THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

VICE PRESIDENT’S OFFICE

STATUS OF LAND
DEGRADATION IN TANZANIA

NOVEMBER, 2014
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..… IV

LIST OF FIGURES …..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…. IV

LIST OF PLATES…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..… IV

ABBREVIATIONS…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..… V

PREFACE …..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…. VIII

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT …..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…. IX

1.0 INTRODUCTION …..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..….. 1

1.1 Background ….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….… 1
1.2 Rationale ….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….… 1
1.3 Land degradation in a global context ….….….….….….….… 3
1.4 Land degradation in Tanzania ….….….….….….….….….….… 4
1.5 Types of land degradation ….….….….….….….….….….….… 6
1.6 Objective of the Report ….….….….….….….….….….….….… 8
2.0 COUNTRY PROFILE …..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..….. 9
2.1 Geography ….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….… 9
2.2 Climate….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….10
2.3 Topography ….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….14
2.4 Geology and Soils ….….….….….….….….….….….….….….16
2.5 Vegetation….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….19
2.6 Human population density ….….….….….….….….….….….20
2.7 Livestock population ….….….….….….….….….….….….….21
3.0 METHODOLOGY AND APPROACH …..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…. 22
3.1 Methodology….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….22
3.2 Land Degradation Analytical Framework ….….….….….….26
4.0 POLICY, LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR SUSTAINABLE
LAND MANAGEMENT …..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…. 29
4.1 National Policies ….….….….….….….….….….….….….….29
4.2 Legal Framework ….….….….….….….….….….….….….….34
4.3 National Development Plans and Strategies ….….….….….38
4.4 Multilateral Environmental Agreements ….….….….….….….43
4.5 Institutional Framework for Sustainable Land Management…45
5.0 ASSESSMENT OF LAND DEGRADATION IN TANZANIA …..…..…..…. 49
5.1 Drivers….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….49
5.2 Pressure ….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….55
5.3 The State of Land Degradation….….….….….….….….….…60
5.4 Impact ….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….72
5.5 Response….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….78
5.6 Best Practices and Lesson learnt….….….….….….….….….88
5.6.1 Best Practices ….….….….….….….….….….….….…. 88
5.6.2 Lesson Learnt ….….….….….….….….….….….….…. 92
5.7 Challenges for Sustainable Land degradation ….….….….95
6.0 ANALYSIS OF LAND DEGRADATION BASED ON AGRO-ECOLOGICAL
ZONES…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..… 98
6.1 Classification and assessment of land degradation….….….99
6.2 Status of land degradation ….….….….….….….….….….… 100
7.0 ANALYSIS OF LAND DEGRADATION AT REGIONAL LEVEL…..…..…..… 106
7.1 Classification and assessment of land degradation….….… 106
7.2 Status of Land Degradation….….….….….….….….….….… 106
8.0 ECONOMIC VALUATION OF THE IMPACT OF LAND DEGRADATION… 125
8.1 Direct and indirect costs of land degradation….….….….… 125
8.2 Financial Resource Mobilization and Utilization ….….….… 128
9.0 REPORTING, MONITORING AND EVALUATION SYSTEM FOR LAND
DEGRADATION IN TANZANIA …..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…. 132
9.1 Land Degradation Monitoring Indicators ….….….….….… 132
9.2 Processes for Land Degradation Monitoring and evaluation…
… ….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….… 143
9.3 Co-ordination of Land Degradation Monitoring ….….….… 149
10.0 CONCLUSION…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…. 151

REFERENCES …..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…. 152

APPENDICES …..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…..…. 157

APPENDIX 1: LIST OF STAKEHOLDERS CONSULTED …..…..…..…..…..… 158

APPENDIX 2: CHANGE DETECTION BY AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONE…..…..…. 160

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Regions in order of area burned ….….….….….….….….58
Table 2: Land cover change from 1980 - 2012….….….….….….….61
Table 3: Forest covers change in different agro-ecological zones… 71
Table 4: Woodland cover change in different agro-ecological zones…
….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….71
Table 5: Maize production in four selected regions of Tanzania ….73
Table 8: Land degradation status from 1980 - 2012….….….….… 101
Table 9: Land degradation by agro-ecological zones ….….….… 101
Table 10: Land degradation status by regions ….….….….….….… 106
Table 9: SLM investment in agro-ecological zones (2011/12 -
2016/17) ….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….… 130
Table 10: Land Degradation Monitoring and Evaluation ….….….… 133

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Map of the United Republic of Tanzania showing
international….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….… 9
Figure 2: Spatial distribution of mean annual rainfall (1970 - 2000)…11
Figure 3: Mean annual temperature. ….….….….….….….….….….12
Figure 4: Mean annual minimum temperature. ….….….….….….13
Figure 5: Distribution of major soil groups in Tanzania ….….….….18
Figure 6: Image processing and analysis ….….….….….….….….24
Figure 7: Driving Force, Pressure, State, Impact and Response
(DPSIR Framework) ….….….….….….….….….….….….27
Figure 8: Land cover change from 1980 to 2012….….….….….….61
Figure 9: Tanzania land cover in 1980 ….….….….….….….….….62
Figure 10: Tanzania land cover in 2012 ….….….….….….….….….63
Figure 11: Trends of production for different food crops per ha in
Tabora region ….….….….….….….….….….….….….….74
Figure 12: Status of land degradation by agro-ecological zones… 102
Figure 13: Status of land degradation by region ….….….….….… 109
Figure 14: Status of land degradation by district ….….….….….… 110
Figure 15: Process for land degradation monitoring and evaluation…
….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….… 143
Figure 17: Organization structure for implementation of EMA ….… 150

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LIST OF PLATES
Plate 1: Overgrazing in Monduli and Simanjiro districts ….….….56
Plate 2: Deforestation and charcoal making in Morogoro region… 57
Plate 3: Wildfire incidences in East Usambara ….….….….….….58
Plate 4: Soil erosion in Ilula district - Iringa region ….….….….….66
Plate 5: Evidence of severe gully erosion in Bunda district ….….67
Plate 6: Deforestation in Itundufula forest in Kiberege village -
Kilombero district ….….….….….….….….….….….….….70

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ABBREVIATIONS
AEZ Agro-ecological Zones
ASDS Agricultural Sector Development Strategy
CBO Community Based Organization
CEMC City Environmental Management Committee
CEMO City Environment Management Officer
DED District Executive Director
DEMC District Environmental Management Committee
DEMO District Environmental Management Officer
DOE Division of Environment
EMA Environmental Management Act
ETM Enhanced Thematic Mapper
EWB – SFP Engineers without Borders - San Francisco Professional
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GEF Global Environment Facility
GIS Geographical Information System
HADO Hifadhi Ardhi Dodoma
HASHI Hifadhi Ardhi Shinyanga
HIMA Hifadhi Mazingira (Iringa)
IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute
IRA Institute of Resource Assessment
ISSS International Society of Soil Science
KNCU Kilimanjaro Native Cooperative Union
LAMP Land Management Programme
LRDC Land Resources Development Centre
LVEMP Lake Victoria Environmental Management Programme
MAFC Ministry of Agriculture, Food Security and Cooperatives

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MEMC Municipal Environmental Management Committee
MEMO Municipal Environmental Management Officer
MLFD Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development
MNRT Ministry of Natural Resource and Tourism
NAFORMA National Forestry Resources Monitoring and Assessment
NAP National Action Programme
NEAC National Environmental Advisory Committee
NEAP National Environmental Action Plan
NEMC National Environment Management Council
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NLUPC National Land Use Planning Commission
NRC National Research Council
NSGRP National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty
PADEP Participatory Agriculture Development and
Empowerment Project
PFM Participatory Forest Management
PMO–RALG Prime Minister’s Office–Regional Administration and
Local Government
PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper
RAS Regional Administrative Secretary
REDD Reduced Emission from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation
SCAPA Soil Conservation and Agroforestry Programme in
Arusha region
SCLUPC Soil Conservation and Land Use Planning Committee
SEC Sectoral Ministries
SLM Sustainable Land Management
SUA Sokoine University of Agriculture
SVEMC Sub Village Environmental Management Committee
SVEMO Sub Village Environmental Management Officer

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TAMP Trans-Boundary Agro-Ecosystem Management
Programme
TANRIC Tanzania Natural Resource Information Centre
TaTEDO Tanzania Traditional Energy Development and
Environment Organization
TEMC Town Environmental Management Committee
TEMO Town Environmental Management Officer
TIP Traditional Irrigation Project
TM Thematic Mapper
TWEMC Township Environmental Management Committee
TWEMO Township Environmental Management Officer
UDSM University of Dar es Salaam
UNCCD United Nations for Convention to Combat Desertification
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
VEMC Village Environmental Management Committee
VEMO Village Environmental Management Officer
VPO Vice President’s Office
WEMC Ward Environmental Management Committee
WEMO Ward Environmental Management Officer

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PREFACE
Land is a natural resource base for which
majority of people in the country depend
on for their livelihoods. However, increasing
needs of the growing population combined
with unsustainable human activities have
largely contributed to land degradation which
is associated with decreasing land quality.
Notably, the impacts of climate change are
accelerating these trends. Consequently,
land degradation is threatening social and
economic development as well as peoples
livelihoods. Impacts of land degradation
include reduced land productivity, food insecurity, loss of income and
livelihoods, deterioration of ecosystems, loss of biodiversity through
habitats change.

Effective response to land degradation is partly hampered by lack of

reliable data on its extent and severity. This Report therefore informs
on the current status of land degradation in the country with regard to
the extent of the problem, causes, impacts and intervention measures
undertaken.

The general trends of land degradation in the country reveals that about
50% of the total land area is affected by land degradation. Highly degraded
areas constitute about 16% of the total land area mostly occurring in arid
and semiarid areas which are associated with unsustainable human land
use practices. Land degradation has a significant economic impact and
is mostly felt in areas with a high incidence of poverty. The total annual
economic value of land lost due to degradation is estimated at USD 10.2
billion.

The Government has taken various initiatives to combat land degradation

in the country which include formulation and implementation of various
national policies, strategies and plans; promoting sustainable land
management practices; and improvement of livestock management
systems. Despite such efforts the problem of land degradation and its
associated impact has continued. Such situation calls for more concerted
efforts to reduce the magnitude of the problem.

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It is worth noting that escalating trends of land degradation in the country
threaten our survival, and therefore it is a priority policy issue that need
attention. In this context, it is expected that this Report will form a basis
for devising holistic, appropriate, innovative and effective interventions
towards sustainable land management. It cannot be overemphasized
that commitment and efforts by all stakeholders is critical to ensure that
sustainable land management becomes a reality and contributes in
improving standard of living and benefits all. I therefore encourage all
relevant stakeholders to make use of this report in their planning and
implementation processes for sustainable environmental and socio-
economic development.

Dr. Binilith S. Mahenge (MP)

MINISTER OF STATE
VICE PRESIDENT’S OFFICE - ENVIRONMENT

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Successful preparation of this report is the outcome of the effort and
support from Ministries, Departments and Agencies as well as from many
individuals and institutions that were consulted to provide information
and share their experiences on issues related to land degradation in
Tanzania. It is not possible here to mention them all, but we would like
to assure them of our heartfelt appreciation and that we value their
cooperation and contribution.
I acknowledge contributions from various stakeholders namely Ministry
of Agriculture Food Security and Cooperatives; Ministry of Livestock and
Fisheries Development; the National Land Use Planning Commission
(NLUPC). We would also like to extend our thanks to the District Executive
Directors’ (DEDs) Offices in Korogwe, Kilosa, Simanjiro, Same, Babati
Rural, and Regional Administrative Secretary (RAS) Office in Kilimanjaro
for providing necessary information and logistical support. We also
acknowledged support of staff from Agricultural Research Institute
(ARI) at Hombolo and Kongwa District Agricultural Department for their
contribution in the Report.
I wish to extend my appreciation to the team of experts from the Institute
of Resource Assessment, University of Dar es Salaam for providing
technical support and preparing initial draft of the Report.
I am particularly indebted to Ms. Angelina Madete, Deputy Permanent
Secretary, Vice President’s Office; Dr. Julius Ningu, Director of
Environment; and Mr Richard Muyungi, Assistant Director – Environmental
Assessments for providing overall guidance and reviewing the initial
drafts of the Report.
I am also grateful to the Secretariat from the Vice President’s Office for
facilitating the preparation of this Report. These include Ms. Zainabu
Bungwa; Mr. Timotheo Mande; and Dr. Constantine Shayo.
Finally, I would like to thank the Global Environment Facility (GEF) through
UNDP for the financial support which made this assignment possible.

Sazi B. Salula
PERMANENT SECRETARY
VICE PRESIDENT’S OFFICE
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Introduction
Land degradation is a global environment issue. It remains a major
threat to the world’s ability to meet the growing demand for food and
other environmental services. Land degradation directly affects about
1.5 billion people around the world with a disproportionate impact on the
poor, and has already reduced the productivity of the world’s terrestrial
ecosystems.

Tanzania is not exempted from land degradation. However, the

magnitude, rates and negative impact on people’s livelihood and
environment vary across regions and agro-ecological zones. Some
regions such as Dodoma, Shinyanga, Simiyu, Singida, Mwanza Regions
and parts of Arusha, Manyara, Tabora, Mara and Kilimanjaro Regions
have been severely degraded. The impacts of land degradation are
numerous including reduced productivity, food insecurity associated with
destruction of important ecosystems and loss of biodiversity, soil fertility,
income and livelihoods. Given such situation, the Government has over
the years implemented various projects including HADO, LAMP, SCAPA,
HASHI and SLM in Kilimanjaro but still land degradation associated
problems are not fully been addressed. Land degradation processes are
are still going on with some areas been moderately to severely degraded.
This necessitates the need for holistic and participatory ways to address
the drivers, pressures and impacts associated to land degradation.
Understanding the dynamics of land degradation its current status and
areas been affected is important in the planning and implementation of
sustainable land management interventions. However, there is limited
reliable baseline information regarding the magnitude of the problem in
the country. It is from this background that the establishment of current
status of land degradation and main indicators in Tanzania has become
a paramount undertaking.

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Objective of the Report
The objective of the Report was to establish baseline information and
main indicators of land degradation in Tanzania from 1980 to 2012.
Preparation of this Report involved among others the following activities:
establishment of land cover changes and land degradation baselines
from 1980 to 2012, and establishment of land degradation status and
identification of areas mainly affected by land degradation. It also
involved identification of main factors contributing to land degradation,
indicators for land degradation, as well as identification of lessons learnt
and best practices from various initiatives implemented to address land
degradation in the country.

Country Profile
Tanzania Mainland is estimated to cover an area of about 881,289
km2. Tanzania is comprised of varying biophysical environments
including climate (rainfall and temperature) that differ from one place to
another depending on geographical location and relief. The country is
characterized by coastal plains; plateaus in the central area, highlands
in the north-east, south and southwest and the Great East African Rift
Valley. With regard to soils, Tanzania is characterised by 19 major soil
groups with Cambisols being the most extensive soils followed by
Leptosols, Acrisols, Luvisols, Ferralsols Vertisols and Lixisols. Tanzania
mainland is comprised of different vegetation which is influenced by
varying altitudes, climate conditions and rainfall patterns. The major
types of vegetation included woodland, grassland and bushland, which
account for about 80% of the total land area.. The mean annual rainfall
ranges from 500mm to 2,500mm and above. The population of Tanzania
in 2012 was estimated to be 44.9 million, out of which 43.6 million are from
Tanzania Mainland while 1.3 million from Zanzibar. Farming is the main
occupation employing about 62% of the working population. Tanzania
is comprised of 18.5 million cattle; 13.1 million goats and 3.6 million
sheep which are mostly found in the arid and semiarid agro-ecological
zones. Most of the livestock are kept in a free range system with limited
livestock infrastructure

Methodology and Approach

The assessment of the status of land degradation involved review of
policies and legal framework on land degradation and sustainable
land management as well as relevant literature to land degradation.

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Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System was also used to
determine the spatial and temporal changes in land use/ cover types for
specified periods as well as mapping hotspot areas experiencing land
degradation. Analysis of land degradation status was done based on
agro-ecological zones. The assessment of status of land degradation was
done by combining land cover, soil and altitude parameters using GIS
and remote sensing techniques. Also, expert judgement, consultation
and literature review were employed to complement information on the
status in various places. Also, stakeholder consultations were undertaken
in various agro-ecological zones, ministries as well as direct physical
observation in some areas to provide information on cause, impacts and
initiatives undertaken to address land degradation in the country.

The DPSIR (Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response) framework

has been used in understanding the cause and current status of
land degradation in Tanzania. The framework analyses the drivers of
environmental change, pressure exacerbating the change, state of the
affected environment, impacts caused by changes on the environment
and responses to address such changes. The framework serves as a
tool to analyse the cause-effect relationship and the interaction between
the society and the environment for informed decision making.

Policy, Legal and Institutional Framework

Assessment of status of land degradation involved the analysis of different
policies and legal frameworks that are relevant to land degradation.
Among the policies examined included, the National Environmental Policy,
(1997), The National Forestry Policy (1998), National Land Policy (1995),
National Wildlife Policy (2007), Agricultural Policy (2013), National Water
Policy (2002), National Energy Policy (2003) and Irrigation Policy (2010).
Legislation examined with relevancy to land degradation included;
Environmental Management Act No. 20 of 2004, The Land Use Planning
Act No. 6 of 2007, The Wildlife Conservation Act No. 5 of 2009, Forest
Act No. 14 of 2002, Land Act No. 4 and Village Land Act No. 5 of 1999,
The Land Use Planning Act No. 6 of 2007. The analysis and details of
the policies and legal framework are provided in the report. Also national
strategies and plans with bearing on land degradation were examined
including the National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty
(NSGRP); The Integrated Coastal Environment Management Strategy
(2002), The Strategy for Urgent Action on Land Degradation and Water
Catchments (2006); Livestock Sector Development Strategy (2010); the

xii
Rural Development Strategy (2002), National Climate Change Strategy
(2013), National Action Programme to Combat Desertification (2004);
National Environment Action Plan (NEAP), 2013. Also international
convention relevant to land degradation including the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), United Nations
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and Convention to Combat
Desertification (CCD) were examined.

Besides the policy and legal framework to oversee sustainable land

management issues, the Report also provides a brief scenario analysis
of key institutions responsible for sustainable land management (SLM) in
the country. Such institution include (i) Prime Minister’s Office – Regional
Administration and Local Government (PMO-RALG); (ii) Ministry for
Agriculture, Food Security and Cooperatives (MAFC); (iii) Ministry of
Livestock and Fisheries Development; (iv) Ministry of Water, (v) Ministry
of Industry and Trade (vi) Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism;
and (vii) Ministry of Land and Human Settlements Development. The
Vice President’s Office being the focal point on environment issues in
the country play an important role in addressing issues related to land
degradation and environment.

Policy analysis shows that some of the policies directly or indirectly

address issues that contribute to combating land degradation problem.
However, many of the policies are sectoral based. It is therefore important
to ensure that all relevant policies are harmonised to avoid conflicting
decisions as well as to be aligned with the National Environmental Policy
of 1997 and the Environment Management Act of 2004.

Assessment of Land Degradation in Tanzania

The analysis of land degradation based on DPSIR framework which has
shown that there are various causes to land degradation. The causes
can be grouped into:

i) Drivers – these include population increase and migration, climate

change, poverty, political instability, insecure land tenure system,
unsustainable farming practice as well as cultural believes. Other
drivers include inadequate livestock infrastructure, deforestation
and forest degradation, uncontrolled wildfires, rapid urbanization
and inadequate land-use plans. The impact has been varied across
the agro-ecological zones.

xiii
ii) Pressure: Pressure on land degradation has often been associated
with overgrazing which is common in arid and semiarid areas with
large numbers of livestock. Such areas include Shinyanga, Simiyu
Regons and parts of Tabora, Maasailand and Mbulu in Manyara
Regions.

iii) State: It refers to biophysical characteristics of land (e.g. land

cover, soil fertility, depth of top soil, humidity, etc.). It has been
shown that there has been changes in land cover, e.g. woodlands
has decreased by 4.5% while grassland and cultivated land have
increased by 3.5% and 2.1% respectively. Much of the decrease in
woodland is in semiarid and plateau zones.

iv) Impact: Land degradation effects on the social, cultural and

economic aspects of communities in different agro-ecological
zones. The notable impact includes decline or loss of agricultural
productivity and food insecurity, water pollution, desertification,
migrations and land conflicts, and loss of biodiversity.

v) Response: A number of policy measures and practices have been

initiated over the last decades in different agro-ecological zones
to mitigate land degradation impacts. These included, the Lake
Victoria Environment Management Programme (LVEMP), HADO,
HASHI, SECAP, SCAPA, LAMP and SLM in Kilimanjaro, Shinyanga
and Tabora regions. Some of such initiatives are associated with
best practices and good lessons such as participatory approach
which can be copied to other SLM initiatives.

Land Degradation Status from 1980 - 2012

It has been revealed that extent and magnitude of land degradation has
increased from 42% in 1980 to almost 50% in 2012. From the analysis,
it was evident that highly degraded areas have increased from 12% to
16% in 1980 and 2010 respectively, while moderately degraded areas
have increased from 30.9% to 33.5% in the respective years. It has also
been shown that the plateau, semiarid and southern highlands agro-
ecological zones are currently highly degraded compared to other agro-
ecological zones. High degradation in these zones is associated with
poor farming practices and overgrazing which have greatly affected
miombo woodlands in the plateau.

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Reporting, Monitoring and Evaluation
Land Degradation Monitoring Indicators
Monitoring and Evaluation of land degradation dynamics is a key
component to ensure that all initiatives for addressing land degradation
bring the expected results. In order to ensure effective monitoring
it is important to develop monitoring indicators which are based on
biophysical and socioeconomic components. The biophysical based
indicator such as, climate extreme events, rainfall variability etc can
be captured through direct measurements and observations, while the
socio economic indicators such as population density etc, provides
knowledge about the human factors that affects land degradation which
can be identified through key informants, transect walks and household
interviews. Besides development of the indicators it is essential to relate
it to land degradation/Consequences, establish methods of assessment
and frequency and identification of sector ministry/institutions to be
responsible.

Processes for Land Degradation Monitoring and evaluation

The process of land degradation monitoring and evaluation involved
a number of sequential steps: Planning for monitoring and evaluation
, Identifying the assessment areas and sites, Area characterization,
Understanding land degradation and its effects on the ecosystem
services, Assessing the impact of land degradation on the Ecosystems
(Impacts), Measuring socio-economic influences on land degradation
& Impact (Driving Forces & Impacts), Identifying supports interventions
and reporting (Responses)

Co-ordination of Land Degradation Monitoring

The overall responsibility for coordination and monitoring of land
degradation shall be established in this case the responsibility of the
Vice President’s Office – Division of Environment. However, the VPO
shall work in close collaboration with key sectoral ministries, regional,
district, ward and village level responsible for environmental issues, and
the private sector

xv
Essentials for implementing land degradation monitoring and eval-
uation
For successful implementation of land degradation monitoring and
evaluation, institutional support is needed in form of policy environment,
government or non-governmental departments responsible for
implementing the monitoring framework, and communication structures
for flow of information. Also capacity building is very important since
the whole process will involve people of diverse disciplines and also
personnel without sufficient background and equipment.

Conclusion
Land degradation has economic, social and environmental consequences
which have great impact on the people’s livelihood. The problem of land
degradation is experienced in different magnitudes in the various agro-
ecological zones, with some areas such as in arid and semiarid and the
plateau being severely degraded, while others zones are moderately to
slightly degraded. Given the increasing impact of land degradation there
has been increasing need for integration of sustainable land management
(SLM) initiatives into relevant sectoral policies. However, implementation
of the initiatives is currently not enough to adequately combat land
degradation. Population pressure, inadequate institutional capacity in
terms of finance, technology, and insufficient implementation of various
SLM initiatives. Therefore, in order to combat land degradation and to
attain sustainable land management and development, it is important to
build institutional capacity on sustainable land management and facilitate
policy makers to take informed decision and implement appropriate
mitigation measures to support sustainable land management.

xvi
1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
Land degradation remains a major threat to the world’s ability to meet
the growing demand for food and other environmental services.
According to UNCCD (1994) land degradation refers to any
reduction or loss in the biological or economic productive capacity
of the land caused by human activities, exacerbated by natural
processes, and often magnified by the impacts of climate change
and biodiversity losses. Land degradation is caused to a certain
extent by natural factors. However, the main cause is associated
to anthropogenic activities through one or combination of the
following: deforestation; bush burning; cultivation of marginal lands;
intensive farming without fallowing; excessive and indiscriminate
use of chemicals; overgrazing; population transmigration; land
pollution through improper disposal of waste and oil spillage and
infrastructural development in ecological sensitive areas (URT,
2004; URT, 1997). In Tanzania land degradation threatens the
sustainability of growth and the welfare of many people who depend
on agriculture, natural resource and other land based production
systems for their livelihoods. Land degradation diminishes soil
quality and thereby reduces productivity of agricultural and forest
ecosystems. The changes inflicted on soils by human-induced land
degradation over many years are significant and have resulted to
invaluable land becoming unproductive. Therefore, strong efforts
to combat land degradation are justified on these ground and also
based on other global concerns such as climate change mitigation
and conservation of biodiversity and genetic resources.

1.2 Rationale
Tanzania has a total land area of about 94,508,700 ha of territorial
area, out of which nearly 89 million ha is dry land and the remaining
is covered by water. About 44 million ha are classified as land
suitable for agricultural production, out of which 24% is under
cultivation. About 8.6 million ha is under smallholder farmers while
land under medium and large-scale farming is 1.5 million ha (URT
2014). Land is an important resource supporting agricultural
based livelihoods of the majority of Tanzanians with about 62.1%
of people depends solely on agriculture (URT, 2014a). Land

1
degradation threatens the sustainability of growth and the welfare
of people who depend on agriculture, natural resource and other
land based production systems.

Many areas in Tanzania are experiencing different forms of land

degradation including deforestation, loss of vegetation cover, soil
erosion, soil pollution, and loss of biodiversity. Land degradation
is one of the key environmental problems facing Tanzania (URT
2013). About 13% (125 000 km2) of Tanzania is subject to land
degradation (IFPRI, 1999). Land degradation has resulted to
socio-economic and environmental consequences to the affected
communities. This include decline or loss of soil productivity and
food insecurity, Water pollution, migrations and land conflicts, loss
of vegetation and biodiversity. It has been reported that the annual
loss of forest area is approximately 1% equivalent to 400,000 ha
of forest cover per annum (TFS, 2013). Deforestation especially in
water sources and water catchment areas has reduced water flows
and subsequent interrupted power generation in hydroelectric
schemes such as Mtera and Kihansi (URT, 2014).

The economic loss associated to unreliable power supply has been

estimated to cost about US$ 330 million for 2006 representing
about 2 percent of GDP (World Bank, 2006 cited in URT, 2014).
Also, continuous degradation is threatening income earning
opportunities for farmers and pastoralists through declining crop
productivity and loss of pasture and water shortage negatively
affecting livestock production. Land degradation is also a major
cause for the low income levels and high poverty incidence in the
country.

In Tanzania, the total economic value of land lost to degradation per

year is estimated at US$10,193,400,000 (The Global Mechanism
and UNCCD, 2013). The extent of land degradation and its
respective costs are increasing, suggesting the need to have more
concerted effort to address the problem. However, there is limited
baseline information on current status of land degradation in
Tanzania which is important in facilitating investment in promoting
sustainable land management (SLM) in the country. The data on
current status and magnitude of land degradation problems in
different parts of Tanzania is outdated and differ from one report to

2
 another leading to uninformed decisions about land management.
There is also limited reliable baseline information which hinders
monitoring and evaluation of land degradation challenges in the
country. It is from this understanding that the establishment of
land degradation status in Tanzania has become a paramount
undertaking. This Report covers the status of land degradation
in Tanzania from 1980 to 2012. Also among others, driving force,
pressure, state, impact and response to land degradation is
examined as well as monitoring and evaluation of the impact of
land degradation. Hence this Report will contribute to addressing
such gap of knowledge.

1.3 Land degradation in a global context

The assessment of land degradation at a global level indicate
that the percentage of total land area that is highly degraded has
increased from 15% in 1991 to 25% by 2011 (FAO, 2011). Land
degradation directly affects 1.5 billion people around the world with
a disproportionate impact on the poor, and has already reduced
the productivity of the world’s terrestrial ecosystems (Nachtergaele
et al., 2010). Desertification and land degradation processes have
accelerated rapidly in the last century, with an estimated 24 billion
tons of fertile soil lost to erosion in the world‘s croplands (FAO,
2011). If the current scenario of land degradation continues over
the next 25 years, it may reduce global food production (IFPRI,
2012). The global food demand cannot be met sustainably without
promoting sustainable land management to restore the fertility of
soil thus securing productivity of the land.

The UNEP World Atlas of Desertification showed that 70% of

agricultural land in the world’s drylands is affected by various
forms of land degradation. (UNEP, 1996) According to Fu (2002),
80% of the East Asia zone has been affected by land degradation.
The assessment of the state of desertification in the Arab region
revealed that most of the land resources are either desertified or
vulnerable to desertification, thus affecting the food security and
development in the region (Abahussain et al. 2002). In Africa, an
estimated 500 million ha of land have undergone soil degradation
since 1950, including 65 per cent of the region’s agricultural land
(UNEP 1999). Over the past 30 years, soil structure has been
damaged, nutrients have been depleted and susceptibility to

3
 erosion has increased (www.unep.org/Dewa/Africa/publications/
aeo-1/174.htm). The main causes of land degradation in Africa
include among others, demographic growth, conflicts and wars with
expanded refugees settlements, inappropriate soil management
practices, deforestation, shifting cultivation, insecurity in land
tenure, climatic conditions variation and intrinsic characteristics of
fragile soils in diverse agro-ecological zones.

1.4 Land degradation in Tanzania

Tanzania is experiencing rapid rates of land degradation extensively
covering all of the agro ecological zones. Land degradation reduces
the ability of lands to render ecosystem goods and services as well
as its capacity to function for a long period of time. However, the
magnitude, rates and negative impact on people’s livelihood and
environment have varied widely across the agro-ecological zones.
It has been estimated that 61% of the total land area in Tanzania is
degraded particularly in arid and semiarid areas including Dodoma,
Shinyanga, Manyara, Singida, Simiyu, Geita and Kilimanjaro
Regions (URT, 1999; URT, 2014b). Such areas are experiencing
loss of land productivity and food insecurity particularly in drought-
prone areas largely caused by land degradation. Besides impacts
of land degradation on food security, it also contributes to pollution
of water bodies such as Mindu Dam (Morogoro), Msimbazi River
(Dar es Salaam), Mirongo River (Mwanza) and Lake Victoria; land
use conflicts involving farmers and livestock keepers in various
parts of the country such as Rufiji (Pwani Region), Kilosa and
Kilombero (Morogoro Region) and Mbarali (Mbeya Region) due to
decline of land productivity; and loss of biodiversity (URT, 2014b).

Land degradation is also experienced in other areas with different

status. In Coast zones the status of land degradation includes
continuous degradation of estuaries and lagoon wetlands, soil
erosion, degradation of physical shoreline and coral reef and
reduction of fisheries resources. In arid lands zone the status of
land degradation includes reducing soil fertility and soil erosion,
deforestation, bush fires and severe land degradation at mine
sites. In Plateaux zone the status of land degradation includes
deforestation of Miombo woodlands, reduction and threat of loss of
biodiversity of fish and wildlife resources, degradation of wetlands
and loss of soil fertility. This is common particularly in Tabora,

4
Rukwa, (North and Centre) Mbeya, North, Kigoma and parts of
Mara in the Western zone. In southern and western highlands
zone, the main causes of land degradation include bushfires,
soil degradation and erosion and deforestation. This is common
especially in parts of Morogoro, Iringa and Mbeya Regions and
the shores of Lake Tanganyika in Kigoma and Kagera Regions. In
the Alluvial zones, the main causes of land degradation include
overgrazing in the Usangu Plains uncontrolled water harvesting
and pollution, deforestation and bush fires, land degradation from
intensive agricultural production and open cast mining.

Degradation caused by salinisation accounts for 1.7 million ha and

the problem is noted more in Dodoma, Singida, Kilimanjaro and
Shinyanga regions. Soil pollution resulting from improper use of
agro-chemicals is also pronounced in Ruvuma and Iringa regions.
(particularly in maize fields). Elemental sulphur dusting in cashew
growing areas to control powdery mildew disease especially in
Mtwara and Lindi Regions (URT, 2014) is also one of the main
sources of pollution in these areas.

The most degraded areas are experiencing loss of land productivity

and food insecurity particularly in drought-prone areas.

