Engineering Hydrology

EVAPORATION
Evaporation is the change from liquid phase, phase to vapor or gaseous state. The following types are
distinguished:
a) Evaporation into the atmosphere from:
i. Free water surface i.e open water evaporation. From lakes, reservoirs, rivers etc
ii. Bare soil
iii. Wet crop, also referred to as evaporation of intercepted water
b) Transpiration i.e. that transfer of water vapor into the atmosphere through the stomata of living plants
c) Evapotranspiration, ET which is a combination of evaporation and transpiration. For a vegetated
surface, evapotranspiration is most commonly used as it is very difficult to distinguish between the
various types of evaporation

Definitions:
Evaporation: the process by which liquid water enters the atmosphere as water vapor. It is the transfer of water
into vapor
Transpiration: the transfer of water vapor into the atmosphere through the stomata of living plants
Evapotranspiration: is the combination of evaporation from the soil and transpiration from vegetation
Potential evapotranspiration is the evapotranspiration that would occur from a well-vegetated surface when
moisture supply is not limiting. It is calculated in a way similar to that for open water evaporation.
Actual evapotranspiration drops below its potential level as the soil dries out.
Reference crop evapotranspiration: is the rate of evapotranspiration from an extensive surface of 8 – 15 cm
tall green grass cover of uniform height, actively growing, completely shading the ground, and not short of water
d)

Mechanisms of the evaporation process

1. Availability of water e.g. open water, intercepted water, depression water
Wind accelerates the rate of evaporation by blowing away the water vapor accumulating above the evaporating
surface making the surface hungry for more vapor.
2. Energy Supply
Molecules in liquid are in constant random motion. When energy is added, the attraction between the
molecules weakens making the molecules move faster. As a result, the spaces between the molecules increases.
With the addition of energy, the molecules gain more and more energy up to a point a molecule will be free to
move into the atmosphere. As the temperature increases, so does the rate of evaporation.
Energy is required to change the state of the molecules of water from liquid to vapor. Direct solar radiation and,
to a lesser extent, the ambient temperature of the air provide this energy. The driving force to remove water
vapor from the evaporating surface is the difference between the water vapor pressure at the evaporating
surface and that of the surrounding atmosphere. As evaporation proceeds, the surrounding air becomes
gradually saturated (humidity) and the process will slow down and might stop if the wet air is not transferred
to the atmosphere.

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Solar radiation is either short or long-wave radiation. Short wave radiation originates from the sun directly. The
longwave radiation is best explained by the black body theory i.e. When bodies absorb energy, they also radiate
energy. This means that they absorb the shortwave radiations from the sun while they radiate longwave
radiations from the surrounding environment., water surfaces being part of them. The amount of radiation
received depends on the location of the earth. On the equator, there is more radiation than in any other place.
It also depends on cloud cover and the time of the year.
3. Vapor capacity of the atmosphere
In the atmosphere, there are also molecules of water i.e. there is water vapor. Some of these come back to the
water surface. Thus the mechanism is two-way. The rate of evaporation therefore also on the amount leaving
and the amount coming back to the water.
For an atmosphere with little water vapor, the capacity is higher. This can be quantified by measuring the
humidity or the vapor pressure.
4. Diffusion of vapor
Assume that there is no wind, evaporation will take place in a decreasing manner upto a time of saturation
whereby no more evaporation takes place. Wind is necessary since it leads to disturbance of evaporated
molecules as they move to areas that are less concentrated with water molecules.
Wind therefore accelerates the rate of evaporation by blowing away the water vapor accumulating above the
wet surface making the surface hungry for more vapor
There are two diffusion processes: Molecular diffusion and turbulence diffusion
Molecular diffusion: This process explains that molecules have a high affinity to places that are deficient in the
same. It occurs even in absence of wind. It is a slow diffusion process.
Turbulence process of diffusion: The is the main source of diffusion of water vapor. It occurs due to presence
of wind which causes eddy currents that lead to vapor rising. It is affected by wind speed. Another cause of
turbulence is due to temperature differences, depth of water body

Factors affecting Evaporation:

The two main factors influencing evaporation from an open water surface are
a. the supply of energy to provide the latent heat of vaporization, and
b. the ability to transport the vapor away from the evaporative surface.
Solar radiation is the main source of heat energy. The ability to transport vapor away from the evaporative
surface depends on the wind velocity over the surface and the specific humidity gradient in the air above it.
Evaporation from the land surface comprises evaporation directly from the soil and vegetation surface, and
transpiration through plant leaves, in which water is extracted by the plant's roots, transported upwards
through its stem and diffused into the atmosphere through tiny openings in the leaves called stomata.
The processes of evaporation from the land surface and transpiration from vegetation i.e. evapotranspiration is
influenced by
a. Supply of energy to provide the latent heat of vaporization, and
b. the ability to transport the vapor away from the evaporative surface.
c. the supply of moisture at the evaporative surface.
d. Type of vegetation (crop)

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Climatological (meteorological) factors:

1. solar radiation,
2. Air temperature,
3. Air humidity and
4. Wind speed

Where the soil can supply water fast enough to satisfy the evaporation demand, the evaporation from the soil
is determined only by the meteorological conditions. However, where the interval between rains and irrigation
becomes large and the ability of the soil to conduct moisture to near the surface is small, the water content in
the topsoil drops, and the soil surface dries out. Under these circumstances, the limited availability of water
exerts a controlling influence on soil evaporation. In the absence of any supply of water to the soil surface,
evaporation decreases.

Measurement of open water evaporation and evapotranspiration

Lakes and reservoirs
This is done by calculating the water balance of a lake or a reservoir. The following continuity equation an be
used

𝐸0 = ∑ 𝐼 − ∑ 𝑂 − ∆𝑆

Where E0 is the free water evaporation

I is the inflows and O is the outflows into and outflows into the system respectively
∆S is the change in storage

Inflow stream Rainfall Evaporation

Change in storage Outflow stream

Net groundwater recharge

The inflows into the lake or reservoir is surface runoff, stream inflow and rainfall. The outflows are strem
outflows and evaporation.
Atmometers
These devices consist of a porous surface connected to a water supply. The evaporation from the porous surface
is found as the change in the amount of water stored in the water supply. Well-known atmometers are the Piche
evaporimeter using absorbent blotting paper, the Livingstone atmometer using a porous porcelain sphere and
the Bellani atmometer of which the porous surface consists of a thin ceramic disc. The devices are designed to
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represent the transpiration of leaves, but it is obvious that the presence of stomata and its biological control
cannot be simulated. Moreover, it is found that atmometers are very responsive to wind, and less to net
radiation, which is the dominant factor governing evaporation. Nevertheless, there are examples of satisfactory
relations that have been established between the evaporation from an atmometer and the potential
evapotranspiration of a crop.
Assignment: Using diagrams, distinguish between the Piche evaporimeter, the Livingstone atmometer and the
Bellani atmometer.
Energy balance and micro-climatological methods
Evaporation of water requires relatively large amounts of energy, either in the form of sensible heat or radiant
energy. Therefore the evapotranspiration process is governed by energy exchange at the vegetation surface
and is limited by the amount of energy available. Because of this limitation, it is possible to predict the
evapotranspiration rate by applying the principle of energy conservation. The energy arriving at the surface
must equal the energy leaving the surface for the same time.
All fluxes of energy should be considered when deriving an energy balance equation. The equation for an
evaporating surface can be written as:
𝑅 𝑛 − 𝐺 − 𝜆𝐸𝑇 − 𝐻 = 0
Where
𝑅 𝑛 is the net radiation,
H the sensible heat,
G the soil heat flux and
𝜆𝐸𝑇 the latent heat flux.
The various terms can be either positive or negative. Positive 𝑅 𝑛 supplies energy to the surface and positive
G, 𝜆𝐸𝑇 and H remove energy from the surface. See the figure below.

