Volume l0 Issue l14

Published by
Orbis Publishing Ltd
@Aerospace Publishing Ltd 1985
Editorial Offices
War Machine
Aerospace Publishing Ltd
179 Dalling Road
London W6 OES

Managing Editor: Stan Morse

Editorial : Trisha Palmer
Chris Bishop
Chris Chant
lan Drury
I
Design: Rod Teasdale
Colour Origination: lmago Publlshing Ltd,
Thame, Oxon I
Typesetting: SX Composino Ltd
Film work: Precise Litho Ltd
I
Consultant Editor: Major General Sir i
Artists: Jeremy Moore KCB OBE MC, Comman-
Tony Gibbons der of British Land Forces during the
John Ridyard/Dave Etchell
Falklands campaign.

-341 1 Distribution and marketing offices:

Orbis Publishing Ltd
Orbis House
20-22 Bedfordbury
:' ^led in Great Britain London WC2N 4BT
Telephone: 01 379 6111
Picture acknowledgements
Subscription Manager: Christine Allen Circulation Manager: Brian Anderson A11 photographs courtesy lmpeaal War Museum excepti
0488 72666 Marketing Manager: Paul Stelb Page 2283: Mars, Lmcs. (iii): Xinhua Press Aqency/Xinhua Press Agency (iv): US Air Force

HOWTO OBTAIN ISSUES AND BINDERS FOR WAR MACHINE

s:-es €n be obtained by placing an orderwith your newsagent or direct from ourSubscription AUSTRALIA please write to: Gordon and Gotch iAus) Ltd, 1 14 William Street, PO Box 767G, N,4elbourne
}cament. lf you have difficulty obtaining any back issues f rom your newsagent, please write to us Victoria 3001. MALTA, NEWZEALAND, SINGAPORE &SOUTH AFRICA: Back numbers are availableat
:::: -g rhe issue(s) required and enclosing a cheque for the cover price of the lssueis). cover price from your newsagent. In case of difficulty, write to the address given forbinders.

UK/ENE EUROPE MIDDLEEAST AMERICAS/ASIA/AFRICA AUSTRALASIA/FAR EAST

SS, ! PtiCE: 90p/ l Rf1 .1 5 ISSUE PBICE: 90p ISSUE PRICE: 90p ISSUE PRICE: US$1.95/90p ISSUE PRICE: 90p
Li33-q:PTION: SUBSCRIPIION: SUBSCRIPTION: SUBSCRIPTION; SUBSCRIPTlON:
a \r:-:^s: f26.00 6Months ait f44.72 6Months air: €50.18 6N4onths air: f59.24 oMonths ait f64.22
' ';:-: i52.00 surface: f36.14 surface:136.14 surface: €36.14 surface:136.'14
:'\l:-: tiease send e3.95 'l Year air: f89.44 1 Year air: f100.36 'l Year air: f 119.08 1 Year ak:1128.44
:e- :' a.' crtakeadvantage surface: €72.28 surtace: f72.28 surface: f72.28 swface. f72.28
:' : -' :a€: al c1fe. in early BINDER: (inc. Postage) BINDER: (inc. Postage) BINDER: iinc. Postage)
::-€: air: f5.50 air: 18.25 air: f9.50 AUSTRALIA
surface: f5.00 surface: f5-50 surface: 15.50 ISSUE PRICE: AUS$2.1s
obtain BINDERS f rom
MALTA SOUTHAFRICA First Post Pty Ltd.
Obtain BlNDERSfrom ISSUEPRICE:SAR2.45 23 Chandos Street
your newsaqent or obtain BINDEBS from St Leonards.
Miller (Malta) Ltd, any branch of Central NSW 2065
MA Vassalli Street, News Agencyor
Valetta. Malta lntermag, PO Box NEWZEALAND
Price: f3 95 57394, Springfield 21 37 ISSUEPRICE: NZ$2.65
obtain BlNDERSfrom
SINGAPORE your newsagent or
ISSUE PRICE: Sing$4.50 Gordon & Gotch (NZ)
obtain BINDERS f rom Ltd, PO Box 1 595.
MPH Distributors Wellington
601 Sims Drive
03.07-21
Singapore 1438

4M Fffi nlD€RS AND BACK ISSUES NOTE ADDRESS FORSUBSCRIPTIONS

Binders and back issues are obtainable subjectto Orbis Publishing Limited
_[:-:]- availability of stocks. Whilst every attempt is made to Hurst Farm
keepthe price of the issues and binders constant, the Baydon Road
iif: _ publishers reserve the right to increase the stated Lambourne Woodlands
prices at any time when circumstances dictate. Binders Newbury
r'crdnw &1-3l95atl depicted in this publication are those produced forthe Berks
UK and Australian markets only. Binders and lssues RG1 6 7TW
may be subiect to impon duty and/or local taxes, which Telephone:0488-72666
- r;:,+.'-: :r-: _ ---
: : - : - : :r - 3ce Fyable to Orbis Publishing Li mited are not included in the above prices unless stated.
I r :*' : r :;:c - : r:; :,:-- :=:: :- : El< rg and prices are in sterling. Allcheques/Postai Ordersshouldbemadem,::
-:
et: lm*
Publishing Lrm ted. Postageand packagi.e i -i-: -
subscription rates, andpricesaregiveninS::- -;
Escorthssels of
WbddWbrll
Of aII the combaturts in World War II, it was Britain and
Commandant Duboc, a Free Frcnch
sloop of the Elan 'class, is seen in
Plymouth Sound soon after the fall of
Iapan who were most dependent upon a seaborzte lifeline, France. As with severalFrench
and it was those nations to whom a tlveat to their merchant classet the'Elans' were pressed into
sewice by both sides, this particular
fleets was mortal. Obviottsly, means had to be established to example being used on escort duty
protect the trade routes. with the Royal Navy.

Before World War I, theory had it that trade could run safely in defended
maritime corridors; the fallacy of the argmment and its replacement by
escorted convoys was bought at the cost of millions of tons of merchant
shlpping, With the lesson learned, the Brltish had the basis of a useful
escort fleet in I939. Initlaily, numbers were inadequate and the designs
limited in both capability and endurance, but the organization existed to
expand and improve rapidly, British convoys, particularly, had to face a
variety ofthreats (hrgh speed E-boat attacks on coastal routes, organtzed
U-boat group assault in the Atlantic, and combined aircraft and surface
attack on the Arctic and Mediterranean movements) and difierent
escorts were required for each.
With too few anti-submarine (AS) ships and 1itt1e experience, the
escort forces were at flrst on the defensive, More and larger shrps
enabled the close escorts to be strengthened and enhanced in capabrl-
ity. Sclence improved both equipment and techniques, The formation of
roving support groups and the rapid development of aircraft support
allowed, f,rstly, for threatened convoys to have their escort groups
reinforced rapidly and decisiveiy and secondly, the taking of :he :_=:-,
sive agarnst the U-boat by actually operating close astnde lts ma-::' ..:=
to and from its bases,
The aerial threat was never met by defeatrng the aircraft, on11- c,"- _--:
offensives which removed the alrcraft bases or by satisfactory o:.:-:-=:
to campaigns that obvlated the need to run the convoys the::s=_;=.
Interestingly, the drscredited early British arguments agains: .::--.':-.':
and, therefore, the need for 'defensive' escort ships in an esse:-:-: -,
'offensive' fleet, were carrred on by the Americans and Japanese :-=, :_-
er of whom had had the beneflt of bitter firslhand experience a:-: _-.=:
neglected to learn from that of the British and paid dearlv ::: -:.= -
unpreparedness,
Britain's lifeline across theNorth Atlantic demanded good seakeepng anC
longrange Irom her escorts.Withthe'Hunt'class, however, designed as a
FastEscortVessel(FW), theRoyalNavygot avessel thatwas relitively hea;:-,-
(and overambitiously) armed, without the range for Attantic oper ations. Ti e
'Hunts'neverthelessproved useful in the struggle around the coasts ofEurc;e

,, ,,artrlCidl

t:l
si;_
<b-
j
r.-
 'Wolf and'Mowe' classes
Inasmuch as the Germans recogmzed
that therr mercantile marine would
cease to function normally at the out-
break of war, they had httle need of
escorts in the same sense as the Brit-
rsh. Nevertheless, the blockade ofthe
German coast by submarine and mtne
entailed the covering of warships
while the quite considerable volume of
coastal traff,c, (e.9. the iron ore trade
fiom Scandinavra) needcd protectron
wlthout the tying down of major fleet
units,
The sx'Mowe' class (offrcially'Typ
23') ships were the fust flotilla craft
built by the 'new' German navy; they
were strictly torpedo boats and, de-
spite iheir modest size, carried two tri-
ple mountrngs. Though this class of
ship was not designed to undertake
fleet dutres, the lack ofany alternative
at that time probably accounted for
their comparatively higrh speed. Three
boilers were required in the slim hull,
necessitating two widely-spread fun-
nels, which made them look largrer
than they actually were. They carried
three old, but effective 105-mm (4.]3-
in) guns which, toqether with the ambt-
ttous torpedo flt, brought up the top-
weight allowance to the extent that
(unusually for the German nalry) mines
could not be carried in addition While
the 'Mowes' were still building, a
second qtroup of six, the sliqrhtly-
eniarqed 'Wolf class (Typ 24) ships
were ordered, Though of the same
calibre, their main armament was of an
improved pattern.
The ships were heavily involved in
near-coastal waters durinq the war,
qradually acquiring more light auto-
matic weapons, some at the expense of
a set oftorpedo tubes. Following these
two classes, subsequent development
went for larger torpedo broaG and--*-
smaller S-boats. Ne---::t:: -:=s= -;*.
was vrewed asar.:i:. =.---::. ---. :- :
the way clear ror -:-:r-tr*:-. :. . . ' :
specralisr Geleuboote. All .: r. -'.---=
war casualties no less rha,r er::.- : -:.] ::-m(305.1ft);
sunk in the English Channel. Of thesE i:::ght 2,8 m
the //trs and Seead,ler were sunk rn rhe
Dover Strait during the niqht of 1213
May 1942, torpedoed by British MTBs
while covering the passage ofthe rard-
er Sfier.
Initially classified as destroyers, the
'Typ 23'torpedo boats saw
considerable action in the North Sea
andChannel. Armed primarily for
surface action, they were the first
flotilla craft built for the Weimar navy.