Recognizing the impact of land degradation the government

have undertaken several initiatives to address the problem.
Several national strategies and plans have been developed and
implemented to control and manage land degradation. These
include the National Land Use Framework Plan 2011-2031
and National Agriculture Land use Planning and Management
Master Plan (2011). Mainstreaming environmental issues into the
National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP)
II (URT 2010) provides a platform for enhancing implementation
of environmental management agenda. Also land conservation
initiatives were implemented in different parts of the country.
However, some initiatives were successful with good lesson to learn
for future projects, while others have not been very successful. Most
of the early soil and water conservation - the forerunner of SLM -
approaches during the colonial and immediate post-independence
era focused on top-down interventions. These were characterised
by lack of land user’s participation and ‘forced’ implementation of

5
 externally developed measures (typically coercive terracing and
compulsory destocking). Some of the SLM initiatives were faced
with various constraints for success including lack of technical
knowledge, lack of cash to invest in SLM, limited access to inputs,
conflicts over resources, poverty, social inequity and lack of a
supporting environment such as markets, prices, infrastructure
and services and institutional support.

Some of the SLM initiatives have good lesson to learn especially

on issues of community participation in SLM implementation as
well as bottom up approach. Land degradation has to be tackled
holistically and in a multidisciplinary and participatory way in order
to establish links between the driving forces, pressures, the state
and its impact on the people and the environment and responses.

1.5 Types of land degradation

There are various types of land degradation including the following
which are predominant in Tanzania:-

a) Soil erosion
Soil erosion is a major factor for land degradation and has severe
effects on soil functions such as soil’s ability to act as a buffer
and filter for pollutants, its role in plant nutrients restoration and
its ability to provide habitat and support biodiversity. The most
important types of erosion are rain splash, sheet wash and gully
erosion. Overgrazing and livestock routes are the main causes of
sheet and gully erosion, and gully erosion also appears in distinct
zones around inselbergs. It has been observed that water and
wind erosion, respectively, account for 46% and 38% of all the
land degradation (GLASOD, 1988). Bielders et al. (1985) noted
that wind erosion can remove up to 80 tons of soil on one hectare
in a single year especially when the soils are unprotected. Arid
and semiarid areas such as Shinyanga, Singida, Simiyu, Mwanza,
Dodoma regions and parts of Arusha and Kilimanjaro regions are
particularly vulnerable to these problems.

b) Soil nutrient depletion

Smallholder farmers continue to lose nutrients from their farms
without sufficient nutrient replacement. This is a common situation
throughout Tanzania, and it is one of the major types of land
6
degradation in the country. Due to continuous cropping, insufficient
fertilizer application and unsustainable soil management practices,
there has been extensive loss of soil nutrient, such that many soils
have become severely depleted of soil nutrients and hence low
fertility. In Tanzania, it has been estimated that 68% of soils are of
low fertility 23% are of low to medium fertility and 9% of the country
has soils of medium to high fertility (URT, 1999).

Limited restoration of soil nutrients, exhaustion of soil fertility has

contributed to driven widespread abandonment of land, and
consequently expansion of cropland at the expense of woodland
as well as to the marginal areas to compensate for decline in soil
productivity. In most cases nutrient depletion occurs in association
with other types of land degradation.

c) Deforestation and Forest degradation

Deforestation is an important form of vegetation change that may
imply land degradation, depending on how the land is utilised. It is
the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter
converted to non forest use, for example, conversion of forest land
to farms, ranches and settlements. The main drivers to deforestation
and forest degradation include population growth, economic
growth, biofuel crop farming, climate change, unsustainable
farming practices, poverty and energy demand. Deforestation
for tobacco curing in most of the miombo woodlands have been
another pressures on forest lands of historical significance.
Furthermore, pressure is exerted by the harvest of wood resources
for use in construction, drying fish and brick-making, and logging.
Uncontrolled deforestation is depleting the resource at a faster
rate than it is being regenerated or renewed leaving the soils less
covered/ bare and become vulnerable to soil erosion agents.
Deforestation and forest degradation has contributed to land
degradation which has been manifested by soil erosion and loss
of land productive potential. Tanzania has experienced rapid rate
of deforestation and forest degradation but estimates of magnitude
and rate of deforestation have varied extensively. The Ministry of
Natural Resource and Tourism estimated the deforestation rate to be
about 400,000 ha per year (MNRT, 2013). The rate of deforestation
is high compared to the replenishment of the forest resources.

7
 d) Rangeland degradation
Rangeland degradation consists of a reduction in the quantity and/
or nutritional quality of the vegetation available for grazing. It also
includes decline of palatable species. The prospect of increased
rangeland degradation is common to all dry land areas especially
in semi-arid and sub-humid areas which are characterised by
high livestock population. While there is evidence of rangeland
degradation in many parts of Tanzania, the rate and magnitude
of rangeland degradation is not adequately known. There is very
limited studies/ research to quantify the magnitude and extent of
land degradation. Hence efforts need to be directed in this area.
The Causes of rangeland degradation include climatic conditions
causing drought and human factors leading to the overuse of
natural resources. Example of rangeland degradation included
Usangu rangeland, Simanjiro and parts of Dodoma as well as in
Masai rangeland.

1.6 Objective of the Report

The objective of this Report is to establish baseline information and
main indicators on land degradation in Tanzania from 1980 to 2012
including land cover, areas mostly affected, factors contributing
to land degradation and extent of land degradation in the country.

8
2.0 COUNTRY PROFILE

2.1 Geography
The United Republic of Tanzania which is constituted of Mainland
Tanzania and Zanzibar is the largest country in East Africa. It is
located between Latitude 1˚ and 12˚ South and Longitude 29˚ and
41˚ East (URT, 2012a). It is bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the
North; Rwanda, Burundi and Democratic Republic of Congo to the
West; Zambia and Malawi to the South West; Mozambique to the
South; and Indian Ocean to the East (Figure 1). Mainland Tanzania
borders the main water bodies of Africa. To the east is the Indian
Ocean, to the north Lake Victoria, to the west Lake Tanganyika
and to the south-west Lake Nyasa. Mainland Tanzania also has the
highest point in Africa, the snow caped Mount Kilimanjaro which is
5,950 metres high.

The United Republic of Tanzania covers a total area of 945,087 km2

out of which 881,289 km2 cover mainland and 2,460 km2 Zanzibar
Islands, plus 59,050 km2 inland water bodies (URT 2007). Tanzania
mainland encompasses major island of Mafia and Zanzibar consists
of Unguja and Pemba islands.

9
 Figure 1: Map of the United Republic of Tanzania showing international and
regional administrative boundaries
(Source: URT, 2014b)

2.2 Climate
The climate of Tanzania varies from place to place in accordance
with geographical location, altitude, relief and vegetation cover.

a) Rainfall
Tanzania is characterised by two main rainfall patterns which
influence many of the livelihood activities in the country. The rainfall
patterns are namely the long rains and the short rains which are
associated with the southward and northwards movement of the
Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The long rains (Masika)
begin in mid March to end of May, while the short rains (Vuli) begin
in the middle of October and continue to early December. The
northern part of the country including area around Lake Victoria
Basin, North-Eastern Highland and the Northern Coast experience
bimodal rainfall regime, whereby the first maximum occur in the
period of March, April and May while, the second maximum in the
period of October, November and December. Central, South and
Western areas have a prolonged unimodal rainfall regime starting
10
from November continue to the end of April. Annual rainfall varies
from 550 mm in the central part of the country up to 3,690 mm in
some parts of south-western highlands. The average duration of
the dry season is 5 to 6 months. However, recently, rainfall pattern
has become much more unpredictable with some areas/zones
receiving extremely minimum and maximum rainfall per year.
Spatial distribution of mean annual rainfall is presented in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Spatial distribution of mean annual rainfall (1970 - 2000)

Source: Modified from URT (2014)

Most parts of the country receive less than 1,000 mm, except
highlands and parts of the extreme south and west where 1,400 –
2,000 mm can be expected. Average rainfall in the central regions
is around 600mm. Generally the diversity of topography as well as
other physical factors contributes to the observed wide range of
rainfall patterns.

b) Temperature
Tanzania experiences wide range of temperature due variation
in geographical location, relief and altitude. According to URT
(2014b) along the coast and in the off-shore islands the average

11
temperatures ranges between 27°C and 29°C, while in the central,
northern and western parts temperatures range between 20°C and
30°C. Temperatures are higher between the months of December
and March and coolest during the months of June and July. In
the Southern highlands and mountainous areas of the north and
northeast, temperature occasionally drops below 15°C at night,
and in the cold months on June and July sub-zero temperatures can
also be experienced. Spatial patterns of mean annual maximum
(Tmax) and minimum temperature (Tmin) are presented in Figure
3 and Figure 4 respectively. Distribution of Tmin is identical to that
of Tmax, with lower values of Tmin centered in the south-western
and north-eastern highlands. Mbeya, Iringa, Njombe, Arusha and
Kilimanjaro are the coolest regions characterized by mean annual
Tmin values which are less than 15°C. Coastal areas including Dar
es Salaam, Tanga, Mtwara, Zanzibar and Pemba are characterized
by relatively higher values (>20°C) of mean annual Tmin (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Mean annual temperature.

Source: Modified from URT (2014b)

12
 Figure 4: Mean annual minimum temperature.
Source: Modified from URT, 2014

c) Winds
The climate of Tanzania is influenced by the monsoon winds, the
southerly monsoons and the northerly monsoons. The southerly
monsoons begin in April ending in September and they are usually
strong and predominantly southerly. They are characterised with
lower temperatures (approximately 25°C) and bring the long rains
(Masika) from March to May. The northerly monsoons begin in
November ending in February. These are lighter winds and
are predominantly northerly which are characterised with high
air temperatures (>30°C) and bring the lighter rains (Vuli) from
November to December.

13
2.3 Topography
Tanzania is characterised by coastal plains; a plateau in the central
area that ranges between 1,000 and 1,500 meters above sea level
(m. a.s.l.); highlands in the north-east and south west characterized
by mountain ranges and peaks; river and lake basins and the Great
East African Rift Valley.
a) Coastal Plains and features
The coastline of Tanzania Mainland extends for about 800 km
long from the border with Kenya in the north to the border with
Mozambique in the South. About two thirds of the coastline
has fringing reefs, often close to the shoreline, broken by river
outlets such as the Rufiji Delta, Pangani, Ruvuma, Wami and
Ruvu. The continental shelf extends to 5.8 – 10 km offshore,
with exception of the Zanzibar and Mafia channels where
the shelf extends for more than 25 km. The area of the shelf
to the 200 m depth contour for both mainland Tanzania and
Zanzibar combined is about 30,000 km2. The islands within the
continental shelf include Unguja, Pemba and Mafia as well as
numerous small islands, islets and sand dunes surrounded by
reefs such as Latham, Tutia, Songosongo and Mbudya. Unguja
and Mafia are limestone islands on the continental shelf and
were probably part of a Pleistocene inshore coral reef system
now separated from the mainland by relatively shallow water
channels of about 30 – 50 m in depth.

b) Plateaux
Plateau is in the central area of the country, which is part of
the East African Plateau. It ranges between 1,000 and 1,500
meters above sea level (m.a.s.l.) and is characterised by
gently sloping plains and plateau broken by scattered hills
and low-lying wetlands. The southern half of this plateau is
grassland within the Eastern Miombo woodlands ecoregion,
the majority of which is covered by the huge Selous National
Park. Further north the plateau is arable land and includes the
national capital, Dodoma. Except for the coastal belt, most of
the country is part of the Central African plateau, 1000 - 1500
m. a.s.l., characterized by gently sloping plains and plateaux
broken by scattered hills and low-lying wetlands (Morgan 1969;
Berry & Berry 1971).

14
c) Highlands and mountains
Tanzania is characterized by highlands with several mountain
ranges and peaks. The northeast border with Kenya is
dominated by Mt. Meru (4,565 m.a.s.l.) and Mt. Kilimanjaro
(5,895 m.a.s.l.) the latter being the highest point in Africa.
Both of these mountains are dormant volcanic mountains. In
the eastern part of the country there are two important block
mountains, namely the Usambara and Pare Mountain ranges
being part of the famously known as the Eastern Arc Mountains.
In the south, the country is dominated by the mountain range of
the Southern Highlands which separates the Eastern plateau
from the rest of the country and they include Livingstone,
Kipengere, Udzungwa and Uluguru. Southwards, is the Central
Plateau reaching elevations 2,000 m.a.s.l.

d) River and lake basins

Tanzania is divided into five major drainage systems: the
Indian Ocean Drainage System; the Internal Drainage of Lakes
Eyasi, Natron and Bubu Depression Complex; the Internal
Drainage of Lake Rukwa; the Atlantic Ocean Drainage; and
the Mediterranean Sea Drainage System. These systems
have been further divided into nine river and lake basins. The
nine drainage water basins are Pangani Basin, Wami/Ruvu
Basin, Rufiji Basin, Ruvuma and the Southern Coast Basin,
Lake Nyasa Basin, the Internal Drainage Basins of Lake Eyasi,
Manyara and Bubu depression, Lake Rukwa Basin, Lake
Tanganyika Basin, and Lake Victoria Basin. Lake Tanganyika
forms the lowest point in the country, which is 358 meters below
sea level. Tanzania’s main rivers include the Pangani, Rufiji,
Wami, Ruvu and Ruvuma.

e) Rift valley
The Great Rift Valley that runs from north-east of Africa through
Central Tanzania, is another landmark that adds to the scenic
view of the country. The rift valley runs to south of Tanzania
splitting at Lake Nyasa; The Eastern Rift Valley runs through
central Tanzania dotted with lakes such as Lake Natron,
Manyara and Eyasi, while the Western branch runs from
Lake Nyasa along Lake Rukwa and Tanganyika and ends to

15
 the western part of Uganda. Volcanics and carbonatites are
associated with both the Eastern and the Western Rift systems.
Lacustrine sediments fill large parts of the rift valleys (van
Straaten, 2002).

2.4 Geology and Soils

The description of geology and soil types in Tanzania provides
the basis for relating soil properties and parental material to land
degradation. The general geology of Tanzania comprises mainly of
the Precambrian. The Precambrian rocks underlie most of central
and western Tanzania. Archean granite and greenstone rock
assemblages form the central nucleus of the country, the Tanzania
Craton. The Tanzanian Craton covers the central part of the territory
up to south and east part of Lake Victoria. The craton is surrounded
by Proterozoic belts: the Paleoproterozoic Usagaran-Ubendian
belt, and the Mesoproterozoic Kibaran (Karagwe-Akolean).

The Neoproterozoic Mozambique Belt occurs in the eastern part of

the country. Parts of the Usagaran-Ubendian belt were rejuvenated
during the Neoproterozoic to early Cambrian Pan-African thermo-
tectonic event. Shallow water sediments of the Neoproterozoic
(900-800 million years) Malagarasi Super group underlie parts
of western Tanzania. The Karoo basin crosses southern Tanzania
in a north-easterly direction. Mesozoic and younger marine
sediments occur along the coast. Soils are strongly influenced
by the underlying geology and geomorphic history. The country
has 19 dominant soil types which occur in different geographical
areas (de Pauw, 1983). The distribution of the different soil groups
in Tanzania is shown on Figure 5.

Cambisols are the most extensive soils in the country; covering

35.64% of the area (see Figure 5). They occur mainly in the mid-
western and south-eastern parts of the country. The Reference Soil
Group of the Cambisols holds soils with incipient soil formation.
Beginning transformation of soil material is evident from weak,
mostly brownish discolouration and/or structure formation below
the surface horizon. The parent material include medium and fine-
textured materials derived from a wide range of rocks, mostly in
colluvial, alluvial or aeolian deposits. Cambisols are characterized
by slight or moderate weathering of parent material and by

16
absence of appreciable quantities of illuviated clay, organic matter,
and aluminium and/or iron compounds. The other dominant soils
by percentage coverage include Acrisols which are second most
extensive soils in the country covering 8.63% of soils. They occur
in Mara, Tabora, Singida, Dodoma, Tanga, Kilimanjaro, Morogoro,
Iringa, Mbeya, Ruvuma, Lindi and Mtwara regions.

The Reference Soil Group of the Acrisols holds soils that are
characterized by accumulation of low activity clays in an agric
subsurface horizon and by a low base saturation level. Preservation
of the surface soil with its all-important organic matter is a
precondition for farming on Acrisols. Adapted cropping systems
with complete fertilization and careful management are required if
sedentary farming is to be practiced on Acrisols.

Leptosols are the third largest soils in terms of covering 8.11%

soils in the country. They are mostly associated with mountainous
landscapes and steep terrains, particularly in Kagera, Arusha,
Singida, Dodoma, Mbeya, Rukwa, Iringa and Lindi regions.
Important land uses are extensive grazing and stone quarrying.
They are suitable for forestry and nature conservation.

Luvisols are other important soils covering 7.26% of the soils in

the country. They occur in Morogoro, Dodoma, Arusha, Manyara,
Kilimanjaro, Tanga and Ruvuma regions. Luvisols have high activity
clays and lack the abrupt textural change of Planosols, albeluvic
tonguing as in Albeluvisols, a mollic surface horizon as in steppe
soils, and the alic properties of Alisols. Luvisols are fertile soils and
suitable for a wide range of agricultural uses. Other soil groups and
their proportional coverage include Ferralsols (6.32%), Vertisols
(5.02%) and Lixisols (4.95%).

17
18
 The coastal zone is mainly covered with deep, sandy to heavy
textured soils with moderate to high available water content. Most of
the central and western plateau areas are mantled by sandy loams
of low nutrient content and low water holding capacity. Drought-
prone soils cover a great part of the northern portion of the country,
including the Masai steppe and the south eastern plateau. Eroded
land and deeply weathered soils, susceptible to erosion, occur on
hill or mountain slopes and in the central highlands.

Well drained, volcanic soils of high ash content are found in the
northern rift zone and the volcanic areas in the northern and
southern highlands. Generally, these are heavy textured, moderate
to well drained, with moderate to high moisture storing properties.
The soils of the western highlands are developed on basaltic or
argillaceous rocks, and are well drained with good moisture holding
properties. Those soils developed over sandstone are sandy to
loamy and have low fertility (de Pauw, 1983).

2.5 Vegetation
The country is comprised of scattered wooded grasslands
throughout. There are, however, several other types of flora varying
from region to region. For instance, there are dense forests of
hardwood and softwood trees in the places where rainfall is high;
where rainfall is less and the land dry bushes and thickets thrive;
the highlands are grassy expanses and the coastal regions are
blanketed with mangroves. Generally, land cover is dominated by
woodland, grassland and bush land, which account for about 80%
of the total land area.

Tanzania Mainland has a total forest area of 48 million ha (55% of

the total land area), of which 93% is covered by woodlands and
only 3% is covered by forests (mangroves, coastal forests, humid
montane forest and plantations) (TFS, 2013). Almost half of the
total volume is found in protected areas and therefore legally not
accessible for extraction. There are three types of natural forests
miombo woodlands, montane forests and mangroves. There are
more than 20 million ha of the miombo ecosystem. The montane
forests which are located in the mountainous areas cover about
2 million hectares of land. Mangrove forests are found along the
coastal belt from Mtwara region in Southern Tanzania to Tanga

19
 Region in the North covering more than 115,000 hectares of land
stretched over more than 800 km. Forests serve as a source of
fodder for livestock and support the development of other sectors
(including agriculture and tourism) through provision of water
resources and catchments, maintain hydrological balance and soil
protection, among other functions.

Grasslands encompass diverse ecological conditions such as

arid, semi-arid to sub-humid ranges, humid plateau lands, humid
low lands and highlands influenced by varying altitudes, climate
conditions and rainfall patterns. Extensive grazing is common in
the northern arid lands, the Masai steppe and the central semi-arid
lands. Open access to grazing is also common in communal and
public lands. In some areas overgrazing has depleted grass cover,
thus increasing soil erosion and uncontrolled movement of herders
from northern to the Southwest regions.

2.6 Human population density

The 2012 Population and Housing Census showed that the
Population of Tanzania increased from 23.1 million in 1988 to
43.6 million in 2012 with an average growth rate of 2.7 percent
per annum (URT 2012b). The population projections show that
Tanzania is expected to reach 63.5 million in 2025 (URT, 2006).
The proportion of the population aged below 15 years was about
44 percent while those aged 65 years and above was 4 percent,
indicating that Tanzania has a young population. The active labour
force which constitutes population aged between 15 and 64 is
equivalent to about 53%. An important feature of the population
profile is its spatial distribution over the national territory. The
analysis of population distribution by region carried out on all
past censuses indicates that about two-thirds of the population is
concentrated in a quarter of the land area.

Tanzania is sparsely populated with population density of 51

persons per square kilometre with variation across regions. Persons
are concentrated in Dar es Salaam and Mjini Magharibi regions
with population densities of 3,133 and 2,581 persons per square
kilometre, respectively. Regions with lowest population densities
are Katavi (12 persons per square kilometre) and Lindi (13 persons
per square kilometre). The majority of the population (about 70 per

20
 cent of all Tanzanians) still lives in rural areas. However, the urban
population has been growing at a rapid rate of more than 5 per
cent per annum over the past three decades. This rapid growth
has been caused mainly by rural-urban migration than any other
factor High population is also found in area with high agricultural
potential including southern and Northern highlands.

2.7 Livestock population

Tanzania is endowed with abundant natural resources, which include
land, forage and a large livestock resource base. According to URT
(2008), out of the total 88.6 million hectares of land resource, 60
million hectares are rangelands suitable for livestock grazing, able
to carry up to 20 million Livestock Units. However, due to tsetse
infestation and other constraints, only 40% of the rangelands are
utilized for grazing 18.5 million cattle; 13.1 million goats and 3.6
million sheep. Other major livestock species kept in the country
include 1.2 million pigs and 53 million poultry. More than 90% of
the livestock population in the country is of indigenous types kept
in the traditional sector, having a characteristically low productivity
yet well adapted to the existing harsh environment including
resistance to diseases (URT 2008).

Livestock is among the major agricultural sub-sectors in Tanzania.

Out of the 4.9 million agricultural households, about 36% are
keeping livestock (35% are engaged in both crop and livestock
production while 1% are purely livestock keepers). The industry
accounted for 5.9 percent to total GDP in 2006, of which beef,
dairy and other stock provided 40%, 30% and 30% respectively.
High livestock population coupled with alienation of grasslands for
agriculture and ranching have contributed to the concentration of
the nation herd in small areas. Drought causes herd concentration
in areas of water availability resulting in severe overgrazing and
damage to affected areas. Although semi-arid areas are not
suitable for agriculture due to scanty rainfall, marginal farmers are
increasingly encroaching these areas and thus resulting in conflict
over land use and hardship for the pastoralists.

21
3.0 METHODOLOGY AND APPROACH

3.1 Methodology
a) Literature review
This involved collection and review of the existing background
information (secondary data) on the bio-physical (including land
degradation data, vegetation, soils) and socio-economic (including
poverty and livelihoods data) characteristics of the country
available from government and other sources. The literature review
also included assessment of various policies and legal framework
national development strategies, national action plans as well as
projects reports which have relevance to land degradation and
sustainable land management issues.

b) Image analysis and processing

In the assessment of the status of land degradation Geographical
information system and remote sensing tools were used to process
and analyse land cover/use changes as well as mapping areas with
land degradation. LandSat TM (Thematic Mapper ) and LandSat
ETM + (Enhanced Thematic Mapper) imageries acquired in
1980 and 2012 respectively were used. The images used have
a resolution of 30m by 30m and were taken between June and
October. The image analysis and processing involved three main
stages as described below:

i) Image processing
Image processing was done by removing all noises which
may interfere image interpretation, Radiometric and geometric
correction. Radiometric correction was employed to reduce the
influence of errors or inconsistencies in image brightness values
that may limit an ability to interpret or quantitatively process
and analyse digital remotely sensed images. The process
enabled to enhance and improve the quality of images for
better data extraction. Geometric correction was also done to
remove internal and external distortions, to identify the location
of each pixel on the earth by overlaying with other reference
data such as topographical maps. Image projection also was

22
 precisely employed by projecting all images from northern to
southern part since all the images was defined in the northern
part instead of southern part. All these process was done using
ERDAS IMAGINE V11 which is the powerful software for image
processing.

ii) Image interpretation

The image interpretation was employed to map all the land
cover and land use exist on the ground based on its colour,
shape, size, texture, association and pattern. Supervised
classification method was applied by defining the signature of
each land cover/use using ERDAS IMAGINE and the obtained
output after classification was exported to ArcMap for final
analysis.

iii) Image analysis

After images classification, the obtained vector data was
analysed using ArcGIS V10. Overlaying analysis was done by
comparing land cover 1980 and 2012 to identify the changes in
land cover and use whereby the area of each land cover was
computed to detect changes. Land cover change detection was
generated for easy identification of changes as well as graphs
using Microsoft Excel. The summary of images processing and
analysis is presented in figure 6.

23
Figure 6: Image processing and analysis
24
All satellite images were taken during the dry season so that
contrasts between the cover/use types are readily recognizable and
comparable for these different data sets... Satellite image analysis
for Land sat TM of 1980 was complemented by secondary data
and consultation to form the basis for land degradation baseline.
Beside the identification of the type of natural vegetation, the
main indicators are the percentage of barren areas or with limited
vegetation cover as compared with areas covered with primary
natural vegetation.

c) Consultations, Field Survey and Ground Truthing

Assessment
Stakeholder consultations dealing with land, environmental and
natural resources conservation were also consulted in order to
gain their experiences on the various initiatives which have been
undertaken to address land degradation problems in Tanzania.
Furthermore local assessment was undertaken to provide
information on cause, impacts and initiatives undertaken to address
land degradation in Tanzania. This was complemented by actual
assessment of limited number of biophysical indicators in the field..

Since it was practically impossible to cover the whole country for

field survey and ground truthing because of time and financial
factors, only representative areas were consulted based on the
agro-ecological zones. Such districts included Korogwe , Same,
Moshi, Meatu, Maswa, Sengerema, Kondoa, Iramba , Babati,
Simanjiro, Singida Rural, Kongwa, Bahi Ngara and Kilosa. Also key
government ministries and institutions were consulted including
Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development, Ministry of
Agriculture, Food Security and Cooperatives, Ministry of Lands and
Human Settlement Development (NLUPC) and Vice Presidents’
Office (Division of Environment), and Sokoine University of
Agriculture (Department of Animal Science and Production).

On the basis of information from data sources indicated above,

stratification from seven agro-ecological zones were undertaken
through which hotspot and bright spot areas to land degradation
and different pressure indicators were identified. Hot and bright
spot areas were used for cost-effective and timely land degradation
assessment.

25
 The qualitative information obtained from different consulted
sources were analysed using content analysis and used for
further confirmation of degraded areas obtained from the image
interpretation and analysis. Also ground truthing was used for the
same purposes to confirm different land use/covers types deduced
from the image interpretation.

3.2 Land Degradation Analytical Framework

There are various land degradation analytical frameworks which
include Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), Strategic
Environmental Analysis (SEA), Sustainable Rural Livelihoods
Approach (SRL) and Driving Force, Pressure, State, Impact
and Response (DPSIR Framework. However, in this context the
assessment of land degradation has employed DPSIR framework
(Figure 7). The analytical framework has been widely used in the
assessment of land degradation in some geographical areas
such as in the drylands. It is clear and simple, with five concepts
that are readily obvious to stakeholders. It also provides clear
understanding of land degradation, its causes and consequences
as well as simplifying the complex connections between humans
and the environment. It is a flexible framework that can be used in
the decision-making process.

26
 HUMAN SOCIETY
DRIVING FORCES IMPACT

� Change in human well-being

� Incidence of poverty
- Poverty
� Population growth
� Land tenure
RESPONSE - Migration
� Climate change � Demographic, Social and
Formal and informal
� Farming systems Material factors determining
adaptation of
� Political and social environmental change human well-being
instability including
� Investment in SWC, � Environmental factors
  Education determining human well-
� Infrastructure being
development - Habitat destruction
� Rehabilitation - Loss of vegetation
� Policy and law - Silting of dams
PRESSURE - Loss of biodiversity
harmonization
� - Desertification
� Overgrazing
� Inadequate land
use & land
management
� Deforestation
� Wildfires
� Urbanization
STATE AND TRENDS
  � Natural Capital
� Atmosphere, Land, Water
and Biosphere
� Land cover change
� Land productivity decline
� Salinization
� Decline of biodiversity
� Soil erosion
� Soil acidification
� Loss of vegetation
� Soil pollution

Figure 7: Driving
Figure Force,Force,
7: Driving Pressure, State,State,
Pressure, Impact and Response
Impact (DPSIR
and Response (DPSIR
Framework)
Source: ModifiedFramework)
from UNEP (2006)
Source: Modified from UNEP (2006)
In the framework, demographic, social and economic developments are “driving
forces”, conditioning the land use and land management (e.g. farming systems) that
In the framework, demographic, social and economic developments
cause
aredirect “pressure” forces”,
“driving on land resources. The “state” ofthe
conditioning land refers
land to use
its biophysical
and land
characteristics (e.g. land cover, fertility, depth of top soil,
management (e.g. farming systems) that cause direct “pressure” humidity, etc.). Any
modification
on landin resources.
the “state” of The
land “state”
resources of thus has refers
land an “impact” (positive
to its or
biophysical
characteristics
negative) (e.g. land cover,
on the flow of environmental fertility,
services. When the depth ofreaches
“impact” top soil, humidity,
a certain
etc.). Any modification in the “state” of land resources thus has
27
  an “impact” (positive or negative) on the flow of environmental
services. When the “impact” reaches a certain threshold, it elicits
society’s “response” which can be at different levels: This may
entail restore or reclaim land (directly modify the “state” of land

27
resources); adopt land use and land management techniques to
ecological potentialities (reduce the “pressure” on land); change
the development pattern and enabling conditions, in order to
make sustainable land management the preferred option for all
stakeholders (reorient the “driving forces”).

28
4.0 POLICY, LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
FOR SUSTAINABLE LAND MANAGEMENT

Tanzania has various policies and legal framework which some of them
are relevant and appropriate for intervention to land degradation and
sustainable land management issues. The following are some of the
policies and legal framework relevant to land degradation.

4.1 National Policies

a) National Environmental Policy (1997)
The overall objectives of the Policy, among others, are to prevent
and control degradation of land vegetation and air which plays
important role in supporting our life system. It also aimed at ensuring
sustainability and equitable use of resources in addressing the
basic needs of present and future generation without degrading
the environment. The Policy focuses at improving the condition
and productivity of degraded area. Furthermore it emphasizes
the need to conserve and enhance the natural resources and
manmade heritage including the biological diversity of the unique
ecosystems of Tanzania. It recognises major environmental
concerns in the country including land degradation, loss of
biodiversity and wildlife habitat; deforestation; deterioration of
aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems; and environmental pollution,
particularly in urban areas.

The Policy is relevant to land degradation and sustainable land

management aspects. The issues raised by the policy have serious
implication on the control of land degradation and sustainable
land management as it addresses the need to manage our natural
resources sustainably and to maintain the environmental integrity.

b) National Water Policy (2002)

The Policy provides a comprehensive framework for promoting
optimal, sustainable, and equitable development and use of water
resources. The policy seeks to ensure supply of good quality water
to meet domestic, environmental and other priority development
needs. According to URT (2002), emphasis is placed on the need
to ensure more efficient utilization of water resources through
proper soil management to prevent soil erosion and flooding, and
29
improved monitoring to control water quality and contamination.
These objectives require an integrated and holistic planning
approach. The policy advocates the need to conserve water
sources via integrated water resources management (IWRM) as
a way to ensure water sources are conserved. The Policy also
emphasizes on planning and implementation of water resources
and other; development programmes in an integrated manner and
in ways that protect water catchment areas and their vegetation
cover; improved management and conservation of wetlands.

The issues raised in the Policy are very relevant to land degradation
intervention and sustainable land management since among others
emphasizes integrated water resources management approaches
and conservation of the environment, ecological system and
biodiversity.

c) National Wildlife Policy (2007)

The Policy promotes effective participation of all stakeholders,
especially local communities and the private sector, in the
management and conservation of Tanzania’s wildlife resources. It
provides for protection of water catchments for wildlife water supply;
conservation of biodiversity; protection of fragile ecosystems; and
restoration of degraded habitats for flora and fauna. The Policy
also promotes sustainable management and use of wetlands, most
of which are located in game reserves or areas adjacent to game
reserves.

Although the Policy does not refer directly to land degradation

impacts on wildlife, it acknowledges the indirect threat posed
through rising conflicts over land and the loss of wildlife habitats.
It also recognizes the need to conserve areas with great biological
diversity which are representative of the major habitats of Tanzania
and to continue to support, and where necessary, enlarge the
protected area network as the core of conservation activities.

d) National Agricultural Policy (2013)

The Policy aims at addressing challenges that continue to hamper
the development of the agricultural sector, including low productivity
of factors of production, overdependence on rain-fed agriculture,
inadequate participation of the private sector and environmental

30
degradation and diseases. One of this Policy’s objectives is the
promotion and protection of integrated and sustainable utilization
of agricultural lands. The Policy statements emphasize, among
others:

• Promote public awareness on existing policies, laws and

legislation on land;

• Enforce laws and legislation to enhance land resource

management and conflict resolution as well as supporting
gender-equitable land tenure governance;

• Ensure agricultural lands are protected against encroachment

as well as promote sustainable agricultural land use plans.