Fig. Schematic presentation of the diurnal variation of the components of the energy balance above a well-
watered transpiring surface on a cloudless day
In the previous equation, only vertical fluxes are considered and the net rate at which energy is being transferred
horizontally, by advection, is ignored. Therefore the equation is to be applied to large, extensive surfaces of
homogeneous vegetation only. The equation is restricted to the four components: 𝑅 𝑛 , (𝜆𝐸𝑇, H and G. Other
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energy terms, such as heat stored or released in the plant, or the energy used in metabolic activities, are not
considered These terms account for only a small fraction of the daily net radiation and can be considered
negligible when compared with the other four components.
The latent heat flux (𝜆𝐸𝑇) representing the evapotranspiration fraction can be derived from the energy balance
equation if all other components are known. Net radiation (𝑅 𝑛 ) and soil heat fluxes (G) can be measured or
estimated from climatic parameters. Measurements of the sensible heat (H) are however complex and cannot
be easily obtained. H requires accurate measurement of temperature gradients above the surface.
Mass transfer method
Another method of estimating evapotranspiration is the mass transfer method. This approach considers the
vertical movement of small parcels of air (eddies) above a large homogeneous surface. The eddies transport
material (water vapor) and energy (heat, momentum) from and towards the evaporating surface. By assuming
steady-state conditions and that the eddy transfer coefficients for water vapor are proportional to those for
heat and momentum, the evapotranspiration rate can be computed from the vertical gradients of air
temperature and water vapor via the Bowen ratio. Other direct measurement methods use gradients of wind
speed and water vapor. These methods and other methods such as eddy covariance, require accurate
measurement of vapor pressure, and air temperature or wind speed at different levels above the surface.
Therefore, their application is restricted to primarily research situations.
Soil water balance (water budget method)
Evapotranspiration can also be determined by measuring the various components of the soil water balance. The
method consists of assessing the incoming and outgoing water flux into the crop root zone over some time (see
figure below). Irrigation (I) and rainfall (P) add water to the root zone. Part of I and P might be lost by surface
runoff (RO) and by deep percolation (DP) that will eventually recharge the water table. Water might also be
transported upward by the capillary rise (CR) from a shallow water table towards the root zone or even
transferred horizontally by subsurface flow in (SFin) or out of (SFout) the root zone. In many situations, however,
except under conditions with large slopes, SFin and SFout are minor and can be ignored. Soil evaporation and crop
transpiration deplete water from the root zone. If all fluxes other than evapotranspiration (ET) can be assessed,
the evapotranspiration can be deduced from the change in soil water content ∆𝑆𝑊 over the time period: 𝐸𝑇 =
𝐼 + 𝑃 − 𝑅𝑂 − 𝐷𝑃 + 𝐶𝑅 ± ∆𝑆𝐹 ± ∆𝑆𝑊
Some fluxes such as subsurface flow, deep percolation and capillary rise from a water table are difficult to assess
and short time periods cannot be considered. The soil water balance method can usually only give ET estimates
over long time periods of the order of week-long or ten-day periods.

Figure. Soil water balance of the root zone

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Estimation of evapotranspiration through empirical formula.

In general, evapotranspiration is difficult to measure. More often, estimates can be calculated from
relationships with easily measurable weather parameters. E.g.
𝐸𝑇 = 𝑓(𝑇𝑠 ) 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐸𝑇 = 𝑓(𝑇𝑠 ) 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝐸𝑇 = 𝑓(𝑆𝑀) 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
These relationships are usually statistical findings and have limited applicability. They can only be used on the
site from which the relationship was developed. Further, a long time period is required to develop these
statistical relationships. One advantage about this method is that they can be useful in areas where there is
scarcity of data.
Lysimeters
By isolating the crop root zone from its environment and controlling the processes that are difficult to measure,
the different terms in the soil water balance equation can be determined with greater accuracy. This is done in
lysimeters where the crop grows in isolated tanks filled with either disturbed or undisturbed soil. In precision
weighing lysimeters, where the water loss is directly measured by the change of mass, evapotranspiration can
be obtained with an accuracy of a few hundredths of a millimetre, and small time periods such as an hour can
be considered. In non-weighing lysimeters the evapotranspiration for a given time period is determined by
deducting the drainage water, collected at the bottom of the lysimeters, from the total water input.
A requirement of lysimeters is that the vegetation both inside and immediately outside of the lysimeter be
perfectly matched (same height and leaf area index). This requirement has historically not been closely adhered
to in a majority of lysimeter studies and has resulted in severely erroneous and unrepresentative ET c and Kc data.
As lysimeters are difficult and expensive to construct and as their operation and maintenance require special
care, their use is limited to specific research purposes

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Calculation of free water evaporation

Owing to the difficulty of obtaining accurate field measurements, Evaporation and evapotranspiration are
commonly computed from weather data. Many empirical or semi-empirical equations have been developed for
assessing crop or reference crop evapotranspiration from meteorological data. Some of the methods are only
valid under specific climatic and agronomic conditions and cannot be applied under conditions different from
those under which they were originally developed.