a ir a !. r.:a::.:a.l

GERI\,,]ANY

Geleitboote FI-FI0
Thrs gnoup ol l0 Geleitboote was com-
pleted by rhree yards in 1935 6 and,
ihough officrally termed 'escofis', they
nad a peacetime role in traimng in the
Baltrc and in general offshore duttes.
Aqain their wartrme role was atmed at
seeinqt larger warships through
:rishore barriers for which they were
;liren almost destroyerJtke propor-
- rns-nd ahLghspeed, wrth marnpard'
neters that had no equrvaient in the
Rcyal Navy. Handsome little ships
::ey looked rather more weatherly
ran larger German destroyers with
qlenty of freeboard forward and the
bridge structure continued to
=gmlar
re ship's srdes by screens. Thouqh the
:eeboard aft was low the after 105-
::n (4 13-in) gun was set on a deck-
:.:-.rse at the same height as that on the
:::castle. They carned a qood outfit
:, i:oats for their peacetime duties,
r:se beinq handled by booms rather
--:=:: davits. As they spent much ttme at
-:-,'; speeds they were equipped wrth
, ...-:o-hng tanks. nol the passive
^:-:3 variety but fitted with transfer
only to be destroyed on the stocks tn
an air attack in 1943, Like the 'F' series,
they would have had a modest speed
and no torpedo tubes, but had an en-
l^anced su/ace armament, a capacity
of 50 mines and, almost unbeltevably
lo' rhe dare. a helicopter.
Specification
'Geleitboote' ciass (as built)
Displacement: 7l2 tons standard and
833 tons full load
Dimensions: lenarth 76,0 m (249.3 ft);
beamB,B m(28.9 ft); drauqht2.S m
(82ft)
Propulsion: two sets ofgeared steam
turbines delivering 10440 kW
(14,000 shp) to two shafts
Speed:28 ks Above: In spite of their pleasant Below: F2 as she appeared in 1938.
Endurance: 2780 km ( 1,725 miles) at lines, the 'F' class of fleet escort were T he adv anc e d propuls ion m ac hinery
20 kts never really satisfactory. It may be gave much trouble, and in spite of
Armament:hvo single 105-mm (4. 13- that the class was largely an their destroyer-like lines the
in), two tr,vin 37-mm AA and four sinqle experiment in the building and Geleitboote were poor sea boats.
20-mmAAguns operation of the new high-pressure Most were lengthened forward and
Complement: 121 steam turbine machinery. had araked stemin consequence.
 ITALY
'Spica' class
Like its German counterpart the Italian
navy iavoured the construction of
diminutive destroyer-type escorts,
usually described as torpedo boats,
Though a long series of related classes
had been completed by the mrd- 1920s,
the type had lapsed for a decade be-
fore being resumed with the 32-strong
'Spica' class, laici down between 1934
and 1937 The desiqn was influenced
by that of the 'Maestrale' class des-
troyers then completing but, though
superflcially srmilar in overall profile
lheir srngle funnel iacked the massive
trunking ol that of the larger shrps
did only one boiler room
servingT as it
The main armament consisted ol 100-
mm (3.94-in) girins of a new pattern with
a respectable 16-km (1O-mile) range
As these came only in srnqJle mount-
ings, three were carried rn the usual
layou ol one lorward ano two superim
posed aft. Despite the fact that pre-
vious torpedo boats had been fltted
wlth 533-mm (2l-in) torpedo tubes, the
'Gabbiano' class
With British submannes playrng havoc
on the vital supply route to North Afri-
ca, the Italians embarked in 1942 on an
ambrtious programme of 'Gabbiano'
class coruette construction, Thrs type
of ship was new to the ltallan fleet and
in Britrsh terms, may be said to equate
to the 'Flowers'where the 'Spicas' equ-
ated to 'Hunts. There the resemblance
ended, however, for where the Brrtrsh
ships were stubby and robust, the Ita
ltan ships were sligrhtly Ionger but very
much narrower in the beam. Not hav-
rng to face North Atlantrc winters they
'.vere able to place speed higrher in
:heir prioritres, Even so thelr seakeep-
-ng qualities were adequate, with a
.:ng forecastle of hrgrh freeboard that
:arly 'Flower' skippers would have en-
The great contrasr was rn plop-
--sion. The British ships with their
'.',-:aler orrgins had a pronounced trim
:r- ihe stern to give adequate sub-
::,:rgence for the srngtle large-
j--::leter screw, driven by a steam re-
r lr3cating engrne. On the other hand
:.: : ahans with a qood industnal base
--: snall diesel and petrol enqtlnes,
-.-.:-:ed the former of these. TVnn-
- ,- propulsion was adopted to take
r-r.-::1 and extremely
'r--: -;^ ii^-^l- ^ff^^+i",^l-,
'Spicas' reverted to the earlier 450-mm
(17,72-rn) weapons of far rnferior hittrng
power and range. For some odd
reason these were initrally srngle
sided mountings only, later exchanqed
for the more logical twrn centreirne
type, As with most Italian ships they
could lay mines but were also fitted lbr
high speed minesweepinq, with con-
spicuous paravanes and associated
gear riqht aft. Under the wartime con-
structlon programme a group of 421m-
proved 'Spicas' was also planned. Of
these, known as the'Ariete'class, only
16 were lard down, the majority of them
being completed by the Germans after
the Italian caprtulatron.
Of the 32 'Spicas', 23 became war
casualties and a pair were sold
perhaps oddly to the Swedish nuu!.,,.
necessarily high-speed propeilers a
source ol cavitation. This was recog-
nized as a necessary drawback rn the
interests of volume productron and,
very interestinqiy for the date each
shaft could be turned by a low power
electric motor for stalkrng submarines
This permitted not only silent man-
oeuvringt but also an rmproved per-
formance from the ships' own indiffe-
rent sonar. The 6O-ship class (of whrch
The diesel-powered
'Gabbiano'classwere
unusual in being fitted with an
electric motor for silent
stalking of submarines, for
which they were armed with
up to l0 depth-charge
throwers.
norsy
.,,.
Escort Vessels of World War II
The Airone and .Ariel were sunk
together rn October 1940 when, with
others, they unwisely attacked a Brrtish
cruiser force covenng an early Malta
convoy. Of the iatter, HMS Ajax was
instrumental in therr sinkinq damagi-
inq also the destroyers lrttgliere and
Adere, the former of which was even-
tually lost while in tow, A year later
another parr, the Aldebaran and
A[tair, were lost in a minefield lard by
the Bntish submarine HMS Rorgual in
the Gulf of Athens.
l-*'.*]*@
!-i.,.r r
only 42 were completed after iaun-
ching in 1942-3) defeated the usual lta-
lian lettered pendant system the ships
takrng numbers. Few were completed
in trme to be used ln earnest by the
Italians many were taken by the Ger
mans, who drd War losses amounted
to 20
Specification
'Gabbiano'class
Displacement: 670 tons standard and
740 tons full load
Specification
'Spica'class
Displacement: 795 toass:::-:-: -:
1,020 tons full load
Dimensions:lenqnB- : r: -. : :: .
beamB. l m126.57ft, o-t,- j:. - '' -
(8,37 ft)
Propulsion: lwo SerSor oi :': i : : :-
turbines deliverrng 1416t k-,',-
(19,000 shp) to two shaits
Speed:34 kts
Armament:rhrees.ngle'-:-.*. : .,
in), four twin and two srngle2 - -:::, ,li
andtwosingle 13.2 mn(i::-:, ,:-r.
guns, four single or two rri i: , -:::
(177-in)torpedotuoes =:.i :: - .'
mmes
Complement: LL6
Resembling reduced versions o: :e
contemporary' Fr eccia' clas s tiee :
destroyers, the'Spica' class was
designed for the totpedo- bo a i ! a ; e.
butin fact became anti-submar-:.=
escorfs.
N ame- ship of a class trrlendeo :.
include some 60 yesse.ls. Gall:-.:
displayed the typicaJly fine ii:.es ::
Italian marine design. Unlike :e-:
British counterpar ts. th e s e cc r,'e : :. :
did not have to be able ro r4ii:.-::-::
winter in the North Atlantic.
Lq Kaibokan'Type A' and'Type
Kajbokan is a generic title for the main
body of Japanese escorts The term
means, roughly 'coast defence ship'
rather than'escofi (no less inaccurate
than the terms 'ingate' and 'corr/ette
mtsapplied by the British), Though the
need for such ships had been recog
nrzed as far back as the early 1930s,
their essentrally 'deiensrve irrage re-
sulted in their bernq continually cut
from the buildinq programme of an Im-
perral Japanese Nalry that was obses-
sively 'offensrve, and bent on a short
mantime war that would render a con-
voy system unnecessary.
The draft plans were set to the
llmitations of the London Treaty of
1930, by which they had to be of a
slmple type that allowed unirmited
construction Displacement had to he
between 600 and 2,000 tons and no
guns of greater calibre than 155 mm
(6 in) were to be carned, nor more
in) No
than four exceedrng 76 mm (3
torpedo tubes were allowed, or
speeds greater than 20 kts It is of in-
terest to note that the proposed shlps
were to have been of 1,200 tons and
break the rules by shipping four 1.27-
mm (S-in) weapons.
Not untll the 1937 programme were
four 'Type A' prototypes flrmly
ordered, and even these were to
reduced specification as part of their
funding was diverted Their functions
were hsted as fishery protection,
minesweeprng and (lastly) convoy
escort, Of robust but complex con-
struction, their short forecastle and
continuous superstructure set the style
:or the whole series. A sinqle, low-
angle 120-mm (4.72-rn) gnrn was srted
on the forecastle, with two others su-
perimposed aft, A11 had good arcs.
Three of the four were war losses,
Just months before hostilities de-
','eloped, a totally inadequate order
;,as placed for 30 shrps. namely 14
JAPAN
Kaibokan'Type C' and 'Type D'
lne i943WarEmergency
plqratnme required the
:c:lstructron of a large number of
short time. The 'c' and 'D'
;-g:-ser'-s rn a
,{a.i.bokaa were reduced'Type B'
aesiEns. buiJt in as little as four
.: 3: Lls. Au.sterely fitted, made from
z:e:ebricated hulls, the only
:ference between'C' and'D'was in
::s -o:cpuJslon.
__+-*:
B'
Seen on the I nland S ea in about J uly
J940, Shimushu was the first of a class
of four general-purpose escorts built
between 1938 and
1941, and served
as prctotypeallJapanesewartime
to
escort programmes. Unlike many of
her successors, Shimushu survjved
the war, to be handed to fhe US.SR.
'Modified Type A' ('Etorofu' class)
ships, of which nrne were lost and l6 of
rmproved and enlarged 'Type B'
('Mikura'class) ships. The latter were
of simpler construction, carried DP
gmns in one srngle and one twin mount
rng and rncreased depth-charge
capacrty from 36 to 120, Erght were
completed and five were Iost They
were followed by 33'Modified Type B'
('Ukuru' class) ships whtch carried
simplificatron a stage further and
strengrthened the previously weak AA
armament. Nine were lost.
Specification
'Kaibokan Type A'class (as
completed)
Displacement: 860 tons standard and
1,020 tons full load
Dimensions: IengthT7.7 m (254.9 ft);
beam 10.0 m (32,8 ft)r draught 3.05 m
(r0 0 ft)
a Propulsion: lwo oeared dresels
deliverrng 3356 kW (4 500 bhp) to two The improved Kaibokan'Type B'Shisaka/eaves Osaka in December 1944.
shafts Simpler, but faster and more heavily armed than her predecessort sfie was
Speed: 19.5 kts handed toChina after thewar.Re-namedHui- An, she may stillbe inservice
Endurance: 14825 km (9,210 miles) at today.
16 kts
Armament: three sinqle 120-mm (4,7 2' G ener al- purpose escorft fhe
in) and two twrn 25-mm AA g1ns, and K aibo kan' Type A' cr aft were
1B depth charges originally fairly lightly armed. By
Complement: I47 1 944, the depth- charge fit had
increasedfrom as little as 12 to60,
and AA defences could include 15 or
more 25-mm AA weapons. They
were not particularly fast, but their
diesels gave very long endurance.
srte anqrle whose discontinuity fol-
Iowed the hne of the maindeck. Prop-
ulsion was a problem tn that the earlier
type of diesel could not be produced
in su-fflcrent quantrty and alternatrves
wllh less than half 1[c p6wer were in-
stalled, though still productnq an
acceptable speed of over 16 kts.
Orders reached 132, but only 53 were
completed in 1943-5 and 30 of these
were lost.
They retarned the novel arranQle-
ment whereby depth charges were Above : Kaibokan No. I 7, typical o{
brought up from below by a powered, the'Type C' escott, is seen outside
endless-chain lift and either rolled Yokohama in April I 944. S m aller an
=
slower than the 'Type B' (while
retaining excellent endurance), thss
mu ch- s implifie d de sign w as
produced under the I 943 War
Emergency programme. N o. I 7 w as
sunkinJanuary 1945.
Defecrt of the U-boqt
The island nations of J apan and the United Kingdom had the
most to lose from the submarine threat. For alltheir
aggressire sp irit, the Imperial Navy could not cope with the US
Navy andits submarineblockade, and itwas leftto theirold
teachers in the Royal Navy to get to grips with the problem.
An interesting paradox of the war years was that the ships and their machinery
became ever simpler, to suit series production, while their equipment became
ever more complex. Fundamentally, this equipment was required to detect the
enemy, destroy him and protect the ship f rom him. For the better part, the term
'enemy' was synonymous wrth 'enemy submarine' which, having started
ahead, lost the lead and never quite regained it.
The Brtish, having developed 'Asdic' (later, sonar), greatly over-rated
performance. This was proved to deterorate rapidly in real seawayand, as the
equrpment covereci only a sector ahead of the ship and depth charges were
dropped from the after end, contact was always lost at a crucial point in an
attack. A considerable 'dead time' then elapsed with the ship having to get to the
drop point and the depth charges themselves hav ng to sink. Wlth experience,
U boat skippers could detect and exploit this weakness, particularly as structural
improvements allowed them to dive more deeply. lf two anti submarine ships
were in company, one could 'illuminate'the target continuously and direct the
attack of the second.
Ahead-throwing weapons, such as Hedgehog and Mousetrap, enabled a ship
German U-boat group tactics demanded a great volume of radio tra:f : :, .-
between each other and to the centralized command ashore. Hioh-rre:_:- .
direction{inding (Huff-Duff) took advantage of these transmissroni, one :s:: i
getting a bearing and two getting an accurate 'fix'.
Early U-boat aces were successf.rl throrgn us ng their s-perio. cc:;t :-:
small silhouette to attack a convoy on the surface ai night. Thrs also c-s:, _--
escorts' advantage of Asdic, their only answer at first being 'snowiia<e
nants, but by 194.1 radarwas becoming more general and defeated ic s .:: :
Escorts improved rapidly in numbers, experienceand quality, with te.-- :-::
being developed for close co-operatron with the U-boat's other arci :-:-.
aircraft.
The submarine responded with radar detectors, {loat ng decoys ic :-::.:
spurious radar echoes, submerged decoys emitting clouds of bubbles:: ::-
rts fuse Asdics and, most deadly, acoustic torpedoes. These homed c::: :-:
cavitation noise of a ship's propellers, blowtng her stern off . lnitial co!i:i:---::-
sures included reducing speed to an impossibly-low 7 kts, a measure s-::-
seled by the crudely-scientific 'Foxer', a towed device of clanging r.et. ::-:
The introduction of the'snort' improved a submarine's surv-rvabil rv c_::-=
high-speed hull, had it come earlier, could have been a war winner, with t^: ',:.
fngate and the hel copter needing to be developed a full decade earlie.:-:- -
fact, thev were.
I

to drop a pattern on a submerged target while it was still firmly in the beam.
Simpler than a depth charge, a Hedgehog bomb sank quickly but needed to hit
its target to detonate, though this drawback was reduced by the considerable
'spread' achieved with two dozen bombs. lmproved sonars then enabled a
target's depth to be measured accurately, makrng possible the Squrd, which
fired a small spread of three larqe bombs with hydrostatic fuses.

