Ohno-Wang-I or -II models. This simplifies the optimization
procedure and at the same time reduces the number of kinematic hardening variables needed.
The capability of the model is presented in figure 7.2. Depending on the value of χ the
ratcheting behaviour can be controlled. For χ = 0 the model reduces to the standard
Armstrong-Frederick model and for χ = 1 ratcheting is completely suppressed still
keeping the form of the hysteresis. Values in between can be used for adaptation onto
ratcheting.
The uniaxial behaviour adapted to experiments of [66] is shown in figure 7.3. The influence




 







  
    
   

        
 
Figure 7.2: Hysteresis calculated by the model proposed above for a) stress controlled and
b) strain controlled non symmetric uniaxial loading path of figure 3.7
of the ratcheting parameter is obvious.

For the multiaxial extension of the current law several assumption have to be made in order
to allow a tensiorial description of the material behaviour:
• Closing of an embedded hysteresis for a non-proportional loading case need to be

defined
• For the definition of a closed hysteresis the loading and unloading criteria of equation
7.7 needs to be extended to a multiaxial case.
• A tensor formulation of the memory-back-stress variables in equation 7.1 need to be

defined.
Multiaxial loading and unloading criteria for a definition of closed hysteresis
To define loading and unloading the flow condition
f ≤0
can be used. For embedded hysteresis with pure elastic deformation as well as visco-plastic
models with plasticity induced contradiction and extension of the flow surface other criteria
need to be defined. These criteria can be defined in stress-, strain- or the space of internal
variables. Here, the variation of the strain-rate-deviator is used for the distinction between


 



  
 
   
 
       
Figure 7.3: Stress versus strain for 2 embedded hysteresis with ratcheting parameter a)
χ = 0 and b) χ = 1 compared to experimental results of [66]
loading and unloading of a hysteresis according to
l = J˙ (ε̇p ) (7.4)
for numerical reason redefined as differential coefficient:
∆J (ε̇p )
l=
∆t
Every change in the direction of the second strain-rate tensor invariant or von-Mises value
of the strain rate tensor invariant is used to define the opening of an hysteresis. For a value
of
l<1 a new hysteresis is opened and (7.5)

l≥1 the direction is constant and thus the same hysteresis is active (7.6)
Closing criteria for embedded hysteresis
In order to determine the closing of an embedded hysteresis the current state of the second
kinematic-hardening tensor invariant is proposed. This is one extension of the uniaxial case
of the previous section. The criteria to define the current active memory surface can be
formulate as follows:




j+1 if l < 1

j= j − 2 J (X) > J (Xj−2 ) and j > 2 (7.7)




j otherwise
Multiaxial extension of the uniaxial formulation 7.1
The hardening law in the multiaxial can be defined using directly the back-stress tensor
instead of the 1D back-stress. The hardening law reads as:
 h i
D 2 C ε̇p − (X − χX j−1 ) ṗ + 2 χJ (X 0 ) ε̇p

if j > 0
3 3
Ẋ = h i (7.8)
D 2 C ε̇p − X ṗ
 otherwise
3
Xj = X (7.9)
For the memory back-stress X 0 a scalar measure in form of the J() need to be used to valid
the tensorial formulation of the equation proposed above. This part directly influences the
multiaxial ratcheting behaviour under non-proportional loading as the direction of ε̇p deviates
from the current value of X if the loading direction was changed. Another formulation could
be based on J(ε̇p ). But in that case, the model does not take care of the change in the
direction of ε̇p for the hardening modulus.
One drawback of the formulation made with concrete memory of the current state of
hardening is the fact, that the value of the memory surface is a discrete value and thus
the partial differential equation is discontinuous. Nevertheless, due to the formulation in
terms of hardening rate the evolution of the back-stress is a continuous function. Hence,
this reflects the real behaviour of a material with a build of dislocations in while continuous
loading and stopping the dislocation grow after a change the direction of loading, followed
by a build-up in another direction after a certain load strain level.
Within the numerical calculation scheme for the simulation of the material behaviour 1D
as well as 3D the discrete formulations have been separated from the partial differential
equation formulations. An explicit integration scheme is used at the beginning of each step.
Thus, the discrete values of Xi are used and at the end of the step the current value of X is
written to the current memory value Xi .
7.1.2 Evaluation of the proposed model for multiaxiality

Experimental data of axial-torsional tests published by Hassan et al. [302] are taken to
evaluate the proposed deformation model for multiaxiality. In their publication tests were
done on a axial-torsional test rig. This allows to independently vary the axial and the shear
stress component.
Uniaxial model response
Starting point is the adaptation of the model to a uniaxial test data, figure 7.4a).
To adapt the uniaxial data a model including isotropic and the kinematic was set up. With
reference to the focus of this work on fatigue at high temperature, viscosity has to be

Figure 7.4: a) Experimental stress strain curve of Hassan et al. [302] and b) adaptation of
an elasto-plastic model
considered for modelling as well. The Norton exponent was chosen as 10 and K was set to
1
4. For a strain rate of ε̇p = 1e−3 s the viscous overstress will be σov ≈ 2 MPa and thus can
be neglected. This enables the use of the same model formulations for elasto-plastic and
elasto-visco-plastic models. The model and their parameters are presented in table 7.1. The
model consists of two isotropic back stresses (Rk ), one to simulate the isotropic hardening
and the second one to adjust the behaviour on the initial plastification on the initial loading
curve, c.f. Figure 7.4 b).
The stress strain amplitudes of the different tests provided by Hassann et al. vary. Whereas
stress and strain of the first cycle of the strain controlled uniaxial test are σxx = 268 MPa at
εxx = 1 % , the stress controlled test is different with σxx = 235 MPa at εxx = 1 %. Within
the stress-controlled test, the stress is dropping above εxx = 0.9 %, figure 7.4 b) dotted
curve. That could be reasoned by difficulties in stress-control or measurement of the strain
or natural scatter in material properties. Suresh [145] mentioned that the hardening under
multiaxial loading generally occurs faster compared to uniaxial load-cases. Therefore, for
the uniaxial ratcheting test εxxcalc is significantly lower than observed. The authors of the
experiments mentioned that the cyclic and the ratcheting behaviour show some deviation in
amplitude and therefore they used different sets of parameters.
Multiaxial model response
Instead of an adjustment of the ratcheting parameter the behaviour of the model for the
extreme cases χ = 1 and χ = 0 is plotted, figure 7.5 and 7.6. A good agreement of simulated
Table 7.1: Model concept and model parameter for simulation of S304L
Model component Equation Constants

Strain partitioning ε = εe + εp
Flow law f = J (σ − X a − X b ) − Ra − Rb − R0 R0 = 130 MPa
f n p2 p p
Viscosity function ṗ = K
and ṗ = 3
ε̇ : ε̇ n = 10 K=4
Isotropic hardening R˙k = bk hQk − Rk i ṗ Qa = 50 MPa ba = 36
k = a,b Qb = −90 MPa bb = 300
Dk 32 Ck ε̇p − (X k − χX k,i−1 ) ṗ + 23 χJ (X k,0 ) ε̇p

if i > 0
Kinematic hardening Ẋ k = 2 p

Dk C ε̇ − X k ṗ
3 k
otherwise
k = a,b Ca = 82 MPa Da = 186
Cb = 118 MPa Db = 1200

i + 1 if l < 1
Surface memory i= i−2 J (X) > J (Xi−2 ) and i > 2

i otherwise
X k,i = X k
1+ν
Elasticity εe = E
σ − ν
E
Tr (σ) E = 220 GPa ν = 0.3
and experimental data was found. However, ratcheting is not completely suppressed at the
uniaxial ratcheting test for χ = 1. This is explained by the isotropic hardening that evolves
over the cycles. For the multiaxial shear stress case the ratcheting cannot be controlled by
the model and the ratcheting is still overestimated compared to the experiment. For the
square path case, the ratcheting is suppressed nearly completely similar to the uniaxial case.
The difference between case a) or d) and c) on the other hand is the fact, that the Xxx for
case and a) and d) is reversed in each cycle and stays in a constant direction for case c).


Figure 7.5: Comparison of uniaxial and multiaxial cyclic stress strain data of Hassan and
simulation based on the proposed model. a-b) Uniaxial experiment (σxx ), c-d)
pure shear (τxθ ) [302]

Figure 7.6: Comparison of multiaxial cyclic stress strain data of Hassan and simulation
based on the proposed model. Square multiaxial path (σxx ,τxθ ) [302]
Conclusion
In comparison to the Hassan et al. modelling formulation the accuracy of the model
proposed here is lower. But for the precise description of ratcheting the authors are using
a large number of constants (e.g. Kim et al. [88], Abdel-Karim [86] or Hassan et
al. [302]) for the modelling of the elasto-plastic case. The model proposed here uses one
additional parameter that is adjusted in a post processing step after adjustment of the uniaxial
parameter and 10 for the uniaxial response. This leads to limitations in non-proportional
description, but at the same time offers a fast adaptation of the test results.
7.2 Application of the deformation model on Mar-M247

In the research project TMF-Rissverhalten I [51] several complex low cycle fatigue tests at
different temperatures were made in order to adjust the model parameter of a elasto-visco-
plastic material model published by Seiffert et al. [303].
This model and the parameter adaptation of Serrano et al. [51] is used as a basis for
the current work exchanging the Ohno-Wang II term by the model extension developed
in this work. This reduces greatly the effort for parameter adaptation. Additionally the
isotropic hardening function φ(ε̇p ) (c.f. equation 3.31) is exchanged by the standard isotropic
hardening evolution Ṙ(ε̇p ), because the adaptation of the amount of isotropic hardening
is simpler due to the fact that the absolute value of the hardening is given instead of a
factorisation of the amount of C. The complete model reads as shown in table 7.1 with the
parameters given in table 7.2. The model parameters were adjusted for the temperatures
T =750, 850, 950 °C.
Table 7.2: Model parameter for the simulation of Mar-M247
Temperature [℃] 20 300 750 850 950 1050