Energy balance method

In this method, the amount of energy that has been consumed to evaporate the water is calculated. This is
done by applying the continuity and energy equations applicable for evaporation.
Consider evaporation from a control volume with no flow of liquid across the control surface:

And the following defined for the liquid phase of water:

𝐵 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜌𝑤 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑑𝐵
= −𝑚̇ 𝑣 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐵 𝑑ℎ 𝑑ℎ
𝑏𝑢𝑡 = 𝜌𝑤 𝐴 [ ] ∴ −𝑚̇ 𝑣 = 𝜌𝑤 𝐴 [ ]
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑ℎ
𝐼𝑓 − = 𝐸, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒎𝒗 = 𝝆𝒘 𝑨𝑬
𝑑𝑡
Also:
Consider a unit area of water surface:
The source of heat energy is net radiation flux R n , [W⁄m2 ]
The water supplies
(i) a sensible heat flux H8 to the air stream
(ii) a ground heat flux G to the ground surface
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 Engineering Hydrology

dH
Thus: the rate of heat input to the system from external sources, = R 𝑛 − H𝑠 − G.
dt
If it is assumed that the temperature of the water within the control volume is constant in time, the only change
in the heat stored within the control volume is the change in the internal energy of the water evaporated.
The water evaporated = 𝑙𝑣 𝑚𝑣 ;
𝑙𝑣 = latent heat of vaporization = 2.501 × 106 − 2370T [J⁄kg] ; T is in ℃
A joule (J) is an SI unit representing the amount of energy required to exert a force of 1 newton through a
distance of 1 meter.
Thus: R 𝑛 − H𝑠 − G = 𝑙𝑣 𝑚̇ 𝑣 : 𝑏𝑢𝑡 mv = ρw AE, and A = 1𝑚2
𝟏
𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐛𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐞𝐯𝐚𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐛𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐬: 𝐄 = (𝐑 − 𝐇𝒔 − 𝐆)
𝒍𝒗 𝝆𝒘 𝒏
If the sensible heat flux H𝑠 and the ground heat flux G are both zero, then an evaporation rate E 𝑟 can be
calculated as the rate at which all the incoming net radiation is absorbed by evaporation:
𝑅𝑛
𝐸𝑟 =
𝑙𝑣 𝜌𝑤
Example:
Calculate by the energy balance method the evaporation rate from an open water surface given the following:
The net radiation = 200 W/m2
The air temperature = 25℃
Assume no sensible heat or ground heat flux
Solution:
latent heat of vaporization, 𝑙𝑣 = 2.501 × 106 − 2370T [J⁄kg] ; T is in ℃
Thus, 𝑙𝑣 = 2501 − 2.370 × 25 = 2441 k J⁄kg
Take 𝜌𝑤 = 1000 𝑘𝑔⁄m3
𝑅𝑛 200
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐸𝑟 = ; ∴ 𝐸𝑟 = = 8.2 × 10−8 𝑚⁄𝑠 ≡ 7.10 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑙𝑣 𝜌𝑤 2441 × 103 × 1000

Aerodynamic method
A second factor controlling the evaporation rate from an open water surface is the ability to transport vapor
away from the surface. The transport rate is governed by:
1. The humidity gradient in the air near the surface, and
2. The wind speed across the surface,
These two processes can be analyzed by coupling the equations for mass and momentum transport in air.
Consider the control volume below:

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 Engineering Hydrology

Fig. Evaporation from an open water surface

A horizontal plane of unit area is located at height z above the surface. The vapor flux mv passing upward by
convection through this plane is given by:
𝑑𝑞𝑣
𝑚̇ 𝑣 = −𝜌𝑎 𝐾𝑤
𝑑𝑧
K w = is the vapor eddy diffusivity ; ρa = density of air
The momentum flux upward through the plane is likewise given by an equation from
𝑑𝑢
𝜏 = 𝜌𝑎 𝐾𝑚
𝑑𝑧
Suppose the wind velocity u1 and specific humidity q v1 are measured at elevation z1 , and u2 and q v2
at elevation z2 , the elevations being sufficiently close that the transport rates mv and τ are constant
between them. The following substitutions can be made:
𝑑𝑞𝑣 q v2 − q v1 𝑑𝑢 u2 − 𝑢1
= ; =
𝑑𝑧 z2 − z1 𝑑𝑧 z2 − z1
𝑚̇ 𝑣 𝐾𝑤 (q v2 − q v1 ) 𝐾𝑤 (q v1 − q v2 )
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 =− , 𝑜𝑟 𝑚̇ 𝑣 =
𝜏 𝐾𝑚 (u2 − 𝑢1 ) 𝐾𝑚 (u2 − 𝑢1 )
If you consider the logarithmic profile that describe the wind velocity in the boundary near the earth’s surface
(up to about 50 m), the sheer velocity and the Von Karman constant, k (usually taken as 0.4), you get the
Thornthwaite-Holzman equation for vapor transport:
𝐾𝑤 𝑘 2 (q v1 − q v2 )(u2 − 𝑢1 )
𝑚̇ 𝑣 =
𝐾𝑚 [ln(z2 ⁄z1 )]2
In application it is usually assumed that the ratioK 𝑤 ⁄K 𝑚 = 1 and is constant. Thornthwaite and Holzman set
up measurement towers to sample qv and u at different heights and computed the corresponding evaporation
rate, and many subsequent investigators have made similar experiments.
In many other places e.g. in Kenya, measurements of qv and u are made at only one height in a standard climate
station. The previous equation is simplified by assuming that the wind velocity 𝑢1 = 0 at the roughness height
z1 = z0 and that the air is saturated with moisture there.
𝑒
𝐹𝑢𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑞𝑣 = 0.622 ;
𝑝

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e is the vapor pressure, and p is the ambient air pressure (the same at both heights). Measurements of vapor
pressure can be substituted for those of specific humidity.
At height z2, the vapor pressure is ea, the ambient vapor pressure in air, and the vapor pressure at the surface
is taken to be eas, the saturated vapor pressure corresponding to the ambient air temperature. Under these
assumptions the mass flow rate of evaporation, ṁ v can be calculated as follows:
0.622𝑘 2 𝜌𝑎 (eas − ea )u2
𝑚̇ 𝑣 =
𝑝[ln(z2 ⁄z0 )]2
Recalling that 𝑚̇ 𝑣 is defined here for a unit area of surface, an equivalent evaporation rate 𝐸a , expressed in
dimensions of [L/T], can be found by setting 𝑚̇ 𝑣 = 𝜌𝑤 𝐸𝑎
𝑻𝒉𝒖𝒔 𝑬𝐚 = 𝑩(𝐞𝐚𝐬 − 𝐞𝐚 ); 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑫𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂
0.622𝑘 2 𝜌𝑎 u2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐵=
𝑝𝜌𝑤 [ln(z2 ⁄z0 )]2
eas = the saturation vapor pressure.
ea = the actual vapor pressure
The vapor pressure can be estimated from the following relationship:
𝑒𝑎
𝑅ℎ =
eas
where R h is the relative humidity, the ratio of actual vapor pressure to its saturation value at a given air
temperature
The following table gives values of saturated vapor pressure of water vapor over liquid water at various
temperature values
Table: saturated vapor pressure of water vapor over liquid water
(Source: Chow et al (1988) after Brutsaert, 1982)

Temperature Saturated vapor

pressure, eas

-20 125

-10 286
0 611

5 872

10 1227

15 1704
20 2337

25 3167

30 4243
35 5624

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40 7378

Example:
Calculate the evaporation rate from an open water surface by the
aerodynamic method given the following:
Air temperature = 25°C,
Relative humidity = 40%
Air pressure = 101.3 kPa
Wind speed = 3 m/s,
All measurements have been done 2 m above the water surface. Assume a roughness height Z0 = 0.03 cm
Solution:
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑘 = 0.4, 𝜌𝑎 = 1.19 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑡 25℃, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌𝑤 = 1000 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3
0.622𝑘 2 𝜌𝑎 u2
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐵 =
𝑝𝜌𝑤 [ln(z2 ⁄z0 )]2
0.622 × 0.42 × 1.19 × 3
= = 4.54 × 10−11 𝑚⁄𝑃𝑎 . 𝑠
101.3 × 103 × 1000[ln(2⁄(3 × 10−4 ))]2
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑇 = 25℃, eas = 3167 𝑃𝑎
𝑒𝑎
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝, 𝑅ℎ =
eas
𝑒𝑎 = 𝑅ℎ × eas = 0.4 × 3167 = 1267 𝑃𝑎
𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐸a = 𝐵(eas − ea )
𝐸a = 4.54 × 10−11 × (3167 − 1267) = 8.62 × 10−8 𝑚⁄𝑠 ≡ 𝟕. 𝟒𝟓 𝒎𝒎⁄𝒅𝒂𝒚