The Policy has bearing to land degradation and sustainable land

management aspects since the agro-pastoralist and crop cultivators
are involved in rangeland utilization as well as crop land cultivation
which some of their activities are linked to land degradation
as it contribute to overgrazing and soil erosion. The policy
promotes environmental conservation through discouragement
of unsustainable agricultural practices including slash and burn
practices; cultivation to sensitive and marginal lands. Furthermore it
fosters improvement of land husbandry through soil erosion control
and soil fertility improvement, activities contributing to sustainable
land management.

e) National Land Policy (1995)

The purpose of the Policy is to promote and ensure a secure land
tenure system and to encourage the optimal use of land resources
without compromising the ecological balance. The policy governs
land tenure, land use management, and administration. The
policy provides for protection of sensitive areas including water
catchments, rivers, lakes, river banks, lake shores, beaches,
forests, wetlands, mountains, national heritage and fragile
biodiversity areas, and seasonal wildlife migration routes. The
policy requires that such areas (or parts of them) should not be
allocated to individuals. The national land policy recognizes the
need for protecting environmentally sensitive areas.

31
f) National Livestock Policy (2006)
The Policy addresses issues of utilization of rangelands for
sustainable livestock production which is hampered by seasonal
variations of quality and quantity of forage, uncontrolled burning,
overstocking and overgrazing, incomplete designation of grazing
lands, tsetse and tick infestation. Weak pastoral and agro-pastoral
organizations, inadequate livestock support services, credit
facilities, socio-economic services and weak infrastructure also
limit utilization of rangelands. The objective of the Policy is to
improve rangeland management and utilization in order to support
sustainable productivity of livestock and improvement of pastoral
and agro-pastoral livelihoods. To do so the Policy intends to:

• Promote inventory, identification, protection, management and

use of rangeland resources.

• Support and strengthen technical support services on rangeland

management in collaboration with other stakeholders.

• Establish and promote livestock infrastructure in rangeland

areas.

• Promote appropriate forage conservation practices for dry

season feeding.

• Strengthen Livestock Early Warning System (LEWS) for disaster

management and impending forage shortage;

The improvement of livestock infrastructure as well as sustainable

management of rangeland and improvement of the livestock
production system is very relevant and provide appropriate
intervention since will reduce the problem of overgrazing and soil
erosion, consequently addressing the problem of land degradation.

g) Irrigation Policy (2010)

The objective of the Policy is to have irrigation systems which are
economically viable, socially acceptable and environmentally
sustainable. To achieve this objective the policy has to guarantee
environmental issues are addressed in all irrigation interventions
in accordance with Environmental Management Act (EMA 2004.)
Plans for irrigation schemes should ensure compliance to relevant

32
legislation; protecting and conserving water and land resources;
pollution control in irrigated agriculture; and promotion of proper
land use practices. Although this Policy does not explicitly mention
land degradation but it addresses environmental issues that have
relevance to the control of land degradation.

h) National Forestry Policy (1998)

The aim of the policy is to enhance the contribution of the forest sector
to the sustainable development of Tanzania and the conservation
and management of natural resources for the benefit of present
and future generations. This goal is to be realized through effective
management of forest area, conservation of forest biodiversity,
water catchments and soil fertility, and enhancing national capacity
to manage and develop the forest sector in collaboration with other
stakeholders. The policy provides the foundation for Participatory
Forest Management (PFM) and encourages community and
private sector involvement in forest management through village
land forest reserves, individual, group and community forests.

i) Energy Policy (2003)

The objective of the energy policy is to develop an energy system
that can readily produce, procure, transport, and distribute energy
to end-users in an environmentally friendly and gender sensitive
manner. It is anticipated that the occupants of the proposed facilities
will be sensitized about the use of appropriate and efficient energy
sources in order to maintain the quality of the environment. The
policy promotes the use of natural gas and electricity instead of
fuel wood (charcoal and firewood). The policy also emphasizes on
development of alternative energy sources and ensures efficient
utilization of woodfuel; promotion of sustainable renewable energy
sources and energy efficiency and conservation. The policy has
relevance to land degradation and sustainable land management
since it promote use of alternative energy sources as well as
efficient energy sources which will reduce high dependency on
charcoal and firewood, factors contributing to deforestation and
forest degradation.

33
4.2 Legal Framework
There are several legal and regulatory instruments which are relevant
to control land degradation and sustainable land management in
Tanzania. Some of them are discussed below.

a) The Environmental Management Act No. 20 of 2004

The Act provides a framework for sustainable management of
the environment and repeals all earlier laws and provisions that
are inconsistent with it on environmental matters. The Act is a
comprehensive management act that includes provisions for
institutional roles and responsibilities with regard to environmental
management; principle for management; impact and risk
assessments; strategic environmental assessment; prevention
and control of pollution; waste management; environmental quality
standards; public participation in environmental decision-making,
raise environmental awareness and collect and disseminate
environmental information; compliance and enforcement;
implementation of international instruments on environment; state
of the environment reporting; implementation of the National
Environment Policy; establishment of the national environmental
trust fund; and to provide for other related matters.

b) The Land Use Planning Act No. 6 of 2007

The Act provides for the procedures for preparation, administration
and enforcement of land use plans; to repeal the National Land
Use Planning Commission Act and to provide for related matters.
Clearly the Act has distinctive authorities of land use planning in
Tanzania laid down with their functions and powers. Among other
things, the Act stipulates measures to ensure that Government
policies, including those for development and conservation of
land, are in harmony. It also takes adequate account of the effects
of policies on land use. The Act encourages the development of
technology to prevent or minimize adverse effects that endanger
people’s health and welfare. It specifies standards, norms, and
criteria for the protection and maintenance of land. The Act can
place restrictions on the locations of any development provided
that has serious impact on the environment including ground and
surface water pollution.

34
c) The Mining Act No. 14 of 2010
The Act provides for regulation of prospecting for minerals, mining,
processing and dealing in minerals. The Act requires all holders of
mining licenses to take appropriate measures for the protection of
the environment in accordance with the Environmental Management
Act which require among others to undertake environmental impact
assessment in mining.

d) The Wildlife Conservation Act No. 5 of 2009

The Act aims at better provisions for the conservation, management,
protection and sustainable utilization of wildlife and wildlife products;
to repeal the Wildlife Conversation Act Cap. 283; provides for
establishment and management of Wildlife Management Area and
benefit sharing; provides for management plans, environmental
impact assessment, wildlife impact assessment and environmental
audit and monitoring; and to provide for other related matters. The
Act has provision for establishment and management of protected
areas in mainland Tanzania. Under this Act, the President of the
United Republic of Tanzania may declare game reserves and the
Minister of Natural Resources and Tourism may declare game
controlled area while wetlands reserves and wetlands areas shall
be established by Regulations. The Wildlife Conservation Act
also provides rules relative to trade in wildlife products and to
breeding of wildlife as it also does designation of wildlife corridors,
dispersal areas, buffer zones and migratory routes. Furthermore,
in the wake of the new Wildlife Policy, which stipulates for villagers’
involvement in Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs), the Act also
provides modalities and procedures for designation, operation and
involvement of local communities in the management of WMAs.

e) The Forest Act No. 14 of 2002

This is an Act to provide for the management of forests, to repeal
certain laws relating to forests; provide for undertaking Environmental
Impact Assessments of the required certain development projects;
provide for establishment of forest management plan for all types
of forest for the purpose of its best endeavours to achieve the
sustainable management of the forest reserve over the periods of
time; and designates Community Forest Reserves, Mangrove Forest
Reserves and encourages community-based management and for

35
related matters. The Forest Act governs protection, conservation,
management and utilization of forests and forest products in
Tanzania. The Act also defines restrictions and prohibitions relevant
to forest reserves and reserved (threatened) trees.

f) The Land Act No. 4 and the Village Land Act No. 5 of
1999
The Land Act and Village Land Act are the principle legislations
governing all land matters in Tanzania. The Land Act signifies that
land in Tanzania is public land and remain vested in the President
as trustee for and on behalf of all citizens of Tanzania. Both acts
seek to control land use and clarify controversial issues pertaining
to ownership of land and land-based resources, transactions on
land, and land administration. For the purposes of the management
of land under the Land Act and all other laws applicable to land,
Land is divided into three main categories in Tanzanian context:

• Village land which includes all land within the village areas of
Tanzania.

• Reserved land which denotes land set aside for special

purposes, for instance forest reserves, game parks, land for
public utilities and highways.

• General land which includes land that does not fall in any of
the above two categories such as urban areas.

g) The Land Use Planning Act No. 6 of 2007

The Act provides procedure for preparation, administration and
enforcement of land use plans; to repeal the National Land Use
Planning Commission and to provide for related matters. Clearly
the Act has distinctive authorities of land use planning in Tanzania
laid down with their functions and powers. Among other things,
the Act stipulates measures to ensure that Government policies,
including those for development and conservation of land, are in
harmony. It also takes adequate account of the effects of policies
on land use. The Act encourages the development of technology
to prevent or minimize adverse effects that endanger people’s
health and welfare. It specifies standards, norms, and criteria
for the protection and maintenance of land. The Act can place

36
restrictions on the locations of any development provided that has
serious impact on the environment including ground and surface
water pollution.

h) The Water Resources Management Act No. 11 of 2009

The Act provides for the institutional and legal framework for
sustainable management and development of water resources;
to outline principal for Water Resources management; to provide
for prevention and control of water pollution; and to provide for
participation of stakeholders and general public in implementation
of the National Water Policy. The Act provides for institutional and
legal framework for sustainable management and development
of water resources; outlines principles for water resources
management, for prevention and control of water pollution. Its
objectives are to ensure that the nation’s water resources are
protected, used, developed, conserved, managed and controlled
in a way that among others meets the basic human needs of
present and future generations; and to prevent and control pollution
of water resources and protects biological diversity especially the
aquatic ecosystem.

i) The Grazing-land and Animal Feed Resources Act No.

13 of 2010
The Act, among others, deals with the management and
development of grazing-lands and animal feed resources. It
provides mandate to the Local Government Authorities in relation
to: safeguarding and development of grazing lands including
demarcation and delineation of grazing land in accordance to
Village land Act and Land use planning Act; grant right to livestock
movement to access water and other services which are not within
the grazing land; management of communal and strategic grazing
lands; grazing land development in a manner that is consistent
with sustainable land use planning and management practices,
including environmental conservation and development of water
sources for livestock use; stocking rate and measures in case of
excess livestock units including informing livestock keepers on the
excessive livestock units in the grazing land and issue of notice
for harvesting or any appropriate measure to reduce the excessive
livestock units to avoid environmental destruction

37
4.3 National Development Plans and Strategies
a) National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty
(NSGRP)
The NSGRP is formed by the aspirations of Tanzania’s Development
Vision (Vision 2025) for high and shared growth, high quality
livelihood, peace, stability and unity, good governance, high quality
education and international competitiveness. It is committed to
the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), as internationally
agreed targets for reducing poverty, hunger, diseases, illiteracy,
environmental degradation and discrimination against women by
2015. The National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty
NSGRP I (2005-2010) and also NSGRP II (2010-2015); highlights the
close relationship between poverty reduction and the sustainability
of the productive sectors, particularly agriculture (URT 2010). The
operational target of goal 2 on promoting sustainable and broad
based growth has emphasised on reducing land degradation and
loss of biodiversity through improved land management including
tree planting, establishment of Village Land Forest Reserves and
maintaining integrity of protected area network.

b) Integrated Coastal Environment Management Strategy

(2002)
The Integrated Coastal Environment Management Strategy
provides a framework that links sectors at district level, and
creates partnerships among them towards sustainable use of
coastal resources and development. The Coastal strategy was
developed to overcome the fragmentation inherent in single-sector
management approach. Recognising that certain problems in
coastal areas are associated with upstream land degradation the
strategy proposes the formulation and implementation of Special
Area Management Plans to adopt a holistic, catchment-wide
approach to land problems in the coastal areas.

c) Strategy for Urgent Actions on Land Degradation and

Protection of Water Catchment (2006)
The Strategy was developed in 2006 with the overall objective of
halting the environmental degradation. The Strategy has provided
measures and directions that have to be taken to combat land

38
degradation and protection of water sources in the country. Key
challenges that have been highlighted include: i) prevention of
environmental degradation due to illegal human activities, ii)
limited public awareness on environmental management issues, iii)
land use conflicts (agriculture, mining, establishment of protected
areas), and, iv) pollution emanating from indiscriminate use of
plastics. Different stakeholders, Ministries and Institutions are
involved in the implementation of short, medium and long-term
measures to address these issues.

d) Strategy on Urgent Actions for the Conservation of

Marine and Coastal Environment, Lakes and Rivers
Ecosystems and Dams (2008)
The Strategy was put in place in 2008 as a response towards
environmental degradation in coastal environment, lakes and river
ecosystems and dams. The strategy has addressed among other
three major challenges:-

i) Marine and Coastal Environmental Challenge including: i)

Coral reefs destruction due to lime production from corals,
beach seining and trawling and increased sediments from
land-based activities; ii) Destruction of mangrove forests due
to rampant harvesting for charcoal, construction purposes
and boat building and salt production; iii) Marine and coastal
pollution and degradation due to unplanned settlements
and construction of hotels along the coast; iv) Environmental
impacts due to improper use of agro-chemicals and fertilizer
along the coast; v) Degradation of marine biodiversity due
to unsustainable fishing; vi) Coral reefs destruction due to
lime production from corals, beach seining and trawling and
increased sediments from land-based activities; vii) Destruction
of mangrove forests due to rampant harvesting for charcoal,
construction purposes and boat building and salt production;
viii) Marine and coastal pollution and degradation due to
unplanned settlements and construction of hotels along the
coast; ix) Environmental impacts due to improper use of agro-
chemicals and fertilizer along the coast; and x) Degradation of
marine biodiversity due to unsustainable fishing

39
ii) Lakes, rivers and dams challenges including i) Increased
sediments in lakes, rivers, and dams due to deforestation,
unsustainable agriculture, livestock keeping and mining; ii)
Decline of biodiversity particularly fish and other species due
to illegal fishing and over-fishing in lakes, rivers and dams; iii)
Wetlands degradation; and iv) Waters pollution due to improper
use of agro-chemicals and fertilizers, solid and liquid west.

iii) Cross-cutting challenges including: i) Poverty among the

communities in the coastal and lake areas, particularly in rural
areas; ii) Inadequate public awareness and participation
on conservation of marine and coastal environment, lakes,
river ecosystems and dams; and iii) Inadequate human
and institutional capacity to address challenges facing
management of marine, lakes, rivers and dams environment.

e) Livestock Sector Development Strategy (2010)

The overall objective of the Livestock Sector Development Strategy
(LSDS) is to develop a competitive and more efficient livestock
industry that contributes to the improvement of the livelihoods
of all livestock keepers and the national economy. The specific
objectives of the LSDS among others include promoting integrated
and sustainable use and management of natural resources related
to livestock. The strategic goal of LSDS is to achieve sustainable
use of land, water, pastures and rangelands. This is aimed towards
ensuring; Availability of grazing land for livestock improved through
building the capacity and empower livestock communities to acquire
and manage grazing land; Infrastructure for livestock production
and marketing improved through construction/ rehabilitation of
water dams, water wells and conserve watershed and catchments
areas, establish and enforce bylaws for the conservation of water
catchment areas in all villages; Sustainable use of pasture and
rangeland resources promoted through inventory of available
grazing land and devise guidelines for their use

Although the strategy do not mention land degradation but based

on its strategic goal and specific objectives it comprises measures
that are of relevance in addressing land degradation and promotion
of sustainable land management.

40
f) Rural Development Strategy (2002)
The Rural Development Strategy calls for strengthened linkages
between, and provides coordination amongst the various separate
sectoral strategies that address rural development issues, seen
as essential to tackle root causes such as land degradation.
The Strategy emphasises on income-generating activities and
increasing access to services. It acknowledges land degradation
as a threat to attaining rural outcomes and at the same time,
recognizes the inherent difficulties of integrating environmental
protection with development. The Strategy proposes water
management and alternative energy sources as an opportunity to
reduce future land degradation.

g) National Climate Change Strategy (2013)

The goal of the Strategy is to enable Tanzania to effectively adapt
to climate change and participate in global efforts to mitigate
climate change with a view to achieving sustainable development
in line with the Five Years National Development plan; the Tanzania
Development Vision 2025, as well as national sectoral policies (URT,
2013). This Strategy has identified the need to build the capacity of
key economic sectors and relevant institutions to address climate
change adaptation and mitigation Among the specific objectives
of this Strategy are to: build the capacity of Tanzania to adapt to
climate change impacts; enhance resilience of ecosystems to the
challenges posed by climate change; and enhance participation
in climate change mitigation activities that lead to sustainable
development (ibid). The strategy is relevant to land degradation
issues since it emphasized capacity building in adaptation and
mitigation aspects which will reduce land degradation.

h) National Action Programme to Combat Desertification

(2004)
The country has developed a National Action Plan (NAP) to combat
desertification and drought which was finalized in 1999 and
reviewed in 2004. The NAP was developed through a participatory
bottom-up and consultative process to address land degradation
and desertification problems and constraints. The process brought
together local communities, Government, UN agencies, research
institutions, NGOs, the private sector and other stakeholders to

41
 develop the strategic action plan. The main objective of the NAP
is to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought
through the promotion of sustainable development. The NAP has
three broad priority areas; the creation of an enabling environment,
the development of sectoral and cross-sectoral programmes.
The NAP’s enabling environment addresses: a) policy, legal and
institutional frameworks, b) land use and tenure, c) information and
enhancement of knowledge, d) public awareness, e) local level
community initiatives, f) financial mechanisms, and g) capacity
building. The NAP has seven sectoral programme areas of
intervention: (i) energy; (ii) vegetation cover and wildlife, (iii) forest
conservation, (iv) the conservation of biodiversity, (v) agriculture
and pastoralism, (vi) soil management and (vii) water resources
management. The four cross-sectoral programme areas are a)
mainstreaming gender, b) science and technology, c) poverty and
environment and d) early warning systems.

i) National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) 2013

The National Environment Action Plan (NEAP) was adopted in 2013
and it is the country’s effort towards a comprehensive incorporation
of environmental concerns into natural resource planning and
economic development. The NEAP includes development of a
national vision, assessing environmental issues, setting priorities,
identifying the most appropriate strategies for addressing the key
problems, and implementing actions so as to achieve environmental
sustainability. It also outlines a process for the government to
set priority actions to improve environmental conditions. NEAP
has addressed pertinent issues significant in combating land
degradation and promotion of SLM.

4.4 Multilateral Environmental Agreements

Tanzania has ratified various Multilateral Environmental Agreements
to be part of the International community efforts in addressing global
environmental issues. Such Multilateral Environmental Agreements
which Tanzania is a party are discussed below.

42
a) United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
(UNCCD)
The UNCCD was adopted internationally in 1994 and the main
objective is to combat desertification and mitigation of the impact
of drought and/or desertification in countries particularly in Africa
which are seriously been affected by the problem, through effective
action at all levels (http://www.unccd.int). The UN Convention
to Combat Desertification bears greatest significance to land
degradation. Tanzania signed the UNCCD in 1994 and ratified it
in 1997. Several measures have since been taken to implement it,
including the formulation of a National Action Programme (NAPs)
in 1999, 2004 and 2014; National Action Programme on Agenda
21; NEAP (1994 and 2013).

b) The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

The Convention on Biological Diversity is the main international
instrument for addressing biodiversity issues as it provides a
comprehensive and holistic approach to the conservation of
biological diversity. The convention was signed at the United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)
in Rio de Janeiro in June1992 and entered into force in December
1993. Its main objectives are to promote the conservation of
biological diversity, sustainable use of its components and the
fair and equitable sharing arising out of the utilization of genetic
resources. The convention is a key document regarding sustainable
development and it aims at developing national strategies for the
conservation and sustainable use of biological resources (URT,
2009). Tanzania ratified the CBD in March, 1996 thereby committing
herself to join other global partners aspiring to conserve biological
diversity and enhance development opportunities, banking on
more sustainable use of biological resources and promoting more
equitable measures of sharing accrued benefits across local,
regional, national and global stakeholders. In compliance with
article 6 of the CBD, as well as consideration of the country’s
dependency on biodiversity for socio-economic, Tanzania has
developed a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan
(NBSAP) as a roadmap for country’s fulfilment of the objectives of
the convention.

43
c) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC)
The Convention is an integral component of the Multilateral
Environmental Agreements (MEAs). The UNFCCC specifically
provides the basis for concerted international action to mitigate
climate change and to adapt to its impacts. Its provisions are
far-sighted, innovative and firmly embedded in the concept of
sustainable development (UNFCCC 2006). The Convention aims at
stabilizing the concentrations of Green House Gases (GHGs) in the
atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic
interference with the climate system (UNFCCC, 2006). The
relevance of the convention in relation to land degradation lays in
the fact that at global level presents a number of opportunities
including transfer of technology through implementation of mitigation
related activities, such as Reduced Emission from Deforestation
and Forest Degradation and the role of conservation, sustainable
forest management and enhancement of forests carbon stock in
developing countries (REDD+), CDM and Nationally Appropriate
Mitigation Actions (NAMAs).

d) Other Conventions
Other Multilateral Environmental Agreements which Tanzania is
a party include; The Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-
boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal,
1989 ratified in 1993; The Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES), 1973
ratified in 1979; The SADC Protocol on Wildlife Conservation
and Law Enforcement,1999 ratified in 2003; The Convention for
the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine
and Coastal Environment of the Eastern African Region,(Nairobi
Convention) 1985 ratified in 1996; The Convention on Wetlands
of International Importance (Ramsar Convention), 1971 ratified
in 1999; African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources, 1968 ratified in 1974; and The Kyoto Protocol
to United Nations Framework on Climate Change,1997 ratified in
2003.

The analysis revealed that policy and legal frameworks were

formulated in different times with different emphasis, depending on

44
 the pressing needs of that particular time. They are sector-specific
and therefore to some extent they are addressing the overall SLM
objectives.

4.5 Institutional Framework for Sustainable Land

Management
The roles of key ministries and institutions involved in SLM in the
country are briefly described hereunder.

a) Vice President’s Office - Division of Environment

The overall functions of VPO include formulation of policy on
environment, co-ordination and monitoring of environmental
issues, environmental Planning, and policy-oriented environmental
research. Hence it plays important role to oversee all matters
related to land degradation are well addressed by the implementing
organs such as Local Government Authorities.

b) National Environment Management Council (NEMC)

NEMC has the mandate to undertake enforcement, compliance
regarding environmental management issues; review, monitor and
assess environmental impacts; undertake environmental research;
facilitate public participation in environmental decision-making;
raise environmental awareness and collect and disseminate
environmental information; provide advice and technical support
to entities engaged in natural resources and environmental
management.

c) Prime Ministers’ Office-Regional Administration and Local

Government
The Prime Minister’s Office- Regional Administration and Local
Governments implement the national development strategy at the
grass-root level, as more responsibilities for development planning,
programme implementation and financial management are now
being decentralized

45
d) Ministry of Agriculture, Food Security and Cooperatives
(MAFC)
The mission of the MAFC is to conduct public sector support
functions in agricultural research, training, extension, policy
formulation, and information services. The Ministry also regulates
plant health and quality control of agricultural inputs and products,
protection of the environment, and creating market conditions for
promoting agricultural growth.

The Ministry has an Environmental Management unit which provide

expertise on environment management within the agricultural
Sector. The unit perform among other aspects the following
activities: Monitor compliance with the requirement of Environment
Management Act within the Ministry; Advise on policy and legal
reviews on environmental management in the agricultural sector in
collaboration with Vice President’s Office (Division of Environment):
Monitor environmental protection compliance in the agricultural
sector: Prepare and coordinate the implementation of Agricultural
sector environmental action plans at the national and local levels
as required under EMA: Educate the public on environmental
friendly agriculture.

The MAFC also has Agricultural Land use Planning and Management
Division which provide expertise on agricultural land use planning
and management. Its main function among others aspects is to:
facilitate agricultural land use planning in LGAs; build capacity of
LGAs in agricultural land use planning and management; plan,
demarcate and ensure proper utilization of agricultural land; and
enforce agricultural land legislation.

e) Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development

The Ministry has mandate of overall management and
development of livestock and fisheries resources for sustainable
achievement of Millennium Development Goals; National Strategy
for Growth and Reduction of Poverty, improved livelihood of
livestock and fisheries dependent communities; food safety and
security without compromising animal welfare and environment
conservation, The ministry among others have Land for Livestock
Development Section which perform the following activities:
Provide guidelines for management, improvement development

46
and utilization of rangelands; Coordinate designation of rangelands
development areas for livestock use; Promote capacity building
on sustainable rangeland management and utilization; Institute
legal and regulation measures to manage rangelands and control
free movement of pastoralists and agro pastoralists; Support and
promote rangeland resources management bodies; Promote the
production and utilization of pasture and pasture seeds for improved
livestock production; Oversee, strengthen, monitor and coordinate
activities of pasture seeds farms; Promote forage conservation and
utilization practices that use appropriate technologies; and Promote
management and regulate the utilization and conservation of water
catchments areas for sustainable livestock production

f) Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism

This Ministry deals with forestry, wildlife as well as with tourism. The
Forestry Division within the Ministry is responsible for managing
natural and plantation forest reserves on public land, including
conservation in forests and plantations, and protection of catchment
areas. Research in forestry is conducted by the Tanzania Forestry
Research Institute.

g) Ministry of Lands, Housing and Human Settlements

Development
The Ministry of Lands and Human Settlements Development is
responsible for allocation, registration, mapping and planning
land use. It has a number of agencies dealing with these issues
including the National Land Use Planning Committee (NLUPC),
with primary responsibility for implementing the Land Act.

h) Academic and research institutions

There are also a number of knowledge-based institutions that are
concerned with SLM under the Ministry of Education and Vocational
Training. The Institute of Resource Assessment (IRA) of the
University of Dar-es-Salaam (UDSM) focuses on basic and applied
research in natural resources and environment management,
agricultural systems, water resources management, population
and human settlements, and remote sensing. Ardhi University
is involved with studies, consultancy and training in urban and
rural development, including land survey and planning, estate

47
management and valuation. Sokoine University of Agriculture
(SUA) trains agriculturists, foresters, food technologist, agricultural
engineers and soil scientists and conducts research in the various
aspects of soil and water management and SLM.

i) Non-governmental Organizations
Tanzania has a large number of NGOs and CBOs that are active in
the field of environment and natural resources management. Several
NGOs are involved in afforestation and environmental protection
activities in Tanzania. For example Tanzania Traditional Energy
Development and Environment Organisation (TaTEDO) support
various activities to address the problem of land degradation
resulting from unsustainable harvesting of natural resources for
energy. The organisation’s mission is “to advance popular access
to sustainable modern energy technologies in marginalized
communities in Tanzania through energy technological adaptations,
community mobilization and advocacy for increased access to
sustainable energy services, poverty reduction, environmental
conservation and self-reliance.

48
5.0 ASSESSMENT OF LAND DEGRADATION IN TANZANIA

The analysis of causes of land degradation was made based on DPSIR

framework. The DPSIR framework presents responses an approach of
redefining an environmental problem and engendering solutions from
appropriate. This section discusses the major drivers, pressure, state
and impact of land degradation in Tanzania. It also outlines some of the
responses which have been or are taken by the Government and Non-
Governmental Organization to address the problem of land degradation.

5.1 Drivers
Land degradation in Tanzania like in many other parts in developing
countries particularly in Africa, occurs as a consequence of several
human decisions and actions as well as through natural processes.
These decisions, actions or processes are the driving forces which
cause the gradual or rapid deterioration of the natural environment
which in turn impacts adversely on people especially in rural areas
who almost entirely depend on natural resources for their survival.

Driving forces are the factors that cause changes in the system.
They can be social, economical or ecological and can have positive
or negative influences on pressures. Examples of driving forces
in Tanzania related to DLDD include, human population, climate
change, poverty, political instability, insecure land tenure system,
unsustainable farming practice as well as cultural believes. The
contributions of these drivers to land degradation are discussed in
this section.

a) Poverty
Poverty is both the cause and effect of land degradation. While
land degradation leads to widespread poverty, poor people tend
to over exploit natural resources found in their surroundings, to
meet their basic needs. Based on 2012 Population and Housing
Census about 62.1% of the population depends on agriculture
for their livelihood and 68.5% depend on firewood as a source of
energy for cooking. This is leading to a high amount of pressure
exerted on natural resource per amount of economic activity. In
addition, poverty restricts the opportunities of Tanzanians to invest
49
in agricultural modernization or intensification, which would allow
them to earn a livelihood with activities that are less dependent
on extraction of resources. Finally, poverty and related short-term
coping strategies restrict the possibilities of farmers to take care of
the long-term productivity of their resources including soil fertility.

The combination of poverty and drought in these areas has resulted

to serious land degradation that threatens future agricultural
productivity and the conservation of natural resources. Poor people
are induced to scavenge more intensively during droughts, seeking
out wood and other organic fuels, wild life and edible plants, both
to eat and to sell. This scavenging aggravates deforestation and
damage to watersheds and soil already under stress from the
drought.

The problem of land degradation is aggravated in common

property pastoral farming where farmers carrying extra cattle as
insurance against drought which results to excessive exploitation
of natural resources and over burden the carrying capacity of
the land increasing the likelihood of permanent damage. In the
agricultural sector poverty limits access to improved technologies
such as seed and fertilizers and to low levels of mechanization that
limits farmers to hand hoes. Such situation limits farmers to adopt
agricultural intensification consequently low productivity. Such a
situation compel farmers to extensive crop cultivation where land is
available to compensate for low productivity causing deforestation
or cultivation of marginal lands prone to erosion.

b) Population increase and migration

Population growth emerges as one of the most important driver of
land degradation in Tanzania. According to Population and Housing
Census (2012) about 70 percent of population in Tanzania lives in
the rural areas. The increase in population concentrates people
in a small area, which has to meet their basic needs. Increased
population increases demand and once this demand exceed the
sustainable yield of natural systems, the resource itself begins
to shrink. The impact of population growth to land degradation
has been experienced in Kilimanjaro region, especially in Moshi,
Same and Mwanga districts. The higher altitudes have become
extremely crowded with population densities in some areas higher

50
than typical urban population densities. Natural vegetation has
almost been replaced by farmland. Decreasing farm size due to
population pressure is currently threatening the viability of whole
farming systems.

Rapid population growth is also associated with declining amount

of land for pasture, which triggers seasonal migration of pastoralists
and their livestock, notably from the north and northwest regions
of the country to the south and south-west regions including
Morogoro, Pwani, Mbeya and Rukwa regions. Pastoral and agro
pastoral migrants like Maasai and Sukuma people from Arusha,
Manyara, Shinyanga, Simiyu and Geita regions who are migrating
to Mbeya, Mtwara, Morogoro, Tanga and Rukwa regions in search
of pasture and agricultural land has been a major cause of land
degradation in the areas where they settled.

c) Climate Change
Rainfall is the most important climatic factor in determining areas at
risk of land degradation and potential desertification. Rainfall plays
a vital role in the development, and distribution of plant life, but
the variability and extremes of rainfall can lead to soil erosion and
land degradation Rainfall and temperature are the prime factors in
determining the climate and therefore the distribution of vegetation
types in Tanzania. Rainfall intensity is the most important factor
governing soil erosion caused by rain. Dryland precipitation
is inherently variable in amounts and intensities and so is the
subsequent runoff. Surface runoff is often higher in drylands than
in more humid regions due to the tendency of dry land soils to form
impermeable crusts under the impact of intense rain storms and
absence of significant vegetation cover.

Loss of topsoil through water erosion is the most common type

of human-induced soil degradation. It occurs in almost the whole
country, as the topsoil is normally rich in nutrients, a relatively large
amount of nutrients is lost together with the topsoil. Loss of topsoil
itself is often preceded by compaction, causing a decrease in
infiltration capacity of the soil, and leading to accelerated run-off
and soil erosion.

51
The frequency of occurrence of climate extreme events (e.g.
droughts, heavy precipitations and associated floods) has been
increasing in Tanzania in recent years. The severity of drought is
more pronounced in the semiarid areas Arusha in Longido, Karatu
–and Monduli districts), Dodoma (Bahi, Chamwino, Kongwa and
Mpwapwa districts), Iringa region (Kilolo and Mufindi districts),
Kilimanjaro (Same and Rombo districts), Manyara (Babati and
Simanjiro, Shinyanga (Kishapu and Kahama districts), Singida
(Manyoni Iramba and Singida Rural), Mara (Bunda and Tarime
districts), Tabora (Igunga, Kaliua and Urambo districts) and
Rukwa (Sumbawanga, Nkasi and Kalambo districts)). These areas
are characterized by extreme seasonal conditions with relatively
low rainfall, a long dry seasons and high seasonal rainfall and
temperature fluctuations which cannot reliably produce food and
cash crops. Frequent droughts in these areas limit regeneration
of vegetation thus leave the land bare, making it susceptible to
agents of soil erosion such as wind and water. Rainfall is sporadic,
leading to floods and often severe soil erosion. For example, the
floods of 2001 in Manyara (Babati), 2006 in Kilimanjaro, 2009 and
2013 in Morogoro (Kilosa), and 2010 in Dodoma (Mpwapwa) left
several hectares of land, crops and houses destroyed (URT, 2012)

d) Culture and beliefs

Unsustainable land management practices built up over generations
have often become part of cultural fabric of traditional pastoral and
peasant farming communities. For instance, keeping large herds
of cattle is often a prestige, in spite of exceeding the carrying
capacity of grazing land as noted in many agro-pastoralists such
as Sukuma, Maasai and Barbaig in different parts of the country.
Under this culture, land is viewed as open access and the herdsmen
move with their large herds of cattle from one place to another in
search for fodder and water.