E [GPa] 204 190 168 158 143 141
ν [-] 0.274 0.281 0.292 0.294 0.295 0.3
R0 [MPa] 570 540 520 170 46 20
n [-] 20 20 7.5 6.5 5.5 5.0
K [MPa] 100 200 477 1300 1222 700
Ca [MPa] 230 200 190 157 110 70
Cb [MPa] 270 170 170 170 156 90
Da [MPa] 2000 2500 1500 900 900 900
Db [MPa] 12 13 35 220 250 270
χa [-] 1 1 1 1 1 1
χb [-] 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
1)
Qa [MPa] 0 500 0 -50 -45 -10
2)
ba [-] 0 1.5 0 1 1 1
1) 2)
Qb =0 for all temperatures ; bb =0 for all temperatures
The parameter values for the other temperatures were simply converted into the new model
formulation. For the parameter adjustment the complex load cycle fatigue tests done by
Serrano and additionally Creep tests of Granacher and Kloos in the FVV project
’Kriechgleichungen I’ were used. The results of the calculation of creep tests compared to
test results of the FVV-project ’Kriechgleichungen I’ [138] are shown in figure 7.7. The
adaptation of the parameters started utilizing the material parameter found by Serrano
and the results are shown in figures 7.8 and 7.9 a)-f).
Figure 7.7: Model response to creep tests at different temperatures after parameter adapta-
tion using the GAMO software package
Figure 7.8: Model response to complex low cycle fatigue tests at different temperatures after
parameter adaptation using the GAMO software package for a)-b)750 °C and
c)-d) 850 °C. On the left stress versus time and on the right stress versus strain
is shown for the strain controlled tests.
The parameter adaptation especially considering the creep simulation could be improved
and additionally the temperature dependency of the parameters is chosen as a continu-
ous function. This is of importance for the calculation at intermediate temperatures and
additionally important for the application of the new model parameter χi . This parame-
ter is assumed to be independent of temperature but intrinsic for each back-stress variable Xi .
Figure 7.9: Model response to complex low cycle fatigue tests at different temperatures after
parameter adaptation using the GAMO software package for 950 °C. On the left
stress versus time and on the right stress versus strain is shown for the strain
controlled tests.
To adjust the parameters, the optimization tool GAMO (Generic dAmage and Material
model Optimization) developed by the author has been used. This offers a generic tool
for multi experiment and multi temperature optimization of the parameters of generic
deformation, damage and crack growth models. Based on the generic API to Ansys all
material models can be used as user-materials in Ansys. API’s to other programs e.g. Abaqus
are under development.
Note that the experimental data at T =850 °C show a strong tension compression asymmetry
in the first cycle that is significantly larger than the asymmetry visible at the other test
temperatures which is usually a result of the well-known Bauschinger-effect [304]. This
asymmetry wasn’t observed at other tests and thus it is assumed, that some experimental
impacts (e.g. thermocouple drift) are the reason. Of course, the model is not able to cover
these effects without exact knowledge of the experimental total strain.
After this optimization the parameter of the ratcheting formulation of the model were
adjusted based on the ratcheting tests done within in the project TISG. The model response
with and without adjustment is plotted in figure 7.10.
3 tests at 3 different test temperatures were investigated. The tests were done under strain
control at 3 strain levels and 3 Rε each. For the adaptation the parameter χ was assumed
to be independent of temperature and the values were adjusted to χ1 = 1 and χ2 = 0.7. The
adaptation to the ratcheting greatly could be improved over the original model formulation.
Figure 7.10: Adaptation of the Ratcheting parameter χ to the Material Mar-M247 . a)-c)
comparison of σm for experiment and simulation and d) comparison of σa for
all temperatures
Application of the model on non-symmetric loading condition
In order to validate the ratcheting parameter adjustment, test results of the current project
and the project Hochzyklische-Ermüdung (High cycle fatigue) of Mar-M247 are used [53].
The tests were done at T = 650 °C and under strain control at Rε = 0. Thus, they can be
used to validate the model parameters presented earlier. Figure 7.11 shows the comparison
of experiment and simulation.
Figure 7.11: Ratcheting behaviour of Mar-M247 at T = 650 °C and Rε = 0 for different

amplitudes compared to simulation [53]
The model adaptation gives a reasonable representation of the ratcheting behaviour at this
temperature. Compared to the pure Armstrong Frederick approach the constant mean
stress in the test is covered for the larger stress amplitudes. The quantitative value of the
mean stress for the medium amplitude of ∆ε =0.8 % is not covered correctly. This could be
explained by the coarse-grained structure and the resultant large variation in elastic modulus.
For the lowest amplitude of ∆ε =0.6 % for both models a ratcheting effect is calculated.
At this strain level, the calculated plastic strain is close to 0 (∆εpl =8e−6 %).
Conclusion
In this section a new model extension to the kinematic hardening formulation of Armstrong
and Frederick was presented that enables a fast and reliable adjustment of material
ratcheting.
Limitation of this extension applied to multiaxial ratcheting experiments have been shown
and a direct comparison to the often-used Ohno-Wang formulation was presented.
The model turned out to give a similar quality in adaptation to multiaxial loadings compared
to significantly more complex models. Still the adaptation to multiaxial loading does not
replicate the experiments exactly. Finally the model was successfully implemented in a
visco-plastic material model and adjusted to the nickel-based superalloy Mar-M247 . The
uniaxial ratcheting behaviour could be adjusted over a wide range of temperatures.
139
8 Lifetime calculation of the nickel-base-superalloy

Mar-M247 based on engineering and crack
growth methods
The literature research has shown several approaches for lifetime prediction based on
engineering methods and more complex damage models and to calculate the crack growth
behaviour based on different crack growth modelling formulations. This chapter derives
a description of the lifetime as a combination of crack initiation and crack growth. This
enables a comprehensive description of the different state of the lifetime of components.
Within the project driven by the FVV in the last decades significant effort was done
investigating fatigue and crack growth for specific high temperature nickel-based super-alloys
[20, 24–26, 50–53, 65]. Thus the work presented here is based on the outcomes of the
following reports and Phd thesis [160, 174, 175] etc.
The model developed and used in this investigation:
• should have a broad field of applicability which is given for the energy and the J-integral
respectively as basic variable.
• further contains of several summands describing the different mechanism separately

for sage of simplicity.
• should allow a uniform description of creep, fatigue and their interaction.
• should be able to calculate crack initiation as well as crack growth behaviour until
final failure of the component or specimen.
• must be extrapolatable to low and high loads and still give reasonable results.
• must be extrapolatable to long cycle times and still give reasonable results.
8.1 Modification of the Krämer crack growth model

The basis for the model developed here is the work of Krämer explained in section 3.5.9.
The following extension of the model explained above are given here in order to overcome
the limitation of the approach:
• The linear elastic stress intensity factor ∆K used in the original model will be exchanged
by the elastic-plastic extension ∆J based on the proposal of Dowling [305] in order
to allow a simplified approximation of the cyclic J-integral.
• The oxidative term is defined as an influence factor on the fatigue and creep crack
growth rate. This avoids a minimum crack growth rate without existence of realistic
loading conditions.
• An extension of the growth law to small cracks or cracks acting on a microscopic scale
will be added in order to allow simulation of the crack initiation and crack growth
with one single model.
8.2 Choice of basic variable for the fatigue crack growth and crack
initiation
In section 3.5.3 different descriptive variables have been presented and analyzed.
The summative extension of the elastic J-integral proposed by Dowling is an appropriate
method for an engineering-based analysis of technical relevant crack growth phenomena,
even thus it is mathematically only an approximation of the physical based J-integral.
To answer the question of the accuracy of the approximation made by Dowling as well as
Kurma the results of the J-integral calculated by FE-analysis by Schweizer for different
amplitudes are compared with the pure analytical approach of Dowling. Schweizer
analyzed the Jtot based on a Ramberg-Osgood-material behavior for a corner crack
specimen under realistic boundary conditions met in a standard load frame. The geometric
influence function YGeo is based on Schweizer as well. His results corresponds well with
literature results by [210, 306] for smaller crack sizes neglecting the boundary conditions and
based on the accurate description of the clamping situation corresponded well at large crack
a
length of b > 0.7 to [307, 308]. This offers a direct comparison and quantifies the differences.
The solutions of Schweizer are based on state-of-the-art finite element calculations for a
corner crack specimen.
In figure 8.1 the calculation of Schweizer and the approximation based on the equations
3.69-3.72 are presented. Obviously, the calculations are in good agreement for fully elastic
and fully plastic values. Values in the transition region between are slightly underestimated.
This can be referred to the plastic correction factor, that extends the elastic crack length a
by the small-scale yield plasticity region. It is important to note, that the plastic part of J
is related to the plastic ligament stress instead of the gross section stress according to:
A0
σligament = σ (8.1)
A0 − Acrack
Utilizing the gross section stress, the plasticity of the cracked ligament is greatly underesti-
mated leading to an underestimation of the plastic J-integral approximation. In contrast
Shih related the plastic stress directly to the crack length [161]. In figure 8.1 the Jpl becomes
dominant for short crack at σ > σy and for longer crack (a = 6 mm) at σ > σy /2. Crack
growth experiments usually are done at stress amplitudes σ << σy and thus for most tests
Jel is relevant. Riedel as well as Vormwald have given approximative formulas for the
J-integral without a dependency on the specimen geometry. Their calculation is compared
to the results based on above approximations in figure 8.2. These estimations are formal
valid only for surface cracks of an infinite plate. For small crack length the influence of the
crack length is small compared to other dimensions and thus the geometry factor nearly
constant.