Combined aerodynamic and energy balance method

Evaporation may be computed by the aerodynamic method when energy supply is not limiting and by the
energy balance method when vapor transport is not limiting. But, normally, both of these factors are limiting,
and a combination of the two methods is needed.
In the energy balance method, the sensible heat flux H𝑠 is difficult to quantify. The heat is transferred by
convection through the air overlying the water surface, and water vapor is similarly transferred by convection.
It is assumed that the vapor heat flux 𝑙𝑣 𝑚̇ 𝑣 and the sensible heat flux H𝑠 are proportional, the proportionality
constant being called the Bowen ratio, 𝛽
H𝑠
𝛽=
𝑙𝑣 𝑚̇ 𝑣
1
Recall the energy blance equation for evaporation becomes: E = (R − H𝑠 − G)
𝑙𝑣 𝜌𝑤 𝑛
If the ground heat flux, G is zero, and sunbstituting for β the energr balance equation can be
re − written as follows:
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 Engineering Hydrology

R 𝑛 = 𝑙𝑣 𝜌𝑤 (1 + β)
The Bowen ratio is calculated by coupling the following transport equations for vapor and heat:
𝑑𝑞𝑣
𝑚̇ 𝑣 = −𝜌𝑎 𝐾𝑤 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑇
𝐻𝑠 = −𝜌𝑎 𝐶𝑝 𝐾ℎ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝑑𝑧
where 𝐶𝑝 is the specific heat at constant pressure and 𝐾ℎ is the heat diffusivity. Using measurements of 𝑞𝑣 and
T made at two levels 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 and assuming the transport rate is constant between these levels, merging the
above vapor and heat transport equations yields:
𝐻𝑠 𝐶𝑝 𝐾ℎ (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
=
𝑚̇ 𝑣 𝐾𝑤 (𝑞𝑣2 − 𝑞𝑣1 )
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 0.622 𝑒⁄𝑝 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑞𝑣
H𝑠 𝐶𝑝 𝐾ℎ 𝑝(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
=𝛽=
𝑙𝑣 𝑚̇ 𝑣 0.622𝑙𝑣 𝐾𝑤 (𝑒2 − 𝑒1 )
Or
(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝛽=𝛾
(𝑒2 − 𝑒1 )
𝐶𝑝 𝐾ℎ 𝑝
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛾 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑠𝑦𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛, 𝛾=
0.622𝑙𝑣 𝐾𝑤
The ratio 𝐾ℎ ⁄𝐾𝑤 of the heat and vapor diffusivities is commonly taken to be 1.
If the two levels 1 and 2 are taken at the evaporative surface and in the overlying air stream, respectively, it
𝑅𝑛
can be shown that the evaporation rate 𝐸𝑟 computed from the rate of net radiation (𝐸𝑟 = ) and the
𝑙𝑣 𝜌𝑤
evaporation rate computed from aerodynamic methods (𝐸a = 𝐵(eas − ea ) can be combined to yield the
Penman-Monteith equation which gives a weighted estimate of evaporation E:
∆ γ
E= 𝐸𝑟 + 𝐸 mm⁄day ;
∆+γ ∆+γ a
where
∆ γ
The weighting factors and sum to unity.
∆+γ ∆+γ
𝐸𝑟 is evaporation obtained from the energy balance method
𝐸a is evaporation obtained from the areodynamic method
γ is the psychometric constanr
∆ (𝑃𝑎⁄℃ is the slope of saturation vapor pressure against temperature curve. It is calculated as:
4098 es
∆= or graphically as shown in the following figure
(237.3 + T)2

12
 Engineering Hydrology

Fig. Saturated vapor pressure as a function of temperature over water. Point C has vapor pressure e and
temperature T, for which the saturated vapor pressure is es. The relative humidity is Rh = e/es. The temperature
at which the air is saturated for vapor pressure e is the dew-point temperature Td.