Farming along the river valleys, popularly known as vinyungu as

noted in Iringa region is also commonly practiced. This practice is
common along river valleys during dry season exposing the river
valley to serious soil erosion during the rainy season. Cultivation
in the slopes is common in most parts of the country, especially
in the highland areas of Kilimanjaro (Pare Mountains), Tanga in
Muheza and Korogwe districts and Morogoro region in Morogoro

52
rural and Mvomero districts. There are also areas where people
believe that if one sets a wildfire that ends up burning a long
distance is indication that he/she will live a long life. This belief
encourages people to burn forests and grassland in determining
their life span, the practice that exposes land to various agents of
land degradation.

e) Unclear land tenure system

Land tenure system could hinder the adoption of sound soil and
water conservation practices by peasant farmers. Most of peasant
farmers have no title deeds, lack of which deed could make it
difficult for individuals and community to manage or to invest on
land properly. Where a farmer does not have a permanent title to
a piece of land, he/she may feel very reluctant to adopt soil and
water conservation practices by fearing that her/his land could be
appropriated by other people or institutions.

Lack of secure land tenure system in Korogwe, Same and Babati

have contributed to poor people’s involvement is soil and water
conservation practices. Hired or borrowed land does not get
enough attention in terms of soil and water conservation, because
the right of occupancy may not be guaranteed. It is thought that
soil and water conservation activities are more properly applied in
privately owned lands.

Open access land resources are those which anyone, in practice,

can use, without rights of continuing usufruct or tenure. This applies
mainly to forest lands, nominally under government ownership but
which are settled on a squatter basis. There is a distinction between
common property and open access resources. In common property
resources, use is restricted to members of a community, village or
clan, and is subject to constraints, socially applied. For example,
pastoralists often have customs for when certain areas must be
rested from grazing; villages restrict the cutting of communal
woodland. On open access land there are no such constraints.
With no legal basis to their use, incentive to farm the land other
than for immediate needs is completely lacking. This is a serious
cause of deforestation followed by water erosion.

53
f) Unsustainable farming and other economic activities
Unsustainable farming such as over- cultivation, shifting cultivation,
slash and burn and poor land management are important drivers
for land degradation in the Arid and semi-arid agroecological
zones. This was experienced in the western part of Karatu district
in Mang’ola and Baray wards and further west beyond Lake Eyasi,
which includes Simiyu region in Meatu and Bariadi districts as
well as Shinyanga and Mwanza regions. In these areas except
in Mang’ola valley, agricultural production is based on rain-fed
cultivation without proper soil and water management systems.
Soil exhaustion and sheet erosion have seriously affected crop
yields. In Shinyanga and parts of Singida, wind erosion occurs on
arable land where light sandy soils dry out quickly after rain. Wind
erosion is also a problem where mechanised large-scale arable
farming has been introduced without the protection of windbreaks
or strip cropping.

In the Northern highlands in areas around Uluguru Mountains, the

current farming practices include slash and burn agriculture and
seasonal burning of field sites and adjacent forest areas which
cause severe soil degradation. This is more experienced in Kolero,
Kasanga, and Bungu wards in Mvuha Division, Morogoro Region.
The slash and burn is commonly practiced because it is believed
that the practice help to reduce grass, kills pests and animals.

The impact of mining and quarrying activities on land degradation

has been experienced in Shinyanga (Kahama, Shinyanga rural),
Kagera (Biharamuro), Mbeya (Chunya) and Tabora (Nzega) and
Dar es Salaam in Kinondoni district. Presence of abandoned pits
and heaps of waste rocks, scrap metals and tailings in abandoned
mine sites at the Buhemba Gold Mine, Kunduchi and Bunju are a
vivid example.

g) Political and social instability in neighbouring countries

Since 1994, Tanzania experienced an influx of refugees from
some neighbouring countries namely Rwanda, Burundi and the
Democratic Republic of Congo. Although stability has mostly been
restored in Rwanda and Burundi, DRC continues to be unstable.
The influx of refugees has caused massive deforestation as well as
land and other environmental degradation in and around refugee

54
 camp sites in Katumba, Mishamo, Ulyankuru, Mtabila and Mwese.
The most affected areas are in the North-western parts of Tanzania
which are Kigoma, Kagera

h) Bio-fuel investment
More than 600,000 hectares of land have so far been allocated
for biofuel investments, particularly for jatropha, sugar-cane and
oil palm (Sulle and Nelson, 2009). Many of the requests and
allocations for land which have virgin natural forests in Rufiji Basin,
Kisarawe, Bagamoyo and Kilwa have been made for jatropha
cultivation. The Rufiji basin itself constitutes about 60% of land
suitable for irrigation as well as hydropower potential. It has been
established that the earmarked hectares of land are covered by
dense natural vegetation or biomass that were to be cleared for
bio-fuels plantations. Removal of dense natural vegetation cover
would in turn expose the land to agents of erosion and makes it
more vulnerable to degradation. Besides, clearing of large areas of
natural forest habitats, including coastal and miombo woodlands,
to give way to bio-fuels crop farming, is a major environmental
concern, which can contribute to soil erosion, increase drought
risks and affect local biodiversity.

5.2 Pressure
a) Overgrazing
It has been revealed that in arid and semiarid agroecological zones
which are characterized by high number of livestock population are
highly degraded including areas in Shinyanga, Simiyu, and parts of
Tabora, Masai land and Mbulu in Manyara region where livestock
units exceeds the carrying capacity. In Babati, there insufficient
grazing land for maintaining current livestock density in the District
due to increasing number of people and expansion of settlement
and agricultural activities at the expense of the grazing lands.

The Southern and Western highland areas covering the North

Morogoro, Iringa, Mbeya and Rukwa regions have experienced a
massive influx of agro-pastoralists from Mwanza and Shinyanga.
The intrusion of agro-pastoralists has a significant contribution to
land degradation.

55
 Plate 1: Overgrazing in Monduli and Simanjiro districts
Source: Field Survey, 2014

b) Inadequate livestock infrastructure

In Tanzania, cattle infrastructures such as chaco dams and cattle
dips are not adequately provided for in livestock keeping areas.
As a result, livestock keepers move from one place to another in
search for water and pasture for their cattle, in most cases from
rivers, swamps and wetlands. In 2006, livestock keepers and their
large herds of cattle mainly from Shinyanga Region invaded Ihefu
Wetland, in Mbarali District in search for water and fodder causing
serious land degradation and siltation in the basin, resulting in
shortage of water for hydropower production in Mtera Dam. In
2012, searching for water and fodder also led to livestock-keepers
invasion of Kilombero Valley in Morogoro Region.

c) Deforestation
Deforestation results from uncontrolled cutting of wood, mainly of
wood fuel for cooking, sale, drying fish, tobacco curing, burning
bricks and also for building poles. The most affected areas include
the arid and semiarid areas in Bahi, Makanda, Lamaiti and Mwitikira
in Bahi district. , southern and western highlands in Ntobeye,
Kirushya in Ngara district, Runazi, Kachwamba and Nyakahanga in
Karagwe as well as Matema, Ilima and Ikolo wards in Makete district
respectively. The coastal agroecological zones which are highly
dominated by miombo woodlands and mangrove forest are also
affected by deforestation. The highly degraded areas in the coastal
56
agroecological zones include Mkalama, Mswaha, Mazinde and
Makuyuni wards in Korogwe district. Also some parts Nanguruwe,
Njengwa and Kitama as well as Tandahimba wards in Mtwara and
Tandahimba districts respectively. Other factors contributing to
deforestation include cutting tree branches to provide fodder to
livestock and to make fences for the herds, clearing forest land for
cultivation, clearing to expand grazing areas and control tsetse fly

Plate 2: Deforestation and charcoal making in Morogoro region

Source: Field Survey, 2014

d) Uncontrolled wildfires
Wildfire outbreaks in Tanzania have been associated with farmers,
herders and hunters. Farmers usually use fire as a tool to clean their
farms after harvesting. Sometimes the fire gets out of hand and
commence into big bush fires. Herders also set fire deliberately
to burn grazing lands to induce new grass. Hunters, farmers and
herders may also set the bush fire to drive away marauding animals
and to increase visibility

There is an average of 11 million hectares burn annually (ranging

between 8.5 and 12.9 million hectares) in Tanzania. This corresponds
to between 9% and 14 % of Tanzania´s land area. Most burned
area is recorded in the months from May to October, with the peak
fire activity in July and August. Most of the burning occurs in the
Plateau and Southern and Western highlands agro-ecological
zones in Rukwa, Mbeya, Tabora and Kigoma regions, while in
the coastal and Northern highlands agro-ecological fire burning

57
is common in Lindi and Kilimanjaro regions respectively. Each of
these regions has an average burned area of over one million ha
annually, and their average burned areas together comprise over
60% of the average annual burned area of Tanzania.

Plate 3: Wildfire incidences in East Usambara

Source: MNRT (2010)

Rank Region Total Average

1 Rukwa 24,088,053 2,007,338
2 Mbeya 17,457,477 1,454,790
3 Tabora 15,880,873 1,323,406
4 Kigoma 12,867,291 1,072,274
5 Lindi 12,264,649 1,022,054
6 Singida 11,422,556 951,880
7 Shinyanga 6,670,328 555,861
8 Mara 6,638,678 553,223
9 Iringa 6,568,506 547,376
10 Kagera 5,358,626 446,552
11 Ruvuma 4,917,678 409,807
12 Arusha 2,691,195 224,266
13 Morogoro 2,361,409 196,784
14 Mtwara 1,310,954 109,246
15 Dodoma 1,080,341 90,028
16 Pwani 821,167 68,431
17 Mwanza 314,073 26,173

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 18 Tanga 134,874 11,239
19 Kilimanjaro 42,695 3,558
20 Dar es salaam 10,674 890
TOTAL 132,902,097 11,075,176

Plate 1: Overgrazing in Monduli and Simanjiro districts

Source : FAO, 2013
Based on Table 1, the most burning occurs in gazetted land with
an annual average of 3.7 million ha in forest reserves, 3.3 million
ha in game reserves. The land cover types most affected are
woodland and bush land cover types which comprise almost 70 %
of Tanzania’s average annual burned area.

e) Rapid urbanization
Tanzania is among the rapid urbanizing countries in Africa, with
urbanization rate of about 4.7% per annum. Major cities such as Dar
es Salaam, Mwanza, Arusha and Mbeya are emerging and urban
slums are expanding. This rapid urbanization increases demand
for food, building materials and energy, especially charcoal which
provides energy for cooking to most of urban population in the
country. The increase in food demand pushes demand for arable
land in rural areas to produce food to meet high demand for food
in urban areas. The demand for arable land in most cases is met
by clearing virgin land to open new farms rather than agricultural
intensification. Due to poverty and low technology, in most cases
opening of new farms is undertaken using slash-and-burn farming
technique, (See Plate 3a) which makes the land very susceptible
to agents of soil erosion such as water and wind. In recent years
more and more farms have been opened up in the marginal areas
and even in the protected areas to produce food crops.

Moreover, the increasing energy demand has led to rampant

clearing of forests for charcoal production especially in districts
around major cities such as Dar es Salaam and Mwanza. According
to Tanzania Population and Housing Census (2012) it is estimated
that about 29% of the population found on Tanzania Mainland live
in urban areas (towns and cities). It is further assumed that 95% of
these are depending solely on charcoal and firewood.

59
 f) Inadequate land-use plans
Land use planning is an important tool to ensure that land is used
on a sustainable basis. It is also applied for livestock management
after establishing the carrying capacity of the intended piece of
land. In Tanzania, much of land, especially the village land is used
without formally approved land use plans, resulting in unsustainable
use of land such as overstocking and unplanned settlements. Such
practices often lead to land degradation, which if not checked is
very expensive to reclaim the degraded land.

5.3 The State of Land Degradation

The state of land degradation can be manifested by several
indicators which may show that land degradation has taken
place, although they are not necessarily the actual degradation
itself. Among the widely used indicators of land degradation are
crop yields and soil quality indicators (visual, physical, chemical,
and biological) and vegetation/biomass. Other notable indicators
include presence of soil erosion features, soil acidity as manifested
by the raised levels of iron (Fe) and aluminium (Al), infestation
by parasitic weeds such as Striga, and plant fertility indicators,
especially weeds.

i) Land cover change

The analysis of satellite images of 1980 and 2012 was undertaken
to determine land cover changes which have taken place in the
country which is presented on Table 2 and Figures 8, 9 and 10.

60
Table 2: Land cover change from 1980 - 2012

Land Use/ Land Cover Land Cover Change

Cover Types
Year: 1980 Year: 2012 1980-2012
Ha % Ha % Ha %
Bare Soil 121,684 0.1 125,145 0 3,461 2.84
Bushland 17,587,108 18.6 16,546,077 17 -1,041,031 -5.92
Cultivated 9,994,353 10.5 12,001,623 13 2,007,270 20.08
Land
Forest 2,769,375 2.9 2,684,057 3 -85,318 -3.08
Grassland 18,218,170 19.2 21,522,429 23 3,304,259 18.14
Ice 1,562 0.0 284 0 -1,278 - 81.82
Rocky 7,422 0.0 7,073 0 -349 -4.70
Outcrops
Swamp 986,017 1.0 1,007,956 1 21,939 2.23
Urban Area 47,999 0.1 145,024 0 97,025 202.14
Water 6,479,327 6.8 6,478,234 7 -1,093 -0.02
Woodland 38,550,316 40.7 34,245,431 36 -4,304,885 -11.17
94,763,333 100 94,763,333 100

Figure 8: Land cover change from 1980 to 2012

61
Figure 9: Tanzania land cover in 1980

62
 Figure 10: Tanzania land cover in 2012

The analysis of satellite images shows that in the stated period,

the total area of bush-land (Bd) in Tanzania has decreased from
19.0% to 17.0% (Table 3) with a percentage change of -1. The
cultivated lands have increased from 11.0% in 1980 to 13.0% in
2012 with an increasing percent change of 2.0. Similarly, there
has been an increase in grassland probably from reduced bush
lands and increased fallow from 19.0% in 1980 to 23.0% in 2012.
Further analysis shows a decreasing trend of the woodlands from
41.0% in 1980 to 36.0% in 2012. The increasing and decreasing
63
trends of land use/cover changes are very clear for the category
of bush lands, grasslands, cultivated land, as well woodlands. The
decrease in woodland cover has contributed to increased land
degradation especially in agro ecological zones with high rate of
deforestation.

ii) Change detection

In order to understand the pattern of land use/cover change, it
was important to undertake change detection which was done
quantitatively to identifying the differences between multi-temporal
data sets to see the dynamics of the phenomena of interest. The
repetitive and synoptic data acquired from remote sensing gave an
in-depth understanding of the magnitude and direction of change
for different land use/cover by agro-ecological zones. The change
detection results are shown on Appendix 2.

iii) Soil fertility and crop production

The most affected areas were observed in alluvial agro-ecological
zone, especially in Usangu Basin where there is deterioration in the
fertile Black Mbuga soils of the Western Wetland. The same situation
was observed in Northern highlands, especially in Mang’ola
Barazani and Baray wards in Karatu district. Further evidence
of decline in soil fertility has also been reported in Mbeya region,
along the foot and slopes of Mporoto Mountains. In the arid and
semiarid areas decline of soil fertility have been experienced in
Chigongwe, Mundemu, Mvumi as well as Goima, Mondo, Bereko
and Mrijo Juu and in Mlali in Chamwino , Kondoa and Kongwa
districts

The decline of soil fertility is manifested by the increasing amounts

of fertilizers application per acreage. For instance, farmers in Karatu
district reported that fertilizers application for onion production
has increased from an average of one to three bags of 50 kg in
the 2000’s to eight to ten bags per acre in the 2013’s, and that
of rice and maize has increased from zero to four bags per acre;
depending on the location of farms and the type of soil. Another
commonly-cited indicator of soil fertility decline is the decrease in
crop production. The main attributes and the state used to assess
land degradation in the study area. The most prevalent indicators
included proportion of bare ground, dominant vegetation structure,
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presence of pedestals, presence of rills and gullies, soil surface
loss, and indicator plant species.

iv) Salinisation
It is estimated that some 17,000 km2 (2% of the total land area) of
Tanzania are naturally affected by salinity, attributed to low rainfall,
inherent soil properties and land form (MAFC, 2013). It is also
estimated that that salinisation has affected 20 to 55% of irrigation
schemes in Kilimanjaro, Tanga and Mtwara.

In the arid and semi-arid agro-ecological zones where there

is potential for irrigation agriculture there is also a potential for
increasing secondary salinity and alkalinity in the areas. Soil
analysis conducted in Bahi and Chali in Dodoma region show
that there is high alkaline condition in the irrigation Bahi and
Chali irrigation schemes. In Singida region, salinisation has been
observed around Mgori dam in Mgori, Munkhola and Sughana
villages. Some areas in the coastal agroecological zone such
as Mkurunga and Mlingotini village in Bagamoyo have also been
affected by salinisation. Furthermore, some pockets of saline soils
have been experienced in the dry belts of Arusha in Mkomazi area.

Salinisation has a deleterious effect on soil productivity, crop yields

and other economic activities in three different ways: through
salinity, sodicity and toxicity. High concentrations of salts leads to
reduced crop growth and yield losses since the osmotic pressure
causes water scarcity in the cells. Sodicity, the presence of
excessive sodium, deteriorates soil structure and reduces water
penetration into and through the soil. A good example of the effect
of salinisation were observed in Mlingotini village where it has
resulted to the disappearance of some crops such as banana and
reduction in commercial seed weed productivity due to sea water
temperature/salinity. Salinisation has also resulted to decline in fish
catch and intrusion of salt water in the traditionally used fresh wells.

v) Soil erosion
Land degradation through soil erosion is a major threat to
sustainable use of soil and water resources in the country. The
threat is more serious for the soils that are highly susceptible to
erosion and other derivative processes. Erosion influences several

65
soil properties, e.g., topsoil depth (TSD), soil organic carbon (SOC)
content, nutrient status, soil texture and structure, available water
holding capacity (AWC) and water transmission characteristics
that regulate soil quality and determine crop yield. Some of the
areas affected by soil erosion were depicted in Iringa region as
shown in Plate 4.

Plate 4: Soil erosion in Ilula district - Iringa region

Source: Field work, 2014

Soil erosion has been and continues to be serious problem in the

arid and semi-arid areas where deforestation, shifting cultivation
and bushfires is practiced. In Dodoma region soil erosion is
alarmingly in Kibakwe, Chamkoroma and Rudi wards in Mpwapwa
district. The same situation is experienced in Haubi, Kolo and Pahi
as well as Mlali, Zoisa and Songambele wards in Kondoa and
Kongwa districts respectively. In the same agroecological zone,
the soil erosion is serious in Makanya, Mabilioni, Njoro in Same
district and Mashewa, Mswaha and Mazinde wards in Korogwe
district in Tanga region.

In the plateaux agro-ecological zones, especially in western

part of Tabora and in Rukwa region soil erosion is pronounced
in Sumbawanga rural district where there is a high rate of agro-
pastoral migrants from Shinyanga and Mwanza region. Some parts
of Ruvuma and Mbeya regions are also affected by soil erosion.
Another evidence of severe soil erosion is experienced in Guta,
Kuzungu and Nyatware wards in Bunda District. Expansion of
the boundaries of the Serengeti National Parks into the village’s
grazing lands has created enormous pressure on land resource in
the village’s hill slopes. Consequently the grazing of livestock in the
hill slopes has resulted in accelerated soil erosion.

66
Magu district is one of the areas which highly affected by soil erosion
because the soils in the district are rated as highly vulnerable to
erosion. The midland and highland zones of Tarime District in Sirari,
Binagi and Nyatware wards are characterized by heavy soils and
deep red sandy loam soils. Sandy loamy and sandy soils are found
in the uplands (Mahuha, 1998). The lowland zone is characterized
by poor sandy soils. Plate 5 shows one of the affected areas in
Bunda district. In the Southern and western highlands some of
the farming systems and overgrazing around the Lake Basin are
reported to facilitate land degradation and particularly soil erosion.

Plate 5: Evidence of severe gully erosion in Bunda district

Source: LVEMP- ISWC, 2009

The most affected area in Northern highlands in the hillside of the

Uluguru Mountains includes Kolero, Kasanga and Bungu wards.
This area has steep slopes of over 45% inclination which accelerate
soil erosion and water run the area.

vi) Soil acidification

Soil acidification is a problem in large parts of the country, and in
particular in the southern part of the coastal agroecological zones
in Mtwara and Lindi regions. Soil acidification is associated with
the dusting of large quantities of elemental sulphur upon cashew
trees aimed at controlling powdery mildew disease, and with
an excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers in maize fields. Soil
67
acidification reduces the productivity of poor and fragile soils by
increasing soil acidity, leaching of basic action nutrients (such as
Ca, Mg and K), increasing toxic elements in the soil (particularly
aluminium), reducing biological nitrogen fixation and creating
detrimental conditions for microbial organisms. Soil acidification
may also cause aluminium toxicity once the pH drops to below
around 4.5. Aluminium is toxic to roots of most cultivated plants,
such that root length is drastically reduced restricting exploration
of soil nutrients and water. Such situation may limit growth of
vegetation to provide soil cover.

vii) Siltation
In semi-arid areas soil erosion is a serious problem since fertile soil
is eroded and transported away from cultivated areas and the fact
that the soil is trapped in reservoirs. This has been experienced
in villages around Mgori Dam in Singida region. Soil erosion
from cultivated and pasture land is causing serious increases in
sediment and nutrient loads getting into water sources. Siltation
causes pollution and drying up of water sources. This is a common
problem in most of water sources where farming is done upstream.
Siltation has detrimental effect to hydropower production dams as
they render them useless. This has been the case in Mtera and
Nyumba ya Mungu Dams. Deforestation on the upper parts of Mt.
Kilimanjaro and the Pare Mountains as well as inappropriate farming
practices around Lake Jipe is contributing to land degradation and
siltation of the Lake.

Siltation also has been experienced in the alluvial agro-ecological

zones especially in the Usangu Basin. The increasing clearance
of natural vegetation in many parts of the Usangu Catchment
has been associated with increase in silt loads downstream. The
interruption of high silt-bearing wet season flows by extensive rice
cultivation must trap much of the silt that once flowed directly into
the Great Ruaha along stream channels. The issue of siltation is
also very important to note in the Lake Manyara basin because
of the different human activities upstream including poor farming
practices, livestock grazing, deforestation which affect water from
Kirurumo, Simba and Mto-wa-Mbu rivers which drain its water in
Lake Manyara Open cast mining is also accelerating silting and
intoxication of the Lake Manyara.

68
viii) Loss of vegetation
The extent of vegetation loss in the country differs from one agro-
ecological to another. In the west of Arusha (northern semi-arid
lands), the natural vegetation in the area has been considerably
destroyed by human activity, and pressure on grazing land has
been increasing yearly, resulting in continued depletion of the
vegetation. The area most critically affected lies in the rain shadow
of Mt. Meru where the soil is composed of very light volcanic ash
blown westward by the prevailing wind. Wind erosion is a very
serious problem here, while soil erosion and deposition is rapidly
leading to the siltation of the reservoir dams constructed in the
western area. On the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro and the Pare
Hills occupy the north eastern periphery towards the Kenya border.
Oral tradition reveals that these communities originally occupied
nucleation on the mountain slopes surrounded by cultivated
farms of bananas and coffee further down-slope. Expansion of
agriculture, especially the massive clearance of land for cultivation
of cash crops such as cotton and tobacco to boost export earnings
has been mentioned as one of the leading causes of deforestation
in Tanzania.

Plate 6: Deforestation in Itundufula forest in Kiberege village - Kilombero

district
Source: Msofe (2014)

On the average, it is estimated that the Eastern Arc Mountains

(Uluguru, Usambara, Udzungwa) have already lost (73%) of their
original forest cover, while Uluguru alone have lost sixty percent
(60%).

69
The assessment of forest and woodland cover in different agro-
ecological zones from 1980 to 2012 shows significant variations
in land cover changes. In alluvial plain, especially in Rufiji district,
forest cover decreased from 247,887 to 238,581 hectares with
percentage change of -0.35. The deceasing trend of forest cover
was also observed in arid, the Northern highlands and the plateau.
On the other hand, a forest change in the coastal and Southern
and Western highland has shown a slight increase of forest cover.
The slight increase might be associated with conservation and
forest protection measures undertaken by government in national
parks, forest reserves and protected areas. The woodland cover
has shown a decreasing trend in almost all agro-ecological zones
except in the arid land areas where there is a slight increase of
woodlands from 2,631,730 to 2,687,329 hectares. The general
forest and woodlands cover change in different agro-ecological
zones are presented in Table 3 and Table 4.

Agro- Forest in Forest in Total Forest Change

ecological 1980 in 2012 in Forest Change Hectares/
zones Hectares Hectares Change in % year
1 Alluvial Plains 247,887 238,581 -9,306 -0.35 -291
2 Arid Lands 125,402 117,098 -8,304 -0.31 -260
3 Coastal Zone 253,556 287,179 33,623 1.26 1,051
4 Northern 508,994 487,806 -21,188 -0.79 -662
Highlands
5 Plateaux 763,000 709,483 -53,517 -2.01 -1,672
6 Semi-Arid 222,959 245,710 22,751 0.85 711
Lands
7 Southern 545,713 549,233 3,520 0.13 110
and Western
Highlands
Total 2,667,511 2,635,090 -32,421 -1.22 -1,013

Source: IRA GIS Laboratory, 2014

70
Table 4: Woodland cover change in different agro-ecological zones

Agro- Woodland Woodland Total Woodland Change

ecological in 1980 in in 2012 in Woodland Change Hectares/
zones Hectares Hectares Change in % year
1 Alluvial Plains 873,021 843,001 -30,020 -0.08 -938
2 Arid Lands 2,631,730 2,687,329 55,599 0.15 1,737
3 Coastal Zone 3,272,626 3,008,941 -263,685 -0.70 -8,240
4 Northern 606,554 626,334 19,780 0.05 618
Highlands
5 Plateaux 17,702,984 15,626,524 -2,076,460 -5.49 -64,889
6 Semi-Arid 8,347,073 6,245,737 -2,101,336 -5.56 -65,667
Lands
7 Southern 4,383,827 4,327,058 -56,769 -0.15 -1,774
Highlands
Total 37,817,815 33,364,924 4,452,891 -12 -139,153

Source: IRA GIS Laboratory, 2014

ix) Soil pollution

Land degradation resulting from inappropriate use of agro-
chemicals such as fertilizers, pesticides and fungicides, leaves the
land polluted with such chemicals. One example is soil acidification
caused by excessive use of nitrogen-based fertilizers in Songea
and Iringa regions (particularly in maize fields) and elemental
sulphur dusting in cashew growing areas of Mtwara and Lindi to
control powdery mildew disease.

Pollution is becoming an increasingly serious problem in the major

mining areas. Such areas include the gold mining zone around Lake
Victoria; Mpanda; Chunya; coal mining in Kiwira, Tukuyu District;
tin mining in Korogwe; ruby mining near Morogoro; tanzanite and
phosphate mines in Arusha Region; limestone mines in Dar es
Salaam, Tanga and Mbeya Regions; and salt mining along the
coastal belt. With the advent of drilling for natural gas and possibly
oil in the coastal zone, there may be profound negative impacts
on the especially fragile marine and coastal wetlands. In the
organised, large scale mining sector, environmental impact should
be relatively easy to prevent and control.

71
 Inadequate waste management is threatening environmental
quality including associated soil pollution. Some of the contributing
factors include current practice of mixing general and hazardous
waste during disposal; lack of proper collection, treatment and
disposal facilities; and low public awareness.

5.4 Impact
Land degradation is not merely a matter of physical loss of land
or quality, but has inter-related impacts. Land degradation affects
the social, cultural and economic aspects of affected communities.
Unfortunately, the impact of land degradation becomes obvious
in the long run as lands eventually become unproductive, i.e.
exhibiting loss of vegetation and desert-like conditions. At this
stage the livelihood of the affected people is at risk since the
resources they depend on for their survival and income has been
depleted. Some of the impacts associated with land degradation
are as follows:-

a) Decline or loss of agricultural productivity and food

insecurity
The decline in soil fertility, in most cases, has led to decline or loss
of land productivity which has ultimately affected crop production
and productivity. A baseline report for Alliance for Green Revolution
in Africa of 2010, has shown that the production and productivity
levels for cereal production in six district, namely, Arusha, Babati,
Magu, Mbeya Rural, Mbozi and Misungwi are low ranging from
an average of 0.6 to 1.5 tons/ha against potential of 4.0-8.0 tons/
ha for maize, while for rice ranges from 1.5 to 2.0 tons/ha against
potential of 6.0-8.0tons/ha (URT 2000). According to IFDC (2004)
cereal production per capital has decreased from 160 kg per
person in 1980 to 115 kg per person in 2002.

Furthermore, the assessment of maize production in average yields

for maize from 1999 to 2009 in Manyara, Mbeya, Mwanza, and
Arusha has generally shown a decreasing trend. The declining
agricultural productivity has been among other factors, due to
low soil fertility, further aggravated by low nutrient replenishment.
Maize production in four regions is presented on Table 5.

72
 Source: AGRA, 2010

The economic valuation assessment of land resource in Tabora

region in 2010 has shown that highest cost of land degradation was
observed in paddy production followed by maize, groundnut, cotton
and pulses respectively (Figure 11). Reasons for land degradation
identified include continuous cultivation without sufficient addition
of nutrients, and poor land management practices.

Figure 11: Trends of production for different food crops per ha in Tabora region
Source: MAFC, 2011

73
The overall decline of productivity in almost all crops raises a
concern for sustainable land management initiatives. The cost
of land degradation associated with cultivation of food crops
appears to be higher compared to cash crops, possibly due to
much lower net returns per unit area in the former compared to
the latter. To increase and sustain productivity require appropriate
intervention strategies such as use of appropriate soil fertility and
water management practices

The decline of food crops due to land degradation, coupled with

drought has led to recurring shortage of food in drought-prone areas
of the country. The areas affected include Dodoma, Singida, Tabora,
Shinyanga, parts of Kilimanjaro and Manyara. This is because when
land is highly degraded and is hit by recurring drought, it ends up
yielding nothing especially in rain-fed farm-lands. Another cost of
land degradation in relation to loss of vegetation is on shortage
of fuelwood in rural areas. The removal of forests in the vicinity of
settlements is forcing women to walk ever-increasing distances to
collect firewood. It is common to that women walk a distance of up
to 10km is search for firewood. The time spend to collect fire could
have been used for economic activities such as agriculture

b) Water pollution
Soil erosion from cultivated and pasture lands, causes significant
increase in sediment and nutrient loads into water sources. This in
turn causes pollution and eutrophication of fresh water ecosystems,
wetlands, lakes and rivers, which also has a negative effect on
provision of food and livelihood for a significant population in
the country. There are reported cases of water pollution in water
bodies such as Mindu Dam, Msimbazi River, Tigite River and Lake
Victoria. However, the levels of pollution of such water bodies are
yet to be accurately established

Expanding coastal populations and emerging industrial activities

are exerting ever-increasing pressures on coastal waters thus
negatively affecting water quality. As a result coastal pollution is
increasingly becoming a major issue in Tanzania. Reports indicate
that coastal waters fronting such cities and towns as Dar es Salaam,
Tanga, Zanzibar and Mtwara are said to be grossly polluted.

74
c) Desertification
According to the United Nations Sudano-Sahelian Office (UNSO),
about 33% of Tanzania is affected by desertification. The most
affected areas are those in the arid, semi-arid, and dry sub humid
areas with potential economic resources and biodiversity which
are most vulnerable to land degradation. The areas surrounding
Lake Manyara basin, Geita Gold Mines, Usangu Wetlands and
Ngorongoro Conservation areas have been affected the most
by inadequate control and land management. Continuing land
degradation in semiarid areas which is further being complicated
by overgrazing, has in some places resulted into semi-desert
lands. Other examples of areas affected by desertification include
Dodoma, Shinyanga, Singida, and parts of Kilimanjaro Regions.

d) Migrations and land conflicts

Excessive land degradation triggers migrations of people and their
livestock in search for productive land, fodder and water. This is
especially grazing lands in semiarid areas such as Shinyanga,
Dodoma and Manyara, which have been affected by overgrazing,
recurring droughts and subsequent soil erosion resulting from
torrential rains and winds. As a result livestock-keepers move to
other areas, often to agriculture production areas searching for
water and fodder. This results in farmers-livestock keepers conflicts,
in various places of the country. Conflicts over land resources have
been reported in Usangu Basin in the Southern part of Tanzania
where the rapid expansion of rain-fed and irrigated agriculture and
livestock keeping associated with population growth have reduced
grazing land and escalated conflicts in the management and use
of the land resources between farmers and livestock keepers.