 



 




 

 
 

 s  
Figure 8.1: Comparison of J-integral calculated by Scweizer based on FEM results and
analytical formulations given in this work c.f. [175]
Figure 8.2: Comparison of J-integral calculated analytical formulations given in this work
and approximate formulation of Riedel and Vormwald
The approximative formulations are based on equations 3.76 and 3.75. For the formulation
of Riedel a scaling factor was introduced (J = xJRiedel ) that is noted in figure 8.2. In case
of adjustment of crack growth rates to the approximative J functions the approaches of
Riedel and Vormwald can give similar results, because simply the factor adjusted to
the J-integral of Riedel changes. But the Vormwald-equation gives greater generality for
various materials. The approximation of Vormwald gives realistic results up to a crack
ratio a/W to 0.2-0.3. For calculation of longer cracks the approximation can be improved
referring the stress of the plastic part of J to the characteristic length that has been used to
improve the simulations. This offers a simplified method of calculation of J-integral values
without knowledge of the specific geometry function. The geometry function is of special
interest for geometries resulting in strong non-linearities in Yel,pl [180]. This is the case here.
8.3 Oxidation based crack growth model

As already shown, Krämer included the crack growth as separate basic variable leading to
unrealistic crack growth rates for low stress amplitude.
The depleted or oxidized zone near the surface is growing based on a power law relation with
exponents close to 12 , c.f. section 3.5.8. The oxidation depth or depletion depth hox (t) for a
given alloying component for a given time is often described based on the power law relation
of equation 3.126:
−Qox 0 0
hox (t) = A0ox e RT tmox . (8.2)
The crack growth rate within the oxidized or depleted zone will differ from the crack growth
rate of the non-oxidized material. For significantly precipitation hardened alloy as the
nickel-based superalloys investigated here, this change in growth rate is supposed to be
significant. With the crack extension the oxide is growing along the newly opened crack
surface as well as in front of the crack tip. Depending on the load ratio the crack can growth
fully through the oxidized material or can stop inside the oxidized zone. Therefore, it is
necessary to develop an equation describing the oxidation growth based on the current crack
length and current oxidation depth. This concept is visualized in figure 8.3.
For the calculation of the oxide growth rate in front of a partly oxidized crack growth region
it is necessary to define a suitable differential equation. One formulation could be given as
follows:
1 −Qox 0
1−mox 0
ḣox (t) = A ox e RT h (8.3)
mox 0
Integrating above equation from t = 0 to t = t1 gives
hZend tZend
−Qox 0
mox 0 −1
mox 0
h dh = Aox e RT dt resulting in (8.4)
0 0
m0ox −Qox 0
hend = Aox e RT tend (8.5)
This results in the original formulation for the oxidation growth relation.
Physically the oxidation takes place simultaneously with the crack growth. Therefore, the
�㕁 = 0 �㕁 = 1. . �㕛
�㕡1
ℎ1 = ℎ(�㕎, ℎ) d�㕡
ℎ0 �㕡0
�㕡0

ℎ0 = ℎ d�㕡
0

�㕡 = �㕡0 
�㕡 = �㕡0 ℎ1∗ ≪ ℎ1 d�㕎

= �㕓(�㔾)
d�㕁
  
Figure 8.3: Schematic representation of the oxide growth in front of an evolving crack tip
a) oxide thickness before cyclic crack growth b) after cyclic crack growth and c)
detailed view of the oxide thickness in front of the crack tip
crack growth rate within a cycle needs to be defined and the resulting partial differential
equation need to be solved. Reasoned by the assumption that the second derivative of the
crack growth behaviour is depending strongly on the local evolution of the stress and strain
field in the vicinity of the crack. This value is difficult to measure. Thus, equation above
is simplified by the assumption that crack growth and oxidation are separate processes.
For cases where the crack growths within one cycle only within the oxidized material it is
assumed, that the separation of these effects does not influence the results significantly.
When the crack within one cycle growths completely through the oxidized zone, the oxidation
at the crack tip will become a highly non-linear process, that is difficult to measure. Assuming,
that the total energy dissipated per cycle with and without oxidation is constant. This
energy quantity for a linear elastic crack growth of a penny shape crack could be written as
dE ∆J
= dA with (8.6)
dN dN
dA
= π (a0 + Acrack σ m am )2 − a20 which gives (8.7)
dN
dA
= f (a) 6= const. (8.8)
dN
Due to the fact that the dissipated energy per cycle is not a constant for most materials but
depends on the crack length a and second driven by the fact that the material behaviour of
the oxidized material is unknown, this assumption is difficult to validate. Additionally, the
hypothesis of a constant dissipated energy quantity cannot be validated by measurements
here. Thus, the interaction of crack and oxide will be tested by a theoretical empirical
experiment and from this, requirements for the modelling are derived.
Oxide versus crack growth with a constant crack growth rate
To analyze empirically the crack tip oxidation thickness and its influence on the fatigue
behaviour crack growth rate data from [51] are compared against the local oxidation
thickness based on [26]. It is assumed, that the specimen is heated up to test temperature
for 10 h for a pre oxidation of the surface. After each cycle the oxidation thickness in front
of the crack tip is calculated based on equation 8.3 in the following form:
0
mox 0
hn = Aox tcycle + (hn−1 − ∆an−1 )mox (8.9)
The initial crack length is set to 1 mm. For Mar-M247 experimental data, the highest
tested temperature of 1050 °C is chosen. The stress is chosen well below the tested in [51],
to increase the effect of oxidation in front of the crack tip. The crack growth is then defined
as
dan
= CRef ∆K m .
dN
The constants for crack and oxide grow are taken from [26]. Results are shown in figure 8.4.
Figure 8.4: Crack and oxide thickness a) and c) and growth rates b) and d) under the
assumption that the oxide does not affect the crack growth rate and oxide
growth takes place at the crack tip after each cycle with the growth relation
8.3.
Figure 8.4 leads to the following conclusion:
• The oxidation time before start of a typical laboratory test does not influence
significantly the crack growth process, as after several cycles the crack will growth
through the oxide even for several hours of oxidation at very high temperatures.
• Even for low crack growth rate, the oxide grows slower than the crack due to the time
1
exponent mox < 2 for the first.
• At σa = 100 MPa the oxide growth rate is close to the crack growth rate
• At σa = 100 MPa and tCycle = 1 h oxide (hOxide − ∆a) is still available after crack
extension even with this simplified simulation.
Duquette et al. found that for tests under vacuum and normal atmosphere pre oxidation
does not have an influence on vacuum fatigue [309]. This supports the thesis presented here,
that the oxidation previously to the test is not of significant importance. On the other hand,
the damage model of Gallerneau [230] uses the oxidation to manipulate the threshold of
creep and fatigue damage. This also supports the thesis here.
Oxide versus crack growth without increased crack growth rate within the oxidized zone
In a second step the crack growth rates in oxidized and non-oxidized material are assumed
to be different and this effect is studied numerically. Numerical simulations of the interactive
zone for the case of creep loading were carried out successfully but with significant numerical
effort e.g. by Biglari or Chavoshi [310, 311]. Here, the crack growth rate is calculated
based on the experimental results, but to different crack growth rate resistances are assumed.
The resistance for non-oxidized material is assumed to be the same as for the lowest
temperature of 300 °C as experimentally determined. The resistance at oxidized material
equals 1/5 the measured resistance at 1050 °C. When the crack reaches non-oxidized material
the crack growth rate decreases to the lower value of A1050 řC
The following formula define the model behaviour for this simulation. For each cycle n the
total oxidation thickness after the cycle hn is calculated based on the local crack extension
∆an−1 from last cycle according to equation 8.9. The crack growth is then defined as

dan Cox ∆K m if hn−1 − ∆an−1 ≥ Cox ∆K m
= (8.10)
dN C ∆K m + (h
Ref n−1 − ∆an−1 ) otherwise.
Results are shown in figure 8.5.

Figure 8.5: a) Oxide thickness and crack depth and b) oxide and crack growth rates simu-
lated if the crack growth rate is affected by the oxidized material.
Figures 8.5 above indicate that
• At the first cycles the crack growth rate is determined by Cox .
• After a few cycles the interaction between crack tip and oxidation determines the crack
growth rate
• For tCycle = 1 h the crack growth rate does not reduce significantly.
• For tCycle = 4 s the crack growth rate is equal to the oxidation rate after around 10
cycles
• Most of the lifetime the crack growth even with various models takes place in the
interaction zone between oxide and crack.
• Compared to figure 8.4 the crack growth rates are generally faster.
It can be concluded that the reduced strength of the oxidized zone determines the crack
growth rate.
Phenomenological oxide induced crack growth formulation
Instead of modelling the interaction of crack and oxidation the following assumption for the
crack growth in an oxidizing atmosphere is made and the results and restrictions of this
assumption discussed utilizing the oxide growth relation below. The crack growth in an
oxidized material is determined by an oxidation induced reduced crack growth resistance A0 .
A reasonable formula taking into account the temperature and time could be written as:
 
tZ
cycle
da 1
(8.11)
 
= ARef + AOxInf ḣox (t) ∆f mfat
dN fat
0
with ḣox (t) based on 8.3 and

f = K ∨ J ∨ C∗
This covers the effect of temperature increased oxidation as well as the dependency of
oxidation thickness on time. It assumes, that at the crack tip the oxidation layer is thin
enough to approximate oxide growth similar to non-oxidized material.
It should be noted that for isothermal tests equation 8.3 reduces to a constant, whereas
integration over a cycle represents the influence of oxidation and hold time driven by the
exponential oxidation growth law. This is especially necessary to cover the effect of oxidation
on fatigue crack growth in TMF tests. Additional depending on the material behaviour it
can be assumed that oxidation growth takes place only if the crack tip is opened. This helps
to improve the simulation of TMF tests. In that case equation 8.3 reads as
1 −Qox 0
1−mox 0
ḣox (t) = Aox e RT h H(f ) (8.12)
mox 0
H(f ) is defined as Heaviside-step function [312] and f = K ∨ J ∨ C ∗ .
Application of the oxide growth relation to creep
Creep and creep crack growth are phenomena that have a strong temperature dependency
based on the viscous material behaviour. Creep is not a pure surface phenomena and thus
only secondarily related to surface oxidation. At the tip of a creep crack growth oxidation
and depletion takes place, but in combination with the temperature related material viscosity.
This implies a combination of creep activation and oxide activation energy. Within the
adaptation process these exponential relations can be combined to one single apparent creep
activation energy and thus the relation to oxidation will not be taken into account for creep
and creep crack growth.
8.4 Creep crack growth