The Atlantic lifeline was vital to the survival of Britain, and in the early stages ol
th,e battle it looked as though thewarwas lost to the U-boat. The rc-
:lltrcduction of convoys, together with ASW advances and the introduction of
atr cover, eventually saw the battle tum decisively the other way.
.:"7 _-*4;-
The battle of the Ailantic was not at all one-sided, as memories of flamng
ships falling out of convoy so eloquently demonstrate. There were also
occasions when the hunter became the hunted, as this 'Hunt' class escorl
shows. Hitin thestern by aGerman torpedo, she limps backinto harbour

verted to coal firrng (which must have

caused acute fuel transfer problems)
The effort was, however, largely
academic as US submannes flnally cut
the convoy route to the Dutch East In-
dies With the Karbokan programme
now largely superfluous, burldrng
ceased to allow a concentrauon on
craft that were desrgmed to contrlbute
to the final strusgle for the home is
lands, 'Type D' orders amounted to
143, of which 63 were completed and
27 lost

Specification
'Kaibokan Type C'class (as
completed)
Displacement: 745 tons standard and
B l0 tons full load
Dimensions: Iengrth 67.5 m (221.46 ft);
beamB,4 m (27.56 ft) draught 2.89 m
(9 5 fr)
Propulsion: two geared diesels gtiving
1417 kW(1 900 bhp)totwoshafts
Speed: 16 5 kts
Endurance: 12045 km (7,485 miles) at
14 k1s
Armament: two single 120-mm (4 72-
in) and two trrple 25-mm AA gnrns, one
BO-mm (3, lS-in) mortar, and 120 depth
charges
Complement: 125
Walker: U-boat hunter supreme
The U-boat threat to Britain's survival came closest of all theAxis efforts tobringing
Britain to her knees. In spite of the experiences of 1917, merchant los.sesrose
inexorably in the first years of the war, and it was only by unceasing effort and
scientific development that the menace of the wolfpack was defeated. Many
gave their lives to that struggle, and prominent among themwasF.J.Walker.
Some thrrve in the peacetime navy; others
need a war to develop their true potential,
Captain Frederick Walker was one of the lat-
ter, He first went to sea as a cadet in I9l3 and,
between the wars, specialized in anti-
submarine warfare. This fie]d was then less
than glamorous, a lactor which, coupled with
spells rn caprtal ships (which he hated, and said
so), found him rn 1939 a commander with no
prospects of further promotion,
For the first two years of World War II Wal-
ker fretted ashore while enemy U-boats sank
well over 4 million GRT of merchant shrpping,
ln a deteriorating situation he endeavoured to
persuade authorities that his best place was at
sea and flnally. to his own surprrse, was
appointed in the autumn of 1941 to command
the sloop HMS Slork as Senior Offrcer, 36th
Escort Group,
Groups such as these exjsted to give close
cover to convoys, the shrps being kept together
as a team as far as was possible, Newly-formed,
the 36th was Liverpool-based, having seven
'Fiower' class corvettes led by two faster
sloops, Followrng a brief 'working-up' period,
they went off to war, their SO's operational
instructions being typrcally pithy and to the
point, stressing the need for personal initiative
on the part of indrvidual captains to attack with-
out delay and with whatever means were avail-
able, They ended: 'No officer will ever be
blamed by me for getting on with ihe job in
hand.'
The group's frrst ta-sk was to escort an OG
convoy to Grbraltar, a passage in which the
ordy enemy was the weather. The return run
was wrth HG76 and was a very different affair. It
sarled on 14 December 1941 rnto an expected
U-boat concentration, and to cope with this the
convoy was accompanred for the first time by
an escort carrier, the pioneer HMS Audacrfy,
and three locally-based destroyers. Over the
next few days, for the loss to the convoy oi two
ships, the enemy lost flve submarines,
Frrst srghting was by an aircrait, 32 km (20
miles) distant and illustrating the value of the
presence of a carrrer, Walker's impulsive na-
ture was then evideni by his takrng hve ships of
the 'close' escort to deal with it, a prolonged
absence that was eventually justified only by
the successful outcome,
A second U-boat was sunk by two of the
Gibraltar destroyers on the next day but, rn the
darkness before the followinq dawn, one of
these was in turn sunk by torpedo, Walker
hrmself was qurckly on the scene in ihe Stork
and demonstrated his unique 'nose' for a U-boat
by running down its anticipated hne of retreat,
detecting ii and blowing it to the surface with
just two passes. Too close to depress his guns
sufficrently, Walker engaged in a sort of nautic-
al dogfight, finally sinking the submarine by
ramming, putting hrs thtn-skrnned sloop into
dock for three months as a result, Atop the bridge of HMSStarling, CaptainWalker
supervises a U- boat hunt by the Znd Support
'Buttercup' Group early in I 944. H is casu al ( and
Thouqh radar was now more commonly characteristic) attire of old pullover and leather
jerkin of dubious origin is in conftast to that of his
available to the escorts, Walker liked to dis- officers.
courage night surface attack by U-boats
through a sudden and massive local use of
'Snowflake' illuminants, an operatron he called warfare at the highest level, He made four sa-
'Buttercup' It worked but had the disadvaniage lient observations of whrch two, curiously,
of silhouetting the convoy nicely for any prow- could be questioned,
ler on the opposite wing, As the carrier could Firstly, nobody doubted hrs contention that
not operate her arrcraft at night, her safest nrght the Audactty had proved the case for a carrier
station was in the centre of the convoy but, late presence, His recommendation for an inner
on 2l December, she was out to one side, just and outer screen for a convoy was impossible
where Walker ordered a 'Buttercup' following
the torpedoing of a merchantman, The Audac-
HMS Starling in I 9 4 4. A m odifie d' B lac k S w an' c las s
rly was then herself torpedoed and sunk, Wal- escort sloop (classed as a frigate post-war), the
ker blamrng hlmself for the loss, Despite thrs, type carried I l0 depth charges (and could carry
the overall result was seen as a major defensive 50 more at the expense of 40-mm Bofors
victory, with lessons to be learned, Walker was ammunition). ?hesixsisfersft ips of Walker's
rnvited to discuss his views on anti-submarine group thus possessed formidable ASW firepower.

wlth the escorts available (thouqh even these
could have been used more effectively rf larger
convoys had been accepted earlier) but was,
in effect, later adopted by the availabihty of
support groupS to reinforce escort groups that
were hard-pressed, He strongly delended
'Buttercup', though rt could backfire badly on
occasron, Lastly he supported escorts leavrng
their charges by day to carry out 'offensive
lunges' at the enemy, a risky business that
aroused controversy,
Despite criticism of the last polnt, Walker did
not hesitate (in June 1942) to take two of only
four escorts coverlng HG84 over 80 km (50
miles) to pursue a contact for seven hours, The
{b1lowing nlght, with the small screen not yet
fu1ly back on station, three U-boats sank flve
ships in a co-ordrnated attack, Though no sub-
marines had been destroyed, despite Walker's
unflagglng rndustry, the attack was considered
officialiy to have been satisfactorily contained,
Walker was shortly afterward promoted
Captarn, taking over the 2nd Support Group of
six 'Black Swan' class sloops, headed by HMS
Starling, which was crewed largely by 'old
Storks'. Five of these grroups were operating by
the spring of 1943, their function being to join
any threatened convoy and allow more U-boats
to be hunted to the death without denuding the
convoy of its escort.
This freedom suited Walker's style admir-
ably. On I June 1943 a 'Huff-Duff radio intercept
warned of a U-boat and gave its bearing; the six
sloops headed in this direction in line abreast
at 6.4-km (4-mi1e) spacing, This deliberate
sweep was rewarded, wlth the Slarling gainlng
flrst sonar contact and thus the prrvilege of the
frrst attack.
When this produced no apparent result,
Walker sent three of hrs ships to patrol the
:utfield' escape routes while he and the re-
::aining two delivered a 'special', steaming
:beam in close order while laying a dense
:arpet oi depth chafges, The iarget, U-202,
::r,,ived 76 charqes by virtue of going excep-
:::ia1ly deep, Up top, the group sat back to
'.','-ri harrying the German from time to time, In
:-s elemenl, Walker was in h1s usual working
l:ar a tattered woolly jumper overlaid by a
-=--:er jerkin of uncertain origrn, a hali-eaten
:.:,-jwrch in one hand and the microphone to
lecruary 1944, and aboardSlarling Captain
i\-tker verbally encourages the sloop HMS
il:codpeckerrn to the attack. Itwas on this voyage
:.a: *e 2ndEscortGroup sanksix U-boats in l9
::-,'s. ffie success was notwithout loss, however,
'":l ',"/oodpecker being sunk by an acoustic
the loud hailer in the other, Inevitably coming
up ior air during the night, the enemy was duly
gunned down. Her destruction would never
have been possible with the group responsible
also for a convoy.
It was rn mid-i943 too that the Admiralty
embarked on a combined air and surface blitz
on U-boats traversing the Bay of Biscay, to and
from their French bases, On 24 June the Znd
Support Group opened the season with two
U-boats before tea, With five sloops trolhng
along in search formation, the Sfarltng unex-
pectedly had a contact close aboard and im-
mediately laid a pattern on it. To everybody's
surprise a U-boat suddenly staggered to the
suriace in her wake, Between them the ships
could muster 30 101.6-mm (4-rn) guns and most
of these opened up at the hapless submarine,
Leaving nothing to chance, however, Walker
reversed course and took his ship through an
enthusiastic friendly barrage, rammtng the
enemy, which rolled under the keel, and drop-
plng a valedictory shallow depth-charge pat-
tern for qood measure, Again Walker had a
bent ship, leaking, lacking sonar but lucky to
be still complete with propellers and rudders.
He took temporary command of HMS trUi7d
Goose when, later, the Wren ptil up another
target, Another deep one, she was attacked by
the Walker tactic ol using one ship to pinpoint
her while lhe remainder were dlrected in slow
speed and, therefore, silent approaches, gtv-
ing the enemy no warninq. This was followed
up by a rolling barrage (a 'plaster') of 5O
charges from two ships, That dtd it.
Although ln July 1943 alone 37 U-boats were
destroyed by all agencies, 16 of them between
Ushant and Grbraltar, the 2nd Support Group
unusually accounted for only two, Friendly
flghter cover was now often required to pre-
Escort Vessels of World War II
In spite of Walker3 scepficrsrn, the escort carrier
proved itsworth in theU-boatwar, providing m-:d-
Atlantic air cover to the convoys. Walker was nat
convinced at the time, however, and tended to loc-<
on the escort carriers as nice juicy bait to entice
U-boats into the arms of the ZndSupportGroup.
Three sinkings
On 9 February three U-boats were s.-:-.:: - -
hours, The group had left the carriers::-j ::-
vered a point where tp Io 22 submar-::e: ',';=:=
threatening a series oi passing cc:-. :"'.' -" -
were located in sequence on the sur:a:: :- .-=
early hours, and each drved ard -:-:.-. i-:
cumbed easily to immedra'e a::a:-< l:.' :-::
required prolonged tracking ani l::-::.:= -:-
day later, several hours pursur: -:. ! : :: i -:. j-
..'
conditions accounted for another l:: ---:: :.
the result of a Walker 'hulch' :.:ia: :-: --:--'.
place for U-boats at daybreak ,'.:*: :: j
astern of a convoy, One was, I: ;,:s s--.:. =-,1
gave the group a taliy of sn bc;-s -:- -: :=--'; .:.
..','._:-.
useful recruit had been HMS -t'iag:-=
had a Hedgehog but, on the i::-: j-:: -.-.:
Woodpeckerlost herstern io ar- al: i:,-: - t : :-
do and loundered whrle in ::-.',-
By July 1944, the group's to:a. :=: :-:I : :'. -
to ]6 but Walker was leeiino -,:.1: -.:.-:- -:.=
Normandy landings had seer.L::.',''- --. I:-ji. '
sibrhty for 40 anti-submarine :: ;: j. -.-.-- ' :: -
ern English Channel. He was ::: -: - . --. . - --
ity to stay on watch far longe: :-i:. :.: '.: -:. .= -
olficers but endless wet nigh.s : :- - : :--. : : : : : :
had taken therr toll, Alreai-,- . l: ,-= '''-.
awarded a third bar to hs DSC ;.=:- :tt:l --
seniority and slated for flag ra:-< -: ,', - ----
be On 7 July he went ashcr: l::. -.-.: ---r'.-.:---
at Liverpool for some much-:.::i=l =-' : =:-,:
two days later he was ciead i- :::,.= ::=
sroned by overwork. s:r---< :.j:- .'..-- : ---:...-
lhat no enemy had ma:ch= j ..: ''.'=. - ' I - '-
48 years oid,
Nrlz 'Isles'
:i -
ZN class
the UK's large fishing fleer in 1939 pro
vided the Royal Narry wrth a ready
source ofships and trained crews, not ;ii
only for the obvious purposes of the r1 tt' :i*1-
Auxiiiary Patrol, minesweeping and !i'.
harbour defence but also, in the case of
I rl -.