Parallel to the expansion of small scale agriculture, the establishment

of numerous irrigation development projects and schemes from the
1950s has led to a great expansion in paddy cultivation. Maganga
(1999) reported conflicts between crop cultivators and pastoralists,
agro-pastoralists competing for farming and grazing land in Babati
district, northern Tanzania. Furthermore, in the year 2000 land
conflicts in Tanzania culminated in the killing of thirty-eight farmers
in Rudewa Mbuyuni village. The event was highly publicized in
the daily press as ‘the Kilosa Killings’. It is frequently presented

75
as a clear-cut resource conflict between the farming interests of
Rudewa Mbuyuni and the pastoralists in the neighbouring village
of Twatwatwa with their need to access water and grazing in the
dry seasons.

While pastoral communities have for many years been moving to

the south, Tanzania has experienced another kind of the Masai
migration to urban centres beginning during early 1990s in search
of wage labour and other income earning activities. The reasons
for such movements include loss of livestock due to diseases,
drought, limited land for livestock keeping etc.

e) Loss of biodiversity
Land degradation has resulted to loss of biological diversity and
hence loss of the species adapted to the degraded areas. This
is exacerbated by loss of topsoil and fertility, which delays or
prolongs the recovery process of the affected areas. In recent years
this has been the case especially in semi-arid areas which are
facing overgrazing and recurring droughts. This leads to serious
devegetation and land degradation.

In the Southern and Western highlands there is a moist forest

mosaic representing Lake Victoria’s phytochorion and includes
the Lake Victoria Basin, covering an area of about 43,551 km2 or
4.6% of Tanzania’s land surface. These are evergreen and tropical
lowland forests exemplified by remains of forests near Musoma
and Bukoba. The moist forests are among the richest in bird
diversity. The zone is also rich in butterflies, but 270 species are
yet to be recorded in Tanzania. Despite a few endemic species
(e.g., Mangabey monkey and tree hyrax in Minziro forest), the zone
is generally poor in endemic species. However, the presence of
over 500,000 refugees since 1994 has threatened the existence
of biodiversity in Ngara and Karagwe districts. Typically the
Busenyi forest has undergone extensive woodcutting. Agricultural
production, livestock, indiscriminate fishing and infrastructure in
the eastern side of the lake pose a number of threats to biodiversity.

The coastal forest and thicket includes the Zanzibar-Inhambane

regional mosaic and lies less than 700m above sea level. It extends
to Kenya and southern Somalia in the north and to the Limpopo

76
River in Mozambique. The coastal forests and thickets are remnants
of once extensive lowland forests of East Africa, covering about
59,000 km². To date they occur as small isolated patches, in some
cases as small as 2km, limited to hilltops and perhaps covering
350 km² or 1% of the original area. The mangrove forests are said
to cover 1,150 km². About 75% of the coastal forests are reserves.
The Udzungwa National Park covers rich forests of the Eastern Arc
in which the Selous Game Reserve, constituting about 8% of the
zone. Botanically the zone is very rich, with an estimated 3,000
species, of which 40% are endemic. These forests have been
disappearing at an alarming rate due to various human activities
and are at risk of extinction unless they are protected.

Acacia-savannah and grassland some cover 175,160 km² falling

mostly within the Somali-Maasai phytochorion. This is mainly a
flatland found at an altitude of around 1000m, although, sometimes
undulating hills of up to 1,800 m dissect it. The zone is poor in
agricultural potential except in the highlands. The vegetation
ranges from grassland to thorn/shrub land to wood/bush land. This
variety of habitat types constitutes the most famous conservation
areas in the country and includes what is probably the greatest
concentration of large mammals. It encompasses the whole or
parts of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA), five Game
Reserves, five Game Parks and two Game Controlled Areas (GCA),
amounting to 41% of the total protected land. However, biodiversity
is affected by poaching and conflicting interests between wildlife,
subsistence agriculture and, in some cases, pastoralism.

The plateau agro-ecological zone is dominated by Miombo

woodlands which are a major characteristic of the Brachystegia
– Julbernadia Savannah Woodland, with about 554,600 km²
in the Zambezian Regional Centre of Endemism. The Miombo
woodlands have Africa’s biggest and most diverse flora, with the
widest range of vegetation types. Tsetse flies scare habitation but
tobacco cultivation and deforestation are major threats. Moreover,
overgrazing leading to loss of total biomass, palatable species and
soil erosion are other important factors.

77
5.5 Response
Many human activities are based on land, and therefore are
influenced by unwise and improper use of land resources. In
Tanzania a number of stakeholders are involved in land use and
land management, from both the government and private sectors.
A number of policy measures and practices have been initiated
over the last decade to mitigate these. However, implementations
of these measures are not adequate to combat land degradation.
This section highlights some of the initiatives which have been
taken or are undertaken to combat land degradation in Tanzania.

a) Lake Victoria Environnement Management Programme

(LVEMP)
LVEMP is a Governments of Tanzania, Kenya, and Uganda, and
IDA/GEF funded project that covers the entire Lake basin in the
three East African countries of Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda. The
implementation of this program has enabled the community to
plant different tree species used for agro-forestry in the pilot areas.
Seedlings of various species including fruits, indigenous and
exotic have been raised and distributed. Examples of successful
agro-forestry practices have been observed in Kalemela sub-
catchment, whereby farmers grow papaws, mangos, avocado,
grevillea and eucalyptus trees in their fields in addition to annual
crops like maize.

In addition to that, the program has enabled more farmers to be

involved in contour bund farming, use of tie-ridges and ridges, and
use of manure. Evidence in the catchment areas of Lake Victoria
Basin has shown that contour farming can increase crop yields for
over 80 percent especially in the second season after construction
of contour bunds in the agricultural land. For example, average
yield of maize and cotton planted in contours for three seasons
were 1512 and 1964kg/ha respectively, while the average yield
for maize and cotton planted without contour bunds in the same
seasons were 437 and 889kg/ha respectively (Ngazi et al., 2004).

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b) Trans-boundary Agro-Ecosystem Management
Programme (TAMP)
The Trans-boundary Agro-Ecosystem Management Programme
(TAMP) for the Kagera River Basin aimed to reverse land degradation
in order to generate the local, regional and global environmental
benefits resulting from a more productive and sustainable use of
biodiversity and agricultural ecosystems. It responds to the need
for concerted action among farmers, communities, districts and
countries in the river basin to reverse the process of degradation
and ensure the conservation and sustainable use of land, water
and biological resources. Particular attention will be paid to the
biodiversity and agro-ecosystem functions on which human
livelihoods and food security depend.

The project has been successful in reducing land degradation

in Kagera region. By May 2013, the project had the following
achievements

• Establishment of field schools with 121 farmers in 46

communities

• Establishment of 45 micro-catchments covering a total area

of 19,000 ha

• 5,350 ha already covered by SLM

• Establishment of buffer strips protecting 283 kilometres of

riverbanks

• 1.8 million trees – mainly leguminous multipurpose varieties -

planted

c) Soil Conservation and Agro-forestry Programme in

Arusha (SCAPA)
The project was established in Arusha and Arumeru districts in
1989. The aim of the projects was to improve land management
by promoting innovative technologies and approaches that lessen
land degradation and have a lasting on productivity. The most
important achievement by SCAPA was the promotion of innovative
participatory approaches to conservation and agro-forestry which
provided a good learning ground for projects in many other areas

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in Tanzania. SCAPA has also contributed to plant more than 4.1
million trees since 2000 when the government launched the annual
nationwide tree planting exercise observed every January 1st.
In addition, SCAPA has helped to enhance capacity among the
extension staff, who was involved in the program from the district-,
division-, ward- and village levels. These achievements also
extend to the villagers and the local leadership. The institutional
development at local level has in some villages been significant to
reduce land degradation.

d) Land Management Programme (LAMP) in Tanzania

LAMP I and II was initiated in 1988 in Babati district by Sida as
a community-based programme for the management of natural
resources. The discussion with Environmental and Sanitation officer
in Babati district revealed that the implementation of LAMP I and
II program in respective areas have empowered the community
with various skills for land management through participatory land
use management, village forest management and management of
common grazing. Also extension officers, who received training on
sustainable land management, have disseminated their knowledge
and skills to farmers on how to manage their land in a sustainable
way, by using methods such as traditional soil conservation,
communal pasture management, beekeeping and processing of
its products, and agro-forestry. Furthermore, through this program
farmers learned for example how to prevent gullies by planting tree,
cultivation with contours, terraces, trees or bushes. The villagers
have also learned the importance to reduce tree clearings and
prevent fires and free grazing livestock.

e) Mitigation of Climate Change in Agriculture (MICCA)

Project in the South Uluguru Mountains, Tanzania
The Mitigation of Climate Change in Agriculture (MICCA) Pilot
Project is implemented in the South Uluguru Mountains (in
Tanzania) and it is part of the MICCA Global Programme ran
by FAO. Among its achievements, the MICCA pilot project has
introduced agro-forestry into conservation agriculture practices
where total of 93 farmers (including 41 women and 52 men) have
been trained in upland villages Out of which 46 were completely
new to Conservation Agriculture farming. This training activity was

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considered a success, particularly in areas with limited interest.
A total of 90 farms were prepared using the 3 CA principles in
the 6 villages, 15 farms per village. The MICCA project has also
established a central tree nursery as the Rural Resource Centre
(or Centre for Sustainable Living –CSL--‐), and satellite nurseries
in other villages. The Satellite nurseries have been supported the
agro-forestry in upland villages as farmers get access to seedlings
easily without having to come to the central tree nursery based in
Kolero. As a result of this imitative, currently, there are 22 active
satellite tree nurseries whose representatives received training
under MICCA in the project area distributed as follows:

• Kolero ward: 12 nurseries in 3 villages (Lubasazi, Kolero,

Lukange). The nurseries have been established by groups (2),
institutions (3), and individuals (7).

• Kasanga ward: 6 nurseries in 3 villages (Kitonga, Kasanga,

and Ukwama). The nurseries were established by groups (3)
and institutions (3).

• Bungu ward: 5 satellite tree nurseries in 3 villages (Bungu,

Balani and Mihange). The nurseries were established by
groups (2), institutions (2), and individuals (1).

In addition to establishing the tree nursery at the project has

led tree nursery trainings. Trainings involve aspects of: nursery
establishment (e.g. water and safety, site preparation, nursery
orientation, low shade construction); selection of tree species
based on survival in the area, demand, potentials of the tree
species and local collections; nursery tending (i.e. seed sowing
in seedbeds, potting, pricking out seedlings from seed beds and
transplanting them into polythene bags, watering and weeding
techniques); advanced nursery techniques (i.e. root pruning and
hardening off); tree planting in the landscape (i.e. site preparation,
planting arrangement–boundary, scattered, woodlot, spot weeding
and how to do pruning). Training to 47 (16 female, 31 male)
participants were conducted for representatives from currently
available nurseries in the area from the following villages: Kolero,
Lubasazi, Lukange, Kitonga, Kasanga, Ukwama, Bungu, Balani,
and Mihange.

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f) Shinyanga Soil Conservation Program (or “Hifadhi Ardhi
Shinyanga” HASHI)
The HASHI (Hifadhi Ardhi Shinyanga) project in Kahama was
initiated in 1987. As a result of the HASHI project, by 2004—or 18
years into the project - at least 350,000 hectares of ngitili had been
restored or created in 833 villages, encompassing a population of
2.8 million (Barrow and Mlenge, 2004). Roughly half of the ngitili are
owned by groups and half by individuals. Communal enclosures
average 164 hectares in size, whereas individual plots average 2.3
hectares.

Nature has also benefited from the HASHI project, with a big
increase in tree, shrub, grass, and herb varieties, as well as
bird and mammal species (Monela and others, 2005). Not only
are the restored woodlands important economic assets, they
are also fostering richer habitats and the recovery of a variety of
species. By 2005, there were 152 species of trees, shrubs, and
climbers in restored ngitiri, where recently scrubby wasteland
had stood. Small- and medium-sized mammals such as hyenas,
wild pigs, deer, hare, and rabbits are also returning, and the task
force recorded 145 bird species that had become locally rare or
extinct. Besides providing habitat for animals, ngitili have provided
breeding grounds for some seasonal bird species. Individual ngitili
are well defined and of better quality, in terms of volume of wood
and tree species diversity, compared with communal ngitili.

g) Dodoma Soil Conservation Program (Hifadhi Ardhi

Dodoma (HADO)
The Hifadhi Ardhi Dodoma (HADO) project was launched in 1973
by the Government of Tanzania with financial assistance from
SIDA. HADO was implemented in three geographically separate
areas in the Dodoma Region —the Kondoa Eroded Area in Kondoa
District, Mpwapwa District, and from 1986, in Mvumi division of
Dodoma rural district. The project also supported reforestation
and soil conservation programs. Thus, several hundred hectares
of woodlots were established centrally by the project. During the
final years, the project concentrated more on supplying seedlings
from the project-operated nurseries. The project also facilitated
extension, education and training.

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h) Soil Erosion Control and Agro-forestry Project (SECAP)
The project was established in 1981 with Germany funding through
the GTZ to tackle the problem of land deterioration and improve the
economic situation of peasant farmers by increasing agricultural
and wood production, availability of water and to restore the
disturbed ecological balance of the West Usambara. Within a period
of 20 years (1981-2000) of SECAP implementation about 24% of
the households in the West Usambara Mountains were trained on
various aspects related to land conservation. The major thrust was
on training on enhancing soil and water conservation measures
(73%). About 10,000,000 trees have been planted on farmlands,
which is about 20% of the required number of trees to meet the
growing demand for fuel wood and reduce harvesting pressure on
existing natural forests. Besides, key catchment forests have been
protected, re-forested and put under community– based forest
management teams. There has been an increase in the population
of trees on farm, in some areas being too high for efficient crop
production. For example, Mwihomeke (2002) counted up to 900
trees per hectare on farmlands in Ubiri village close to Lushoto
Township.

i) Conservation and Management of the Eastern Arc

Mountain Forests
This is a GEF project aimed at management and conservation of
forest biodiversity and the Eastern Arc Mountains that started in
January 2004. The project had a number of important achievements.
Some key achievements include:

• Significant enlargement of the forest area in the Eastern Arc

Mountains (EAMs) under enhanced legal protection status.
Four Forest Reserves covering a total area of 178,503 ha were
upgraded to the status of Nature Reserves.

• An additional 4 forest reserves, covering a total area of 81,879

ha, are in various stages (mostly advanced stages) of being
gazetted as Nature Reserves.

• Three forest reserves proposed for gazettment have been

gazetted, totalling an area of 3,019 ha and five others are
at an advanced stage in the gazettment process significant

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 increase in the number of Government personnel attached to
Nature and Forest Reserves.

• Over the project life, and in particular during the last two
years, the number of staff in Nature and Forest Reserves has
increased dramatically. Since the project began, there are 93
new foresters employed in the Nature Reserves. A total of 200
new Assistant Foresters were employed by FBD.

• Staffing in Nature Reserves has increased by 472 % from a

total of 25 staff for all NRs at the beginning of the project to the
current total of 118Community capacity related to sustainable
agricultural land management and financial management has
been enhanced through the training of Paraprofessionals and
Community-Based Trainers (CBTs).

j) Undertaking Projects and Programmes for Sustainable

Land Use Management
• Sustainable Land Use Management in Kilimanjaro:
This is a four years project from 2011-2015 which is
being implemented in 72 villages in Kilimanjaro Region.
The project seeks to provide the basis for economic
development, food security and sustainable livelihoods
while restoring the ecological integrity of the Kilimanjaro
region’s ecosystems.

• Mainstreaming Sustainable Forest Management in Miombo

Woodland of Western Tanzania: This is a five - year project
from 2012- 2016. The project aimed to provide the long term
solution to the threats affecting biodiversity and livelihoods
in the Miombo woodlands area including deforestation and
degradation resulting from land clearance and burning
for agriculture, saw milling, tobacco processing, charcoal
production and effects of climate change. The project is
implemented in Tabora (Urambo, Kaliua and Uyui) and
Katavi (Mlele) Regions.

• Tanganyika integrated project: The project aims at piloting

interventions that will contribute to the reduction of
sediments flow into Lake Tanganyika from the pilot villages
through integrated catchment management, thereby

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 improving lake habitats and reducing point pollution levels
of Lake Tanganyika waters.

k) Strengthening Protected Areas Network in Southern

Tanzania
The project aims to increase the effectiveness of the National Parks
in protecting biodiversity and provide the long term ecological,
social and financial sustainability of that system

l) Strategies and plans to address land degradation,

conservation of water catchments and waste
management
In 2006, the Government prepared and started implementing
a Strategy for Urgent Actions on Land Degradation and Water
Catchments. This strategy has the objective of addressing
degradation of land and water catchments due to overgrazing,
unsustainable farming practices, deforestation, wildfires,
unsustainable irrigation practices, unsustainable mining practices,
and a haphazard disposal of plastic wastes.

Since its inauguration in 2006 a lot has been achieved in addressing

land degradation in the country including:-

i) identification and conservation of water catchments;

resettlement of pastoralists and farmers who had invaded
various ecological sensitive areas such as wetlands and
forests; reducing wildfires by enacting and enforcing bylaws;
expelling illegal miners who had invaded various ecological
sensitive areas such as Amani Nature Reserve (Muheza
District) and Shengena Forest Reserve (Same District) have
been removed and promoting tree planting whereby each
district is required to plant at least 1,500,000 trees annually.

ii) Preparation of Climate Change Strategy in 2012. The Strategy,

among other things, emphasizes on adaptation to climate
change impacts including adapting to recurrent droughts.
Such droughts negatively impact on land degradation by
exposing the land to agents of soil erosion such as water and
wind.

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 iii) National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) 2013-2018:
Among the nine environmental challenges identified by
this plan is land degradation. To address this challenge
the following priority actions are identified: Strengthen
enforcement of the Land Use Planning Act, 2007; Carry
out “environmental mapping” for identifying highly fragile
or degraded areas; Prohibit uncontrolled wild fires;
Implement the National Action Plan on Desertification
(NAP); Prepare and implement reclamation plans in highly
degraded areas such as mining areas; Promote sustainable
agricultural practices; Promote use of appropriate
traditional knowledge in land management; Improve and
promote rangeland resource management; Strengthen
national research use and information sharing, extension
services and farmer organizations in land; and Strengthen
Implementation of the Strategy for Urgent Actions on Land
Degradation and Water Catchments.

iv) Implementation of National Adaptation Programme of

Action (NAPA): In 2007, the government prepared NAPA.
The programme, among other things, address land use
issues. It identifies potential climate change adaptation
options in land use such as encouraging terracing,
contour farming, use of organic manure, zero-grazing,
some land to be allocated for specific protective uses,
and development and the informal sector. Since then,
the programme has been implemented through projects
and programmes, which also address land degradation.
A typical example of these projects is Dodoma eco-
village project implemented in Chololo Village-Dodoma
Municipality which among others, has been supporting
land use planning and tree planting to enable proper land
use and rejuvenation of degraded lands. This initiative also
contributes to addressing impacts of climate change.

m) Promotion of conservation agriculture and rainwater

harvesting
Promotion of conservation agriculture and rainwater harvesting for
crop and livestock production have also taken roots in Tanzania
with particular focus on semi-arid areas of the country. It has

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therefore been necessary for the government to promote adoption
of conservation agriculture and rainwater harvesting in order to
enhance effective tapping and infiltration of rainfall to boost soil
moisture availability for optimal performance of cultivated crops and
pastures. The following are examples of conservation agriculture
that are being promoted in the country:-

i) Ngitiri: This is an indigenous natural resource management

system in Shinyanga. It involves conservation of fallow and
rangelands through vegetation regeneration and controlled
livestock grazing for use in the dry season in response to acute
animal feed shortage during dry season. A similar system is
also practiced in Maasai land where it is known as Alalili.

ii) Matengo Pit (Ngoro) farming system: In southern Tanzania,

for a long time, farmers have developed a system of farming
on steep/slopes. This system, called the Ngoro system entails
cultivation on a hillside by making series of small pits. Earth
from the pits is piled in heaps at the side, and in these heaps,
crops (mostly maize) are grown. Weeds and crop residues are
thrown into such pits. For the next season’s crops the heaps
are broken down into pits and fresh pits dug alongside. Hillside
cultivated in this way present a honey-comb like appearance.
The system is the most effective way of preventing erosion and
maintaining the fertility of the soil. Apart from this, the system
helps in soil biodiversity and soil moisture conservation.

iii) The Government has been supporting communities in semi-

arid areas such as Shinyanga, Dodoma, Manyara and Tabora
to construct charco dams for conserving water for livestock.
Households and institutions have been encouraged to harvest
rain water for various uses. Rain water harvesting addresses
water shortage and is among the interventions promoted under
the Strategy for Urgent Action on Land Degradation and Water
Catchments 2006.

iv) The National Fertilizer Regulatory Authority was both

established and became effective in 2012. The authority is
mandated to oversee, monitor and regulate the entire process
of fertilizer trading, distribution and quality inspection to ensure
applications of the right fertilizers in the right place adhere to
environmental safeguards.

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 v) Promotion of cost-effective technologies for agroforestry and
soil erosion control on cultivated lands through community
based agricultural development projects. Various soil and water
conservation technologies are promoted through extension
services. Demarcation and setting aside of locations for small-
scale mining including Kilindi District (Tanga Region), Kilosa
and Mvomero Districts (Morogoro Region), Maganzo, Kishapu
and Ibadakuli (Shinyanga Region), Mererani (Manyara Region),
Mpwapwa (Dodoma Region), Nyarugusu and Rwamgasa
(Mwanza Region) and Manyoni (Singida Region) (Table 6.3).
Demarcation is done mainly for the purpose of enhancing the
Government to monitor small-scale mining activities as well as
provide extension services.

5.6 Best Practices and Lesson learnt

From various initiatives which have been and are still undertaken by
the government, International organizations and Non Governmental
Organizations to address the problem of land degradation in the
country, a number of lessons and best practices can be drawn
for future adoption and improvement in order to combat land
degradation. Some of the best practices and lessons learned are
discussed in this section.

5.6.1 Best Practices

a) Conservation Agriculture
Conservation agriculture (CA) is a combination of wide
range of tillage and cropping practices/technologies that
aims at ensuring minimum soil disturbance, adequate soil
cover, and mix or rotation of crops so as to reduce soil
physical and chemical degradation. A combination of
practices such as conservation tillage (reduced/minimum
or zero tillage), mulching, intercropping, crop rotation are
core in CA.

A number of Conservation Agriculture initiatives such as

HADO, HASHI, SCAPA and LAMP have been undertaken
in various parts of Tanzania. The emphases of these
initiatives have been placed on physical structures to
stop runoff by trapping it in situ (tied ridging, Fanya Juu
terraces) or discharging it into “protected” waterways.

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These initiatives have achieved greater success from
a multidisciplinary approach with improved agronomic
and biological measures to not only reduce soil loss but
more importantly to maintain and enhance overall soil
productivity. Soil moisture management has been shown
to be as important as nutrient management, especially
in drier areas, and significant improvements have been
achieved by making more effective use of rainfall through
the use of mulch, cover crops and reduced tillage.

Conservation agriculture practices have been piloted by

MAFC in Arusha, Dodoma, Mwanza, Shinyanga, Tanga
and Bukoba through participatory research with farmers’
groups/FFS approaches to adapt them to various local
conditions and farmers using hand tools, animal drawn
equipment and tractor power. Among the technology
employed in conservation agriculture includes:

b) In-situ compost cultivation and ‘pattern farming’

(Kilimo cha Mfumo)
The In-situ compost cultivation is a well known traditional
Matengo pit (Ngoro) system of south-west Tanzania, and
while the pattern farming system is practiced around
Dodoma for growing grape vines. The system is based on
trench cultivation. This involves excavation of trenches 0.6
m deep and 0.6 m wide, more or less across the slope, at
a spacing of 0.9 m apart, edge to edge. The trenches are
dug in the dry period, then filled with crop residues, grass
and other organic trash, and finally back-filled with soil.

The surface is deliberately left some centimetres below

ground level so that it can capture runoff. Associated with
the trenching, a furrow to harvest rainwater is formed to
lead water into the field from outside, and an end bund in
the field is built up to prevent its loss. Between trenches
a leguminous crop such as groundnuts is grown, while
maize, sweet potatoes and tomatoes are grown on the
trenches. In the first year, the crop is planted at the sides
of the trench to avoid damage to crop roots by the heat
generated by decomposition. Thereafter crops are planted

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in the middle. In years of good rainfall it is possible to grow
an opportunistic second crop, making use of stored soil
moisture. After four years the trench is re-dug, filled with
organic matter, and the cycle begins. Further additions/
improvements to the system will involve addition of cattle
urine and waste water from the household to hasten
decomposition of grass materials; and (ii) mulching
between the trenches with crop Stover at the end of the
season.

The application of technology starts with demarcating and

fencing the area using brush wood fencing. This is followed
by identifying healthy upright shoots of Terminalia sericea,
and pruning lower branches to reduce knot formation/
encourage the shoots to grow straight. The recommended
spacing between trees is 3-4 m. On maturity, after 3-4
years, the main trunk of the tree is cut (when it reaches a
length of around 3 metres height with a diameter of 0.15m)
and a replacement shoot has been selected for coppicing.
This method allows for a sustainable annual yield from the
plot. The technology is basically maintenance free, until
the trenches need re-digging. This involves, in the fourth
year after original construction, excavation of the trenches
and refilling with fresh organic trash. All work is achieved
with common household tools such as hand hoes, pangas
and spades.

c) Vegetative gully healing

The technology constitutes a gully healing process. The
starting point is to form a layer of trash and soil across the
bed of the gully (a typical gully here is 3-10 m wide, and 2
m or more deep), reinforced with pegs, and to build this up
gradually in layers as sediment is captured behind it. On
top of the barrier a dense line of mikayeba (tree cassava -
Manihot glaziovii) is planted. Trash continues to be added
to the now living barrier until the gully is fully silted up. The
barrier, 1 – 2 metres wide, then appears as a contour line
across her land, and continues to function against erosion.
Mikayeba is not just a living structural support: its leaves
are also a source of fresh vegetables.

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The treatment does not end with sedimentation of the gully
bed. The land is left fallow for one to two seasons. Then,
late in the first or second season, the farmer digs in the
young volunteer vegetation as a green manure, and plants
a ‘catch crop’ of maize. This technology is only relevant
to those with gullies in their fields, and it requires not
only a good deal of labour, but also constant observation
and responsiveness. The main maintenance aspect is
the continuous addition of soil/trash layer upon previous
layers, and tending the living barrier to maintain its density.
Maintenance, as well as original establishment, requires
only common farm/household tools including hoes,
spades, sacks and pangas.

d) Ripping and Cover Crops

Ripping is one of the most popularly advocated conservation
tillage technologies in soils. Ripping is achieved by using
a ripper that breaks soil clogs along the planting rows,
leaving the spacing between rows undisturbed. The
technology helps to increase water capture, protect water
quality, and reduce soil erosion, especially in bare lands
which is susceptible to erosion. The optimum size of the
root system is governed by climate and seasonal rainfall
distribution, as well as nutrient supplying ability of the soil.

The technology has applied in semi – arid and areas with

hard pan problem such as Dodoma in Kibaigwa, Babati
and some parts of Karatu district. The application of this
technology has helped farmers in Kibaigwa ward-Kongwa
district to increase maize production from an average of
2 bags to 7 bags per acre in 2013. The sunflower crop in
a ripped field has increased to 10 bags as opposed to 2
bags obtained from non- ripped field in 2013 season.

e) Integrated plant nutrition techniques/strategies

(IPNS)
Integrated Plant Nutrition Management (IPNM) aims to
maintain soil fertility in the long term, and to rehabilitate
soils with low fertility. The use of Minjingu phosphate rock
(MPR), Panda rock phosphate, farmyard manure crop
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 residues, leguminous plants (either as green manure or a
component of crop rotation) and agro-forestry are some of
the components.

The strategy optimises all aspects of nutrient cycling –

supply, uptake, and loss to the environment – to improve
food production. At farm level, IPNS aims to optimise the
productivity of nutrient flows that pass through the farming
system during a crop rotation. This means application of
external plant nutrient sources and amendments, efficient
processing, and recycling of crop residues and on-farm
organic wastes that limit plant nutrient losses. In the process,
IPNS empower farmers by increasing their technical know-
how and decision-making capacity, and promote changes
in land use, crop rotation, and interactions among forestry,
livestock and cropping systems in support of agricultural
intensification. At village or farming community level,
IPNS take into account plant nutrient sources outside
cropped areas, including those in irrigation water and
flood sediments, livestock manure, and forest litter and
organic material that are physically transferred from forest
and pastures. IPNS promotes rationalization in the transfer
of organic matter and plant nutrients from non-cropped
to cropped areas, and the mobilization of unused nutrient
resources or the saving of valuable nutrient sources
diverted as domestic fuel, raw materials for building or for
industrial purposes.

5.6.2 Lesson Learnt

a) Participatory Forest Management
Participatory Forest Management (PFM) was introduced
into law with the passing of the Forest Act of 2002, which
provides a clear legal basis for communities, groups or
individuals across mainland Tanzania to own, manage or co-
manage forests under a wide range of conditions. The law
recognises two different types of PFM – which enable local
communities to declare – and ultimately gazette – Village,
Group or Private Forest Reserves (commonly referred
to as “Community Based Forest Management” – CBFM)

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and allow communities to sign joint forest management
agreements with government and other forest owners
(commonly referred to as “Joint Forest Management” or
JFM.

The aim of PFM is to enable the villagers to use their land and
other natural resources in a way that leads to an improved
and sustainable agricultural production, and better living
conditions for all- stakeholders, including women. The
process recognizes that good land management requires
an effective system of involving people in preparation and
implementation of village land use plans whereby villagers
and their institutions gradually build their capacity to
manage village land and stakeholders are helped to reach
agreements which reflect their interests in a balanced way.
The challenge is to promote the application and continuous
updating of the village plans; PFM has emerged as the
government’s strategy to achieve sustainable forest
management by encouraging the management or co–
management of forest and woodland resources by the
communities living closest to the resources. PFM has
been shown to contribute to improving rural livelihoods
whilst protecting the environment and promoting gender
equality. To date, PFM has enabled villagers to have
traditionally “reserved” forests for a range of productive,
social, traditional or sacred reasons. A good example of
this include the “ngitili” forests of Shinyanga and Mwanza
regions, which the Sukuma pastoralists have developed
for dry season grazing, and the “mpungi” or “mshitu” clan
forests of North Pare Mountains used for sacred reasons.
One study in Mwanga district found around 290 small clan
forests covering 370 hectares in just three divisions and
18,000 reserved forests covering 78,000 hectares of ngitili
in Shinyanga region.

b) Participatory Land Use Management

In order to guide and regulate the allocation, ownership,
use, management, and administration of land, land
use planning is also essential. Participatory Land Use
Management (PLUM) guidelines were initially developed

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and tested by a project in Dodoma guided by the National
Land Use Planning Commission (NLUPC). The Commission
has been able to establish land use plans for the districts
of Kiteto, Tabora, Nzega, Urambo, and Loliondo to solve
the problem of conflicts on land resource use among
several land users. The Commission has also prepared
participatory land use management projects in Mwanga
and Iringa districts whereby the local communities were
involved in multi-sectoral determination of land use. In
addition, physical plans for the Uhuru Corridor (Dar es
Salaam, Coast, Morogoro, Iringa and Mbeya Regions),
Lake Zone (Kagera, Mwanza, Mara and Shinyanga
regions), Northern zone (Arusha, Tanga and Kilimanjaro
regions) and Southern Zone (Lindi, Mtwara and Ruvuma)
were prepared. These guidelines for participatory village
land use planning and natural resources management
are targeted at district technical staff on how to involve all
stakeholders in the planning and implementation process
and how to integrate their sectoral development efforts for
a better management of natural resources at the village
level (through the hierarchy of Village Council, Village
Assembly and District Council

c) Sustainable Pasture Management

A range of programmes have been implemented in order
to test and promote approaches to sustainable rangeland
management. A critical issue is that rangelands are
generally managed as common property, open access
resources, where pastoralists and their herds migrate as a
function of seasonal and spatial variations in rainfall. These
traditional approaches have the important advantage that
pastoralists are able to direct their herds towards the
area where rainfall has been most abundant, and that the
resource is managed in an equitable manner.

Ngitiri experience in Shinyanga and Mwanza region

provides a good example sustainable pasture
management. Through this traditional initiative pastoralists
were able to provide forage for livestock—especially
oxen—at the end of the dry season when villagers prepare

94
their land for agriculture. In this initiative, vegetation and
trees are nurtured on fallow lands during the wet season
so that fodder supplies are available for livestock during
dry seasons; hence, it has helped to alleviates dry season
fodder shortages and prevents land degradation through
reducing soil erosion and deforestation.