The formulation for creep crack growth is again based on the work of Krämer. Equation
3.88 is used as it was shown to give reliable results of the creep growth rate for the studied
material, c.f. figure 8.6.
Figure 8.6: Creep crack growth rate compared to experimental results calculated based on
equation 3.88 according to [174] with data from [23, 25, 26]
The formulation of Kreamer is not adjusted within this work.
8.5 Creep
The basic formulations to calculate the rupture time have been shown in section 3.5.2. To
extend the creep crack growth equation to micro crack initiation one need to take into
consideration the different nature of creep rupture compared to fatigue or creep crack growth
of large cracks. According to Betten [313] creep rupture is going through the following
stages:
• Void nucleation
• Void growth
• macroscopic crack growth
Additionally, for coarse alloys as shown in figure 8.7 the creep crack growth and creep rupture
are different processes. In polishings of crack growth specimen creep damage can be seen
in the specimen ligament in the adjacent area of the main crack, figure 8.7. Therefore,
additionally to the creep crack growth equation 3.88 a formulation for creep rupture based
on the damage variable D will be introduced. It is assumed that creep crack growth takes
place just at the surface, whereas creep rupture is not a pure surface phenomena, but takes
place in the whole ligament of the specimen represented by void-nucleation and growth.
In Figure 8.7 creep crack growth tests of Mar-M247 are shown [314].
Figure 8.7: SEM observational images of CM247LC around notch parts and grain boundary
under creep condition at T =900 ◦ C after a creep time of t=789hr [314]
With the same experimental technique similar results were found for other materials, e.g.
IN617 [315] These pictures support the assumption, that crack growth and creep are two
processes, that have to be evaluated separately, but interact with each other. The use
of the effective stress concept in combination with the analytical modelling of the crack
based on the K or C ∗ -concept seems to give reasonable results that can be found in the
micro-structure as well.
The creep of the ligament can be calculated based on the damage variable concept that
was discussed in section 3.5.9. Combining this relation to the crack growth model, it is
assumed that the cracked area and the crack length are proportional and the crack length
for the creep equation is normalized between 0 and 1. Adding the creep crack growth
relation for small cracks D 6= 1 as creep crack growth starts to play a role at the end of the
tertiary creep. Additionally, crack growth is assisted by the creep damage taking place before
micro-structural long cracks are existing. The creep law of Kachanov and Rabotnov
[316, 317] presented a partial differential equation, that can be utilized to calculate the
growing state of void-damage over time with a non-linear accumulation rule defined by kcre
(c.f. 3.139)
!rcre
dD 1 σC
= (8.13)
dt (1 − D)kcre Acre
Including a Arrhenius-temperature dependency and rearranged (8.14)
dD − Q Acre
= e RGas T (t) σ(t)rcre . (8.15)
dt (1 − D)kcre
Typical values of kcre are between 15 for Nickel-Base-alloys and usually kcre > rcre according
to Lemaitre [66]. Creep test results of Mar-M247 for different temperature are given
in figure 8.8a) and adjusted by equation 8.15. Additionally a more precise adjustment
based on equation 3.61 is presented in figure 8.8 b). The experiments from different sources
with different material states in form of different grain sizes, heat treatments as well as hot
isostatic pressing are combined in figure 8.8. Only the HIP process is mentioned in the
diagram. The test results are within one common scatter, that can be used as a baseline for
the following interpretations.
Although equation 3.61 shows a better adaptation, equation 8.15 will be used as it can be
combined with the creep crack growth equations as explained later.
The concept of effective stress, that is well suited to simulate creep failure based on void
formation and coalescence will be used to cover the creep influence on fatigue and crack-
growth. It is assumed that creep is a volumetric effect taking place in the ligament, whereas
fatigue and crack-growth originating at the surface. This holds true as long as very high
cycle fatigue phenomena with subsurface crack initiation and growth are not taken into
account, c.f. [325, 326]. The influence of creep on fatigue and crack-growth is accounted by
the change of the basic variable σ with the effective stress variable σ̃ that represents the
ligament stress, equation 3.133. The effect of the surface crack on creep is accounted by an
reduction of the specimen area an increase of D. To account for the reduced area as a result
of a surface crack the damage parameter equation 8.15 can be extended by
dD − Q Acre
= e R T (t) σ(t)rcre . (8.16)
dt ∆Acrack kcre
1−D− Aref
1 .
2 .
3 .
4 .
5 .
6 .
7 .
1
0
1
0 8 .
9 .
1 0 .
1
0
1 1 . 0
1
0
0
1 2 .
[
h
t ]
[ 1 3 .
h
0
1 4 . 0
1
0
0
F i t
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
4
1
0
3
6
0
1 0
0
3 0
6
1 0
2 0
0
s
0
s
0
2
]
M
0
1
[
2
]
P
M
1
0
K
a
P
1
T
0
]
0
a
0
]
0
1
1 1
0
1 b )
0
0
a ) 0
0
0
0
6
0
Figure 8.8: Rupture time of Creep test of Mar-M247 plotted versus applied stress and
temperature based on a) equation 8.15 and b) 3.61 (Sources: 1. [63] 2. [318]
3. [319] 4.,5. [64] 6. [61] 7. [138] 8.,9. [320] 10.,11. [321] 12. [322] 13. [323] 14.
[324])
For a corner-crack specimen (CC) with a specimen thickness wspecimen and an initial crack
length a0 the reduced area can be approximated by

∆Acrack π a2crack − a20
= πa2
. (8.17)
Aref 2
4 wspecimen − 40
8.6 Fatigue life

As stated in the theoretical part of this work, for small crack length the influence of the
micro-structure is of great importance for the crack growth behaviour. It is not possible to
derive a direct relation of the crack growth rate onto the crack length without knowledge
of the specific micro-structure or a probabilistic approach defining the micro-structural
variation. Additionally, the micro-structure varies greatly for the material investigated
here, figure 3.3. For the longest period of time at constant loads the crack growth rate is
a non-steady constant value. Thus, a logic extrapolation of the crack growth formulation
presented earlier is the exclusion of a in equation 8.11. Hence, the crack growth rate is
independent of the geometry function Y (a)el .
8.6.1 Extension of the Paris crack growth model based on intrinsic defect size
For an approximation of crack growth rate for very short crack an intrinsic defect size is
often assumed.
Models relying on an intrinsic defect size face the problem, that the minimum crack growth
rate for a specified stress is strongly related to the size of this defect. For Mar-M247 the
intrinsic defect size can be assumed in the region of dintr = 30-50 µm. The simplest form to
include this intrinsic defect size would be to add this value to the definition of ∆J
1
da π(a + dintr )∆σ 2 mfat
= ARef (8.18)
dN fat E(1 − ν)
The evaluation for the crack growth data of Mar-M247 at 950 °C for pure fatigue loading
for various dintr is given in figure 8.9. The geometry function Yel was kept at a constant
value of 0.68. The stress amplitude is chosen as σa = 240 MPa resulting in a fatigue lifetime
of Nfat = 10000 cycles. Rupture was defined at a crack length of 4 mm as a rough value for
comparison purposes.
Figure 8.9: Influence of intrinsic crack length on the crack growth rate for Mar-M247 at
T =950 °C compared to experimental data of [23]
At dintr > 1.3 mm crack growth lead to a lifetime of below Nfat ≤ 10000. This defect size
could be related to the grain size of the material. But the grain size of material used in
different FVV project varied greatly around 0.2 mm to 4 mm based on the projects shown in
figure 3.3. Furthermore, the graphs in figure 8.9 don’t match the experiential results made
by several authors that indicate that the crack growth rate is nearly independent of the crack
length at small crack sizes e.g. [327, 328]. Still the crack growth rate varies significantly
depending on the micro-structure. The micro-structure is of greater importance than the
stress intensity in front of a notch or crack tip, c.f. figure 8.10. Here, the stress concentration
at a surface grain boundary was larger than the stress concentration induced by the notch.
Hence, the specimen failed outside of that initial notch.
Figure 8.10: Crack growth outside of the main crack during LCF at 950°C tested by [23]
8.6.2 Crack length independent formulation of J-integral

Another approximation could assume the independence of the mean crack growth rate in
the region of small crack with crack length below or in the same order as grain sizes. As
stated above this covers the region of unstable crack growth related to the micro-structure.
Therefore, a crack length independent formulation for K or more generally of the J-integral
should be used. In section 3.5.3 different analytical formulations for the J-integral were
presented. To be consistent to the crack growth model the approximation of Dowling et al.
will be used again here, c.f. 8.2.
If the reference crack length a and thus Y (a)el are constant factors they can be neglected
based on the adjustment onto the Paris-relation. Starting with the equation 3.69 and 3.79
da
= ∆Jtot m C with
dN
∆Jtot = ∆Jel (σ) + ∆Jpl (σ) + ∆Jz (σ)
On the example of ∆Jel easily it can be shown that aconst and Y (aconst )el can be neglected
utilizing the Paris-law by

" #m
da π∆σ 2 2
= YGeo (aconst )aconst C (8.19)
dN E
" #m
π∆σ 2 h
2
im
= YGeo (aconst )aconst C (8.20)
E | {z }
=C 0
" #m
π∆σ 2 0
= C (8.21)
E
Therefore, the parts of the ∆JtotIni are written as follow based on the assumption that crack
initiation at LCF takes place at the surface (plain stress) and u:
π∆σ 2
∆JelIni = (8.22)
E
√ √
∆JplIni = ∆JelIni nEK (∆σ)n−1 = π nK (∆σ)n+1 (8.23)
2
2 ∆σ
∆JelIni n − 1 ∆σ σy
∆JzIni = 2 (8.24)
2 n+1 σ0 1+ ∆σ
σy
Neglecting ∆JzIni the ∆Jtot could be simplified to:

!
∆σ 2 √
∆JtotIni = π + nK∆σ n+1 (8.25)
E
This formulation is very similar to the approximation of Vormwald, c.f. 3.76 [164, 165].
For the use in a comprehensive model the growth relation 8.11 is combined with the
JtotIni -integral. This growth relation is then combined with the equation for creep, creep-
crack-growth and fatigue-crack-growth.
Note, this formulation differs from proposed equations given by other authors. Here, LCF
loads are of interest with stress amplitude well above the fatigue limit or threshold stress. For
lower stress amplitude a detailed analysis of the relation between crack length and threshold
stress is necessary. Therefore, the reader is referred to the corresponding literature and the
well-known Kitagawa-Takahashi diagrams e.g. [328–330].
8.7 Combined model for comprehensive description of the crack-initiation

and -growth
Utilizing the equations presented in this chapter for:
• Creep crack growth,
• Creep life,
• Fatigue crack growth, and
• Fatigue crack initiation.
it is possible to describe the complete failure mechanism of different specimen types or

components starting without any crack, calculating the crack growth in the initiation regime
and extending it to the fatigue crack growth regime. The final criteria for specimen failure
needs to be user defined, or an instability criteria need to be added. For the current study
meaningful values for the maximum crack length are assumed.
Note that the temperature dependency for crack initiation as well as crack growth have
the same relation to the oxide thickness growth ḣox (t). Additionally, for the parameter
adaptation the fatigue crack growth exponent m is used for the crack initiation as well.
Assuming that the stress dependency is the same for crack growth and crack initiation.
Following, the most general case of elastic-plastic J-integral according to equations 3.72-3.69
is used. Additionally, it is assumed in accordance to Krämer,Chaboche, Sehitoglu that
the damage, lifetime and crack growth can be simulated based on the summation of fatigue
and creep.
A comprehensive description of the model is presented in table 8.1 and for the J-integral
approximation in table 8.2. Note that endurance limit and mean-stress-dependency are
included in the J-integral definition and thus on the loading side.
Table 8.1: Comprehensive description of unified damage-crack growth model
Part of the model Equation Equation ref.

Nmodel
da X da
1)
Linear accumulation rule = 3.132
dN total dN i
i=1
tcycle
Z
da da da da 2)
= + + dt
dN total dN FatIni dN FatGro dt CreGro
0
σ
Effective stress σ̃ = 3.133
(1 − D) 
tcycle
Z
da 1
Fatigue crack initiation = ARefGr + AOxInfGr ḣox (t) ∆JtotIni mfat 8.11
dN FatIni
 0 
tcycle
Z
da 1
Fatigue crack growth = ARefIni + AOxInfIni ḣox (t) ∆JtotThresh mfat 8.11
dN FatGro
0
1 −Qox 0 0
Reference oxide growth ḣox (t) = e RT h1−mox 8.12 3)
mox 0
rate
dD −
Qcre Acre (kcre + 1) m 2)
Creep
dt cre
= e R T (t) kcre σ(t) cre 8.16
Acrack
1 − D − Aref
da Qcre
−R T mcre 5)
Creep crack growth =e (t) A
CrGr hJtot i 3.88
dt CreGro
1)
Linear accumulation of crack growth rate, but non-linear accumulation of crack growth;
2) dD da
For creep initiation: dt
simplified to dt
based on the discussion in section 8.5;
3)
ḣox (t) determines a reference growth rate. Based on the use of a coefficient AOxInfIni (8.11), it is not necessary
to specify the physical thickness of the oxide;
4)
(kcre + 1) is introduced to simplify the parameter adaptation;
5)
h i Mc-Cauley bracket and H() Heaviside-step function ;
Table 8.2: Comprehensive description of J-Integral approximation used for the model
Part of the model Equation Equation ref.

1)
J-integral initiation ∆JtotIni = (JelIni + JzIni + JplIni ) fEndu fMeanStr 3.69
" #2
σ̃max σ̃min 2)
∆JelIni = π p −p 3.70
E|σmax E|σmin
2
∆σ̃
2
∆JelIni n − 1 ∆σ̃ σy
2)
∆JzIni = 2 3.71
2 n+1 σ0 ∆σ̃
1+ σy
n+1
√ σ̃max σ̃min 2)3)
∆JplIni = π nmean − 3.72
K|σmax K|σmin
J-integral crack growth ∆JtotThresh = H(∆Jtot − ∆Jthreshhold )∆Jtot
∆Jtot = (Jel + Jz + JplLig ) fMeanStr 3.69
" #2
2
σ̃max σ̃min
∆Jel = πYGeo 1 − ν2 p −p 3.70
E|σmax E|σmin
2
∆σ̃
2
∆Jel n − 1 ∆σ̃ σy
2)4)
∆Jz = 2 3.71
2 n+1 σ0 ∆σ̃
1+ σy
n+1 n+1
2 3√ σ̃max σ̃min A0 3)5)
∆JplLig = YGeo nmean − 3.72
4 K|σmax K|σmin A0 − Acrack 6)
D D EE
σcy Tmax − Tref 3)
Endurance limit fEndur = 1− 3.72
5 300 °C
7)
Mean stress fMeanStr =0.35+(2.2- Rσ )−1 3.118
1)
J calculated independently of crack length a based on the discussion in section 8.6;
2) 3) ∆εpl ∆σ n E
written for plain strain ; ∆εel
= K∆σ
used, c.f. equation 3.4;
4) 5)
σ0 = σy assumed c.f. [75] for details; nmean mean value of n of a cycle;
6)
|σmin,max refers to the material parameter at the material temperature T at σmin,max ;
7)
Rσ : mean stress ratio ;
Non-isothermal loadings
da
In order to account for non-isothermal loading, ḣox (t) , dt Creep , da
dt CreGro are integrated over
the cycle. For the calculation of ∆J instead ∆σ the stress is normalized at the load reversal
to the material constants of K and E according to
∆σ σmax σmin
=
ˆ − at T |σmin,max
FNorm FNorm |σmax FNorm |σmin
| {z } | {z }
isothermal non-isothermal
FNorm = K ∨ E.
The material parameter that has to be adjusted and the corresponding experiments are
given in table 8.3.
Table 8.3: Model parameters for the comprehensive lifetime model presented in this work
Constant Description Corresponding experiment

ARefIni Crack initiation coefficient at room temperature Fatigue test
ARefGr Crack growth coefficient at room temperature Crack growth test
AOxInfIni Crack initiation coefficient at elevated temperature Fatigue test at elevated temperature
AOxInfGr Crack growth coefficient at elevated temperature Crack growth test at elevated temperature
mfat Exponent of fatigue and crack growth Crack growth test or fatigue tests
mox Exponent oxidation law Oxidation test
Qox Activation energy oxidation Oxidation test
mcre Creep & creep crack growth exponent Creep or creep crack growth experiment
QCr Activation energy Creep & creep crack growth Creep or creep crack growth experiment
Acre Creep constant Creep experiment
ACrGr Creep crack growth coefficient Creep crack growth experiment
E Elastic modulus Standard material property
n Ramber-Osgood exponent Cyclic stress strain curve
K Ramber-Osgood coefficient Cyclic stress strain curve
The proposed model consists of 11 constants determined on mechanism-based observations

and 3 defined by the deformation behaviour. Thus, the material behaviour can be described
independently of temperature with a minimum number of variables. The minimum number
of tests for each model component is determined as follows:
• Creep Crack growth (ACrCr ,Qcre and mcre ): For the creep crack growth only the ACrCr
need to be adjusted based on test results. The other can be examined together with
creep tests thus least two creep crack growth tests at two different temperatures are
needed.
• Oxidation (mox , Aox ): The oxide thickness growth needs to be determined based on at
least two tests at two different temperatures.
• Fatigue crack growth (ARefGr , AOxInfGr and mfat ): Two fatigue crack growth tests at
two different temperatures together are used to determine the constants.
• Creep relation (mcre ,Acre and Qcre ): Standard creep tests at varying temperatures
with sufficient statistical validation are needed. The value of k should be ≥ mcre . Acre
and Qcre can be derived in combination with the creep-crack growth tests.
• Fatigue crack initiation (ARefIni and AOxInfIni ): For adjustment four tests at least at
two temperatures and two stress levels each are needed. Note that the model uses mfat
for both crack-initiation and -growth and thus can be used based on the crack growth
tests.
• The Ramberg-Osgood parameter needs to be adjusted based on cyclic tests for each
temperature in order to calculate the actual value of the ∆Jtot .
• A mean stress dependency for the material needs to be chosen or assumptions need to
be made based on literature data.
• Last, the fatigue limit and the threshold for crack-growth can be added as shown
above.
For statistical validation the number of experiments need to be increased. From a purely
mathematical point of view, the minimum number of experiments would determine the
formula set above. The optimization procedure is complex, but straight forward. Addition-
ally, the model presented enables a comprehensive description of the lifetime over a wide
variation of experimental test results. For the optimization and calculation of the lifetime
again the GAMO optimization tool developed by the author was utilized. The parameters of
the adaptation to the fatigue and crack-growth data of Mar-M247 are presented in table 8.4.
Table 8.4: Model parameter for Mar-M247 of comprehensive life prediction model pre-
sented in this work
Constant1) Value Unit2)

mm
ARefIni 5 10−6 cycle
mm
ARefGr 1.53 10−6 cycle
AOxInfIni 5 1013 mm 3)
cycle s
AOxInfGr 5.59 1015 mm 3)

cycle s
mfat 1.8
mox 3.3
kJ
Qox 389 K mol
mcre 5
kJ
QCr 555 K mol
1
Acre 2 10−10 h
mm
ACrGr 5 10−16 h
kcre 15
MPa
∆Jthreshhold 0.1 mm
1)
The constants related to the deformation behaviour are not given here.
2) MPa mfat,cre
Unit of J mfat,cre = mm
. Thus J need to be given in [ MPa
mm
] for
consistency.
3) 1
s
is necessary because reference oxide thickness (hox ) given in s
8.7.1 Comparison to crack growth experiments