the large distant water trawlers, of con- d

voy escofis at a time when these were
;t
..:.\
in short supply. The speed ofsuch ves-
sels was limited but both endurance
and seakeeping were adequate, and
they were commonly employed on the
Arctic convoy route in the early days.
From its experience in 1914-8 the
Admrralty had forewarning of rts needs
and had already formulated plans for
trawler construction at yards that were
familiar wrth them and which were, in
many cases, too small for the burlding
of regmlar escorts, The 27 ships of the
'Hi11', 'Military' and 'Fish' classes were
all produced by one yard and had the
very pretty lines of the drstant water
trawler, Half a dozen 'Lakes' from
Smith's Dock were strll almost pure
whale-catchers Most, however, were
of a design developed from the pro-
totype HMS Bassel, completed by
Robbs rn 1936. This ship though hav-
tng an obvious trawler{ype hull, had in
addltion a high raised forecastle and
the bridge and funnel sited well
amidships, Ieaving a short well deck
iorward, a long superstructure and a were not generally very effective and grievous losses though thetr layoul HM,S Shillay rs seen in F ebru ary I I 4 5.
rcable quarterdeck. With minor mod- few had radar, With only ll or 12kts was unsatisfactory for trawling until Though the trawler hullgave thetype
fcations, particularly in the herght of speed, dropping depth charges on a modified, T$relve 'lsles' were lost in good seakeeping and endurance, it
-ne bndge structure rhe type went rnto shallow target could be an advantage, the war. could never be said to have had a
;olume production, first as the 'Tree', while the pursuit of a submarine on the sparkling performance. They were
'Shakespeare' and'Dance' classes, surface was ciearly impossible the Specification easily built, however, and in quantity
-len as the 'Isles' class, which became submarine having a greatly superior 'Isles' class (as destqned) (a total of I 68 in four related classes).
:he best-known group. Altogether, speed in addition to out-gunning the Displacement: 545 tons standard
-:ese four groups comprrsed 2lB traw- averaqe trawler's 12-pdr. The oblect Dimensions: length 44 2 m (145.0 ft);
,ers The 'lsles' class numbered 168 was to force a submarine down, where beamB 4 m (27 5 ft); draught 3 2 m Speed: 12 kts
riis built between l94O and 1945 (130 rt would Iose touch with a convoy. (10,5 ft) Armament: one 12-pdr andthree
.l: the UK, 22 in India and 16 in Canada). Many of these 'rugqed coal-burners' Propulsion: one trr ple-expansion single 20-mm AA qms, and depth
Though many were equipped for were sold out to commercial owners steam engine delivering 634 kW charqes
-=:;i-submarine work, thelt sonars after the war to make qood therr (850 ihp) to one shaft Complement: 40

'Flower'class escort cutaway drawing key

45 Accessladder 6'l Handrail
46 Office forType 271 radar 62 Sideplatng
47 Searchlight 63 Stores/lobby/spirtstore
48 Twin 20 mm machine- 64 Wardroom
guns 65 Cabins/stokers' mess
49 Brldge 66 Ollfue tank
50 Compasshouse 67 Reserve feed watertank
51 Asdichut 68 Asdic compartment
52 Chadhouse 69 Fresh watertank
53 Ready use ockerfor4 in 70 Magazine
ammunition 71 RFwireless
54 4 in Mk 10 gun 72 Crewsleepingarea
55 Gun shleld 73 Crewarea
56 Breakwater 74 Stores/lampsetc
57 Depression rall 75 Palntstore
58 Semtex wa kway on poft 76 Chain locker
side 77 Anchor
59 Wooden fore deck 78 l6Jtdinghy
60 Anchorwindlass
ffi 'Flower'class Escort Vessels of World War In

Possrbly because of their homely

names or their rather unwarlike
appearance, the units of the 'Flower'
class (145 built in the UK and 113 in
Canada for launch in 1940 2) came to
be reqarded by the Brrtish as the
archetypal escort ship. Though they
made their reputation in the early days
of the Battle of the Atlantic, they were
not really suited to the job, the type
being developed primarily as a coastal
escort fltted for minesweeping. This,
however, would seem to be at
variance with the fact that the design
was based on that of a commercial
whale-catcher a hullform meant to
suvive the worst of the weather in the
forbidding Southern Ocean. It was the
rapid escalation of the North Atlantic
convoy war and a general shortage of
escorts that forced these little ships
lnto ocean work. They were superb
seaboats but being so shofi, were
horribly lively and wet in the deep extended aft to the funnei rncreasrng Specification HMSMyositis af sea drsplays tle
ocean, exhaustinq the best of crews accommodation and rmproving sea- 'Flower' class (original specification) battered appearance that constai:
wrthrn days though refuelhng at sea worthiness, pafilcularly with respect Displacement: 940 tons standard and Atlantic exposure m ade inevitable.
kept them out for lonqer. It was the to reducinq wetness in the waist, l, 160 tons fulIload Based upon a commercial whaler
limrtations that convinced the Admiral- Machinery was purposely kept sim- Dimensions: length 62,5 m (205. 1 ft); hull, the'Flower' class fiLled the gap
ty that the larger frigate was the ple for mass production and operation beam 10.1 m (33. I ft); drausht3,S m in British escort capacity earff h :e
answer. by rapidly-trarned personnel, the four- ( I 1,5 ft) war, until replaced by new friga:es.
The 'Flowers were business-like cylinder trrple expansion engine tak- Propulsion: 4 -cylinder -riple-
ships whose ancestry could be seen in ing steam from two Admiralty cylin- expansron sleam engine dehverjng l/MS Lotus is seen before her i -i4 2
the hull, with its pronounced sheer drical single-ended boilers, The ships 205 I kW (2,750 ihp) to one shaft transfer to France as tfte
strong flare and cutaway forefoot, Ear- were at that time, rare in the Royal Speed: 16 kts Commandante d'Estienne d'O:-;es"
ly units had a short forecastle with the Nalry in beingr single-screw types, Endurance:6400 km (3,975 miles) at She is fitted with minesweepAg
single mast stepped forward of a mer- All had an old pattem 101.6-mm (4- 12 kts gear,whichwas tobe a sronda:;-
cantile-style bridge structure, but most in) gun on a 'band stand' forward, but Armament: one 101.6-mm (4-in) qun, task after the destErnedro,le as a
of these were subsequently modified the original inadequate AA outfit of one 2-pdr or one quadruple 12.7-mm coastal escort. Only the severe
to the layout of the later 'Modified machine-qTuns rapidly qave way to a (0,5-in) AA qnrn, and depth charges shortage of ocean escorl.s.sa;y ris
Flower'class ships (included in the tot- 2-pdr pom-pom and as many 20-mm Complement: 85 maximum class employed in the North Atia:::c
als above). These had the forecastie Oerlikons as could be 'come by', Later
ships lncorporatinq all modiflcations,
certainly looked more 'pusser' and
many surprisrngly, wenl on Lo selve in
a mercantile role after the war. Also
built in Canada, they served under a
variety ol Allied flagrs, includinq that of
lne USA when rrs need was gredlest In
1942. Total wartime losses were 31.
'Flower' class (continued)

Aconit sfarted life as HMS Aconite , before

transferring to the FreeFrenchNavy in 1941. She is
seen entering an lcelandic fjord in the middle of an
Atlantic convoy run. As is usual with wartime
escorts, shepresents a sadly battered
appearance, but she continued to serve into
I 945.
 Escort Vessels of World War tr

'Flower' clqss corvette

Ht'lS Loosestrife
I
The'Flower' class was adapted from
t a Smith's Dock design for a southern
oceanwhalecatcher. This stood the
c/ass in goodstead when pressed
into service protecting the Atlantic
convoys, as theywere superb sea
boats (although somewhat less than
comfortable for their crews). HMS
Loosestrife rs depicted as sie
appeared in I 944, with her
armament including six 20-mm AA
gans and bridgemachine-gruns as
well as the usual 4-in ( I 0 1.6-mm) gun
and depth charges.