The Maasai communities also practice sustainable

pasture management through traditional division of their
collective pastures into different types of areas governed
by certain traditional rules. The most fundamental division
is of pastures used during the wet season and areas used
as dry season refuges. Wet season pastures tend to be
those without permanent water that can only be accessed
during the periods of rainfall. Dry season pastures tend to
be areas which have permanent water nearby or which are
particularly resistant to drought, such as forests which retain
vegetation that livestock can access even during severe
droughts. In addition, some pastures are designated for
use by calves and weak or infirm livestock.

d) Integrated Crop-Livestock Farming Systems

This is focusing on livestock integration with crops such as
maize and legumes, complementing and expanding the
existing activities under the Sustainable Intensification of
Maize-Legume Cropping Systems for Food Security. The
practice is currently working in Babati and Mbulu districts
of Manyara region and in Kondoa, Bahi, Chamwino and
Dodoma Urban districts of Dodoma region (groundnuts,
pigeon pea, maize/pigeon pea intercropping and starter
doses of phosphate). The purpose is to increase the
productivity of maize-legume-livestock production systems,
system resilience and agro-ecosystem services including
provisioning of food and feed; improved water and soil
conservation, soil nutrient supply and cycling, soil health
and soil structure; carbon sequestration and biodiversity;
and adaptation to climate variability and change.

95
5.7 Challenges for Sustainable Land degradation
Although land degradation initiatives has recorded considerable
success in the country in terms of land and soil conservation
measures, several issues and challenges need to be further
addressed. These challenges need to be taken into consideration
while planning implementation of land degradation activities in
different programs and projects. The main challenges include:

i) Population growth rate in Tanzania has remained high. The

experience observed in the Conservation and Management
of the Eastern Arc Mountain Forests including the Uluguru
Mountains can also be experienced in other parts of the
country where various initiatives are undertaken. Although
this is acknowledged population growth plays a significant
role to land degradation due to high dependence of natural
resources for livelihoods, very little is being done to address
this underlying cause of many of the direct threats. Failure to
address this issue makes it much more difficult to achieve
expected program/project outcomes and negatively affects
the prospects for sustaining positive outcomes achieved by
the program/project.

ii) Shortage of personnel and equipment to implement various

program activities has a remarkable impact to the success of
land degradation initiatives. In order to monitor and evaluate
land degradation there is need to have GIS facilities at regional
level and research centres. There is also a need for further
training to personnel on how to use those facilities to assess
land degradation.

iii) Many livestock keepers are using free range system of

livestock keeping which contribute to land degradation
through overgrazing/overstocking and uncontrolled livestock
movement. Livestock keepers such as Maasai and Sukuma for
example are reluctant to implement destocking due to cultural
and traditional attitudes.

iv) Lack of insecurity in land use tenure system discourages the

land users from conserving natural resource especially in the
aspect of investment of labour and capital in land conservation.

96
v) Incompliance to different policies and by-laws which govern
the environmental conservation such as to avoid livestock
grazing in marginal areas, water sources and free movement
of livestock has contributed to land degradation as well as
to land use conflict. There is need to harmonize policies and
regulations related to land degradation management: (1)
between government institutions within a country and (2)
between countries with shared natural resource. Besides
the need for multi-sectoral mechanisms for policy review and
harmonization (among water, land, crop, livestock, wildlife,
forestry, inland fisheries, environment, etc.), their effective
application also requires mechanisms for continuous feedback
between local and national levels and capacity building at
local level.

vi) Sustainability of the programs/projects has remained a

challenge to many land degradation initiatives. Many projects
depend on supports from various donors, mainly external
supports from other countries. Once, the funds from donors
have finished many programs and projects become not
operational. It is important to learn from best practice used the
MICCA project in Uluguru Mountains. The government should
allocate sufficient funds to ensure sustainable implementation
of land degradation initiatives without much dependence
donor funds.

97
6.0 ANALYSIS OF LAND DEGRADATION BASED ON AGRO-
ECOLOGICAL ZONES

Agro-ecological zoning (AEZ) defines zones on the basis of

combinations of soil, landform and climatic characteristics. The
analysis of land degradation status in Tanzania based on agro-
ecological zones was done by combining land cover, soil and
altitude parameters using GIS and remote sensing techniques.
Also, expert judgement consultation and literature review were
employed to supplement information on the status in various
places. Areas with soil type vulnerable to land degradation, least
vegetation and higher slopes have been assigned higher ranks for
land degradation. Similarly, areas with a high vegetation cover, low
slope and forest type land cover are assigned low ranks for land
degradation. The resultant composite coverage was classified into
three classes: (1) non-degraded, (2) Moderately degraded, and
(3) highly degraded. The parameters which were used to analyse
the status of land degradation are briefly described in this section.

a) Slope
Slope of an area represents steepness or inclination of an area
determined from two points on a line. Slope plays a vital role in
land degradation. A steep slope will cause more runo and will
enhance the soil erosion in absence of vegetation cover leading
to land degradation. Slope was generated from Digital Elevation
Model (DEM) from SRTM and classified into 5 classes i.e. 0-5%,
5 – 15%, 15 – 30%, 30 – 50, and >50% and ranked 5 to a low lying
areas to 1 in hilly areas for performing weighed overlay analysis in
ArcGIS Spatial Analyst Module.

b) Land use and Land cover

Land use/cover is one of the most important bio-physical indicators
of soil erosion and therefore needs to be considered when
attempting to measure the extent of land degradation. Land use/
land cover map was prepared using knowledge based supervised
classification technique and maximum likelihood classifier. The
land-cover classes were then assigned ranks from 1 – 5 according
to their role in assessment of land degradation. Where bare areas

98
 and those interfered by human activities like urban areas were
ranked 1 while Forest, water and woodlands were ranked 5.

c) Soil
Soil is the earth’s fragile skin that anchors all life on Earth. It is
comprised of countless species that create a dynamic and complex
ecosystem and is among the most precious resources to humans.
Soil fertility decline is a major effect of soil erosion as it causes the
deterioration in soil physical, chemical and biological properties.
In assessing land degradation each soil type was assigned a
rank according to its role in land degradation. Soil types were
ranked from number 2 to 5. Haplic Acrisols, Cambic Arenosols,
Eutric Leptosols, Rhodic Ferrasols and Lithic Leptosols were
ranked number 2 while Gleyic Soilonetx, Umbric Nitisols, Haplic
Nitisols, Haplic Lixisols, Umbric Acrisols, Vitric Andosols, Chromic
Cambisol, Sodic Solonochak, Mollic Solonetz, Haplic Solonetz,
Ferralic Cambisol, Haplic Ferrasols and Eutric Planosols were
ranked 3. Haplic Luvisols, Mollic Andosols, Chromic Luvisols, Luvic
Phaeozems, Umbric Andosols, Dystric Calcisol, Mollic Fluvisols,
Haplic Phaeozems, Eutric Fluvisols and Chernozems were ranked
4. Eutric Vertisols soils were ranked 5.

6.1 Classification and assessment of land degradation

Although each individual indicator is helpful in describing an
aspect of land degradation, it is useful in combining the results
of land cover, soil and slope, to determine areas which appear
to be affected by land degradation with different indicators.
Integrating the information from land use/land cover, soil and slope
into three classes with deferent themes, weight and class ranks
were assigned to perform the overlay analysis. Each indicator has
different contribution to land degradation. Land cover was given
0.7 weights while slope and soil were given a weight of 0.2 and 0.1
respectively. The following equation was employed in assessing
the magnitude of land degradation:

LD=‫(ڤ‬Sw, STw, LCw)

Where LD is Land degradation

Sw is the weighed slope

99
 STw is the weighed soil type

LCw is the weighed Land cover types

Areas with higher slopes (50 - 100%), low vegetation and soils that
are vulnerable to land degradation are assigned high ranks for
land degradation and the areas with low slope (0–15%) and higher
values of land cover were assigned low ranks for land degradation.
Similarly, land-cover classes such bare soil, Urban areas etc., were
put in high land degradation category and dense forest canopy
in non-degraded areas. Areas ranked 1 and 2 were categorised
as highly degraded areas, 3 and 4 moderately degraded and
5 non degraded areas. The classification of the status of land
degradation was followed analysis of change detection to establish
the magnitude of change for the given time period. Based on
the combination of three factors and the classification described
above, land degradation status were analysed in general, followed
by agro-ecological zones.

6.2 Status of land degradation

The analyses of land degradation status in general and by agro-
ecological zones are presented in Tables 8 and 9 and Figure 11.
Generally, from Table 8 and Figure 12 the highly degraded areas
in the country have increased from 13.5% in 1980 to 16.02% in
2012. The degradation has significantly changed at a rate 18.3%.
Similarly, the moderate degraded areas have also increased from
30.9% to 33.55% with a rate change of 8.95%. The analyses based
on agro ecological zones have shown that the plateau, semi-
arid and southern highlands agro-ecological zones are currently
highly degraded compared to other agro-ecological zones. High
degradation in these zones is associated with poor farming practices
and overgrazing which have greatly affected miombo woodlands
in the plateau. The agro-pastoral migration from northwest to south
and southwest part of Tanzania has also contributed to excessive
land degradation in the southern highlands through overgrazing.

100
 Table 6: Land Table
degradation status from 1980 - 2012
6: Land degradation status from 1980 - 2012
Land Degradation Rate of Change
Land Degradation Rate of Change
Year: 1980 Year: 2012 1980-2012
Ha Year:%1980 Ha Year: %
2012 Ha 1980-2012
%
Status
Highly 12,785,136Ha 13.54 % 15,124,599
Ha 16.02 % Ha
2,339,463 18.29%
degraded
Highly degraded 12,785,136 13.54 15,124,599 16.02 2,339,463 18.29
Moderately 29,166,276 30.90 31,671,735 33.55 2,505,459 8.59
Moderately
degraded degraded 29,166,276 30.90 31,671,735 33.55 2,505,459 8.59
non-degraded 52,440,086
non-degraded 52,440,086 55.56 55.5647,595,164
47,595,16450.4250.42-4,844,922
-4,844,922
-9.24 -9.24
TOTAL TOTAL 94,391,498
94,391,498 100.0094,391,498
100.00 94,391,498100.00
100.00 - -
 
Table 7: LandTable
degradation
7: Land by agro-ecological
degradation zones
by agro-ecological zones
1980 2012
Agro-Ecological
Degradation Area Area Area Area
Zone
(ha) (%) (ha) (%)
Alluvial Plains Highly degraded 462372.3748 0.52 508086.3334 0.57
Moderately degraded 631083.8901 0.71 735996.0429 0.83
non-degraded 1377233.329 1.55 1226820.539 1.38
Sub-total Area 2470689.594 2.78 2470902.915 2.78
Arid Lands Highly degraded 970670.552 1.09 1613659.712 1.81
Moderately degraded 4694769.817 5.28 4173958.604 4.69
non-degraded 5118302.67 5.76 5000343.066 5.62
Sub-total Area 10783743.04 12.13 10787961.38 12.13
Coastal Zone Highly degraded 1806478.236 2.03 1793602.204 2.02
Moderately degraded 1813842.301 2.04 2054423.616 2.31
non_degraded 3777621.632 4.25 3553800.16 4.00
Sub-total Area 7397942.169 8.32 7401825.981 8.32
Northern Highly degraded 872864.0055 0.98 1064955.528 1.20
Highlands
Moderately degraded 1172923.53 1.32 1084589.534 1.22
non-degraded 1483110.622 1.67 1381553.432 1.55
Sub-total Area 3528898.157 3.97 3531098.493 3.97
Plateaux Highly degraded 3161407.425 3.55 3582127.732 4.03
Moderately degraded 7156159.811 8.05 8653234.669 9.73
non-degraded 20321118.76 22.85 18403515.2 20.69
Sub-total Area 30638685.99 34.45 30638877.61 34.45
Semiarid Lands Highly degraded 2670126.727 3.00 3287865.323 3.70
Moderately degraded 8685062.892 9.77 10139103.3 11.40
non-degraded 9455265.678 10.63 7383535.902 8.30
Sub-total Area 20810455.3 23.40 20810504.53 23.40
Southern and Highly degraded 2765031.817 3.11 3200357.821 3.60
Western Moderately degraded 4943879.605 5.56 4779690.697 5.37
Highlands non-degraded 5590058.433 6.29 5320213.856 5.98
Sub-total Area 13298969.86 14.95 13300262.37 14.96
TOTAL AREA 88929384.1 100 88941433.28 100

101
101
 Figure 12: Status of land degradation by agro-ecological zones

Further assessments of status of land degradation in Tanzania

based on agro-ecological zones as presented in Table 9 are
described as follows:-

102
i) Alluvial Plains Agro-ecological zone
The areas that are characterized by the alluvial plain type of agro-
ecological zone include Kilombero, Rufiji, Usangi and Wami. The
assessment of satellite images have shown that the highly and
moderate degraded area has slightly increased by 0.05% and
0.12 from 1980 to 2012 respectively. Land degradation in the
alluvial plains in associated with tradition farming of clearing and
burning of vegetation cover. The influx of agro-pastoral migrants
from Usangu Basin in search for land for agriculture and grazing
area has also accelerated land degradation in the area.

ii) Arid and Semi-arid Agro-ecological zone

The Arid agro-ecological zone includes the Northern parts of
Serengeti, Tarangile and Ngorongoro Parks, some parts of
Masailand, Mkomazi reserve, Pangani and Eastern of Dodoma
region. In the semi-arid agro-ecological zones constituted by part
of the Dodoma, Singida, Lindi, Morogoro and Mtwara regions, soil
erosion has been indicated as the main environmental problem. The
assessment of land degradation in the two agro-ecological zone
shows an increase of highly degraded areas by 2.89% from 1980
to 2012. Furthermore, the assessment shows that the moderate
degraded areas have been slightly decreased. The decrease
might be associated with various conservation initiatives which
are taking place in the area. The major cause of land degradation
include shifting cultivation, over grazing and deforestation

iii) Coastal zones Agro-ecological zone

Loss of coastal and marine habitats and resources (mangroves, sea
grass beds, fishes and corals), coastal land erosion, damage to
coastal structure and properties as well as saline intrusion in fresh
water bodies are major types of land degradation in the Coastal
Agro-ecological zone. The areas which cover the coastal zone
include the Northern part of Tanga region (except Lushoto), Coast
and Dar Es salaam. In the South, it includes the Eastern parts of
Lindi and Mtwara, (except Makonde plateau). The major causes of
land degradation in this area are shifting cultivation, deforestation,
bushfires, mining activities and rapid population growth which
has resulted to increased demand for land for establishment of
settlement. Timber cutting and sale of wood or charcoal is an

103
important economic activity for villagers, one that allows for
generation of income for their livelihood. Forests in coastal regions
are cut for household cooking; for fuel wood in the production of
lime, salt, and charcoal; construction; boat building; crafts; and to
clear land for low input, extensive agriculture.

iv) Northern highlands Agro-ecological zone

The Northern highland agro-ecological zone involves the foot of
Mt. Kilimanjaro and Mt. Meru, Eastern Rift to Lake Eyasi Granitic
Mts: Uluguru Mountain in Morogoro, Pare Mts. in Kilimanjaro, and
Usambara Mts. in Tanga, Tarime Highlands in Mara region. The
area has been characterized frequent bush fires, deforestation
especially in the southern parts of the Pare highlands and
overgrazing which has resulted to soil compaction and increased
surface runoff. Many plants had also been killed through trampling,
thus laying the land bare and increasing the development of rills
and gullies. The movement of stock has also led to the destruction
of vegetation cover along their routes.

v) Plateaux Agro-ecological zone

The agro-ecological is covered in the Western part by Tabora,
Rukwa (North and Centre), Mbeya (North), Kigoma, part of
Mara. In the Southern part, the area is covered by Ruvuma and
Southern Morogoro. The analysis shows the highly and moderate
degraded areas have increased from 11.6% in 1980 to 13.8% in
2012. Livestock rearing and other land management practices
has resulted in different forms of land degradation, including
deforestation, loss of soil fertility due to tobacco farming, wetland
degradation due to extensive livestock keeping, loss of biodiversity
such as fish and wild animals due to illegal fishing and hunting.
The rate of land degradation is feared to be high in some areas
and is threatening the sustainability of the land resource base in
these areas but there is little accurate data on the exact for and
extent of these land degradation pressures.

vi) Southern and Western highlands

The zone comprises the Northern parts of Morogoro region to N.
Lake Nyasa, covering part of Iringa and Mbeya South-western:
Ufipa plateau in Sumbawanga Western: Along the shore of Lake

104
Tanganyika in Kigoma and Kagera. The assessment has revealed
that land degradation in the Southern and Western Highlands has
been a problem in many parts of the area. Based on the analysis,
3.6% of the area is highly degraded and 5.4% is moderate
degraded. Poor farming practices overgrazing, deforestation,
mining and influx of refugees from neighbouring countries as well
influx of agro-pastoral migrants from Arusha, Mwanza, Dodoma
and Shinyanga regions.

105
7.0 ANALYSIS OF LAND DEGRADATION AT REGIONAL
LEVEL
7.0 ANALYSIS OF LAND DEGRADATION AT REGIONAL LEVEL

7.1 Classification
7.1 Classificationand assessment
and assessment of land degradation
of land degradation

Details on the classification and assessment of land degradation

atDetails on the level
regional classification
has andbeen assessment
described of landunder
degradation at regional
Section 6.1.level
The
has been described under Section 6.1. The classification
classification of the status of land degradation was followed of the status of land
degradation
analysis of was followed
change analysis of to
detection change detection
establish theto magnitude
establish the magnitude
of change of

for the for

change given timetime
the given period. Based
period. Based on combination
on the the combination
of identifiedof identified
three factors
three
and thefactors
adopted and the adopted
classification, classification,
land degradation status was land
analyseddegradation
in general,
status
followedwas analysed in general, followed by regions.
by regions.

7.2 Status
7.2 of Land
Status of Land Degradation
Degradation

Based on the   criteria employed in the analysis of land degradation by

Based on the criteria
agro-ecological employed
zones in the6),
(Chapter analysis
land of land degradation
degradation by agro-
assessment
ecological
was also zones
made (Chapter 6), land degradation
at regional and district assessment
level. was
The also made are
results at
presented
regional and in Table
district 10The
level. and Figure
results 13 and 14.
are presented in Table 10.and Figure 13 and
14.
Table 8: Land degradation
Tablestatus bydegradation
8: Land regions status by regions
1980 2012
Land Degradation
Region Area Area
status Area (ha) Area (ha)
(%) (%)
Highly degraded 689882.1733 0.77 929652.658 1.03
Moderately degraded 2096450.115 2.33 1899002.512 2.11
1. Arusha
Non degraded 1173041.401 1.30 1130718.52 1.26
Sub-total 3959373.689 4.4 3959373.689 4.4
Highly degraded 115888.4455 0.13 124272.6962 0.14
Moderately degraded 24185.05394 0.03 19220.08881 0.02
2. Dar Es Salaam
Non degraded 13044.86584 0.01 9625.580226 0.01
Sub -total 153118.3653 0.17 153118.3653 0.17
Highly degraded 327598.3409 0.36 589824.6333 0.66
Moderately degraded 2141340.049 2.38 1845571.206 2.05
3. Dodoma
Non degraded 1750343.24 1.95 1783885.791 1.98
Sub-total 4219281.63 4.69 4219281.63 4.69
Highly degraded 410413.6415 0.46 415904.4385 0.46
Moderately degraded 426083.7925
1980 0.47 426167.8979
2012 0.47
4. Geita Land Degradation
Region Non degraded 1329662.022 1.48
Area 1324087.12 1.47
Area
status Area (ha) Area (ha)
Sub-total 2166159.456 (%)
2.41 2166159.456 (%)
2.41
Highly degraded 455480.9199 0.51 613094.2714 0.68
Moderately degraded 1626944.979 1.81 1557658.521 1.73
5. Iringa 106
  Non degraded 1461643.249 1.63 1373316.355 1.53
Sub-total 3544069.148 3.95 3544069.148 3.95
Highly degraded 837731.9678 0.93 840596.9802 0.93
Moderately degraded 1019178.89 1.13 1017987.841 1.13
6. Kagera
Non degraded 1670212.376 1.86 1668538.412 1.86
106
Sub-total 3527123.234 3.92 3527123.234 3.92
279034.1112 0.31 377810.5499 0.42
 1980 2012
Land Degradation
Region Area Area
status Area (ha) Area (ha)
(%) (%)
Highly degraded 455480.9199 0.51 613094.2714 0.68
Moderately degraded 1626944.979
1980 1.81 1557658.521
2012 1.73
5. Iringa Land Degradation
Region Non degraded 1461643.249 1.63
Area 1373316.355 1.53
Area
status Area (ha) Area (ha)
Sub-total 3544069.148 (%)
3.95 3544069.148 (%)
3.95
Highly degraded 837731.9678
455480.9199 0.93
0.51 840596.9802
613094.2714 0.93
0.68
Moderately degraded 1019178.89
1626944.979 1.13
1.81 1017987.841
1557658.521 1.13
1.73
5.
6. Iringa
Kagera
Non degraded 1670212.376
1461643.249 1.86
1.63 1668538.412
1373316.355 1.86
1.53
Sub-total 3527123.234
3544069.148 3.92
3.95 3527123.234
3544069.148 3.92
3.95
Highly 837731.9678
279034.1112 0.93
0.31 840596.9802
377810.5499 0.93
0.42
Highly degraded
degraded
Moderately 1019178.89
801161.9367 1.13
0.89 1017987.841
752666.5909 1.13
0.84
6. Moderately degraded
degraded
7. Kagera
Katavi 1670212.376 1.86 1668538.412 1.86
Non
Non degraded
degraded 3581254.868 3.98 3530973.775 3.93
Sub-total
Sub-total 3527123.234
4661450.916 3.92
5.19 3527123.234
4661450.916 3.92
5.19
Highly 279034.1112
176516.5349 0.31
0.20 377810.5499
184278.2618 0.42
0.20
Highly degraded
degraded
Moderately degraded 801161.9367
1375404.304 0.89
1.53 752666.5909
1374256.318 0.84
1.53
7. Katavi
8. Kigoma Moderately degraded
Non degraded 3581254.868 3.98 3530973.775 3.93
Non degraded 3035989.875 3.38 3029376.134 3.37
Sub-total 4661450.916 5.19 4661450.916 5.19
Sub-total 4587910.714 5.11 4587910.714 5.11
Highly degraded 176516.5349
303365.3321 0.20
0.34 184278.2618
324912.9576 0.20
0.36
Highly degraded
1375404.304
404982.5359 1.53
0.45 1374256.318
397045.4528 1.53
0.44
8. Moderately degraded
9. Kigoma
Kilimanjaro
Non degraded 625230.2513
3035989.875 0.70
3.38 611619.7088
3029376.134 0.68
3.37
Sub-total 1333578.119
4587910.714 1.49
5.11 1333578.119
4587910.714 1.49
5.11
Highly 303365.3321
340355.8152 0.34
0.38 324912.9576
347719.1963 0.36
0.39
Highly degraded
degraded
Moderately 404982.5359
2019721.526 0.45
2.25 397045.4528
4430384.068 0.44
4.93
9.
10.Kilimanjaro
Lindi Moderately degraded
degraded
Non 625230.2513
4394478.247 0.70
4.89 611619.7088
1976452.325 0.68
2.20
Non degraded
degraded
Sub-total
Sub-total 1333578.119
6754555.588 1.49
7.52 1333578.119
6754555.588 1.49
7.52
Highly degraded 364417.5558
340355.8152 0.41
0.38 758630.4591
347719.1963 0.84
0.39
Moderately degraded 1331474.445
2019721.526 1.48
2.25 1089098.377
4430384.068 1.21
4.93
11. Lindi
10. Manyara
Non degraded 2770113.347
4394478.247 3.08
4.89 2618276.512
1976452.325 2.91
2.20
Sub-total 4466005.348
6754555.588 4.97
7.52 4466005.348
6754555.588 4.97
7.52
Highly degraded 364417.5558
316956.6133 0.41
0.35 758630.4591
322427.3463 0.84
0.36
Moderately degraded 1331474.445
1235103.34 1.48
1.37 1089098.377
1226564.803 1.21
1.36
12. Manyara
11. Mara
Non degraded 2770113.347
1488014.823 3.08
1.65 2618276.512
1491082.627 2.91
1.66
Sub-total 4466005.348
3040074.776 4.97
3.37 4466005.348
3040074.776 4.97
3.37
Highly degraded 717863.037
316956.6133 0.80
0.35 966702.0121
322427.3463 1.07
0.36
Moderately degraded 1293256.808
1235103.34 1.44
1.37 1123671.893
1226564.803 1.25
1.36
13. Mara
12. Mbeya
Non degraded 4301684.73
1488014.823 4.78
1.65 4222430.67
1491082.627 4.70
1.66
Sub-total 6312804.575
3040074.776 7.02
3.37 6312804.575
3040074.776 7.02
3.37
Highly degraded 841832.8943
717863.037 0.94
0.80 889096.2155
966702.0121 0.99
1.07
1980 2012
Land Degradation 1504561.647
1293256.808 1.67
1.44 1781544.766
1123671.893 1.98
1.25
Region
14. Morogoro Moderately degraded Area Area
13. Mbeya status Area (ha) Area (ha)
Non degraded 4606355.36
4301684.73 5.12
4.78
(%) 4282108.92
4222430.67 4.76
4.70
(%)
Sub-total
Sub-total 6952749.901
6312804.575 7.73
7.02 6952749.901
6312804.575 7.73
7.02
Highly degraded 743240.0119
841832.8943
107 0.83
0.94 706233.3762
889096.2155 0.79
0.99
  Morogoro
14. 367049.2389
1504561.647 0.41
1.67 400526.067
1781544.766 0.45
1.98
15. Mtwara Moderately degraded
Non degraded 638250.2451
4606355.36 0.71
5.12 641780.0526
4282108.92 0.71
4.76
Sub-total 1748539.496 1.95 1748539.496 1.95
Highly degraded 682092.8042
107 0.76 683978.4991 0.76
  Moderately degraded 331663.0816 0.37 329365.4844 0.37
16. Mwanza
Non degraded 1470285.483 1.63 1470697.385 1.64
Sub-total 2484041.369 2.76 2484041.369 2.76
Highly degraded 619807.3679 0.69 689954.4236 0.77
17. Njombe Moderately degraded 764314.987 0.85 720232.3774 0.80
Non degraded 1000578.758 1.11 974514.3118 1.08
107
Sub-total 2384701.113 2.65 2384701.113 2.65
Highly degraded 459054.2843 0.51 487323.1559 0.54
 Moderately degraded 367049.2389 0.41 400526.067 0.45
15. Mtwara
Non degraded 638250.2451 0.71 641780.0526 0.71
Sub-total 1748539.496 1.95 1748539.496 1.95
Highly degraded 682092.8042 0.76 683978.4991 0.76
Moderately degraded 331663.0816
1980 0.37 329365.4844
2012 0.37
16. Mwanza Land Degradation
Region Non degraded 1470285.483 1.63
Area 1470697.385 1.64
Area
status Area (ha) Area (ha)
Sub-total 2484041.369 (%)
2.76 2484041.369 (%)
2.76
Sub-total
Highly degraded 619807.3679
6952749.901 0.69
7.73 689954.4236
6952749.901 0.77
7.73
17. Njombe Highly degraded
Moderately degraded 743240.0119
764314.987 0.83
0.85 706233.3762
720232.3774 0.79
0.80
Moderately
Non degraded
degraded 367049.2389
1000578.758 0.41
1.11 400526.067
974514.3118 0.45
1.08
15. Mtwara
Non degradedSub-total 638250.2451
2384701.113 0.71
2.65 641780.0526
2384701.113 0.71
2.65
Sub-total
Highly degraded 459054.2843
1748539.496 0.51
1.95 487323.1559
1748539.496 0.54
1.95
Highly degraded
Moderately degraded 682092.8042
1008252.897 0.76
1.12 683978.4991
1229015.291 0.76
1.37
18. Pwani
Moderately
Non degraded
degraded 331663.0816
1684167.728 0.37
1.87 329365.4844
1435136.462 0.37
1.60
16. Mwanza
Non degradedSub-total 1470285.483
3151474.909 1.63
3.5 1470697.385
3151474.909 1.64
3.5
Sub-total
Highly degraded 723992.6864
2484041.369 0.81
2.76 781909.2189
2484041.369 0.87
2.76
Highly degraded
Moderately degraded 619807.3679
1704713.26 0.69
1.90 689954.4236
2448413.155 0.77
2.72
19. Ruvuma
17. Njombe Moderately
Non degraded
degraded 764314.987
4156659.261 0.85
4.62 720232.3774
3355042.833 0.80
3.73
Non degradedSub-total 1000578.758
6585365.207 1.11
7.33 974514.3118
6585365.207 1.08
7.33
Sub-total
Highly degraded 832591.704
2384701.113 0.93
2.65 839874.1662
2384701.113 0.93
2.65
Highly degraded
Moderately degraded 459054.2843
513168.1092 0.51
0.57 487323.1559
508372.9424 0.54
0.57
20. Shinyanga
Moderately
Non degraded
degraded 1008252.897
385513.9947 1.12
0.43 1229015.291
383026.6993 1.37
0.43
18. Pwani
Non degradedSub-total 1684167.728
1731273.808 1.87
1.93 1435136.462
1731273.808 1.60
1.93
Sub-total
Highly degraded 691167.9376
3151474.909 0.77
3.5 698314.4309
3151474.909 0.78
3.5
Highly degraded 723992.6864
1063100.655 0.81
1.18 781909.2189
1030108.745 0.87
1.15
Moderately degraded
21. Simiyu 1704713.26 1.90 2448413.155 2.72
19. Ruvuma Moderately degraded
Non degraded 325329.6377 0.36 351175.0545 0.39
Non degradedSub-total 4156659.261
2079598.23 4.62
2.31 3355042.833
2079598.23 3.73
2.31
Sub-total
Highly degraded 6585365.207
258261.644 7.33
0.29 6585365.207
421746.5507 7.33
0.47
Highly degraded 832591.704 0.93 839874.1662 0.93
Moderately degraded 2259398.984 2.51 2240536.534 2.49
22. Singida 513168.1092 0.57 508372.9424 0.57
Moderately degraded 2369726.3 2.64 2225103.843 2.47
20. Shinyanga Non degraded
Non degraded 385513.9947 0.43 383026.6993 0.43
Sub-total 4887386.928 5.44 4887386.928 5.44
Sub-total 1731273.808
924656.3606 1.93
1.03 1731273.808
1223383.222 1.93
1.36
Highly degraded
Highly degraded 691167.9376
1999479.549 0.77
2.22 698314.4309
2000269.647 0.78
2.22
23. Tabora Moderately degraded
Moderately degraded 1063100.655
4365781.756 1.18
4.85 1030108.745
4066264.797 1.15
4.52
21. Simiyu Non degraded
Non degraded 325329.6377
Sub-total 7289917.666 0.36
8.1 351175.0545
7289917.666 0.39
8.1
Sub-total
Highly degraded 236254.3069
2079598.23 0.26
2.31 347881.9401
2079598.23 0.39
2.31
1980 2012
24. Tanga Landdegraded
Highly Degradation 258261.644
508315.4668 0.29
0.57 421746.5507
539501.8917 0.47
0.60
Region Moderately degraded Area Area
status Area (ha)
2259398.984 2.51 Area (ha)
2240536.534 2.49
Moderately
Non degradeddegraded 1164210.293 1.29
(%) 1021396.235 1.14
(%)
22. Singida
Non degraded 2369726.3
Sub-total 1908780.067 2.64
2.12 2225103.843
1908780.067 2.47
2.12
Sub-total 108
4887386.928
TOTAL AREA 89929334.25 100.00 5.44 4887386.928
89929334.25 5.44
100.00
  924656.3606 1.03 1223383.222 1.36
Highly degraded
Moderately degraded 1999479.549 2.22 2000269.647 2.22
23. Tabora
Non degraded 4365781.756 4.85 4066264.797 4.52
Sub-total 7289917.666 8.1 7289917.666 8.1
Highly degraded 236254.3069 0.26 347881.9401 0.39
24. Tanga Moderately degraded 508315.4668 0.57 539501.8917 0.60
Non degraded 1164210.293 1.29 1021396.235 1.14

108
 

108
Figure 13: Status of land degradation by region

109
 Figure 14: Status of land degradation by district

From Table 10 and Figures 13 and 14 it is evident that, land

degradation has remained a problem in the country, despite various
initiatives which have been and are still undertaken to control it.
Based on the assessment, almost, all regions in country are still
affected by land degradation, although at different rates. Shifting
cultivation, overgrazing, mining activities, charcoal making, fuel
wood and felling trees for building purpose are some of the major
causes of land degradation in Tanzania. In this section, the extent
and causes of land degradation at regional level are discussed.