The model above has been adjusted based on the available experimental data base from
the literature and this project. The creep test adjustment is based on the model proposed
by Krämer and shown in figure 8.6. The adjustment of the complete model for fatigue
tests based on ∆J is shown in figure 8.11. The experimental data are based on the results
presented in [23].
With only one temperature dependent parameter this model is able to cover the crack
growth rates over a wide variety of temperatures. The separated model components (creep,
fatigue, initiation & growth) are plotted in grey in the same figure for one single test at
T =1050 °C. At this temperature the time dependent effect, creep and oxidation are most
pronounced. Even at this temperature the crack is driven by fatigue crack growth and the
other components have only very limited effect. The adjustment on dwell times is presented
in figure 8.12. Here a similar picture is drawn. The crack growth rates fit well with the
experimental data. In figure 8.12 additionally the pure creep growth rate and pure fatigue
growth rates are plotted for the test at 950 °C. Superimposed dwell times increase the creep
crack growth significantly. Thus, creep is the prominent effect for crack growth. The model is
in good agreement with the experimental results. TMF tests compared to the experiments of
[23, 26] are presented in figure 8.13. The model reproduces the influence of the different load
cycles on TMF. The effect of hold times under TMF loads is reproduced well except for the
test with Rσ = −2.3. The experimental data especially for strain controlled in phase TMF
show a large scatter in crack growth rates. It is postulated that this unstable crack growth
0 , 1
0 , 0 1
]
e
0 , 0 0 1
l
c
y
c
/
m
m
1 E - 4
[
N
d
/
E x p . S i m . T e m p .
a
d
1 0 5 0 ° C
1 E - 5
M o d e l c o m p o n e n t s
9 5 0 ° C
F a t i g u e - c r a c k - g r o w t h
8 5 0 ° C
F a t i g u e - i n i t i a t i o n
7 5 0 ° C
C r e e p - c r a c k - g r o w t h
3 0 0 ° C
1 E - 6
C r e e p
D J [ M P a m m ]
1 1 0 1 0 0
Figure 8.11: Isothermal crack growth rates of Mar-M247 [23] compared to the crack
growth simulation based on the model presented in this work
Figure 8.12: Isothermal crack growth rates with hold times of Mar-M247 [26] compared
to the crack growth simulation based on the model presented in this work
Figure 8.13: Crack growth rates under thermo mechanical loading of Mar-M247 [26]
compared to the crack growth simulation based on the model presented in this
work
behaviour is difficult to cover by the numerical model, because it significantly depends on

the interaction between grain boundaries and crack tip. The separated model components
(creep, fatigue, initiation & growth) are plotted in grey in the same figure for one single
test at T =1050 °C. For the IP-TMF test creep- and fatigue-crack growth are concurring
against each other. For the OP-TMF test the fatigue crack growth is the only relevant model
component. Fatigue-initiation and creep influence the crack growth rates only very limited.
The last comparison is given again for the creep crack growth results shown earlier, figure
8.14.
This time the complete model was used for the calculation of the creep crack growth rate
and the influence of the creep part of the model is visible. Compared to the pure creep
crack growth model, the crack growth rate does not change significantly for large cracks. All
calculations were made of the experimental determined crack length and applied stresses.
For small crack length the influence of creep on crack growth becomes more dominant as
shown in the same figure. The calculation at T =950 °C were done twice. First for the
experimental initial crack length of 1.5 mm and second without initial crack. The latter
calculation shows the non-linear crack growth rate reasoned by the creep influence.
Figure 8.14: Creep crack growth rate compared to experimental results from [23, 25, 26]
compared to the crack growth simulation based on the model presented in this
work
Conclusion to crack growth simulations
The presented model is able to describe the crack growth behaviour for a wide range of loading
condition. It is based on a minimum number of parameters. It overcomes the limitation
of the Krämer model regarding the oxidation induced crack growth at infinitesimal small
loads. Additionally, it is able to be extrapolated up to large stress amplitudes based on the
use of ∆J and C ∗ as basic variables. Although the model already includes fatigue-initiation
and creep the crack growth rate align well with all experiments. The only limitation applying
this complex model would be the simulation of fatigue-crack and creep-crack threshold. At
the moment the model is not adjusted to crack-threshold phenomena. Only the fatigue
component was adjusted to represent a reliable endurance limit.
8.7.2 Comparison to fatigue experiments

The adjustment of the fatigue parameters on LCF test results of the projects: [23, 25, 26,
52, 53] and the current work are shown in figure 8.15.
Figure 8.15: Adaptation of the complete crack initiation and crack growth model proposed
in this work onto all available test data [23, 25, 26, 52, 53]
Obviously, the model fits well with the test data. Compared to the simple linear temperature
modified model of section 8.6 the adaptation does improve the adaptation significantly. But,
the complex model is able to cover the effects of:
• mean stress, due to the use of the effective mean stress modified J-integral and
• hold times and temperature dependency in cyclic loadings, due to the usage of the
oxidation thickness dependent fatigue and crack growth resistance.
• Additionally, the temperature effect is further supported by the usage of the temperature
dependent plasticity as well as the elastic modulus.
• It is able to cover crack initiation as well as crack growth .
• It can reproduce the effect of thermo- mechanical loading in crack growth and crack
initiation regime.
• It can calculate pure creep failure and true creep fatigue interaction due to the usage
of ligament creep formulation.
The application of the model to TMF load cases is shown in figure 8.16.
Additionally a comparison for all test data in terms of calculated to experimental lifetime
can be done, figure 8.17.
Figure 8.16: Comparison of calculated to experimental lifetime for the TMF test data from
[23, 26, 331]



 




 


    

Figure 8.17: Comparison of calculated to experimental lifetime for LCF as well as TMF test
data from [22, 23, 26, 331]
Conclusion
The adaptation to the fatigue experiments is in good agreement with the experimental data
as already shown for the crack growth tests. Hence, the complex model is able to calculate
the lifetime for very different types of loading conditions for a wide range of temperatures.
The adaptation to creep experiments was already presented in section 8.5. Based on the fact
that for creep failure the lifetime is determined by the damage variable D the results are
still valid.
167
9 Application of material and crack growth model to

the experiments with superimposed thermal
gradient
9.1 Geometry function for the hollow specimen investigated

Usually, the geometry function for cracks for different geometries is evaluated for different
crack ratios of surface to internal crack length. These values are tabularized and approximated
in different handbooks [179] [180] etc.
Under isothermal temperature and constant stress, the crack will growth at a ratio c to a
with a minimum value of the crack intensity factors in the surface and in the depth direction.
For most of the standard crack growth specimens this ratio has a fixed value. For the
CT-specimen the crack front is perpendicular to the crack depth a and thus c is neglected.
For the corner crack specimen, a cylindrical crack front shape is assumed and observed
a
in most experiments, giving a constant ratio of c of 1. Calculating Ygeo for corner crack
specimen this is the case for a minimum value Y45 to Y0 .
For the hollow cylindrical specimen analyzed in this study the stress intensity factor on
inner and outer surface varies significantly according to the crack length a and the ratio
a/c. Additionally, cracks can occur on the inner as well as on the outer surface. Therefore,
a numerical model was set up to investigate the influences and build an analytical two-
dimensional function for the geometry function, figure 9.1.




 

 
  

  
Figure 9.1: Numerical model for the determination of the geometry function Ygeo for the
a),b) internal and the c),d) external crack and definition of a and c for the cur-
rent specimen
In the R6 code values for the geometry factor are listed for radius to thickness ratios less
r
than t < 0.1. Yang et al. evaluated internal surface cracks but only for thin tubes [332].
The specimens investigated in this study features a ratio of 0.375 and thus do not meet the
requirements for the calculation in the R6 code. To evaluate Ygeo the J-integral has been
evaluated for the FE-model and utilizing equations 3.66.
Here only the first mode KI or JI is evaluated. In accordance with other authors [160, 175]
the influence of mesh size as well as the choice of the path in the numerical model is negligible
for a sufficiently fine mesh size. Only the elastic geometry function was evaluated. To be
able to evaluate the crack growth under isothermal homogeneous stress conditions and under
non-isothermal non-homogeneous stress conditions the J-integral or K-factor for different
crack geometries thus for different ratios of a and c has to be evaluated, figure 9.2. Note that
c is defined as surface crack length and thus given as arc dimension rather than cartesian
dimension. Additionally, the stress intensity is evaluated for plane strain conditions close to
the surface and not at the surface as suggested by Carpinteri et al. [333].
a) b)
Figure 9.2: Ygeo for internal and external cracks of the specimen geometry used in this
study.
The surfaces are fitted utilizing a two-dimensional 3rd order polynomial, table 9.1 for the
internal as well as the external crack and for a as well as c,
a a 2

YGeo (a,a/c) =n0 + nx1 a + ny1 + nx2 a2 + ny2 (9.1)
c c
3 2 3
a a a a
+ nxy a + nx3 a + ny3 + nxy2 a + nxy3 a (9.2)
c c c c
Table 9.1: Model parameter for the two-dimensional geometry functions
Position n0 nx1 ny1 nx2 ny2 nxy nx3 ny3 nxy2 nxy3
Internal
crack
YGeo,0ř −0.0879 0.4762 1.0410 −0.1487 −0.5687 6.1937 0.4043 0.0755 −0.1195 0.0849
YGeo,90ř 0.2361 0.1222 1.1019 −0.0697 −0.2259 9.7743 0.3054 −0.0207 −0.3224 0.1252
External
crack
YGeo,0ř −0.1060 0.495 0.9281 −0.1387 −0.3241 0 0.3964 0.0127 −0.1338 0.075
YGeo,90ř −0.7214 1.4328 1.7005 −0.462 −0.649 0.236 −0.2268 0.1895 0.179 −0.0655
The intersection of both surfaces represents the ideal crack geometry with the statistically
highest probability of crack growth.
The intersection line was fitted using again a polynom of 2nd and 3rd order. It shows, that
for this specimen geometry the ratio of a/c is not any more a constant as it is the case for
most of the standard crack growth geometries. Thus, the form of the crack changes with
evolving crack length. This line represents for the current ratio of specimen thickness to
radius, and it can be used to calculate the efficient Ygeo = f (a) that can be used for analysis
of homogeneously loaded cross sections. The parameter of the fits are given as follows:
YGeo,ideal (a) = 0.0416a2 − 0.0075a + 0.7191 for the outer surface and
(9.3)
YGeo,ideal (a) = −0.0099a3 + 0.0537a2 − 0.0855a + 0.7763 for the inner surface
(9.4)
For non-homogeneous stress and temperature distributions the two-dimensional function