\i
i*'
,
lil ''
>K iitact Swan'class
:e powerful lrttie ships of the 'Black
Swan' class (13 built) had lrttle in com-
:::n with the remainder of the Royal
i ia,"ry s sloops, most of whrch were later
::garded as ocean minesweepers or
-:rply patrol ships. Earlier units were
:=r-ainly fitted with ninesweep'rg
l::ar though under what crrcumst-
-:ces such expensive and useful ships
',-;ere expected to go looking for mines
,s not clear; at the same trme the space
::-d topweight margrn consumed by
::l gear detracted considerably from
.l: design's anti-submarine capaclty.
- was only with the 'Modified Black
Swan' class (24 built) that this equip-
:,3nt was flnally landed, enabhng the
::rps to become extremely efficient
i: jcated submarine hunters.
The origins of the 'Black Swans' went
:ack to HMS Enchantress, which had
::en launched in 1934 Though cap-
riie of minesweeping the shrp had a
.:J armament comparable with that of
: -i:et destroyer. The third ofthe class,
-.1.'-l Bn:ern dLllered Ln berng com-
;-:led in 1938 with three of the new
:--;: angrle 101.6-mm (4-in) mountings
=:,i a prototype fin stabilizer system,
-.'--j arranQemen was so ptomrslng
---. ihe three follow-on 'Egret' class
-: .s on very httle increase in dimen-
: :r.s were completed with four such
NJ]Z Y:-
ZN 'Hunt' class
Fine submarine hunters, the
modified' B Lack Swan' class were at
their most effective in the Battle of the
Atlantic. This is HMS Amethyst, seen
in herwartime colours. Someyears
later she was to be at the heart of the
'Yangtse I ncident', suftering damage
during the Chinese civil war.
mountings, which was deflnitely over-
ambrtious. The 'Black Swans, very
similar in appearance, were shqhtly
largrer with a useful quadruple 2-pdr rn
the Y posrtion from which it was later
removed to rmprove quarterdeck lay-
out, and as the close range armament
elsewhere was beefed-up by the im-
provrng availability of 20-mm and 40-
mm weapons.
The first impression of the apear-
ance of the 'Black Swans' was the mass over 100 depth charges and a Hedge- (85ft)
of superstructure which was probably hog split to flank B mounting Most, Propulsion: two sets of qreared steam
tn accord with the desire to produce an logically, were sent to the Far East rn turbines delivering 26BS kW
easy roll to improve them as AA qun 1945, Best known ships of the class (3,600 shp) to two shafts
platforms. Oddly, they did not fare too were Walker's HMSS/arlingand HMS Speed: 19,5 kts
w-ell aqainst arrcraft, four being sunk Amethyst of the 1948 'Yanqtse Inci- Endurance: 14825 km (9,215 miles) at
by bombing out of a total of f,ve lost. dent' 12 kts
The reason was probabiy that, unlike Armament:three twin 101,6 mm (4-in)
the similarly-armed 'Hunts, they were Specification DP, one quadruple 2-pdr AA and six
slow and less nimble. They were, 'Black Swan'class twin 20-mm AA gmns, and depth
therefore little used in the Mediterra- Displacement: 1,300 tons standard charges
nean, making their name in ocean war Dimensions: lenqth 91,3 m (299 5 ft); Complement:180
fare wrth later units beinqr able to ship beam l 1.43 m (37.5 ft) draught 2,59 m
class and were 19 strong. Hulls at an
earlier stage of construction were split
longitudinally and an extra 0 76 m
(2.5ft) of beam incorporated. These
were able to accommodate the spe-
cified third 101,6-mm mounting and
became the 36 'Hunt Type II'class un-
its but, because of therr extra fullness
they were rather slower On the same
dtmensions a third variant the 28'Hunt
Type III' class units, was produced
with only two gmn mountingrs, but with
the valuable additron of a twin torpedo
tube mounring. War experience
showed the guns to be more useful, the
Hunts berng prominent in the
Mediterranean and in the defence of
the Britrsh east and south coasts. In all,
19 were lost, Siqnrficantly only three
were to aircraft and of these one was
statronary at the time and another was
sunk by a qlider bomb.
Specification
'Hunt Type III'class DP, one quadruple (and in some The'HuntType I' class destroyer
Displacement: I 0 I5 tons standard and vessels one single) 2-pdr AA, and one HMSSouthdownlies at her mooring
1,090 tons full load twin and up to four single 20-mm AA rn an easf coast port. These small but
Dimensions: lenqth 85 7 m (281,25 ft); quns, two 533 mm (21 in) torpedo r e lativ e ]y p owerfu I ly arme d v e s se I s
beam9 6 m(31 5 ft); drauqht2 36 m tubes, and depth charges did nothave the rcnge to operate in
(7,7s ft) Complement: 170 the Atlantic, but their armament
Propulsion: two sets ofgeared steam made them more suitable for use in
turbines deliverinq 14168 kW the Mediterranean and the North Sea.
(19 000 shp) to two shafts
Speed:25 kts 'H unt Type I I I s' differed from the
Endurance: 4635 km (2,880 rr.iles) at 'Wpe II'mainly by the addition of
20 kts twin torpedo tubes in place of X
Armament: two twin 101.6-mm (4-in) turret, providing a more balanced
weapon fit. The 'Type IIIs' were the
last of more than 80 'Hunts' built, 19
being los t before I 945. M any went to
serve other navies in theyears
thewar,
>K ibastle'class
The last of the 'Flowers'were iaunched
-n early 1942 and, considering that
:neir limrtations for North Atlantrc op-
erations had already begat the true
lrgate, it may well be assumed that the
cowette had reached the end of its
development Therewere, however, a
number of smaller yards engaqed in
the 'Flower' programme which could
not physrcally cope with the larger fri-
Qrates, To keep them usefully occupied
a large corvette of iength about mrd-
way between the 'Flower and 'Rrver',
was designed, again by Smith s Dock,
the home of the 'Flowers', Named after
British castles, the new'Castle' class
ships embodted all the lessons learned
wlth their forebears, while contrivinqt
to look remarkably like them, The hull
was, again, of sweet line, althouqh de-
signed for series production with a
large proportion of welded seams.
This showed itself as mrnor cranks in
the sheerstrake the bow and stern
sections being of constant sheer angle
rather than the earlier continuous
curve. The broad flat transom made lor
ease ofconstruction and plenty ofroom
aft Some 44 units were launched in
1943-4, and another 38 were cancel-
led.
The 'Castles boasted the same largre
and spacious bridgre as the frigates,
together with a substantial lattrce mast
to elevate the considerabie mass ofthe
early radars, made possrble with the
larger hull. Therr great advance was ln
the inclusion of the Squid anti-
submarine mortar, a weap-o.ntoo l]eavy
>K 'i"rrgor', 'Bathurst' and 'Algerine' classes
Escort' is an all-embracinq word and
:::ention should be made of the con-
:rbution of the 'minesweeping sloops'
minesweepers bothtypesol
=d'fleet
.'.:ich perio.med valuabje scrvice rn
: :ner role Somewhat confusingly,
.:-:re were still servinqr 26 coal
: -:1ng 'Hunts; of 1917-9 vrntage, twrn-
.:::iv shrps with limited sea-keeping
.:"'f/ due to their lack of forecastle,
l -:-rg the 1930s there were built the
3:-:-by' class (with sweep capacity
: - ::ore truly sloops) and the exten
. : -{atcyon class locean m.nes-
-''=:.:rs wrth a corvettes speed and
_-: r ,', er but viewed as expensive).
: -:'-.=:.es production at the war's out-
for retrofitting rnto either the 'Flowers'
or the 'Rivers' This was sited at
level, forward of the bridge, with
new-pattern 101,6-mm (4-in) gun on a
bandstand ahead of it The squid's
advantage was that it couid lay a pat-
tem of three healry bombs around a
submerged target up to 500 m (550
yards) ahead while the contact was still
in the ship s sonar beam As the ships
retained the single well-tned steam
reciprocatinq enqine, the perform-
ance of the 'Castle' class did not match
that of the friqrates and they found their
main employment not as close convoy
escorts but in homogeneously-
composed escofi groups which were
being formed in larger numbers to-
ward the end of the war, AII were
based on the UK with the exception of
a dozen transferred to the Royal Cana-
dran Navy and one to the Norweglans,
Displacement: 1,060 tons standard
Dimensions: length 76 B m (252.0 ft);
beam ll 2 m(36,75 ft); drauqht3 05 m
(10 0 ft)
Propulsion: one 4-cylinder triple-
expans on s eam enorne oelvet:ng
2200 kW (2,950 rhp) to one shaft
Speed: 16,5 kts
Endurance: 6,910 km (4,295 m,[esfat
i5 kts
a LOL6-mm (4-in) gun between them,
yet not only succeeded in fightlng off
their adversarres with 152,4-mm (6-in)
quns but actually sank one of them, the
Hokoku Maru,
Wrth the need to add the massive
qenerators and electrtcal sweep gear
for magnetic mines to the 'Bangors',
already quite cramped with conven
tional sweeps, an improved 'Haicyon'
was produced in the 'Algerine' class.
These smart little ships had adequate
space a qood armament and all
accommodation thouqhtfully stted
above the main deck. A total of 101
'Algerines'was built (53 in Canada and
Escort Vessels of World War II
0L
a
Armament: one 101.6-mm (4-in) DP,
and two twin and sx srnqle 20-mm AA
guns, one Squid, and depth charges
Complement: 120
UK) A dozen were retained
48 in the
by the Royal Canadian Navy with no
minesweeping gear but fitted as full
anti-submadne escofis, for which they
not only shipped a Hedqehogr mortar
but carrred 90 depth charges as well.
War losses amounted to seven.
Specification
'Algerine' class (as minesweeper)
Displacement: 850 tons standard and
970 tons full load
Dimensions:lenqth 70. I m (230.0 ft);
beam l0,B m (35.5 ft); drauqht 2,9 m
(e5ft)
Propulsion: two sets ofgeared steam
HMSHedingham Castle displa;rs ier
family relationship to the' F lovs e:'
class, but the extra 15 m (50 f, mace
a great difference in habitabilir.,, c:
the AUantic run. The major offens:';e
improvement came with the fii!:iJ .:
the heavy'Squid' system of an':-
submarine mortars.
One conseguen ce of fitting the :r.p.e
Squid launcher between tie EL: :-: l
the bridge was a reduction jn se
numbers of conventional dep'-:.
charges carried. Where a FIo*'er
might be armed with 72 charge:. :.=
normal depth charge fit of a Ca:'-t
wasonly l'5.
turbrnes or two sets or t-pi=-== =:-. :
steam engines delir-e'u ;
(2,000 hp) to two shairs
Speed: 16.5 kts
Armament:one I0l c-r:-:. ---:. -
andbe-ween fo-u and =.;:. -. -:.: ..:--.
qrns, ard mo'e hor : ;=: ''
Complement:105
HMSRowena was one of the
'Algerine' class fitted with ler::=
triple expansion engines. on7 2: c::
of 101 units had the planned
turbines. Althougrh used as a:i es::::
the class was really for oceast
minesweeping.
&reffle Corwogs
ivluch af the massjve a.mou nt of Allied aid sen f to the Saviet Union in World War II The first stage of the northern convoys {eatured the
wentvia the Cape to the southern IJSSR. The quickest routewasverydifferent: familiar hazards af the North Atlantic run. as the
araundtheenemy-heldcaastofNarwaytothenorthRussl'anporfs. Thatperilous convoys made for their assembly points off
lceland. Even in summer the walersofsoulft east
theepic
pas,sagre, and the struggles of the convoys daring to travel it, makes one of Iceland can be unforgiving, and fife aboard the
:aies af thewar. merchantmen could be uncomfortable.

:.-rier's ilI-advised assault cn the USSR in June

-:41 gave the beleaguered Brrtish an unlikely
.-:d probiematrcal a1ly, rich tn human re-
:-:rces and resolve but rmpo,rerished in mate-
.,- Suppi-es'rvere needed urgently and had to
-::.-? o/ sea, adding to rhe responsroihties ot
:-.: aiready sorely-stretched Royal Navy, Be-
- :e cl constra jnls jmposeci borh by geogra
'.
. and 'he enemy occupaljon ol Lhe grealer
:,.ii of Europe, only the Soviet Arcirc ports
- - :,d be consrdered for shipments, Depen-
:. ... -pon tne season this would demand a lO-
: -i-day passage for convoys, lhe route flank-
.... . Lhe eastward bv a Gelman-occupied Nor-
.' --.; Winter pack ice forced their track closer
- - ,rd thLs hostiie coasL, w-Lh near Iour months
, .r:broken darkness and deep gloom afford-
...r come crvor but a1 -he expense cI weather
. -,1.'.):rsof unrelenting vrieness WrLh the rce
.r::: retreatrng in summer, the foute could be
::: oLsianr bur was rtr perffidrrerrr dayLiqht,
.:-.i. :oen io vrrtual roundlthe-clock attackl
.' '.'.'-r.ter the escorts problems were mdr-
. . --cr;1'comrng aboard lroze immedralely anti-submarine trawlers/whalers in the early seven-ship convoy sailed irom lceland lor
-*.. br.ize weapons and lrlesovrng gear. days o close ccvet ol [tee-mano.uvt tng cruts Archangel, arriving wlthout incident 10 days
. : iangerously increase topweight, Convoys ers with destroyer escorl which could raprdly later. This was shortly afier the invasion of the
- -.:r'terod by storms and conslantly in reinforce the convoy on demand; and a distani USSR and was a po.r'rcdl gesture as much as
.'.==: :i rounding up, The same warm Gulf covel rr{ Home Fieet heavy units 'o guard experiment. At this pornt both the Luftwalfe and
: -=.:.'\\iaier that kept the Soviet Arctic ports against forays by the substantral naval lbrces U'boat arms were fuliy committed elsewhere
.- =-:.:e also caused frequent fogs on contactrng burll up by he enemy in norLhern Norway and the escorL o1 d cdrrrer two cru.sers and six
..-,:li air of the north and, through tempera- These Home Fleet units were too valuabie to destroyers reflected the need to guard pri-
.: j'-nng prcduced poor Asdic lsonar) hazard over "he comple-e loL'e and tney usual- marrly against surlace aitack The PQ/QP con-
.

. :.s As the route varied lrom 225A'o 1y met, and returned with, a southbound convoy voy cycle commenced soon after the inability
: i-- aa O -o 2 000 miles; rn iength an oiler in ballast. While this distant cover usually in- of the enemy to interfere aliowing escort
. -: -.- -ai]]i to accompany the convoy to refuel
. cluded a carrier in its number, this was too strength to drop to as 1rttle as a cruiser and a
.::i--:l: remote to assist the convoy directly, and. for parr ol des'r.-,yers
.:'-:, Ntrth Atlan,ic convoys v/ere long this lack of crganlc airpower put the con-
:=...::-ei predominantly by submarines and voys at a grave d.sadvantaqe as the enemy The northern convoys
were threatened from the
. : r : =,Medrterranean bv surface forces burlt up powerful Lultwaffe strength in the air, from the sea and from beneath the sea, which
-.- r:.- .itC Arctic run was menaced bv arl north. These units were equrpped, for eflective meant that escarts had to be ready Ior anything
.:... -.- ;ro the escorl syslem orqanizecl reconnaissance and strike, with both bomb from flying-boals to fie Tirpitz- This photo, taken
- , , -:.:--ri-; This soon developed the form cf and toroedo from the cruiserHM,S Scylla sftows a nearmtss
: .-'-:r!3ie escort, usuaily of corvettes and On 2l August 1941 the ftrst, unnumbered resulting ftam aJunkers Ju B8 attack.

Tif l:l!l'l:r2l.,t )"ll;i::: -.:',:. :7 :-.