110
i) Arusha
Land degradation in Arusha region is directly related to the human
activities. Over-grazing and unsustainable agricultural practices
has contributed to soil erosion and otherwise diminish soil quality.
Soil erosion and deforestation are particularly problematic in
Arumeru, Longido and Monduli districts. Dependency on fuel
wood (charcoal and firewood) by the huge majority of Arusha
residents has meant the exploitation of forest resources to the
hilt. Agricultural chemicals and industrial wastes are another
dimension of land degradation in the region. Arusha is the second
most important industrial centre in the country, so it is likely the
problem brought about by industrial pollution is second only to that
of Dar es Salaam. Similarly, the application of large amounts of
insecticide, fungicides, artificial fertilizers and other chemicals in
agricultural activities has contributed to land degradation in terms
of land pollution. Mining activities such as gemstones, tanzanite
and ruby in Ngorongoro, Longido and Karatu have significantly
accelerated land degradation in the region.

ii) Dar es Salaam

Land degradation assessment in Dar es Salam region show the
highly degraded area in Kinondoni, Temeke and Ilala district.
Urbanisation is the most dynamic factor underlying most of the
immediate causes of land degradation. Rapid urban population
growth imposes heavy demands on the already densely inhabited
housing areas, most of which are unplanned and lack organised
sanitary and wastewater infrastructure systems. Mining activities
undertaken in and around Dar es Salaam City is also responsible
for land degradation in the region. Human activities such as
illegal logging, often aimed at making charcoal, also contributes
the destruction of the natural rainforest, leading to deforestation
and soil erosion. About half of the Kazimzumbwi forest has been
degraded over the past few decades and over 20,000 hectares of
the Pongwe forest have been lost through unmanaged activities
such as charcoal making. Erosion is common in areas under
development pressure (tourist hotels, institutions, residential villas
and fishing villages also caused by variation in the supply of
sediment load to the coastal system by rivers, quarrying of coraline
limestone, sand and beach rocks.

111
iii) Dodoma
Large areas of Dodoma is characterized by arid and semi-arid type
of climate and has various types of vegetation including grasslands,
wooded grasslands, bushes and scrubs, thickets, dry woodlands
and a few montane forests, all of which are exposed to various types
of soil and vegetation degradation. Improper cultivation practices,
deforestation, overgrazing, fires and collection of wood for fuel and
construction are the major causes of vegetation degradation in this
region. Dodoma region degraded lands largely due to overgrazing
and shifting agriculture. The overstocking of livestock relative to the
carrying capacity within Dodoma region has led to the development
of dispersed gullies in Kondoa district. The most highly degraded
areas are in Kongwa, Mpwapwa, Chamwino and Dodoma Urban,
Bahi, Kondoa and Nchemba districts.

iv) Geita
Land degradation in Geita region is experienced in Geita,
Nyang’wale, Chato and Mbongwe district. The degradation is in the
form of deforestation, siltation, pollution and rangeland degradation.
Mining activities in the region has significantly contributed to land
degradation. Small-scale mining of gold conducted in villages such
as Mgusu and Nyarugusu requires the use of a huge amount of logs,
which are used to strengthen the ditches to avoid collapsing. Some
of the ditches are as deep as 50m or more. In addition to the logs,
the concentrated, large population in the mining sites increases
the demand for wood for domestic use. Fire wood collection and
charcoal making are supplementary activities that are conducted
in the region.

Charcoal making and tree felling for building purposes are very
evident along the major routes linking mining sites to nearby major
towns. Mining activities are not only associated with deforestation
but also with destruction of the soil surface, by leaving open pits in
the ground and covering the top soil with gravel and sub soils. Some
of the land degradation problems are related to shifting cultivation
and livestock keeping which has been associated with extensive
deforestation and rangeland degradation. Livestock keeping in the
region is concentrated in Msalala and Nyanghwale Division where
serious overgrazing occurs. Watering points in these areas are not

112
evenly distributed; as a result there is severe degradation along
cattle routes and around watering points.

v) Iringa
Highly degraded areas in Iringa region was observed in Mufindi,
Kilolo and large part of iringa district is moderate degraded. Soil
erosion, siltation, forest and rangeland degradation are the common
types of degradation in the region. Land degradation is mainly
caused by clearing and burning of trees and. other vegetation,
use of agro-chemicals, cultivating very near water sources. Soil
erosion, drying of water sources and deforestation are some of
the evidences for such degradation. Shifting cultivation, which
is associated with use of fire, uncontrolled grazing, coupled with
legal and illegal over-exploitation of forest products, have also
been subsequent phenomena which has led to de-vegetation and
soil erosion. Increased population has created more demand for
forest produce, arable land for cultivation and other development
activities. Tobacco farming/curing operations in Mazombe,
Idodi, Pawaga and Ismani villages has contributed to woodland
degradation in the Iringa district. In Mufindi district much of the
land is at risk of erosion due to steep slopes of over 30% gradient.

vi) Kagera
Land degradation in Kagera region is more pronounced in Karagwe,
Muleba, Biharamulo, Misenyi, Karagwe and Ngara Districts. The
most common types of land degradation in the region include
soil erosion, forest and rangeland degradation. Influx refugees in
Karagwe, Ngara and Biharamulo caused massive deforestation
in areas surrounding the camps. Overstocking and overgrazing
of pastures and rangelands as well as excess bush burning has
also contributed to land degradation. Natural vegetation cover in
Muleba, Misenyi and Biharamulo has been rapidly degraded due
to over-exploitation of forests and woodland for timber, fuel wood
and agriculture. Land degradation in Kagera region has affected
communal areas, such as forested highland and riverine areas,
grazing lands, riverbanks and cultivated steep slopes resulting to
decline in agricultural productivity.

113
vii) Katavi
The most pressing land degradation in Katavi region in Mpanda
and Malele districts is deforestation. The main causes of the
deforestation includes shifting cultivation, uncontrolled bush fires,
cutting trees for the fire wood, curing tobacco, burning bricks and
producing charcoal There is also ongoing exploitation of hard wood
like Mninga, Msawala, Marula and other woody plants in the forests
around Katavi National Park. Immigration of large livestock herds
and overgrazing, wild fires are causing water pollution and siltation
of Lakes Katavi, Chada and Rukwa. The region has potential
minerals such as gold, silver and other metallic sulphides. Mining
activities especially gold is undertaken by small and medium scale
miners with poor and crude mining equipment leading to land
degradation.

viii) Kigoma
Land degradation in Kigoma region is more pronounced in Kigoma
rural, Kibondo and Kasulu districts. The causes of degradation
include unsustainable agriculture practices, particularly extensive
shifting cultivation, illegal harvesting and trade in timber and
creation of new settlements which results into fragmentation and
loss of natural forests as they are converted into field. Also the
region has experienced the greatest upsurge in deforestation and
forest degradation over the past twenty years due to the most
serious influx of refugees from Burundi, Rwanda and Democratic
republic of Congo (DRC). Besides, 97% of the population in
Kibondo district depends on agriculture and district is undergoing
different activities including bricks baking, and burning farms for
cultivation, cooking greatly contribute to increase of greenhouses
gases emissions. Generally the search of alternative sources of
livelihood such as charcoal burning, illegal logging and collection
of firewood has further exacerbated land degradation within such
a district. Charcoal production is more distinct in Kigoma rural
district as the production supports two districts; consumption in
Kigoma rural district and Kigoma urban district which has a limited
forest cover to accommodate the activity.

114
ix) Kilimanjaro
Land degradation is very common in Kilimanjaro region, Moshi and
Hai district in particular, due to several environmental factors, mainly
stemming from a climate change in that area. Currently the ice cap
that covers the tip of Mount Kilimanjaro is melting, which leads to
large amounts of water flowing down the sides of the mountain. The
water then washes away loose soil, eventually depleting the soil of
nutrients and loosening the foundation for tree roots. The loss of
trees can then result in deforestation, which repeats the cycle of
soil loss and land degradation. Another environmental factor that
causes land degradation in regards to trees is forest fires, which
are becoming increasingly prominent in Kilimanjaro region. These
two environmental hazards of the melting ice cap and forest fires
are leading to altering changes on Mount Kilimanjaro including
land degradation, poor soil conditions, and even climate change
in the area.

In Same and Mwanga districts live in rural areas, the people depend
primarily on agriculture for their livelihood. Due to that, most of land
degradation problems in the area have a bearing on agriculture.
These include cultivating close or in water sources and stream-
valley bottoms; cultivating very close to riverbanks; Flat cultivation
in both valley bottoms and steep mountain slopes; poor managed
irrigation schemes; The impact of these practices include soil
erosion and siltation of rivers, reduced flow, lowering of water table.
The causes for deforestation are for meeting the high demand for
wood products, which are timber and wood for building materials,
fuel-wood and charcoal. Also trees are fell to open up areas for
new farms and houses as population density increases. Mwanga
and Same districts are vulnerable to fires during the excessive dry
periods. The fires are caused by slash and burn farming system
practiced in the area. Shortage of pastures and drought has
caused the formation of concentrations of people and animals. The
increase is high in the grazing lowland areas as compared to the
zero grazing in the highlands. The overpopulation of cattle and
scattered households in areas has brought not only environmental
degradation, but it has also caused frequent conflicts between
pastoralists and other people as they fight over grazing lands
(including crops) and drinking water for livestock.

115
x) Lindi
The highly degraded areas in Lindi region are found in Kilwa,
Ruangwa, Lindi and some parts of Liwale districts. Land degradation
is caused by traditionally agriculture of shifting cultivation patterns
and customary practices. Trees felled during land clearing and
other vegetation is burned in order to remove them from the field. A
small number of the trees are converted into timber and depending
on the location of the plot some of the trees are used to make
charcoal. The influx of agro-pastoral migrants from Ihefu basin has
also contributed to land degradation in the region due to expansion
for agriculture and grazing. Logging is also an important driver of
forest degradation in Kilwa District.

Wild fire is also a common phenomenon in Lindi region. Farmers

use fire to clear the land and burn all the trees and branches felled
in newly cleared land or preparing land before cultivation and
planting. Loggers use fire to clear the logging sites and improve
access to difficult areas. Livestock keepers use fire to remove old
and dry grasses and encourage growth of new grasses for their
cattle and to chase away tsetse flies. Hunters use the fire to chase
animals and improve visibility and mobility and charcoal makers
use the fire for their kilns.

xi) Manyara
The highly degraded areas in Manyara region have been observed
in Mbulu, Babati, Kiteto and Simanjiro and Hanang districts. The
causes of land degradation in these areas include shifting cultivation
bush fires and overgrazing. These have resulted to sheet erosion in
areas around Lake Babati which has resulted in the rapid siltation
of Lake and increased run-off affecting the irrigated lands below
the escarpment. Overgrazing in Simajairo and Kiteto district has
rangeland degradation in most parts of the district causing out
migration of livestock keepers and conflict between farmers and
pastoralists. The deforestation of Hanang Mountain through due
to agriculture and livestock has dried up traditional water sources.

116
xii) Mara
Land degradation is real problems in Mara region which impinge
daily on the life of Mara residents and visitors. Deforestation is
rampart, cultivated lands are over cropped and pasture lands are
overgrazed leading to soil and even gully erosion in some areas.
The combined deforestation and degradation of pasture and
cultivated lands leaves the soil surface bear devoid of cover so
that can be easily eroded, gullies have been formed all over the
region. In Tarime and Serengeti districts there has been a high
demands for fuel wood and land clearing for cultivation. Large-
scale and artisanal small scale gold miners have also contributed
to land degradation in the region. Large scale gold mines generate
more waste per ounce than any other mineral. The artisanal small
scale miners take shortcuts by using narrow pits and tunnels that
are prone to collapse. The lack of proper tools also means that
many excavations do not go deep; instead shallow ones spread on
the surface, covering many hectares and degrading large tracts of
surface land. Soil erosion is evident in many parts of Bunda district.

xiii) Mbeya
The problem of land degradation in Mbeya region is evident in
Chunya, Mbozi, Rungwe and Ileje districts. The problem has been
aggravated by poor methods of cultivation and poor management
techniques. The practice of cutting of vegetation and repeated
burning have been detrimental by reducing not only the vegetation
cover, but also the humus content and moisture retaining capacity
of soil which have increased the risk of soil erosion by wind and
water. In Ileje district, erosion is attributed to the mountainous
topography combined with slash and burn practice.

Population pressure in Mbeya and Rungwe districts has also been

responsible for the expansion of farming activities onto marginal
or unsuitable land at high altitudes cultivation. In Mbozi district
shifting cultivation is still dominant accompanied with slash and
burn vegetation on high and fairly steep slopes where woodlands
still exist, this has caused high soil erosion in the area. Grazing has
also contributed to the problem of land degradation. Livestock eat
and trample down on the young trees while livestock keepers slash
and burn vegetation to the open up new pasture. The movement

117
of stocks also leads to the destruction of vegetation cover along
the routes. Mining activities have been an important cause of land
degradation in Chunya district. Small scale gold miners use poor
implements which results to scattered holes on the landscape and
expose land to soil erosion and floods.

xiv) Morogoro
Land degradation in Morogoro region is observed in Mvomero,
Kilosa, Morogoro rural, Ulanga and Kilombero. The common
types of land degradation in Morogoro region are soil erosion,
deforestation, siltation and rangeland degradation. Soil erosion is
a serious problem in areas around Uluguru Mountains, particularly
when floods occur. Poor agricultural practices, lack of plant cover
brought about by tree felling, cultivation on steep slope and clearing
marginal land for agricultural use are main causes of soil erosion.
The reduction in the fallow period and longer periods of exploitation
of the same piece of plot accelerates soil erosion, decline in soil
fertility, encrustation and compaction of topsoil. Deforestation has
also affected the area. A large part of forests in the region have
been extensively exploited for timber sold in Morogoro, Dodoma
and Dar-es- Salaam. Trees are being cut indiscriminately to pave
way for new farms and building materials. Plant cover on hills, hill
slopes, river valleys and lowlands has considerably reduced the
agricultural potential of these areas.

Bush fire is also a major problem in Morogoro region. Bush fire is

mostly done during preparation of new plots and even old ones
that have been left to fallow for some years and sometimes fire
gets out of control during the clearing of land for planting. The field
assessment revealed that continued use of fire as an agricultural
practice in clearing of bushes for new virgin farms have led to the
encroachment of desert-like features and reduction of plant cover
exposing the top soil to variations in temperature which enhances
the destruction of soil structure, increasing compaction, reduction
in the population and variety of soil organisms. In addition, the
exposure of the topsoil makes it easier for soil moisture to be lost,
wind to erode and carry away soil particles, thus removing the layer
of soil, which is fertile and potentially productive.

118
xv) Mtwara
Land degradation in Mtwara region is more pronounced in Mtwara,
Newala, Tandahimba and Nanyumbu district. Soil acidification with
excessive use of sulphur and nitrogenous fertilizer in cashew nuts
plantations has been the problem in some areas of Mtwara region.
Deforestation in the reserved areas of Mtwara is associated with
both the particularly high rural population density and the lack of
reserve management capacity in this large and remote area. As
reserves contain most of the remaining forest resource, they face
increasing pressure to supply materials for human use and thus
account for a significant proportion of the CO2 emissions.

xvi) Mwanza
Mwanza region represents a good scenario of environmental
problems related to human activities on land. Land degradation in
the region is of major concern, not only for the health of the lake,
but also for food and livelihood security of its rapidly expanding
population. The multiple livelihood activities undertaken by
local communities have contributed to degradation of the lake
environment. Soil erosion, forest and rangeland deforestation is
evident in many parts Sengerema and Magu district exacerbated
by poor land management, overgrazing and mining activities.
Soils in Magu District, for instance, are rated as highly vulnerable to
erosion. Thus, most of Magu District may therefore be considered
to be potentially at risk of soil erosion. Livestock keepers in
Kwimba District, Mwanza region, use free range grazing systems
on communal land leading to overgrazing.

xvii) Njombe
The highly degraded areas in Njombe are Makete, Wanging’ombe,
Njombe and the north-west parts of Ludewa districts. The common
types of land degradation are soil erosion and deforestation
caused by shifting cultivation, which is associated with use of fire.
Wildfires coupled with illegal over – exploitation of forest products
also became subsequent phenomena in the region. Widespread
poverty in the areas and the lack of alternative means of livelihood
for many people has compelled the people to depend on natural
resources for their livelihoods. People need land for agriculture,
access to grazing areas, fuel wood and poles etc. Energy demands

119
for cooking are generally met with firewood and charcoal. Their
use, however, is the one of the leading cause of deforestation in the
region. Makete district is under serious threat of losing all forests
due to commercial lumbering.

xviii) Pwani
Land degradation in Pwani region is more pronounced in Mkuranga,
Kisarawe, Bagamoyo and Rufiji district. Charcoal production is one
of the causes of land degradation in the region. Most of villages
depend on charcoal production as their means for their livelihoods
and Bagamoyo district contribute 10% of the charcoal arriving in
Dar es Salaam (Van Beukering et al. 2007). Logging is another
important driver of forest degradation in Pwani region. Most timber
from southeast Tanzania comes from Rufiji district. In 2003, the
district accounted for 70% by volume of all licensed timber harvests
in southeast Tanzania (Milledge et al. 2007).Uncontrolled cutting of
mangrove trees is still a problem. In some places the beach has
receded considerably as a result of lost mangroves and protection
from erosion has since decreased. People cut mangroves for
fuel wood and charcoal production. Tourism also contributes to
mangrove destruction in the coastal area around Bagamoyo town.
Hotel owners, who are usually aware that mangroves are protected,
remove mangroves to make the beachfront more appealing to
tourists. In some villages salt making is the activity most responsible
for the destruction of the mangroves. Poor farming techniques
such as shifting cultivation constitute another reason for increased
deforestation in the region. Overgrazing is another important cause
of land degradation in the area, the problem have increased due to
the influx of pastoralists from Arusha and Tanga region.

xix) Rukwa
The assessment of land degradation in Rukwa region shows the
highly degraded area to be in Sumbawanga, Nkasi and Kalambo
districts. Soil degradation, deforestation and siltation at Lake
Rukwa are the common types of degradation in the region.
Cultivation on the hill side in Nkasi district has been the major
cause of land degradation. Due to the undulating topography of
Rukwa, farmers who use oxen for ploughing demarcate their fields
along the slopes in order to make longer runs for ploughing. This

120
practice opens up the soil to erosion by run-off. As a result many
fields are now becoming difficult to plough as they are full of rills
and gullies. Population growth and influx of agro pastoral migrants
from Mwanza, Shinyanga and Tabora has increased deforestation
and overgrazing in the region. Land clearing is a common pre-
tillage operation practiced by most farmers in the region. Shifting
cultivation associated with land clearing plays a significant role
to accelerate land degradation. Land clearing is divided into
two categories: bush clearing, which by definition implies either
expansion into virgin areas or into areas which have been left fallow
for a long period. The other category, which includes burning,
hand slashing or tractor slashing, is normally an annual clearing
exercise to remove vegetation growth from the previous season.

xx) Ruvuma
Land degradation in Ruvuma region is evident in Mbinga, Tunduru,
Songea and some parts of Namtumbo districts. Land degradation
in the region is associated with poor farming system characterised
by the system of shifting cultivation, which leaves its traces of
burned forests and unprotected soil on steep slopes. In Songea
district shifting cultivation is dominant in the southern parts of the
district. Small and medium scaled mining for gemstones is carried
out in Tunduru along the entire river Muhuwesi and its confluence
with the river Ruvuma has also contributed to land degradation in
the region. Other mining areas are along the river Lumesule north of
Lukwika-Lumesule Game Reserve and the area around Muhuwesi
Forest Reserve at the river Mtetesi.

xxi) Shinyanga
Shinyanga region is one of the region greatly affected by land
degradation. The highly degraded districts include Kahama,
Kishapu and Bukombe. Shifting cultivation, deforestation and
expansion of cotton farming, overgrazing and mining (gold and
diamond) has been the major cause of land degradation in the
region. These factors has caused most parts of region to become
a barren land with wide spread soil erosion and loss of soil fertility.
Due to land degradation,

Shinyanga region has experienced massive out-migration of

agro-pastoralists in search of both pastures and new land for

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crop production. The massive migrations of pastoralists saw the
Sukuma and Maasai people invade the south-western highlands
and eastern parts of Tanzania as far as Ihefu wetlands in Mbeya
region, Kilombero Valley in Morogoro region and Rukwa basin in
Rukwa region.

xxii) Simiyu
The most highly degraded areas in Simiyu region are in Meatu,
Maswa, Bariadi and Busega districts. Land degradation Simiyu
region is characterized by rangeland degradation, deforestation
and soil erosion which are associated with vegetation clearance
for farming activities, fuel wood and charcoal making as well as
burning of forests for hunting purposes. Severe soil erosion has
caused several dams to silt up, for example, the Sola dam in Maswa
District. Increasing numbers of livestock and cultivation pressure
have resulted in acute fodder shortages during dry seasons. In
response to this pressure, owners of large herds usually migrate
out of the region to neighbouring region in search of fodder. Salt
mining at Lukole village in Meatu District is also one of the causes
for land degradation in the region.

xxiii) Singida
In Singida region land degradation is a serious problem Mkalama,
Ikungi, the northern parts of Iramba district and Singida rural.
Shifting cultivation is one of the unsustainable land uses
contributing significantly to land degradation in region. Clearing
forests for agriculture and construction materials has lead to
flooding, siltation, soil degradation and change of forest vegetation
from primary to secondary and eventually to grassland in region.
Soil erosion has developed into serious problems. Former bush
and grasslands have been converted to dissert like conditions
due to bush clearing for agriculture and grazing. Sheet erosion
is dominant degrading process in the gully undulating, but where
slopes are steeper gullies have developed. In bare lands, strong
winds blow throughout the dry season exposing the sandy soils to
wind erosion. Continuous erosion, improper land-use practice and
steep slopes, has also resulted to siltation in villages around Migori
dam. Small and medium scale gold mining in Ikungi, Manyoni and
Iramba district is also responsible for land degradation in the region

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xxiv) Tabora
Tabora region being highly dominated by miombo woodlands
have been greatly affected by land degradation. Agriculture(
tobacco farming), livestock rearing, poor land management
practices and influx of refugees has resulted in different forms
of land degradation, forest degradation, soil erosion rangeland
degradation and wetland degradation due to extensive livestock
keeping, deforestation, loss of biodiversity such as fish and wild
animals due to illegal fishing and hunting. Tobacco growing has
contributed significantly to vegetation degradation in the western
Miombo ecosystem, including deforestation while opening new
farms and also the associated fuel wood collection for tobacco
curing. Deforestation is also caused by commercial timber
harvesting, and overexploitation for fuel wood and poles and
general industrial development in the region.

Political instability in the DRC and Burundi has generated a wave

of refugees that have found refuge in some parts of Tabora region.
The establishment of new settlements/camps involves the erection
of new buildings and clearing for new farms. Extraction of ropes
from the regenerating young miombo woodland has shifted the
woodland population structure and endangering long term stability.
Despite various initiatives to conserve the environment, the rate of
land degradation is still pronounced in some parts of the region
especially in Kaliua and Urambo district.

xxv) Tanga
Land degradation in Tanga region is more pronounced in Handeni,
Pangani, Muheza, Lushoto and Korogwe districts. In Muheza
district there is high extent of environmental degradation at the
Amani natural reserve (water catchment area) following illegal
gold mining and deforestation, also environmental degradation is
experienced in some parts of Usambara Mountains causing water
pollution and water shortage. The discovery of gold in Semwaliko
and Magambazi villages in Handeni has attracted influx of people
in the district who are involved in mining activities and become
one of the major causes of forest degradation. Land degradation
in Tanga region is also pronounced in Pangani district. Activities
such as dynamite fishing, coral and sand mining, mangrove

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cutting, seaweed farming and waste disposal have a marked
effect on erosion of the coast of Pangani. The Pangani Estuary is
also suggested to have been exposed to an increasing level of salt
intrusion which has resulted to salinization problem in the area.
Land degradation has been observed in some parts of Korogwe
and Lushoto districts caused by poor farming practices and
overgrazing. Further, increased human activity along the shoreline
has increased the rate of erosion. For example the destruction of
coral reefs around Maziwi Island off the coast of Tanga has led to
severe erosion to the island.

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8.0 ECONOMIC VALUATION OF THE IMPACT OF LAND
DEGRADATION

Land degradation in the Tanzania has substantial environmental, social

and economic costs. Land degradation not only reduces the productive
capacity of agricultural land, rangelands and forest resources but also
significantly impacts on the biodiversity. The costs and consequences
of land degradation can be direct or indirect. Direct costs may include
costs such as; costs of nutrients lost by soil erosion, lost production
due to nutrient and soil loss, and costs associated with soil and water
conservation measures. On the other hand, indirect costs may include
costs such as; loss of environmental services, silting of dams and river
beds, reduced groundwater capacity, social and community losses due
to malnutrition and poverty. The economic costs of land degradation
manifest itself in various forms of investment and initiatives to combat
land degradation as discussed below.

8.1 Direct and indirect costs of land degradation

a) Decline in soil fertility and nutrients
Declining productive capacity of agricultural land, which results
from among other things, non-sustainable land resources use and
management, is among the challenges in agriculture production.
In order to retain the productive of land resources, the application
of SWC measures are inevitable. Experience from Same district
has shown that investment costs necessary for SWC such as
Bench terraces, Fanya Juu and grass strips include labour,
equipment and materials as well as maintenance. The assessment
of investment cost for these conservation measures have shown
that establishment of bench terraces required US$ 215/ha and that
of Fanya Juu and Grass strips required US$ 125/ha and US$ 84/ha
respectively in 2009.

b) Deforestation and forest degradation

Tanzania has extensive forest and woodland resources, reported
at 35 million hectares in 2002 (UNREDD, 2009), or around one
third of total land. These forests have a major role in the Tanzanian
economy, including directly but also in the provision of wider
ecosystem services. The total monetary value of Tanzanian forest

125
(standing timber) was estimated at US$ 228 trillion (Munishi et al.,
2007). However, there are extensive deforestation pressures due
to clearing for agriculture and settlement, overgrazing, wildfires,
demand for biomass and charcoal burning and over-exploitation
of wood resources for commercial purposes. Note that these
also increase of CO2 in the atmosphere as the carbon sink is
progressively lost. Estimates of forest losses do vary, but it has
been estimated that Tanzania lost an average of 412 thousand ha
of forests per year in the 1990s and early 2000s, amounting to a
loss of 15% of forest cover in the period 1990- 2005 alone (UN-
REDD, 2009), with the underlying reasons for the deforestation
due to population dynamics, poverty among rural communities,
inadequate energy substitutes and limited technology to utilize the
available natural and energy resources and opportunities.

The importance of forest resources to Tanzania economy has

compelled the government to undertake various conservation
measures. Munishi et al. (2010) provided costs for forest ecosystem
adaptation strategies which include forest ecosystem conservation
and restoration ($5 million), awareness creation, training and
capacity development in climate change knowledge ($4 million),
participatory forest management to build local community capacity
and empowerment in managing and conserving forests ($3.5
million), research and detailed assessments of the response of
different forest component species ($ million), alternative sources
of energy and efficient technologies to reduce use of wood ($3
million), forest management for future economic opportunities from
carbon finance markets ($ 3million), thus providing a total estimate
of $24.5 million.

c) Loss of Biodiversity
Tanzania has exceptional biodiversity. These ecosystems provide
multiple benefits to society, which in turn have economic benefits,
though these are rarely captured by markets. These benefits are
known as ‘ecosystem services’ and include provision of food,
supporting services such as nutrient recycling, regulatory services
including flood protection and recreational and cultural services,
including tourism. There are many stresses on these systems
already and land degradation will add to these pressures. An initial
mapping and review shows that high importance of ecosystem

126
services in Tanzania: they are integral to the economy and underpin
large parts of GDP, foreign revenue and export earnings, as well as
sustaining a very large proportion of the population. The effects of
climate change could be very severe on ecosystems, and previous
work has highlighted the potential for major shifts in agro-ecological
zones in Tanzania.

While there is extremely large and diverse biodiversity in Tanzania,

the primary ecosystem service (in economic terms) is through the
country’s tourism sector, which is primarily based on wildlife and
wetlands tourism. Currently, the tourism sector is valued at USD
1.3 billion, accounting for 33% of the GDP (MNRT 2008). The main
tourist attraction in Tanzania is associated to the natural assets of
the country.

d) Depletion of Coastal resources

Climate change has been one the major driver of land degradation
in the coastal zone of Tanzania. Previous studies (Mwaipopo,
2000), have estimated that in Tanga, in the northeast region of the
country, around 3500 hectares of land area (and 1000 hectares of
mangroves) would be at risk from 0.5m of sea-level rise, as well as
3300 hectares of total land area (and 1800 of seasonal swamps) in
the Bagamoyo area, as well as about 2800 hectares of mangroves
in the Mtwara area. With a 1m sea-level rise, it is estimated that 9
km² and 2,100

Km² land could be lost due to erosion and inundation respectively.

Dar es Salaam and the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba have the
highest population densities that might be threatened due to
climate change and sea-level rise, and Dar es Salaam has been
the subject of several studies.

Various studies have been undertaken to assess the potential

costs and benefits of adaptation to climate change and protect the
coastal resources. Tourist facilities such as hotels and roads in Dar
es Salaam are among the facilities and resources partly protected
from erosion by groins and a seawall. A study by Mwaipopo, 2000,
revealed that the cost for building seawalls to protect important
vulnerable areas of the city against a 1m rise in sea level has been
estimated at US$337 million. It is assumed that if land is lost (due

127
 to submergence based on the area below the one year flooding
level), then the people dwelling on the land will be forced to
migrate. With 5cm - 19cm global sea-level rise in 2030, between
67,000 to 852,000 people could be forced to migrate since 2000.
In 2100, this could increase to 1.1 to 1.2 million people forced to
migrate across the range of sea-level rise scenarios. Under the no
climate-induced sea-level rise scenario, as high as 34,000 people
in 2030 and over 506,000 people in 2100 will be forced to migrate
since 2000.

8.2 Financial Resource Mobilization and Utilization

Based on the financial implication of land degradation management
discussed above, the Government of Tanzania has steadily been
increasing its funding of SLM programmes, through key stakeholder
ministries despite the fact that 40% of its recurrent expenditure is
funded by development partners. Donors that have committed funds
to SLM programmes from 2011/12 – 2016/17 have been identified
in the Diagnostic Report. The key donors include: The World Bank;
DANIDA; The United Nations Development Programme; The Least
Developed Countries Facility; The Department for International
Development; and UNDAP (which is the implementing arm of
the United Nations Development Framework for Tanzania). The
Financial Diagnostic and Stocktaking for SLM Financing in Tanzania
identifies SLM programmes that are being, or will be, undertaken
in Tanzania from 2007 – 2016. Total financing for these SLM
Programmes within this period is approximately USD 1,122,340,237.
The majority of projects identified in the report have a national
reach, with the remainder focussing on specific agro-ecological
zones such as Mount Kilimanjaro and the Lake Tanganyika Water
Catchment Basin. From the Financial Diagnostic Report, the value
of identified SLM projects to be undertaken between the financial
years 2011/12 – 2016/17 across nine key sectors, based on annual
average allocations, is estimated at USD 534,304,450 based on the
following breakdown presented on Table 9.

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 SLM SECTOR ARID SEMI - COAST PLATEAUX NORTHERN SOUTHERN ALLUVIAL NATIONAL SUB - TOTAL
ARID HIGHLANDS AND INVESTMENTS
WESTERN PER SLM
HIGHLANDS SECTOR
USD USD USD USD USD USD USD USD USD
Agriculture and Food 3,625,000 757,280 9,702,800 0 2,000,000 0 0 162,399,525 178,484,605
Security (including
livestock)
Coastal and Marine 0 0 16,805,371 0 0 0 0 0 16,805,371
Resources
Energy / Industry 0 0 600,000 0 0 0 0 24,439,655 25,039,655
Forestry 1,596,920 1,754,205 16,008,810 3,250,000 5,947,700 5,072,545 3,100,000 22,609,399 59,339,579
Wildlife / Ecosystem 1,541,250 0 0 1,120,000 0 22,953,552 0 1,000,000 26,614,802
Conservation

129
Water / Wetlands 0 333,333 0 0 31,500 58,421,220 0 47,858,564 106,644,618
Conservation
Health 0 0 566,667 0 0 0 3,360,000 63,000 3,989,667
Human Settlements 0 0 2,857,000 0 3,150 0 0 9,803,064 12,663,214
Capacity Building 0 0 10,800,000 0 2,630,000 0 0 91,292,939 104,722,939
Total SLM 6,763,170 2,844,818 57,340,648 4,370,000 10,612,350 86,447,317 6,460,000 359,466,146 534,304,450
Investments

Source: Final Report - Financial Diagnostic and Stocktaking for SLM Financing in Tanzania (December, 2011)
* Projects whose indicative figures and timeframes for implementation have been provided, together with commitments by the Government of
Tanzania in financial year 2011/12, have been included in the tabulation of total financial commitments towards SLM projects
** Project amounts are quoted in USD as of January 12, 2012
Source: Adapted From Financial Diagnostic and Stocktaking for SLM Financing in Tanzania (December, 2011)
According to the Integrated Investment Framework (IIF) / Integrated
Financing Strategy (Ifs) for Sustainable Land Management in
Tanzania report, it emerges that the value of SLM programmes
between the years 2011/12 and 2016/17 in the seven agro-ecological
is estimated at USD 174,838,303 or 32% of estimated funding for
SLM Programmes during the time period. Nationally oriented SLM
Programmes (programmes in the mainland and Zanzibar) between
the years 2011/12 and 2016/17 are estimated at USD 359,466,146,
or 68% of estimated funding for SLM Programmes during the time
period. From the table above, it is evident that the Southern and
Western Highlands will be the largest recipient of funds to support
water, wildlife and forestry related SLM programmes. The Semi-
arid agro-ecological zone will receive the lowest amounts of SLM
funding for agriculture, forestry and water related programmes.
Water / wetlands conservation, wildlife / ecosystems conservation
and forestry are the key SLM sectors that will receive the most
funding in the seven agro-ecological zones between the years
2011/12 and 2016/17. Energy, human settlements and health are
key SLM sectors that will receive the least amount of funding in the
same time period.