From the curve, es at different temperatures can be obtained is

17.2𝑇
(237.3+𝑇 ) 4098 ea
e𝑠 = 611𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠; ∆= 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠 ⁄ 0𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 γ = 66.8 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠 ⁄ 0𝐶
(237.3 + 𝑇)2
The combination method of calculating evaporation from meteorological data is the most accurate method
when all the required data are available and the assumptions are satisfied.
Assumptions of the combination method:

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 Engineering Hydrology

1. Steady-state energy flow prevails and that changes in heat storage over time in the water body are not
significant. This assumption limits the application of the method to daily time intervals or longer, and
to situations not involving large heat storage capacity, such as a large lake possesses.
2. The chief assumption of the aerodynamic method is associated with the form of the vapor transfer
coefficient B in 𝐸a = 𝐵(eas − ea ). Many empirical forms of B have been proposed, locally fitted to
observed wind and other meteorological data.
Limitations of the combination method:
1. The combination method is well suited for application to small areas with detailed climatological data.
The required data include net radiation, air temperature, humidity, wind speed, and air pressure.
2. The steady-state energy flow assumption limits the application of the method to daily time intervals or
longer, and to situations not involving large heat storage capacity, such as a large lake possesses.

Modification and simplification of the combination method

When some of these data are unavailable, simpler evaporation equations requiring fewer variables must be
used
Priestley and Taylor method
For evaporation over very large areas, energy balance considerations largely govern the evaporation rate. For
such cases, Priestley and Taylor (1972) found that the second term of the combination equation is approximately
30 percent of the first so that the Penman-Monteith equation can be re-written as the Priestley-Taylor
evaporation
∆
𝐸 =∝ 𝐸 ; ∝= 1.3
∆+𝛾 𝑟
Example:
a) Use the Priestley-Taylor method to calculate the evaporation rate for a water body with net radiation 200
W/m2 and air temperature 25°C
Solution:
∆
𝐸 =∝ 𝐸 ; ∝= 1.3
∆+𝛾 𝑟
The Priestley − Taylor method requires values for ∆, γ, 𝐸𝑟 ,
188.7
𝐸 = 1.3 × × 7.10 = 𝟔. 𝟖 𝐦𝐦⁄𝐝𝐚𝐲
188.7 + 67.1

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 Engineering Hydrology

b) You have been given the following data. Use the combination method to calculate the evaporation rate
from an open water surface.
Net radiation = 200 W/m2,
Air temperature = 25°C
Relative humidity = 40 %
Wind speed = 3 m/s,
All recorded at height 2 m, and atmospheric pressure 101.3 kPa.
Solution

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 Engineering Hydrology

∆ γ
E= 𝐸𝑟 + 𝐸 mm⁄day ;
∆+γ ∆+γ a
The combination method requires values for ∆, γ, 𝐸𝑟 , and 𝐸a
𝐶𝑝 𝐾ℎ 𝑝
𝑝𝑠𝑦𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑚𝑡, 𝛾=
0.622𝑙𝑣 𝐾𝑤
𝐾ℎ
𝐶𝑝 = 1005 𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔 . 𝐾 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟, = 1; 𝑙𝑣 = 2441 × 103 𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑡 25℃
𝐾𝑤
1005 × 1.00 × 101.3 × 103
𝛾= = 67.1 𝑃𝑎⁄℃
0.622 × 2441 × 103
4098 𝑒𝑠
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡 25°𝐶, ∆=
(237.3 + 𝑇)2
𝑒𝑠 = 𝑒𝑎𝑠 = 3167 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑇 = 25℃
4098 × 3167
= = 188.7 𝑃𝑎⁄℃
(237.3 + 25)2
From previous examples the evaporation rate corresponding to a net radiation of 200 W/m2 is Er = 7.10 mm/day,
and from the aerodynamic method yields Ea = 7.45 mm/day
∆ γ
E= 𝐸𝑟 + 𝐸 mm⁄day ;
∆+γ ∆+γ a
188.7 γ
E= × 7.10 + × 7.45 = 𝟕. 𝟐 𝐦𝐦⁄𝐝𝐚𝐲
188.7 + 67.1 188.7 + 67.1

Evapotranspiration
This is the evaporation from soils and vegetation.
a. From Soils
The soil matrix is comprised of the soil particles, air, and water contained in the voids. A film of water is
attached to the soil particles through adsorption. In some cases, there is water in the voids. The water for
evaporation from soils is that water that is attached to the soil particles and that which is found on the voids.
Just like in open water evaporation, energy is required to evaporate this water. In addition to the factors
affecting open water evaporation, moisture content and soil type are other main factors affecting evaporation
from the soil.
When the soil is fully saturated, evaporation occurs as it were open water evaporation while no evaporation
occurs at all when the soil is dry.