.,ih
:he comrng of the dark period the cycle
.. :ccelerated, so tirat by early February
- ,2 northbormd PQs iotalLinq 93 shrps had
t:sSe J. wi n he -rss cr on. / ol.c s:r]o'.o d
i-ren +irp:7 Q"cs IL;o like,t.se re
..J ,"'vrthour hin"ciranie With jenqthening
:;rt :n h4arch 1942 thrngs li.rened up with
..nJ -nQl2 and Qa! narrlr,rly avoiding
,:.licn by ihe nev'rly-airived battleshlp
and hei destroyers. The foul weather
. ,creverrteC a srghting also stopped the
., lal'4s Victonous anci three capital ships
- ,i s:a.nt cover from makingttimeiy contact.
. : 1aC only two corvettes and tv,lo ocean
.: ::pers as escort a disaster was only
- i-".erted though it was not appreci-
..- . n. -s, ho,l, ner./.US'ne CerranS
- . l.rcspect of suslaining iosses them-
- ; ".lilS lOSt
.-.r:: -,.r;reeks later the enemy achieved
- --ke co-ordination, and PQ13 lost
i .' :r io the very eflective Junkers Ju
- I -I -::nber (,lhose task was made
,,,,eathei ca"rning tlle convoy to
= .
. : irr';c to U-boais and one to a
: -:,.al. ..-: torce ln tor\Lnq lho lat
close covet was unlortunate
: ' --sir FiMS 'Iirnidad to one of her
.
: J :es Tr,r,o U-boats 'were sunk,
:-
-' :-'.' rae of lhe ocean minesweep-
: : -.::. reoman service on the route.
. ic.re r r^o -iCed 'o m?re
'-' e; i'n, o\ L,o'h si'los
- '..
.:.: ?= sl-tips ."vere obhged to
,. ...:cnditions but 8Bs out
.- : ,..! cf the empty Ju
. able escort that, at last inciuCed an escort car-
QP10 To
::.:-:-:-J aerial menace the best
: --,,- .--. ihe absence of escort
- .r: rl the escort a special
. --'- -: :nWardS,
. .: :,q11 1942 and its distant
.- ,:,--,:rican battleshiP and
: :nreai io the convoys
was more immeciiate and again the navy iook
:ne btu;l n lltp a ra;k .:sing h^ ^r riser HVS
Edtni:.urgh to destroyers. Even though ihis v,ras
efiectively the enemy destroyers' fina} throw,
over 260 Lriltrvafle arrcralt and over 30 U-bcats
velo o\ ncv a'.oirdbic. nC b.'r-- ltrmdrlrlng
'pocket batttesirips' had been moved north.
Desprte ihe daylight lengihening omrnously,
polrrLcs oema"ded he runn. .q or DQlb jn May
It suffered seven losses six of lhem to aircrafi,
anl the CAVi .h-p lnd //u' orj rh:r co:rd be
spared by way of extra protecticn ,,vas, itsell
5lnK
Ev he :nd ol l;r e r,h-.n PQlT s-i ed Cer
Tlan :lr rf,lae iorces rn i.rc north 1,ad been rcLn
torceo by h^ bat..esht! Titpitz a heavT c'u;s
er ar.C o- '.-46inir..) ser. icear-,re ceshoyr rc
I hs convr\ /. oS ,v€I ?o reled I y an opprehen
s-,,e Admira.:y n'hicn all o, arrar. rha' rhe
'vas
inrtiatr,re 1ay totally vrlth ihe enemy, By 1 JLriy
erght U-boais were concentrating on the ccn-
voy whlch was also under continuous aeriai
surve llan-e Crty on -1 Ju-,. howevcl jlrt rhe
attack devejop and, though this was by torpedo
aircrait, the Admlralty ordereci the convoy to
scatier, irrmly beire,nng that ihe 'lirpitzwasout.
AS.l r,app'n.rl shc d.d no sd lLnlrl lhe
day and ihen, he.JgeC ,r,nth restricti.re oper-
ational instructions returned almost im-
mediately, Thrs, however, drd noi nelp the con-
io; r,t h.ch lo.' 23 or-r' o' ils j4 si-t.}.! o 4-r( rair
dnd subn.rrire as ,.nqlv or ir s."la,i gloups.
.nev s'rrloJnd jlc ldsl I23b krr r!00 11 l-c, vir-
Llal-, unerco't+d.
Not untr] September 1942 drd ihe next ccn-
voy n.ln, PQ18 lts 40 ships enjoyed a formrd-
rier The enemy mounted a major elfori but,
thor-rqh mass air attack sank l0 ships and U-
bca s a lurth.r :n:e., the crrce Aas lhe oss ci
three ll-boats and 27 .,iri:craft.
Subs^ouon' ror hbo;nd colrvois vnele re-
coded JW, stai:irng at JWS1. Thts much-delayed
operation ran ln iffo parts. Neither suflereci ioss
bul lhe crurser and destroyer close correr of
JWSlB fought a sprrited defensive action
)),.
. :,r1ryry.;'9gqqpr@s&*
The midnight sun illuminates vesse/s pass:,:*:
thraugh a phenamenon known as'Arc::c::.::
Although seemlngr loseetft e. r.he sea :-. :r .-:. :. -
close ta freezing, and it is the difference i:e: ,'. :: :
sea and air ternperatures u,thich ca uses la: -: - i
Anyone in the water at this latitude wculc ::e
:
rapidly fram exposure.
dqoinrl 'JPAirJl trT-l i.l . - .l r '
lasi day of 1942 The latier's laci<.us::: ,- = -
ance provokeci a high 1e',;e I lc'.': .e.'.', a-r' . '
ard Adrnrral tricl-. Re-o-: -. . - .
in protest,
Between February anC itic-;:lr.::: -,.-
co-:.,)ys 'dn as a-1 6scor'i r +Le -- - . -
Atlantic route, ."rrhere the U boa::---:'--. - . ,
reached rts pea-k Then. .;j1.h1r ni i: rr:
nine .ffeeks, a toial oi 106 shrps p::s:,, , -
six operations for the loss cici-r1_,' ::r-:= :,-. . .
these movemenis ihe hith Lil.r-vaa: ..' :
hcant as thc ture rd' o :tol
cruiser Scharnhorst Al last .ha .:-: -.. -.
-rh'he Sclrarnnols: oe-rc -i. ?. . -. -':
rr,
ing Day 1943 and occuprei c-i- .,,: -, . --.,
the close co,,'er until th-- bai:le.r,,:: ,--l ,:
nFXr of Yor? co rld g+t c r '.ne s.--'.- .-
w-rhhar dcrlr. yers d^-'1....-. .....
enemy's longi career.
fron soring 19-14 ..t- '.-. .:
size and /vele dcco'rrca:. er .-'- '
h,\ a eSCOr'. :arr.ot S TIL .: , .
n-;d. shori v.oi-r cl.rh . :: .- :
o/pcliel.ed U hoa cc r..-- :. : .
selves pitted up agarns: 2 :=: : . ,
ba' le-i-arcen-d s-r11 :' :. ..
pc]]e'I.l:- . i i"I
al:)iP :O
CrOSC eSCC't 'S=": J. . -' :
voys rir to Lhe .. . - .
llCOn\enlenC: A i"+r'-.1 .
morseless rveather
In ali, 1,526 shrp irr;::-.::
in 77 convoys to anri :i:i:r l' ::-
being 1ost, Orrerall suc.--ss
dicaiion and perse.;eia:r:=
men and esccris al:Ke
>K
-,Vith
hiu"r'ctass
the hmitations of the 'Flowers
:eadrly apparent, the Admrralty rapid-
-;r produced a desrgn for a larger 'twin-
s3rew corvetie'which became known
.s the 'River'class, (The term 'frrqate'
',';as not officially reintroduced until
- 942). Overall they were about 28.30 m
.;3 ft) longer than the later 'Flowers'
::rd this made a very great difference
-: seakeeping, bunker capacity, instal-
-=i power and armament, Between
-942 and 1944 some 57 were launched
-:: the UK, 70 in Canada and I I in Au-
s:aha
The hull had the raised forecastle
:r:ended well aft, with a low quarter-
:eck for the depth-chargte gear and
.:e minesweepinq equipment with
-,',-:ich too many useful escorts were
:-:iiered at that time. They were the
'-:si ships to be fitted as standard with
':.: Hedgehog anti-submarine sprgol
:::.tar which, with new sonar qear
::-:ie for a more rapid and accurate
a:ack. The Hedgehog was origrnally
,.,,eC well forward and was thus ex-
:::::e1y exposed, but later unrts had
::-: weapon spiit rnto two 12 bomb
-i::l-,vers which were sited one deck
:-;:er wingred out abaft the forward
--- 6-mm- (4-in) gun Lonqer endur-
--:-:: demanded a larger depth-
::--ge capacity, and up to 200 could
: : :amed. compared wrth d maxlmum
:: ll on the 'Flowers'.
-:ough not developed from a mer-
:--le hull form the 'Rivers were burlt
:: :::ercantile standards, which
-=peeied construction, They featured a
i:: :arsom, which not only obviated
:-:::: of the complex curvature of tra-
:-:-::ally-shaped sterns but also
r:.*Jy rmproved the hull hydrodyna-
:-:s Ii 1s noteworthy that over half the
i.-'.-=:s were Canadian-burlt (wrth
:-::: snrps coming from Australia) and
,''. pr:bably all too easily overlooked
:-:'.'; ::laqrniflcent a contribution the
la:-:iar yards and the Royal Cana-
:--- l{a-.ry made to victory in the Atlan-
: l.::si Canadran-burit units had a
'Loch' and 'Bay' classes
I/MS Helmsdalewas a'River' class
frigate, and as suchwas a great
improvement on previous escort
desrgrns. Unlike most'Rivers', she
had her prominent Hedgehog ASW
mortar system replaced by the much
heavier and effective Squid triple
barrelled ASW charge launcher.
twin iOl,6-mm mountrng forward and a
single 12-pdr aft They also had their
full outfit of 14 20-mm weapons, which
British-built slrips rarely achieved. The
machinery was simply that of the
'Fiowers' doubled, though drawingr
steam fuom more efficrent waterlube
boilers. Four ships only were burlt wrth
steam turbines, whrch were not gener-
ally adopted as a result of shortages of
components, The'Rrvers' were highly
successful, but mosl of the survivors
(seven were sunk in the war) had been
scrapped by the mid-1950s. Further
Rrvers', to a slightly modrfled design,
were burlt by the Americans as the 'PF
type of these 21 served in the Royal
Navy as the'Colony' class.
Specification
'River' class (orrginal specificatron)
Displacement: 1 370 tons standard
Dimensions: lenqth 91 9 m (301.5 ft);
beam 11 12 m(36 5 ft); drauqht3.9l m
(r2,83 ft)
Propulsion: two sets of 4-cylinder
tnple-expansron steam engines A typically battered Atlantic escort, HMS Spey sfeams up tie line of a convoy
delrvering 4101 kW (5,500 ihp) to two during February 1944, when this particular'River'class frigate sank the Type
shafts VIIC U-boatsU-406 (on I I February) andU-386 (on I I Febriary).
Speed:20 kts
Endurance: 12970 km (8,060 miles) at
12 kts Desr'gned as ocean-going escorts
Armament: two srngle 10 1.6-mm (4-in) with a range of 12970 km (8,060
Qnrns, two single 2-pdr and 20-mm AA miles), the 'Rivers' were at first fitted
gmns (later replaced by l0 20-mm AA with almost totally superfluous
qnrns), one Hedgehoq and depth minesweeping gear. Once this was
charges eliminated from the design, oil
Comilement: 107 storage rose from 440 tons to 646
tons, with a conseguent
inendurance.
variety of sources. The structure had
been greatly strenqthened to allow the
rnstallation of a pair of triple-barrelled
Squid anti-submarine mortars forward
of the bridge, The spacious quarter-
deck was now devoted not so much to
deplh charges and lherr caparison
(whose functions the Squid had largely
superseded) but to the trappinqs of a
more scientific war largtely the towed
Foxer gear, for defeating the menace
of the acoustrc torpedo with its affinity
for frigate propellers. A major differ-
ence from the recognitron pornt ofview
was the substantral lattice mast for the
all-rmportant radars. The 'Lochs'
proved deadly against the U-boat but,
f/MS Loch Tarbert comes a/ongside
after avoyagewith a fo'c'sle party
ready to pass a line ashore.
I mprove d v er sion s of the' R iver'
desr?ns, the'Loch'class had a pair of
triple-barrelled S quid ASW mortars
as main anti-submarine weaponry.
loch' and'Bay' classes (continued)
:,::gh they soldrered on after the war
-:-:l the their speedwould have
1960s,
:::n totaliy inadequate to meet the
--:eat of such as the 'Type XXI' U-
::ats These fortunately arrtved too
,i:e but durrnq the early 1950s stimu-
r ed the prototype fast fnqate tn the
. ,pe l5 dpstroyer .onverslo"ts
In contrast, the Pacific war was pre-
::mrnantly AA in nature, and the 19
'-:lis of the 'Bay' class completed tn
- ?44-5 were no more than 'Lochs' wtth
:eLr forward 101 6'mm (4-rn) and after
l.radruple 2 pdr gnrns replaced by two
..';rn HA 101.6-mm mountlngs with a
p:oper drrector atop the bridge The
:ealry Squids, now non-essenttal, were
:i:placed by the less effective Hedqe-
:-og, allowing also the substltution of
ffi usA
: DE type
The Americans, like the Japanese, had
seen httle need ofdefensrve ships such
as escorts before the war and, in tts
:arly days had little beyond therr total-
ly unsuitable and veteran flush-
Ceckers. It was the Royal Narry de-
lnerately seeking to meet the sub-
nanne threat, that produced a spe-
:frcation for an Atlantic escort, fol-
rcwed by orders for no less than 300
being placed in the USA between
\ovember l94l and january 1942,
Termed by the Americans destroyer
escorts (DE type, a new category),
.hey also met the sudden need at
rome, and the orqanization was put in
:and to burld over 1,000 of them,
:nough the earliest still arrived too late
:3 prevent the backyard holocaust
-oown to the U boat men as the 'Happy
Time'.
The DEs were burlt after the fashton
:f American fleet destroyers, havinq a
-:ng flush deckwith aprominent sheer
:e in place of the more commodious
,ong forecastle decks preferred by the
lntrsh. Far more emphasis was placed
:n gmn armament, wrth superimposed
-5.2 mm (3-in) Sn-ms forward, a single
i and numerous gnrntubs with a mtx-
,.::e of close ranQle weaponry, mostly
.rgle 20 mm quns. Hedgehoq was
.:ed forward and, by RN standards,
:e after deck was cramped, though
:-; the use of double-depth, sided
:::i,vage racks the Britrsh units (78
'Captain' class) managed to stow up-
;r-Cs of 200 depth charges,
-:Jthough 'only' 565 DEs were even-
--.'r compleled, lherr conslructlon
:- : phenomenal, no less than 425
,','as
::jr;r comrnlssioned in the 12 months
:=--';:en April 1943 and April 1944
. -:.: Bethlehem actually completed
:= ,SS Underhill (DE 682) rn under
-:-r:-:::rthsl The uS Navy was very
: steam-turbrne' navy, but pro-
r-: :: ln ths scale was rmpossible so
'-: ::-.s f--11 tnto several classes, de-
,-
= :,::;r cn whether they were diesel
:: Edsall' class units) diesel-electric
L Elralts' and 76'Bostwick' class un-
-r.,: :-:l::-electrically
(152'Buckley',
-::.n C. Butlet' and Bl 'Rudderow'
r;-:s -;-*. Crrven. Most of those incor
: - r :- r l i:sels were low powered as
. : -*.- -, : ,strng dlesel output was at
two twin 4O-mm mountrngs lor some of
the origrnal 20-mm weapons.
Specification
'Bay'class
Displacement: 1,580 tons standard
Dimensions: lenqth 93 6 m (307 25 ft)
beam I 1 73 m (38 5 ft) drausht 2.9 m
(9 5 ft)
Propulsion: two sets of 4-cylinder trtple
expanslon steam engrnes delLvertnq
4101 kW (5,500 rhp) to two shafts
Speed: 19.5 kts
Endurance: 17605 km ( 10,940 mtles)
Armament: two hvrn l0 1. 6-mm (4-tn)
DP, lwo lwrn 40-mm AA and two twln The 'Bay' class frigates were versions of the 'Loch' class optimized for Pacific
20-mmAAgmns, one Hedgehoq, and operations, where escorts were more likely to be attacked from the air. The
depth charges heavy Squid system was landed in favour of the lighter but less effective
Complement: 157 Hedgehog, and AA armamentwas improved.
that trme earmarked for landtnq craft.
As antr-submanne ships the DEs were
very effectrve, while many went on af-
ter the war to be converted lnto fast
transports (APD) or radar-ptckets
(DER)
Specification
'Buckley'class
Displacement: 1,400 tons standard and
1,720 tons full load
Dimensions: lenglh93.27 m (306.0 ft);
beam I 1.27 m (37.0 ft); draught 2 89 m
(9 5 ft)
Propulsion: hvo sets ofgeared steam
turbrnes and two propulslon motors
deliveringB94B kW (12,000 shp) to two
shafts
Speed:24 kts
Armament: three single 76.2-mm (3-in)
DP, srx srnqle 40-mm AA, and two twln
and four srnqle 20-mm AA guns, three U,SSHarmorL a turbine-powered destroyer escort launched inJuly 1943. wx
533-mm (21-rn) torpedo tubes, one named after a Navy Cross winner killed in the sea battle off Guadalcanal. The
Hedqehoq, and depth charges Harmon esfab,lrilr ed a record, being delivered to the navy only 92 days alter
Complement:220 the keelwas laid. Latervesselswere builtineven shorter times.
,
*a
'€k*-
Above: Thk is one o{ the earlian at
morethan565 DEs builtfor the US
Navy. The six classes delivered n'ere
varia tions on a them e. w i th drtredng
propulsion systems.
Below:Aparttrom the choice o{na.z;
armamenL most DEs catrid stjfjiar
weaponry. Depth charge were
handled byeightDC tfuowers a:c
twoDC racks.
USS England on the surface. The George caught her in her
searchhght as she dived, and offloaded a pat-
tern of depth charges over the spot Again