YGeo = f (a,c) need to be evaluated for the current cycle. This enables for a given ratio of a/c
to evaluate the crack growth rate on the surface as well as in the depth direction according
to the current state of stress and temperatures. This will be used for the non-isothermal
evaluation in section 9.2.2.
9.2 Application of the crack growth model on non-isothermal tests

The complete model can be used to calculate the crack growth behaviour for non-isothermal
wall temperature. At each cycle the crack growth on the surface and in specimen depth
direction is calculated separately for each sub model. The crack growth rates are then linearly
summed up and the crack length after the cycle is determined. The stress-strain hysteresis
for the non-isothermal and non-homogeneous stress field of the specimen is evaluated at the
current crack tip. Therefore, the disturbance of the stress field due to the crack is neglected.
The influence of the crack tip on the stress field is analytically considered by the application
of the elastic, plastic J-integral and the correction term Jz as described earlier, c.f. 3.71.
Analytic calculation of linear elastic stress distribution within the hollow cylindrical specimen
For analytic purposes the stress distribution (radial, axial and tangential stress component
σr ,σz ,σ) within the specimen can be calculated based on the assumption of linear elastic
material behaviour and constant thermal expansion α, elasticity modulus E and Poisson’s
ratio ϑ based on theory of elasticity to Timoshenko [334]
" ! #
α E ∆T ra ri 2 ra 2 ra

σr (r) = −ln − 2 1− 2 ln (9.5)
2 (1 − ϑ) ln ra ractual r a − ri 2 r ri
ri
" ! #
α E ∆T ra ri 2 ra 2 ra

σϕ (r) = 1 − ln − 2 1+ 2 ln (9.6)
2 (1 − ϑ) ln ra ractual ra − ri 2 r ri
ri
" #
α E ∆T ra 2 ri 2 ra

σz (r) = 1 − 2ln − 2 2
ln . (9.7)
2 (1 − ϑ) ln ra ractual ra − r i ri
ri
Constant material properties are assumed in equation 9.6 . Consideration of locally different
material properties caused by different temperatures across the wall needs an integration as
demonstrated for the radial stresses in equation (9.8)
Zra Zr
1 r 2 − ri 2 α (r) E (r) α (r) E (r)
σr (r) = 2 2 T (r) rdr − T (r) rdr . (9.8)
r r a − ri 2 (1 − ϑ (r)) (1 − ϑ (r))
ri ri
The result will have a complex form and can be solved with numerical methods e.g. finite
elements with sufficient accuracy. A typical stress distribution based on a temperature
difference of 150 K for constant material properties is presented in Figure 9.3.

s
 sϕ
s

s


D

a
n


   
Figure 9.3: Analytical calculation of thermal induced stresses in a hollow elastic cylinder
according to equation (9.6)
9.2.1 Calculation of the stress strain field of hollow cylindrical specimen subjected to
thermally induced stress gradients with the elasto-visco-plastic model
Generally, visco-plastic deformation calculations need an intensive computational effort to
be solved. Therefore, it is suitable to reduce the model complexity as far as possible in order
to keep the calculation times small.
Linear elastic and elasto-visco-plastic finite element calculations are compared in figure 9.4 for
the distribution of thermal stresses. The thermal stresses induce only a slight plastification of
the elements and thus the stresses of the elastic finite elements as well as the pure analytical
formulation according to equation 9.6-9.7.
Figure 9.5 shows the temperature and axial stress distribution of a 3D model and a reduced
order radial model with one element in thickness and height.
Figure 9.4: Comparison of thermal induced stresses for analytical estimation, linear-elastic
finite element model and elasto-visco-plastic model
Figure 9.5: Finite element model of the specimen showing a) the temperature distribution b)
the axial stress distribution and c) the temperature, d) axial stress distribution
of the reduced model for εax = 0.6 % , Ta = 950 řC and dT /dx = 50 K/mm
The comparison of the stress distribution in radial direction is shown in figure 9.6. The
stresses in the reduced order model deviate by maximum 2.2% in axial direction from the full
model calculation. The deviation of σφ is larger but the stress is constant and significantly
lower.
Based on these results the calculation of the local elasto-visco-plastic stress strain field will
be based on the reduced order model. A self-written API was used for the communication
with the FE-solver ANSYS [274, 335] and the material models. The material models are
written in the C++ based GAMO tool. In material model connection between GAMO
and ANSYS was written exclusively for fully integrated 3-dimensional element formulations.
Thus, the reduced order model consists of a radial line of hexahedron elements.
The stress strain hysteresis of the axial and circumferential components is compared in figure
9.7 a) for the outer and b) the inner surface.
The radial stresses on the free surface are naturally 0 by definition. Stress relaxation is
obvious for both σφ and σax . The relaxation of σφ is a typical result for multiaxial loadings
Figure 9.6: Stress distribution for εax = 0.6 % , Ta =950 °C and dT /dx = 50 K/mm addition-
ally applied thermal gradient compared for full specimen and reduced model.
Figure 9.7: Stress-strain hysteresis for εax = 0.6 % , Ta =950 °C and dT /dx = 50 K/mm on
a) outer surface and b) inner surface
as discussed in section 7.1.2 modelling the ratcheting behaviour. It is assumed that σφ does
not affect the crack initiation significantly in this special case based on the fact that the
maximum stress σφ is lower by a factor of 3 compared to σax and the load is nearly static.
Therefore, the crack growth is evaluated based on σax . In figure 9.8 the calculated amplitude
σa and mean value σm of σax are plotted versus number of cycles. The axial stress σa for
both outer and inner surface is nearly constant. In contrast, σm decreases to 0 within a
few cycles on both inner and outer surface not only by ratcheting but additionally as a
result of the equilibrium condition in the cross section. A relaxation of stress on the outer
surface leads to a similar reduction of the absolute value of the stress on the inner surface.
Figure 9.8: σa and σm for εa = 0.6 % , Ta =950 °C and dT /dx = 50 K/mm
Additionally, figure 9.9 demonstrates the evolution of mean stress for 2 different amplitudes
and 2 different temperatures.
At εa = 0.6 % the mean stress σm reduces to zero for both temperatures within less than 20
cycles. At εa = 0.2 % the stress relaxation is reduced significantly. At higher temperature
σm reduces slowly over the cycles but for the lower temperature σm is nearly constant.
Figure 9.9: Mean stress evolution for various εa , Ta and constant dT /dx = 50 K/mm
9.2.2 Calculated crack growth behaviour under locally non-isothermal conditions

Based on the previous stress strain curves the maximum and minimum stress of each element
for the 10th cycle will be evaluated for the calculation of the local crack growth. In figure
9.10 the contribution of the single model components to the total crack growth behaviour
for two load levels on the outer and inner surface is shown.
 
   
 
 
 


 
 
 
 
 
   
 
 
                      
 
 
   
 
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 
      

 
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
Figure 9.10: Crack growth for a hollow cylindrical specimen under non-isothermal temper-
ature and non-homogenous stress field with the contribution of each model
component to the total crack growth at a surface temperature of Ta=950 °C
and εa = 0.3% on starting from the outer surface a) and from the inner surface
b) as well as Ta=800 °C and εa = 0.35% from outer c) and inner surface d)
At all four calculations the crack growth by crack initiation has the largest contribution to
the crack growth. Both, creep initiation as well as creep crack growth don’t play a significant
role. The maximum length of a fatigue test was 100 h. The Paris-crack growth is important
at larger crack length. At 950 °C the crack growth rate by the Paris-law is larger on the
surface at half lifetime for the outer surface. For the other models the crack distribution of
crack growth starts to be relevant at around 85 to 90 % of the lifetime. Figure 9.11 shows
the crack length versus cycles for the surface c and in-depth direction a as well as the ratio
of a and c.
Figure 9.11: Crack length and crack ratio a/c for a hollow cylindrical specimen under non-
isothermal temperature and non-homogeneous stress field at a surface tempera-
ture of Ta=[950]°C and εa = 0.3% starting from the outer surface a) and from
the inner surface b) as well as Ta=800 °C and εa = 0.35% from outer c) and
inner surface d)
At the higher surface temperature, the crack growth on the inner surface is slower than on
the outer surface, whereas at lower temperatures the crack growth on the inner surface. For
the higher temperature the crack growth on the inner surface is significantly lower compared
to the in-depth crack growth whereas for the other calculations the crack ratio is lower 1
giving a larger crack length on surface compared to the in-depth direction.
The lifetime calculation for the specimen tested within the underlying project is shown in
figure 9.12 for stress-based lifetime plot.
The end-of-life criteria used for the tests was a crack length of 3 mm in depth direction.
Thus, a crack growing through the specimen wall was assumed. A change of this end-of-life
criteria of ±0.2 mm changed the calculated lifetime less than 2 %.
Figure 9.12: Lifetime calculation based on unified crack growth model