130
9.0 REPORTING, MONITORING AND EVALUATION SYSTEM
FOR LAND DEGRADATION IN TANZANIA

9.1 Land Degradation Monitoring Indicators

Monitoring and Evaluation of land degradation dynamics is a
key component to ensure that all initiatives for addressing land
degradation bring the expected results. In order to ensure effective
monitoring it is important to develop monitoring indicators which
are based on biophysical and socioeconomic components. The
biophysical based indicator such as, climate extreme events,
rainfall variability etc can be captured through direct measurements
and observations, while the socio economic indicators such as
population density etc, provides knowledge about the human
factors that affects land degradation which can be identified through
key informants, transect walks and household interviews. Besides
development of the indicators it is essential to relate it to land
degradation/Consequences, establish methods of assessment
and frequency and identification of sector ministry/institutions to
be responsible as shown in Table 10.

131
 Table 10: Land Degradation Monitoring and Evaluation
Indicators Spatial Relationship to Land Methods of Assessment and Responsible Sector Ministry/
Scales Degradation/Consequences Frequency Institutions
DRIVING FORCES
Population density L, N Increasing occupation of marginal Population census (local and national) Ministry responsible for Finance,
- urban lands Economy and Development
- rural After every ten years at National, Planning
- growth rate Over exploitation of land and water Regional and District level
- migration rate and resources Regional and Local government
trends Annually at village administration
Agricultural intensification as the
land labour ratio fall, or deforestation

132
as new land must be cleared for
agriculture. Soil erosion.
Level of Poverty LN Low budget for agricultural inputs Population census and Sample Surveys President’s Office – Planning
leading to extensive farming. Commission
Incidence of disease Relates to soil fertility decline and Every ten years at National level and Ministry responsible for
infestation /pest deforestation every two years at local level Agriculture and disaster
outbreak Land productivity decline, Soil Survey management
quality deterioration Every two years
At any time depending on the outbreak
of diseases/pests
 Indicators Spatial Relationship to Land Methods of Assessment and Responsible Sector Ministry/
Scales Degradation/Consequences Frequency Institutions
DIRECT PRESSURE
BIOPHYSICAL
Climate extreme L, N Loss of land cover and biodiversity, Expert opinion (on indicators, Ministry responsible for
events (sevire changes in terrain questionnaire and interviews) Agriculture, Tanzania
drought, tsunami, Ground based surveys and using Meteorological Agency
landslides, heavy electromagnetic induction
rains, dust storms, Modelling, Disaster Department and
forest and wild fires) Remote sensing and GIS, Academic and Research
Every five years Institutions
Natural disasters/ L, N Changes in soil conditions, changes Remote sensing VPO – Division of Environment,
calamities, volcanic in land cover Survey Disaster management and Regional

133
eruptions Every five years – however, it can also and Local government
be done at any time
Depending on occurrence of disasters
Urbanization L, N Loss of productive lands, sealing Population Census - After every ten Ministry responsible for Economy,
- Rate of land use Land pollution years at National level Development Planning and
conversion i.e. Regional and Local government
housing, etc. Surveys - Annually at Regional and
- no. of commercial District level
and industrial
establishments
 Indicators Spatial Relationship to Land Methods of Assessment and Responsible Sector Ministry/
Scales Degradation/Consequences Frequency Institutions
Frequency of Forest Loss of biodiversity Remote sensing and GIS Ministry responsible for Natural
fires (caused/induced Documentation resources
by human)
Human-induced L, N Land and water pollution Field monitoring and measurements VPO – Division of Environment,
disasters Disaster management and
Loss of productive lands Regional and Local government
STATE
Aridity index L, N Drought/desertification Analysis of climatic stations (LOCLIM) Ministry responsible for
Agriculture, Tanzania
Meteorological Agency,

134
Soil moisture change L, N
Soil moisture content/
problem
Rainfall variability and L, N
rainfall intensity
Drought/desertification
Drought/desertification, flooding,
soil erosion
and Academic and Research
Institutions.
Remote sensing Ministry responsible for
Agriculture,
Field monitoring and measurements Tanzania Meteorological Agency,
and Academic and Research
Institutions
Analysis/modelling Ministry responsible for
Agriculture,
Tanzania Meteorological Agency
Academic and Research
Institutions
 Indicators Spatial Relationship to Land Methods of Assessment and Responsible Sector Ministry/
Scales Degradation/Consequences Frequency Institutions
Forest (Burned area N Drought/desertification The Active Fire Analysis - MODIS VPO – Division of Environment,
due to wild fires and Burned Area Analysis Tanzania Forest Service,
extreme climate) Agriculture
- %, ha/year The Burned Area Analysis Academic and Research
Institutions
SOIL RESOURCES
Soil texture (and L, N Water logging, erosion Survey Ministry responsible for
stoniness) Agriculture,
Academic and Research
Institutions
Soil structure (type, L, N Compaction, sodicity Visual Soil - Field Assessment Tool Ministry responsible for

135
size, consistency, Agriculture,
tillage pan, aggregate Annually Academic and Research
size) Institutions
pH L Nutrient decline, toxic effects Visual Soil - Field Assessment Tool Ministry responsible for
Agriculture,
Annually Academic and Research
Institutions
Organic mater L Nutrient decline, toxic effects Visual Soil - Field Assessment Tool Ministry responsible for
Agriculture,
Annually Academic and Research
Institutions
 Indicators Spatial Relationship to Land Methods of Assessment and Responsible Sector Ministry/
Scales Degradation/Consequences Frequency Institutions
Water infiltration L Water logging, erosion Visual Soil - Field Assessment Tool Ministry responsible for
Agriculture and Academic and
Research Institutions
Salinity/alkalinity L, N Reducing rates of land suitable for Visual Soil - Field Assessment Tool Ministry responsible for
agriculture Remote sensing Agriculture,
Laboratory analysis Academic and Research
Institutions
Annually
Soil depth L Nutrient deficiencies, soil/water Visual Soil - Field Assessment Tool Ministry responsible for
erosion Agriculture,
Annually Academic and Research

136
Institutions
TERRAIN RESOURCES
Surface aspects L Soil quality degradation, soil Laboratory analysis VPO – Division of Environment,
(slope gradient/ pollution
NEMC
aspects) Annually
Academic and Research
Institutions
Municipal, District, Township,
Wards, Villages/and Sub villages
environmental councils
Forms of soil loss L Soil quality degradation Visual Soil FAST Academic and Research
Annually Institutions
 Indicators Spatial Relationship to Land Methods of Assessment and Responsible Sector Ministry/
Scales Degradation/Consequences Frequency Institutions
WATER RESOURCES
WLevel of L, N Over exploitation Heat tracer method Academic and Research
groundwater Hydraulic gradient Institutions,
Secondary salinisation Hydraulic Water Basin Authority
conductivity
Ground velocity
Every five years
Salinity of L, N Salinisation The electrical conductivity or EC Academic and Research
groundwater/irrigation Simple field tests using a hand-held Institutions
salinity meter
Expert opinion (on indicators, Water Basin Authority
questionnaire and interviews)

137
Every five years
Arsenic content L, N Soil contamination/water toxicity Laboratory analysis Ministry responsible for Mining
Annually and Energy, Industries and
Transport
NEMC
IMPACT
SOCIO-ECONOMIC
Incidence of poverty L, N Inability to buy agricultural inputs for Local/national census President’s Office – Planning
land conservation Household survey Commission, Ministry of Finance,
Economy and Development
Planning
 Indicators Spatial
Scales
Lack of access to L, N
safe food and water
(availability/supply)
Incidence of disease L, N
Land productivity L, N
decline
- % change in yield
and performance of
major agricultural
Relationship to Land
Degradation/Consequences
Inability to participate in land
conservation
Poor health and expenditure for
medical treatment, hence affect
investment on land
Decline in land productivity
Methods of Assessment and Responsible Sector Ministry/
Frequency Institutions
Local/national census Ministry responsible for
agriculture,
PMO – Disaster Department
Local/national censuses Ministry of Health and Social
Development
Documentary review Ministry responsible for
agriculture,
Field survey Academic and Research
Institutions

138
products (forests,
crops, livestock)
Habitat destruction L, N Destruction of habitat Survey, Documentary review VPO – Division of Environment,
and loss of Ministry responsible for rural
biodiversity resource management
- % change
in species
composition, flora
and fauna
- no. of endemic
species flora and
fauna
 Indicators Spatial Relationship to Land Methods of Assessment and Responsible Sector Ministry/
Scales Degradation/Consequences Frequency Institutions
RESPONSE
Population size and L, N Migration Local censuses President’s Office – Planning
spatial distribution Every ten years Commission, Ministry of Finance,
Economy and Development
Planning,
Regional, District, Ward and
Village authorities
Unemployment rate L, N Poverty local censuses President’s Office – Planning
(agricultural sector Low agricultural productivity Commission, Ministry of Finance,
input/output) Every ten years Economy and Development
Planning
Regional and Local government

139
administration
- Migration rate L, N Sustainable land and forest Survey VPO – Division of Environment,
L management Survey Sectoral Ministries,
Ministry responsible for agriculture
Soil conservation measures Financial Institutions – Banks,
Every two years SACCOS
Reduced pressure on land resource Academic and Research
Institutions
Regional and Local government
administration and
NGO’s and CBO’s
N = National; L = Local
9.2 Processes for Land Degradation Monitoring and
9.2 evaluation
Processes for Land Degradation Monitoring and evaluation

Monitoring
Monitoring and Evaluation
and Evaluation of land of land degradation
degradation dynamics dynamics is a key to
is a key component
component to ensure that all initiatives for land degradation bring
ensure that all initiatives for land degradation bring the expected results. The
the expected results. The sequencing of activities to conduct
sequencing of activities
monitoring to conduct monitoring
and evaluation process isand evaluationin
presented process
Figureis15.
presented in
Figure 15.

Planning for Monitoring and

Evaluation

Sampling – Identifying the assessment and evaluation areas and sites

Area characterization and Identifying Households, Community, Landscape,

Transect-Land Use, Vegetation type, Water
(Status, Driving Forces and Pressure)
 

Understanding Land Degradation and its Effects on the Ecosystem Services

(Status)
 

Assessing the Impact of Land Measuring socio-economic

Degradation on the Ecosystems influences on Land
(Impacts) Degradation & Impact
(Driving Forces & Impacts)

Analysis, Identifying Supports Interventions and Reporting

(Responses)

Figure 15: Process for land degradation monitoring and evaluation

Figure 15: Process for land degradation monitoring and evaluation
Source: FAO, 2009
Source: FAO, 2009

140
143
 
a) Planning for Monitoring and Evaluation
The purpose is to provide a standard methodological approach
and tool-kit for the assessment of land degradation processes,
their causes and impacts at local1 level in collaboration with local
stakeholders and communities. The focus is on human-induced
land degradation; however, natural degradation processes are also
addressed. For a more balanced and complete understanding,
the approach also assesses the extent to which land resources
(soil, vegetation, water) and landscapes/ecosystems are being
conserved and/or improved by sustainable land management
(SLM) practices. The local assessment results can be used in
the context of a monitoring and evaluation programme aiming at
improved and responsive decision making on sustainable land
management and rural development.

The planning stage will also involve the composition of team which
will take into account diversity if discipline such as soil science
and agronomy: water resources management: animal production
(settled/ pastoral systems, livestock, wildlife, etc.): social sciences
(e.g. land tenure, rights, gender, etc.): agricultural economics (e.g.
costs, benefits, tradeoffs, etc.): ecology - forest and rangeland
management. The planning will also involve the identification,
collection and review of:-

• Background information (secondary data) on the bio-physical

(including land degradation data) and socio-economic
(including poverty and livelihoods data) characteristics of the
country (available from government and other sources).

• National, and sectoral plans and strategies, NAPs,

environmental action plans, etc.).

• Recently completed and on-going central and local government

and donor funded projects and programs for sustainable land
management and poverty alleviation.

• Past and present sectoral targets and budget allocations (of

central, and local government authorities) for sustainable land
management and poverty alleviation

• Geographical information (maps and digital data).

141
b) Identifying the assessment areas and sites
Local monitoring and evaluation area selection should be driven by
the aims of the team or sponsor. LD/SLM information required from
the local assessment that could be extrapolated to give a picture
of land condition in larger land units or land use systems. Thus it
is important for local assessment locations to be representative of
these larger areas or systems. In other situations, the users might
be interested in conducting monitoring and evaluation in particular
locations for different reasons e.g. concerns over land degradation,
a wish to understand apparent improvements in land management,
a particular policy or project focus.

c) Area characterization
Firstly, to provide an overview of the study area as the context within
which land degradation and sustainable land management (LD /
SLM) are occurring. The characterization should enable the team to
confirm that the study area is representative of the larger area and /
or one of the national level land use systems. The characterization
will provide the team with a rational basis for selecting the location,
the required number of representative communities, transects and
detailed assessment sites.

d) Understanding Land Degradation and its Effects on the

Ecosystem Services
The land users’ capacity and interest to practice sustainable
resources management and minimize degradation of natural
resources and ecosystems depends on many considerations
including their assets base and rights over resources, education
and know-how, relative wealth, access to services, as well as the
enabling policy and legal environment. In order to understand land
degradation and its effects, the focus should be on the following
parameters:-

i) Assessing vegetation and biodiversity status and trends

Vegetation degradation is an important aspect of land degradation
although more attention has been paid in the past to soil and water
degradation. Vegetation degradation or improvement needs to be
assessed in:-

142
 • Grasslands and rangelands, which cover a large share of
drylands and are largely used for livestock production by
agro-pastoralists and pastoralists.

• Forests and woodlands, which may cover a smaller

land area but are vital for the protection of watersheds /
watercourses and the provision of wood and diverse non-
wood forest products.

• Croplands, where the crops themselves can be assessed

as well as the trees, shrubs and herbaceous species that
are maintained on the farm, along borders of fields and
around homesteads, for various purposes (wood, forage,
fertilizer, windbreaks, shade)

ii) Assessing soil health and soil erosion status and trends
Soil degradation directly affects land productivity (i.e. provisioning
services). A good understanding of the condition of the soil (state),
the change dynamics (trends) and the degradation / soil restoration
processes involved is required.

Adverse changes in the soil biological, chemical, physical and / or

hydrological properties can also increase the vulnerability of the
soil to further degradation, including:

• Soil biological degradation – decline in soil organic matter

content and the diversity of soil organisms negatively
affects the beneficial functions of soil (e.g. mineralization,
nitrification, nitrogen fixation) and are likely to increase the
risk of soil pest damage;

• Soil chemical degradation – increase in soil nutrient

imbalances and toxicities, soil acidification, alkalinisation,
salinisation and pollution;

• Soil physical degradation – surface crusting and soil

compaction through raindrop impact, trampling and
mechanisation, loss of topsoil structure and organic matter
through excess or inappropriate tillage;

143
 • Degradation of soil hydrological properties - water logging
and acidification due to the decline in rainfall infiltration
and soil moisture retention;

• Soil pollution - due to contamination by, for example,

agro-industries or heavy metals from mining or use of
contaminated groundwater

iii) Assessing water resources status and trends

Land - water linkages are significant in relation to land degradation
in drylands. It is important to identify land degradation processes
and land management practices that cause changes in the
hydrological regime (rainfall infiltration, retention, runoff and
flow) and thereby in water availability and quality. For example,
a reduction in vegetation cover will result in increased runoff,
reduced ground water recharge and sedimentation of surface
water resources which in turn affects water quality.

In semi-arid and arid areas, land degradation / management

impacts on water resources are strongly affected by the variability
in rainfall, runoff and water flow, as rainfall is concentrated in a
short rainy season and is often characterized by extreme weather
events – long drought periods and intense rains that may cause
flooding. Climate change has serious implications in potentially
increasing the frequency of extreme weather events in drylands,
resulting in increased soil erosion, runoff and flooding in lowland
areas, estuaries and deltas and flash floods in highland areas

iv) Assessing SLM technologies and approaches

A number of sustainable land management (SLM) best practices
should be identified in the study areas and their effects observed
in the field (i.e. on soil, water, vegetation and biodiversity) and
their impacts on livelihoods and ecosystem services determined
through observations, discussions and interviews. These may
be local / indigenous practices or farmer innovations to adapt to
change or introduced technologies from other areas or through
projects and research and extension services. The different
categories of land users identified on the ground and through the
wealth ranking should be questioned on what they consider to be

144
the best practices, their use, and effectiveness and whether there
are any constraints to adoption.

e) Assessing the Impact of Land Degradation on the Eco-

systems (Impacts)
i) Assessing effects of LD /management on productive
services
The impacts of LD / SLM on the productivity of croplands,
rangelands and forest / woodlands are of particular concern to
land users. Ultimately all these production systems are dependent
on the growth and use of plants (planted or naturally growing)
which in turn depends on the capacity of the soils to fulfil a number
of key functions and on the adequacy of rainfall (or irrigation) to
satisfy plant water and nutrient requirements. The assessment will
generate information on the condition and change dynamics in the
land resources (soil, water, vegetation). Some direct measurements
of productivity may be possible but the knowledge of local land
users and experts will be very important in linking the biophysical
information to effects on productivity, (e.g. identifying species
or other variables that indicate high and low quality pasture and
good or poor soil conditions). Such information can be obtained
during community focus group discussion and from key informants
during transect walks. Older people in the community tend to have
a particularly rich knowledge of these linkages.

ii) Cropland and Rangeland degradation / management and

productivity
Reduction in the capacity of land used for crop production (rainfed
or irrigated) to sustain the yield of annual and / or perennial crops
is due largely to soil degradation and partly due to degradation of
water resources. Reduction in the capacity of natural and planted
grassland areas to be used on a sustainable basis for livestock
production is mainly due to vegetation degradation, although
other forms of degradation also contribute. Causes of rangeland /
grassland degradation include overgrazing, inadequate livestock
rotation, excessive burning and poor farming practices.

145
 f) Analysis, Identifying Supports Interventions and
Reporting (Responses)
Reporting will be needed at various levels of land degradation
initiatives. Government officials, institutions and Non – Governmental
Organization and International Organization need to report on the
status of land degradation after implementing their initiatives. The
reports will be prepared on quarterly, semi-annual and annually
and will be submitted to the Vice President’s Office in accordance
with the organizational structure of environmental management.

The local level assessment findings and analysis shall be

documented in the form of a concise report supported by maps,
tables and diagrams. The report should:-

• Explain the location of study area(s), transects and detailed

assessment sites;

• Present (e.g. using maps or Google earth images) the layout

and distribution of land resources and land-use types;

• Describe land use / management practices and their effects

on the status of land resources in term of LD processes and
trends (type, extent, severity) and effectiveness of conservation
/ improvement measures / SLM;

• Present the analysis of apparent causes (drivers and

pressures), impacts and policy implications on livelihoods and
selected ecosystem services; and,

• Propose responses for addressing land degradation or to

promote sustainable land management.

9.3 Co-ordination of Land Degradation Monitoring

The overall responsibility for monitoring and evaluation of land
degradation shall be the responsibility of the Vice President’s Office
– Division of Environment (VPO-DoE). However, the VPO-DoE shall
work in close collaboration with key sectoral ministries, regional,
district, ward and village level responsible with environmental
issues, private institutions and the private sector. In general, the
existing institutional structure of environmental management in
the country shown on Figure 17 will be used for monitoring and

146
issues, private institutions and the private sector. In general, the existing institutional
structure of environmental management in the country shown on Figure 17 will be
evaluation. It isandanticipated
used for monitoring evaluation. It isthat further
anticipated thatdevelopments in inthe
further developments the
monitoring process
monitoring process will
will be be designed
designed in full consultation
in full consultation and
and co-operation withco-
the
operation with the development cooperation
development cooperation partners and other stakeholders. partners and other
stakeholders.

Figure 16: Organization structure for implementation of EMA

Figure 16: Organization structure for implementation
Source: VPO, 2013
of EMA
Source: VPO, 2013

150
 

147
10.0 CONCLUSION

Land degradation is posing major challenges to sustainable land

use management in Tanzania. It has a negative socio economic and
environmental impact to our community whose majority depends on
land resources for their livelihood. The extent and magnitude of land
degradation for highly and moderate degraded areas has increased from
44% in 1980 to almost 50% in 2012. Arid, semiarid and plateau zones
are highly degraded as compared to other zones such as southern and
western highlands. The major causes of land degradation in Tanzania are
variable across the agro ecological zones depending on the biophysical
condition as well as anthropogenic factors. Such factors include land
clearance, clear-cutting and deforestation, agricultural depletion of soil
nutrients through unsustainable farming practices and overgrazing.

The multiple causes of the land degradation calls for multidisciplinary and
integrative approach to address the problem. Among the approaches for
effective SLM is to work with communities and appropriately recognizing
the wide range of benefits that come with land rehabilitation/restoration
and conservation. There is a need to build institutional capacity to
conduct field level research related land degradation and apply the
results through extension programs along with enabling policy makers
to take necessary decision and appropriate mitigation measures.
Such situation implies that land degradation cannot be resolved by a
single institution/ ministry, underlining the importance of partnerships;
measurement, monitoring and management.

148
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155
APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1: LIST OF STAKEHOLDERS CONSULTED
Ministry/Institution
1. Vice President’s Office
2. Ministry of Livestock and
Fisheries Development
3. Ministry of Agriculture, Food
Security and Cooperatives
4. Ministry of Lands, Housing
and Human Settlement
Development
5. Korogwe District
Personnel consulted
Mr. Richard Muyungi
Division of Environment
Vice President’s Office
Mr. Victor Mwita
Assistant Director Land for Livestock Development at
Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development
• Mr. Makundi
Acting Head Environment unit
• Mr. Mahuha
Assistant Director – Land use Planning
• Mr. Tarimo
Director
Agricultural Land use planning and management
• Mr. Beatus Malema
Crop Promotion Services
Mr. M. Kachubo
Director Physical planning
National Land use Planning Commission
• Mr. Changoma
District Livestock Officer
E-mail: Sebastian-schangoma@yahoo.com
• Mr. Charles Kibindo
District Agricultural Officer Email: ndosicharles@
yahoo.com
• Mr. Fredrick Linga
Environmental and sanitation officer
Email: frederick.linga@yahoo.com
156
Ministry/Institution Personnel consulted
6. Regional office (RAS) • Mr. Shayo
Community Development officer
Mobile: 0754278463

• Mr. G. Maro
Agricultural officer- RAS office
Email: godwinmaro@yahoo.com
7. Same District District Agriculture Irrigation and Cooperative (DAICO)

• Mr. Gabriel Kisima

Land use management Subject matter specialist (SMS)
Mobile: 0755 467306
8. Babati District • Jetrida Kikaka
District Agriculture Irrigation and Cooperative Officer
(DAICO)
• Anatoli Rwiza
District Environmental Management Officer
Mobile: 0784 421669
9. Kongwa District Peter Makuya
Agricultural field officer (District seed inspector)
10. Hombolo Agricultural Mr. Swai
Research Institute Soil scientist and land management expert
Mobile: 0658 542340
11. Ngara District Michael
District Agriculture Irrigation and Cooperative officer
(DAICO)
Mobile: 0784530737
12. Maswa District Mr. Deogratias Thomas
District Agriculture Irrigation and Cooperative officer
(DAICO):
Email: Shilabu 2000@yahoo.com
Mobile: 0784458593
13. Iramba District Mr. Ziwa Rodgers
District Agriculture Irrigation and Cooperative officer
(DAICO)
Email: Ziwarodgers@yahoo.com

157
Ministry/Institution Personnel consulted
14. Kondoa District Mr. C.Mwiga
Livestock Development Officer
Email: mwiga@yahoo.co.uk
15. Meatu District Simwimba C.M,
District Agricultural, Irrigation and Cooperative
Officer(DAICO)
Mobile: 0713808700
16. Sengerema District Mr. J.S. Madiga
District Executive Director
Email: dedsengerema@ymail.com
17. Sokoine University of Prof. E. Mtengeti
Agriculture Mobile: 0754306909

158
APPENDIX 2: CHANGE DETECTION BY AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONE
A. Alluvial Plains: Land cover change 1980 – 2012

Changed from To Area (Ha)

Bare Soil Bare Soil 5,603
Forest 387
Bushland Bushland 146,619
Cultivated Land 11,377
Grassland 73,109
Water 43
Woodland 4,134
Cultivated Land Cultivated Land 251,349
Forest 72
Grassland 30
Urban area 1,520
Water 421
Woodland 705
Forest Bare Soil 268
Cultivated Land 355
Forest 238,599
Grassland 3,373
Water 303
Woodland 4,116
Grassland Cultivated Land 15
Forest 17
Grassland 704,568
Swamp 17,822
Water 746
Woodland 2,421
Swamp Grassland 560
Swamp 40,622
Urban area Urban area 557
Water 28
Water Bare Soil 8
Cultivated Land 54
Forest 250

159
 Changed from To Area (Ha)
Grassland 217
Water 16,673
Woodland 851
Woodland Bushland 64,814
Cultivated Land 16,199
Forest 34
Grassland 34,414
Swamp 17
Water 1,477
Woodland 832,133

B. Arid Lands
Changed from To Area (Ha)
Bare Soil Bare Soil 12,652
Swamp 4
Bushland Bushland 2,669,346
Cultivated Land 292,171
Forest 2,053
Grassland 118,422
Swamp 1,081
Water 172
Woodland 94,025
Cultivated Land Bushland 8,093
Cultivated Land 558,111
Grassland 3,448
Urban area 12
Water 114
Woodland 10,372
Forest Bushland 258
Cultivated Land 3,477
Forest 113,579
Grassland 7,748
Woodland 4,505
Grassland Bushland 90,571

160
Changed from To Area (Ha)
Cultivated Land 239,625
Forest 88
Grassland 3,420,421
Swamp 11,473
Water 2,259
Woodland 203,168
Rock Outcrops Rock Outcrops 429
Swamp Cultivated Land 3,204
Grassland 880
Swamp 61,812
Water 246
Woodland 101
Urban area Urban area 2,433
Water Bare Soil 3
Bushland 77
Cultivated Land 47
Grassland 985
Swamp 54
Urban area 108
Water 15,627
Woodland 43
Woodland Bushland 44,500
Cultivated Land 90,798
Grassland 99,588
Urban area 25
Water 58
Woodland 2,441,313

161
C. Coastal Zones
Changed from To Area (Ha)
Bare Soil Bare Soil 40,647
Cultivated Land 60
Forest 322
Water 1
Bushland Bare Soil 45
Bushland 1,387,674
Cultivated Land 16,967
Forest 626
Grassland 10,231
Urban area 8,875
Water 36
Woodland 7,382
Cultivated Land Bare Soil 155
Bushland 55,814
Cultivated Land 1,468,903
Forest 7,411
Grassland 1,115
Swamp 48
Urban area 48,056
Water 190
Woodland 5,111
Forest Bare Soil 87
Bushland 93
Cultivated Land 335
Forest 248,601
Grassland 2,126
Water 301
Woodland 14,244
Grassland Bare Soil 317
Bushland 8,988
Cultivated Land 16,340
Forest 33,308
Grassland 731,448

162
Changed from To Area (Ha)
Urban area 5,712
Water 98
Woodland 10,274
Swamp Grassland 78
Swamp 17,247
Water 16
Urban area Cultivated Land 132
Forest 89
Urban area 24,842
Water 47
Woodland 5
Water Bare Soil 77
Bushland 15
Cultivated Land 133
Forest 463
Grassland 26
Swamp 153
Urban area 67
Water 50,845
Woodland 14
Woodland Bushland 30,327
Cultivated Land 20,891
Forest 4,951
Grassland 229,063
Swamp 75
Urban area 1,324
Water 110
Woodland 2,976,616

163
D. Northern Highlands
Changed from To Area (Ha)
Bare Soil Bare Soil 3,243
Bushland Bushland 656,092
Cultivated Land 87,509
Grassland 41,736
Swamp 215
Urban area 104
Water 591
Woodland 6,897
Cultivated Land Cultivated Land to Bushland 313
Cultivated Land to Cultivated 667,019
Land
Cultivated Land to Forest 5
Cultivated Land to Grassland 3,362
Cultivated Land to Swamp 467
Cultivated Land to Urban 526
area
Cultivated Land to Water 624
Woodland 31,447
Forest Bushland 379
Cultivated Land 5,503
Forest 487,843
Grassland 8,518
Swamp 1,017
Woodland 12,147
Grassland Bushland 12,899
Cultivated Land 56,183
Grassland 706,960
Swamp 43
Urban area 60
Water 1,130
Woodland 2,752
Ice Bushland 1,278
Ice 283
Swamp Cultivated Land 93

164
 Changed from To Area (Ha)
Grassland 43
Swamp 33,049
Water 572
Urban area Urban area 7,879
Water Bushland 73
Cultivated Land 125
Grassland 45
Urban area 105
Water 12,942
Woodland 574
Woodland Bushland 16,629
Cultivated Land 68,907
Grassland 195
Swamp 234
Urban area 159
Woodland 595,601

E. Plateaux
Changed from To Area (Ha)
Bare Soil Bare Soil 31,035
Water 1
Bushland Bushland 2,708,002
Cultivated Land 71,949
Forest 1
Grassland 53,141
Swamp 1
Urban area 1,731
Water 15
Woodland 22,006
Cultivated Land Bushland 10,516
Cultivated Land 2,719,523
Forest 1
Grassland 7,353

165
Changed from To Area (Ha)
Swamp 131
Urban area 3,593
Woodland 16,840
Forest Bushland 143
Cultivated Land 1
Forest 709,763
Grassland 3
Woodland 71,241
Grassland Bare Soil 2,015
Bushland 6,566
Cultivated Land 25,996
Forest 4
Grassland 5,129,776
Swamp 979
Water 803
Woodland 41,935
Rock Outcrops Rock Outcrops 4,228
Woodland 0
Swamp Cultivated Land 389
Grassland 3,297
Swamp 395,241
Water 566
Woodland 743
Urban area Cultivated Land 20
Urban area 4,264
Water Bushland 267
Forest 438
Grassland 14,796
Swamp 3,193
Urban area 6,169
Water 440,280
Woodland 766
Woodland Bare Soil 917
Bushland 24,068

166
 Changed from To Area (Ha)
Cultivated Land 303,045
Forest 5
Grassland 1,595,295
Swamp 2,578
Urban area 4,510
Water 2,228
Woodland 15,930,750

F. Semi-arid Lands
Changed from To Area (Ha)
Bare Soil Bare Soil 23,229
Cultivated Land 73
Forest 18
Water 1
Woodland 1
Bushland Bushland 5,215,719
Cultivated Land 97,629
Forest 160
Grassland 209,494
Swamp 529
Urban area 321
Water 1,289
Woodland 45,003
Cultivated Land Bushland 5,588
Cultivated Land 2,292,265
Grassland 3,886
Swamp 546
Urban area 101
Water 807
Woodland 721
Forest Bare Soil 16
Bushland 433
Forest 210,647
Grassland 2,874

167
Changed from To Area (Ha)
Water 316
Woodland 8,843
Grassland Bare Soil 314
Bushland 3,589
Cultivated Land 72,337
Forest 33,238
Grassland 3,674,048
Swamp 337
Urban area 2,092
Water 5,887
Woodland 137,490
Rock Outcrops Rock Outcrops 2,243
Swamp Cultivated Land 74
Grassland 1,797
Swamp 249,736
Water 5,551
Woodland 1
Urban area Urban area 1,325
Water Bare Soil 1
Bushland 144
Cultivated Land 337
Grassland 133
Urban area 5,240
Water 62,854
Woodland 128
Woodland Bare Soil 263
Bushland 24,497
Cultivated Land 416,209
Forest 716
Grassland 1,722,151
Swamp 1,261
Urban area 100
Water 798
Woodland 6,151,445

168
G. Southern and Western Highlands
Changed from To Hectares
Bare Soil Bare Soil 1,912
Grassland 72
Bushland Bushland 3,130,806
Cultivated Land 153,188
Forest 5,678
Grassland 158,865
Swamp 58
Water 438
Woodland 21,276
Cultivated Land Bushland 1,115
Cultivated Land 1,697,981
Forest 1
Grassland 10,990
Swamp 360
Urban area 2,568
Water 128
Woodland 1,623
Forest Bushland 627
Cultivated Land 944
Forest 535,799
Grassland 611
Water 228
Woodland 183
Grassland Bushland 23,409
Cultivated Land 81,341
Forest 325
Grassland 2,540,352
Urban area 470
Water 1,688
Woodland 66,467
Rock Outcrops Cultivated Land 70
Rock Outcrops 184
Woodland 279

169
Changed from To Hectares
Swamp Bushland 526
Cultivated Land 113
Grassland 155
Swamp 142,608
Water 454
Urban area Urban area 6,394
Water Cultivated Land 70
Grassland 263
Swamp 172
Urban area 3,446
Water 83,298
Woodland 22
Woodland Bushland 146,447
Cultivated Land 90,191
Forest 19
Grassland 112,453
Swamp 410
Water 146
Woodland 4,278,830

170