in fhe Philippine Sea

The Pacific war was the war of the carrier and the destroyer, of the night torped.o
there was no instant result and the Enoland
waded in with a Hedgehog salvo, A flrsi-time
bulls-eye left only oil and wreckage rising to
mark the spot,
This submarine had been the northernmost
attackand the airbattleover hundreds of milesof ocean. Itwas notawar notedfor of a line and her neighbour, the RO-104, was
its cat-and-mouse battles between escort and submarine, yet itwas on the fringesof detected before breakfast on the next morn,
one of th o se titanic c arr ier b at tle s //r a f USS England produce d on e of the mo s t - ing. Both the George, the senior ship, andRaby
astonishing performances of the war. attacked without success. It remained again for
lhe England lo zera tn. Again there was ample
evidence for a claim,
As wrth all large scale Japanese operations, up with three more salvoes, the last of whtch
that known as 'A-Go', whrch resulted rn the produced three small explosions, fotlowed bv Salvofired
Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944, was a massive detonation whtch hfted the after end As there was now adequate evidence of a
meticulously planned. It was hoped to lure sub- of the ship bodily in the water. It marked the submarlne hne the group moved further south
stantial US naval forces into waters north of the end of the 1-16, a submarine larger than the DE. westward and, sure enough, the George se,
Admiralties, across a well-prepared sub- The little group was proceedtng north west- cured a radar contact on a rapidly submerging
marine trap. Japanese tactical doctrine saw the ward outside the Bismarcks when, at 03,50 on target rn the early hours of 24May. Sonar condi
primary roles ol the submarine as a scout 22May, itcaughtthe.RO-l06chargingbatteries tions were good, so Ihe England carefully
attacking warships, and 25 were deployed lor gauged bearing and depth before firing a de-
the. purpose, many in the waters mentroned liberate salvo of her few remaining bombs,
ald over a month beforehand, Though the target was running deep there
In mrd-May the three 'Buckley' class DEs
USS Eng1and, George and Raby were on a The most interesftng of U,SS Engl and's kills may
mission to harass the enemy suppiy line to weII have been her first. The attack on the
Bougainvrlle when, in the early afternoon of 19 afternoon of 19 May saw the destruction of the
May, the first-named gained sonar contact on a submarine I- 16, a massive boat I 04 m (34 I ft) long
submerged submarine. Only a few of the and displacing more than 3,000 tons.Given that
the DE displaced about I ,400 tons and was 16 m
Pacific escorts were armed with Hedgehog; (more than 52 ft) shorter than the submarine, it is
'tle recently commissioned England was, and not surprising that the eventual explosion should
attacked wrthout hesrtation, The second salvo give tft e England something of a Lift !
produced the sound of two direct hits but, lack-
tng immediate evidence ola'ki11', she followed

n
 Escort Vessels of World War tr

:1:1e a muffled explosion. Thrs fourth victrm

r,.s the RO-116.
Returning to Manus on 26 May to refuel and
:=arm the group found yet another submarine,
-:- scnar contact was gained by the Raby, lost,
::gained by the England and presented wtth
:-e usual prectsion Hedgehog pattern, Again a
:-:ie-in-one, it drsintegrated the ,RO-}08 in a
-:ries of rumbling explosions clearly audible
::m the surface.
Rapldly topped up, the shrps immedtately
sarLed again to join an ASW group based on a
l',rE, One of the latter's destroyers flushed a
s;bmarine but could not leave to attack it. The
-Es stayed in contact all nrght and, after a
series of unsuccessful attacks by the other _
.rrps, the EngJand was finally allowed a go -rr*{d
-he almost inevitable result was the RO-105
:-'-1':";:!Fi
s'rnk with a single salvo at 07.35 on 3 I May. The
:rgland had set a record which strll stands: six
.nemy submarines sunk in i2 days. Of the 25
;apanese submarines deployed, l7 were sunk,
Their tactics were poor, they were badly
placed, they achieved nothing and they were
-iiasted. f .*ii
Right: The colossal detonation of a depth-charge
pattem throws acolumnof water higher thanthe
mast of the destroyer escort. US shipyards
churned out over 500 of these vesse/s, B0 per cen t
"t!+ *-'<-.
of which were completed between April 1943 and
.a
April 1944 - a production rate that spelt doom for
Axis submarines.

The pertormance of USS England in the PhilippineSea was almost

unbelievable. While there was undoubtedly an element of lucl< (as f.lere :s
in all great victories) in the sinking of six submarines in I 2 days , good
, lii teamwork, keenessand lherapid advance of anti-submarine t*hnolq7
',:,1: all played their part.
-r'.:riii:il: . r!'i:

s
w F.
_r
! ' ..':*'
i' ','.:.!.. i i
i- ' .'j
 : PC and PCE types
Given the immense iengrth of the Atlan-
tic and Pacrfic coasts together with
further major trarsCarribbean routes,
particularly to the Venezuelan oil ter-
minals and the Panama Canai, the US
Navy had a major problem in protect-
tng its coastal traffic, the patten and
volume oi which was very dtfferent to
that of the UK. The vuinerability of the
shipping on the eastern seaboard was
ruthlessly exposed by the German U-
boat campaigm of 1942, but had been
antrcipated to the extent ihat three pro-
totype 53,26 m (174 ft I in) Patrol Craft
(PC type) had been completed before
the USA's entry lnto the war. These
were slim-gutted diesei craft which,
though relatively well armed, were
Unlike the smaller PC classes, the
PCEs were adapted from a
minesweeper design as an interim
coastal escort until the construction
of morePCs.
FRANCE
'Elan' class
At the outbreak ofwar the French fleet
was poorly sewed for escorts in the
accepted sense of the word, those
available berng deslgmed pnmarily for
colonral service. For effective antr-
si:icmarine work during the war, there-
lbre, the Free French navy relied on
niqates, corvettes and DEs transferred
from the Royal Navy or the US Navy.
The l3-strong'Elan'class had been
completed rn 1939-40 as cowette-type
vessels wrth minesweepinq capability.
Ther 78 by B.4B m (255,9 by 27.8 ft) hrnl
dimensrons, compared wrth the 62.50
by 10. l0 m (205 by 33. I ft) ofthe Brltish-
burlt 'Flowers' that served under the
same flag, characterize the gEeatly
Crfierent approach, with stronq emph-
asis on speed. Despite their fine lines,
however, their low-power twin-shaft
diesel machlnery could drive them at
:dy 20 lts, but their excellent offlcial
endurance figwes emphasue the eco-
romy of diesei propulsion, The first
Qrroup was decidedly odd ln appear-
a:ce, with a distinctively low foredeck.
r'l'hat was rn the desigmer's mind is
I]ard to say but acute wetness must
.qeil have been anticipated as the
bndge was perched atop a solid
:::'.u;e. No armament was mounted for-
,ltard and the impact of qreen seas on
te foont of the house can only be im-
agiled An iriteresting detail was the
:crurded sheerstrake, extendinq the
-:rgrth of the hull, possibly better to
ltroJmmodate the anticipated stresses
_reierated h the huil when labouring
:- reiYy seas. Tlvo 100-mm (3.94-in)
It
--:
restricted by their size to rnshore
work. Needrng to expand the escort
fleet rapidly and with the PC desigm to
hand, it is understandable that a mas-
sive construction proqramme was
rapidly instituted. In fact, over 350 of
these craft were bullt using resources
that, in rekospect, wouid better have
been diverted to the productron of iar-
ger and more versatile antr-submanne
ships. Not until mid-1943, thereitre,
was the PCE type introduced which,
while oniy 3 m (10 ft) longer, was aiso a
fl.tli l0 ft beamier. Unlike the PCs, wtth
their characteristically American flush
deck with pronounced sheer, the
PCEs followed Brltish frigate practlce
in their freeboard and lonq forecastle.
Early units were funnelless, their
diesels exhaustlng through the shell,
gnrns could be carried though only one
was usually fitted, on the after house.
Where shrps are concerned it is
often said that 'if it looks right, it rs
The converse apparently holds good,
for a follow-on series of nine'Chamois'
class ships, whose entry rnto service
was disrupted by the war, vrhrally re-
peated the desigm but incorporated a
raised forecastle and looked
altogether more worlrnanlike. Their
careers were typrcally complex with,
for rnstance, l'I mpetueuse beilg scut-
tled by the French at Toulon, only to be
salvaged by the Italians and then, at
their capitulation, being taken in turn
by the Germans who, finally, scuttled
her again at Marseilles. Another three
units were war losses.
Specification
'Elan'class (asburlt)
Displircement: 630 tons standard and
T40tonsfuliload
Dimeruions: lenqth 78.0 m (255.9 ft);
beamB.S m(27.9ft), draught2.4 m
(7.e ft)
Propulsion: two dresels deliverrng
2982 kW (4,000 bhp) to two shalts
Speed:20 kts
Endurance: 16675 lrn (10,360 miles) at
14 kts
Armament: hvo 100-mm (3,94-in) gltrns,
and two twin and four single 13.2-mm
(0. 52-in) machine-gurs
Complement: not knovrrn
but later examples had a thln
stovepipe and the last a dtminutive
stack with a cuwed cap. Construction
amounted to 78 unlts.
Their armament was better than that
of many British frigates, a 76,2-mm (3-
in) gnrn and a firl1 Hedgehog forward,
hvo/three single 40-mm and up to five
20-mm AA gmns, wlth depth chargres
I".
i,
--{*.;'-''j1, I
right'.
The early 'Elan'c/ass yesse,ls were notable for their unusud appearance; with
no armament on their distinctive low foredeck and the rounded sfteersfrake
continuing the iength of the hul| from some angles the Elans bore a
resemblance to a top-heavy submarine.
aft. Fifteen crossed the Atlantic for ser-
vice with the Royal Navy. Knovm as the
'Kil' class they sewed primarily off
Gibraltar and Sierra Leone, One, HMS
Kilmarnock, partrcipated in the only
U-boat sinlcng credited to the class,
that of the U-731 otr Tangder in May
1944.
Specification
'PCE'class
Displacement: 795 tons standard and
850 tons fuIl]oad
Dimensions: lenqlh 56.24 m (184.5 ft);
beam 10.05 m (33.0 ft); draught 2,89 m
(esf0
Propulsion: two diesel engrines
delivenns 1417 kW(1,900 bhp)totwo
shafts
Speed: 16 kts
Armament: one 76.2 mm (3-rn) DP, tvuo
or three srngle 40-mm AA, and four
single 20-mmAAquns, one
Hedgehog, and depth chargres
ment:100
The twin I 00- mm (3.94-in) guns
originally fitted to the French vessels
were replaced in British service by
British 4-in (102-mm) weapons. The
minesweeping capability was never
used, buttwo DCTs and aDC rack
were fitted. fipically, after the
surrender ofFrance the class found
itsell in use by hotlr srdes.
Armed Forces of the World