The calculated lifetime is in good agreement with the experimental data. Numerical and
experimental data can be arranged in a scatter band by factor 2. The intrinsic scatter in
lifetime variation is obvious as well. The comparison between calculated and experimental
lifetime for each specimen is shown in figure 9.13.
Figure 9.13: Comparison of calculated to experimental lifetime for the available non-
isothermal test data
Conclusion
The standard deviation is reduced slightly compared to the engineering approach presented in
section 8.7.2. However, this complex model offers the capability to calculate the lifetime local
and transient temperature variation, thermo-mechanical loads as well as under the existence
of mean stresses and significant creep damages. Additionally, the model can be used for the
calculation of crack growth behaviour under the same variation in loads and temperatures.
This results in a unique generalized model applicable for most of the technically relevant
loads. With the model, the lifetime until crack initiation as well as the remaining service
life under engine relevant loading conditions can be calculated. This versatility is a major
advantage compared to simplified empirical models.
181
10 Conclusion and outlook
This work was aimed to study influence of thermally induced stress gradients on the fatigue
life of the nickel-based superalloy Mar-M247 . Therefore, both non-isothermal LCF tests of
hollow cylindrical specimens and isothermal LCF tests have been conducted to investigate
the influence of thermally induced stress gradients on fatigue life. As experimental generation
of high thermal gradients in metallic specimens is highly demanding, a unique test rig was
designed, manufactured and commissioned. Therefore, after a detailed literature study, the
concept of a high focusing halogen heated furnace was chosen as basic concept for this work.
In order to achieve a maximum efficiency and thus the largest possible thermal gradients,
a ray-tracing tool was programmed. Based on the results of that program, the design of
existing furnaces was analyzed and the furnace was optimized. As a result, a highly efficient
furnace was built up and patented with special attention on local homogeneous heat flux
densities. The test rig enables tests
dT K
• under highest thermal gradients of dx ≥ 50 mm ,
• at surface temperatures of Ta ≥ 950 °C
• combined with complex cyclic mechanical loads F ≥ ±100 kN
• on hollow cylindrical specimen with a maximum tested length of l0 = 40 mm
• and maximum total strain -5 %≤ εtotal ≤15 % for typical cast nickel-base-superalloys
like Mar-M247 .
With this test rig a test campaign of 63 tests at different temperatures, thermal gradients
and stress levels was carried out. Isothermal, as well as tests with superimposed thermal
gradients on different specimen were done. The effect of superimposed thermal gradients and
the resultant thermally induced stress gradients were studied in detail. The investigations
have shown that high thermally induced stress gradients have a significant effect on fatigue
life. For example, an increase of the fatigue life by factor of 5 was found across all stress
levels at a surface temperature of 950 ◦ C and thermal gradient of 50 K/mm across the
specimen wall. For lower outer surface temperatures, the influence of the effect of thermal
gradients reduces but is still experimentally evident.
This effect on lifetime is not considered in current state of the art, design and calcula-
tion methods of components. It offers the possibility for a significant reduction in safety
margins for highly loaded and cooled components. The reason for this lifetime increasing
effect was found to be the combination of two factors. One reason are the secondary thermal
stresses as a result of the local temperature distribution across the specimen wall. These
stresses induce negative mean stresses on the hot outer surface of the specimen and positive
mean stresses on the cooled inner surface. The second factor is the increased material
strength for cooler parts of the specimen. Therefore, the crack initiation behaviour and crack
growth rate within the fatigue test is greatly influenced by the mean stress on the one and
the temperature dependent material strength on the other hand.
This variation of material strength was also identified as the limiting factor for the positive
supporting effect of thermally induced stress gradients. For tests with a reduced specimen
mean temperature, the material strength of the specimen didn’t change significantly, and
the crack initiation was driven by the thermal induced tensile mean stresses on the cooled
inner wall of the specimen. All specimens were metallographically analyzed. It was found,
that depending on the thermal gradient several micro cracks initiated on the outer as well as
on the inner surface. The crack length of secondary cracks on the outer surface was up to
8 mm whereas the crack length in radial direction was significantly shorter. This is explained
by the temperature dependent crack growth resistance that increases significantly from outer
to inner surfaces.
In order to analyze the local mean stresses varying across the specimen wall, additionally
to the experimental investigations, an elasto-visco-plastic material model was built up in
uniaxial and multiaxial formulation. The implementation was based on the GAMO tool that
allows for generic optimization of material damage and crack growth models and enables
a direct coupling to a FE-solver e.g. ANSYS. For a realistic calculation of the local cyclic
mean stress evolution, special attention was paid to the modelling of uniaxial ratcheting
effects. Therefore, a new model extension based on the literature research was developed
that enables a fast adaptation of the uniaxial and multiaxial ratcheting fraction within cyclic
tests. This model was compared with several experimental results from the literature and its
accurate capabilities of the adaptation of uniaxial ratcheting and its limitation in adjusting
multiaxial ratcheting behaviour were shown.
The experimental results were analyzed by means of engineering lifetime models as well as an
advanced unified fatigue-crack-growth model. The engineering lifetime models presented have
been adjusted to literature data from previous projects for the same material. Both, their
capabilities and limitations have been analyzed and a simple phenomenologically motivated
extension has been developed. This extension of the stress-based lifetime approach enables a
comprehensive temperature independent description of the fatigue life. The aforementioned
extension was used to calculate the lifetime of tests with superimposed thermal gradients by
means of the specimen mean temperature. It could be demonstrated that the model results
in a sufficient accuracy in the lifetime description.
Often engineering models cannot be automatically applied to complex loading scenarios of
real components. Hence, a comprehensive complex damage-crack-growth model was devel-
oped based on a review of different crack-growth concepts. The complex model extended the
ideas of Krämer to the crack initiation region and improved description of the influence of
oxidation on crack propagation.
• To consider the effect of the environment on fatigue at different temperatures an

oxidation-based fatigue strength reduction of crack-growth and crack-initiation was
developed and adjusted to the test results of literature as well as the experiments of
this work.
• Ligament creep based on a damage variable and creep crack growth based on C ∗ were
combined to calculate creep damage and crack growth with one single model.
• The crack growth was described by ∆J to enable a description for elasto-plastic

deformation of the crack tip.
• An extension of creep and fatigue to crack initiation based on the ∆J was established
for a comprehensive description of service life and at the same time remaining lifetime
of cracked components with one model
In combination with elasto-visco-plastic finite element analysis the fatigue and local crack
growth could be determined with one unified model. Hence, complex transient and local
non-isothermal load cases can be calculated with this continuous calculation method.
The results gained in this study help to improve knowledge on the lifetime of gas turbine
hot section components under severe loading conditions and thus enable the possibility for
the design of components with higher efficiency and / or higher reliability.
Highly loaded hot section components of thermal power machinery often feature a combination
of thermally induced stress gradients as well as mechanical stress gradients, for example in the
surrounding of cooling air holes in gas turbine blades. This combination of stress gradients
with different effects on cyclic life was not scope of the project but remains an important
and open field for future research. For a comprehensive description of this interacting effect
based on experimental and numerical investigations, additional research effort is necessary.
Modelling of ratcheting under multiaxial loading conditions is still an open field of research.
The model presented does not allow a sufficient description of the ratcheting behaviour under
complex multi-axial conditions. Here, role of the memory surfaces has to be analyzed and
further research is necessary.
185
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Thiele - Investigation of The in Uence of Thermally Induced Stress Gradients On Service Life of Nickel-Base Superalloys

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Investigation of the influence of thermally

induced stress gradients on service

Von der Fakultät Maschinenwesen

von Dipl.-Ing. Marcus Thiele

Erster Gutachter: Prof. Dr.-Ing. Uwe Gampe

Tag der Einreichung: 23.06.2022

Dresden, den 23 Juni 2022

Um die Leistung und Lebensdauer von energietechnischen Komponenten weiter zu steigern,

Aktuelle Gasturbinen und oft auch Kraftwerkskomponenten unterliegen zusätzlich zu den

Im weiteren Teil der Arbeit wird ein visko-elasto-plastisches Materialmodell weiterentwickelt,

List of abbreviations and symbols xi

3 State of the art 7

3.6 Experimental methods for the generation of large homogeneously distributed

6 Microstructural investigation 113

8 Lifetime calculation of the nickel-base-superalloy Mar-M247 based on engineering

10 Conclusion and outlook 181

List of abbreviations and symbols

FVV Research association for combustion engines

A0ox oxide growth constant -

a tensor of first order

A tensor of fourth order

()CreGro creep growth

()FatGro fatigue growth

()FatIni fatigue initiation

()hc hold compression

()ht hold tension

()m mean value

()OxInfGro oxidation influence growth

()OxInfIni oxidation influence initiation

Symbol Definition Unit

αN plain-strain / plain-stress correction factor of Newman -

αN plain-strain / plain-stress correction factor of Newman -

αOxCre thermal influence coefficient of DTMF damage concept -

αR non-isothermal stress ratio correction factor -

bφ exponent of the function φX (p) -

β indicator for plane strain or plane strain -

βf exponent of of Chaboche fatigue damage law -

χ ratcheting coefficient introduced in this work -

Abs absorption coefficient -

ηR reflection coefficient of a light ray -

γN Nihei mean stress exponent -

γW Walker mean stress exponent -

γX coefficient of static recovery of kinematic hardening -

MX coefficient of static recovery of kinematic hardening -

mX exponent of static recovery of kinematic hardening -

µR transmission coefficient of a light ray -

νOst frequency dependency of Ostergren-parameter -

Φi phase factor for in-/out-of-phase loading of Sehitoglu damage model -

φX coupling of kinematic hardening to p -

φs coefficient of the function φX (p) -

σligament ligament stress MPa

XC frequency factor by Gallernau -

ζ pressure loss coefficient -

Symbol Definition Unit

Acre coefficient of Kachanov-Rabotnov creep damage law -

afat saturation coefficient of Chaboche fatigue damage law -

Aγ 0 ,0 γ 0 -depletion growth coefficient mm

AN0 ,AN1 ,AN2 ,AN3 mean stress influence factors of Newman -

AOxInf oxidation influence coefficient

Ak general conjugated force -

b exponent of isotropic hardening -

bB exponent of the Basquin-equation -

box exponent of Gallernau oxidation damage law -

Abs absorption coefficient -