ChlnclPar,g
The Chinese Air Force
l-rna has numerically the third largest air force in
:^e world after the USSR and the USA, but obsolete
=--rlpment and organizational problems ser ously
-^dermlne its effectlveness.
The Air Force of the People's Liberation Army
l:PLA) has been an integral part of China's military
::-.rcture since its foundation in 1946 durrng the
-- nese Civil War. lnitially equipped with captured
-:oanese and Soviet-donated alrcraft, the AFPLA
=:ded American types to its inventory when lhe
',ationalists finally withdrew to Formosa in 1949,
:aving much equipment on the mainland. The AF-
:-A was first to make real impact when lt brought
-ewly-supplied Mikoyan-Gurevich MrG-1 5 fighters
:: bear on the Korean War in '1 950 after minimal
:'ain ng. The Soviet Union had helped in the estab-
shment of flying training schools in Manchuria. in
:'re supply of equipment, and in developing an air-
:raft industry, also in Manchurra at Shenyang (Muk-
:en) and Pinkiang (Harbin).
The organization of the air force also follows
Soviet lines; the largest cohesive unit is the division, to produce the MiG-19 as the J-6 was signed in China has the world's third largest air force, but
:cmprising three regiments (roughly equivalent to a 1958, the first aircraft f lying at Beijing in December her aircraft are now mainly obso/escen t ftpes-
These J-6s, part of a Naval Fighter Division, are
.'.'ing), each regiment being composed of three 196'1 .
Chinese-built MiG- I9s that entered service with
' vrng brigades (squadrons) of four sections (f lights). The AFPLA had fared badly at the hands of the the Chinese air force 23 years ago.
-re divisions employ a mixed range of aircraft fulfiil- Nationalist air force over the Straits of Formosa in
-g a variety of tasks, although one function (often
'1
958, and with increasing intrusions over the main-
, defence) normally predominates. Thus the 38th land from Formosan bases, more advanced aircraft a rcraft.
i

' i Defence Division, tasked with the defence of

: were needed. But relationships between China and The AFPLA deploys 3,200 fighters and a5l ;-:
::ijjng (Peking), has two regiments to the south at the Soviet Union soured, and in 1960 all Soviet aid bombers (12 regiments) in27 atr divisior:s. -::-
'3ngtsuon and one at Changping north of the capit- was withdrawn. By this time some MiG-21s (J-7) lance of types is believed to be:
- The main equipment is the J-6 and J-6C day had been supplied, but no production lines had been A-5 'Fantan' (local M iG-1 9 variant) 224
' lhter, though some sections fly the JZ 6 recon- established. The Chinese might have weathered the R tr/il ta\ / =a
-: ssance version. The regiments also employ the Soviet withdrawal and developed a free-standing J-4 (MiG-17F)
, 5 and JJ-S trainer and elderly Y-5 transports. At technologically-advanced industry had it not been J-5 (MiG-17PF)
-:Jiment level one brigade is confined to mainten- for the cultural revolution. From 1966 to 1977 politic- J-6 (MiG-19) 1 95_
.-:e, and with few covered facilities (even at maior
- is low despite the relative
al fervour disrupted every aspect of life, but most
importantly any notion of structure or formal orga-
J-7 (MiG-21) /-
' bases) serviceability
of the aircraft. The division's nominal nization was swept away. Advancement of the indi-
J-B 'Finback' (local MiG-21 variant)
-plicity
=
-.-:rgth is 1 20 aircraft. vidual was based not on age, mer,t or experience ln addition four regiments of 90 8-6 (Tupc e ' ----:
but upon political strength, so activists secured key bombers are based in Sinkiang confror: - j :-=
-1er her experience gained over Korea, where up Soviet Union. About 50 Tu-4 (B-29 cop'es a-: ::
-- --rTee divisions were committed, China sought to posrtions. lf the air force survived this period, during
:- r up her own aircraft industry based on the li- which ranks disappeared, the aircraft lndustry dld service. ln support is a mixed transpoli 'e:: ::--
-=-:e production of Soviet types. The first BT-5 not; fanaticism is no substitute for planning and prislng:
''<cvlev Yak-1B) flew at Shenyang in 1954, fol- order. Attempts have been made to develop indige- Y-5 (An-2) za,
..,=i by rhe J-5 (MiG-1 7PF) and J-2 (MiG-',l SUTl) rn nous types, based broadly upon Sovlet designs, but Y-l (An-241
-:::
-
and the Y-5 (Antonov An-2) in 1957 A licence the obsolescent J-6 remalns the most widely used Y-B (An-12)
An-26
llyushin ll-1 B
ll-1 4
Lisunov Li-2 (C-47 copy)
Curtiss C-46
BAe Trident
Douglas DC-6
Most of the ll-14s and Li-2s are stat,cr::
province supporting the three lndepence^: a '. -".
divisions based there. ln addition tirere 3-. ' 'a -:-a
reconnaissance fighters, 250 aci'ar:::
-,
variants of fighter types, and aboul 3.5i :'=
the BT-5 (Yak-18) type, includ:ng :': :::
signed development, the 8T-6. Ma.::,'.
is some 490,000, though th!s fic--: -
personnel of the strateg:c 'orces =-: :===- -=
=-
forces (220,000).
There is no separate armv a\,

Some 12 air regiments are equippd -ivlgh uteji- j

twin-jet light bomber, the Chinese version of lle
Sovietll-28.Normal and maximun bornb ioads are
1000 kg(2,205 lb) and3000 kg(6,614 lb)
respectively, and anumber of H-is arc belierxi ".c
be confiwred to carry nuclear weapons.
 Armed Forces of the World
force operates 340 H-5 (Mil Mi-4), 50 H-9 (Aerospa-
tiale Dauphin) and 15 Mi-B helicopters.
Naval aviation, previously discussed, is separately
organized with light bomber/torpedo aircraft (200
B5 and 50 8-6) in three 'divisions' at Hulin. Amoy
and Tsingtao. Fighters are shore-based and incorpo-
rated into the basic air-defence system as six 'divi-
sions'. These comprise 200 J-5,300 J-6 and 50 J-7
aircraft. Twenty Beriev Be-6 seaplanes are used for
ASW work, and helicopters include 40 H-Ss and 13
A6rospatiale Super Frelons. Transport aircraft oper-
ated by the navy include 20 Li-2s and 40 of the
ubiquitous Y-5. Personnel amount to some 38,000.
The major problem for the AFPLA is its ageing
equipment. China lacks the currency to buy abroad
and possibly the expertise necessary to handle
modern technically-complex aircraft production on a
large scale. Selection of designs for licence produc-
tion and development is therefore critical. A further
problem remains one of organization. Operations
against the North Vietnamese in 1979 highlighted
the absence of air/ground co-ordination and the lack
of appropriate communications systems_ Sheer
weight of numbers alone is not enough to support
systematic military action.
China includes 11 military regions (MR) based on
groupings of provinces, in themselves military dis-
tricts {MD). Air units are believed to be disposed as
set out below.
Right: The Q-5 k a Chinese development of theJ -6,
vith twin lateral intakes replacing the single
diuidd nose intake andafuselageabout2S per
ent longer. The extra space was to have been
used Ior an internal weapons bay, but k now used
to increase fuelcapacity by 70 per cent.

NorthWest Lanzhou(Lanchow)MH
Order of Battle China Gansu (Kanshu) MD 1 div (Suchow)
Ningxia (Ningsia) MD 1 div (Ningsia)
Military regions and Urumqi (Urumchi) MR
Area subordinate military districts Strength and location East Xinjiang (Singkiang) M D 1 div (Oomut)
North East Shenyang MR 1 BD(LopNod
China Heilongjiang MD 2 divs (Pinkiang, Fuchin) North Xinjiang (Singkiang) MD 1 div (Urumchi)
Jirin (Kirin) MD 1 div (Kirin)
Liaoning MD 2 divs (Shenyang, Liaoyang) Abbreviations
2 NFDs (Dairen. Chinhsien) MR Military Region
(most basic training is organized in Shenyang M R)
Beijing {Peking} MR
MD MiliraryDistrict
Div Mixed Air Division (120 aircraft)
Nei Monggol MD 1 div (Kweisul)
Hebei (Hopeh) MD
NFD Naval Fighter'Division' (70 aircraft)
2 divs (Tientsin, Paoting) NBD Naval Borriber'Division' (40 aircraft)
Shanxi (Shansi) MD 2 divs (Taiynan, Wanchuan) BD Bomber Division (4 regiments with 90 aircraft)
South East Jinan {Tsinan) MR TG Transport Group (100 aircraft)
China Shandong MD 1 div (Tsinan)
1 NFD (Chefoo)
The J-6 is armed with two or three NR-30 30-mm belt-fed cannon, depending
1 NBD (Tsingtao) on the model. One is situated in each wing root and the third, if present, uniter
Nanjing (NankinglMR the starboard side of the nose. One or two weapons points are htted inboard
Kiangshu MD 1 div (Nanking) ofeach tank, and canmountpacks ofeight air-to-aii rockets.
1 NFD (Shanghai)
Zheiliang (Chekiang) M D 1 div (Kinhwa)
Fuzhou (Fuchowl MR
Fujian (Fukien) MD 2 divs (Tsingkiang. Minhow)
1 NFD (Amoy)
1 NBD (Amoy)
Jiangxl (Kiansi) MD 1 div (Nanchang)
Wuhan MR
Henan (Honan) MD 1 div (Kaifens)
Hubei (Hopeh) MD TG (Hankow)
SoJth West Guangzhou (Kuangchowf MR
Cnina Guangdong (Kwangtun) MD 1 div (Canton)
1 NFD (Swatow)
Hinan (Hunan) MD 1 div (Kweilin)
Hainan MD 1 div (Haikon)
1 NBD (Hulin)
Guanxi (Kwangsi) MD 1 div (Nanning)
Kunming MR
Yunnan MD l div(Kunming)
Chengdu (Chengtul MR
Sichuan (Szechwan) MD 1 div (Chunking)