Calculation of evapotranspiration
The same factors governing open water evaporation also govern evapotranspiration, namely energy supply and
vapor transport. Also, the following factors affect evapotranspiration:

‘Crop’ and environment factors

1. Water available at the evaporating surface
2. Where the evaporating surface is the soil surface, the degree of shading of the crop canopy, and the amount
of water available at the evaporating surface.
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 Engineering Hydrology

3. Frequency of rains,
4. Frequency of irrigation
5. Capillary water - water transported upwards in soil from a shallow water table.
6. Type of vegetation
b. From vegetation
Water absorbed by plants from the soil through the roots is transported via plant stems and finally into the
leaves where transpiration occurs. Water evaporates from plants through the stomata located on their leaves.
The rate of evaporation in this case is, therefore, the rate of transpiration.
Factors affecting evapotranspiration can be grouped into three main categories:
i. Weather parameters
ii. Crop characteristics
iii. Management and environmental aspects

Weather parameters
The principal weather parameters affecting evapotranspiration are:
- Radiation
- Air temperature
- Humidity
- Wind speed.
Several procedures have been developed to assess the evaporation rate from these parameters. The
evaporation power of the atmosphere is expressed by the reference crop evapotranspiration (ET 0). The
reference crop evapotranspiration represents the evapotranspiration from a standardized vegetated surface.

Crop factors
These include:
- Crop type
- Crop variety
- Crop development stage

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 Engineering Hydrology

These factors should be considered when assessing the evapotranspiration from crops grown in large, well-
managed fields. Differences in resistance to transpiration, crop height, crop roughness, reflection, ground cover
and crop rooting characteristics result in different ET levels in different types of crops under identical
environmental conditions. Crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ET c) refers to the evaporating
demand from crops that are grown in large fields under optimum soil water, excellent management and
environmental conditions, and achieve full production under the given climatic conditions.

Management and environmental conditions

Examples include:
- Soil salinity
- Poor land fertility
- Limited application of fertilizers
- The presence of hard or impenetrable soil horizons
- The absence of control of diseases and pests
- Poor soil management
- Ground cover
- Plant density
- Soil water content
Some environmental and management factors affect the climatic and crop factors e.g.
1. Cultivation practices and the type of irrigation method can alter the microclimate, affect the crop
characteristics or affect the wetting of the soil and crop surface.
2. A windbreak reduces wind velocities and decreases the ET rate of the field directly beyond the barrier.
3. The use of mulches, especially when the crop is small, is another way of substantially reducing soil
evaporation.
4. Anti-transpirants, such as stomata-closing, film-forming or reflecting material, reduce the water losses
from the crop and hence the transpiration rate
Calculations of the rate of evapotranspiration are made using the same methods described previously for open
water evaporation, with adjustments to account for the condition of the vegetation and soil.
The procedure:
Step 1: Calculate the reference crop evapotranspiration, ET0 for given climatic conditions, the basic rate. The
combination method is recommended. A recommended value for the vapor transfer coefficient, B
𝑢
𝐵 = 0.0027 (1 + ) 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑑𝑎𝑦 . 𝑃𝑎;
100
i.e. the Doorenbos and Pruitt vapor transfer coefficient
u is the 24 − hour wind run, in km⁄day measured at 2 m height. The 24-hour wind run is the cumulative
distance a particle would move in the airstream in 24 hours under prevailing wind conditions
Step 2: Calculate the potential evapotranspiration, ETP of another crop growing under the same conditions as
the reference crop by multiplying the reference crop evapotranspiration by a crop coefficient, KC
𝐸𝑇𝑃 = 𝐾𝐶 𝐸𝑇0
The value of ETP changes with the stage of crop or vegetation growth. Typical KC curve of a crop is shown below:

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 Engineering Hydrology

Stages of crop growth:

Stage 1 – Initial stage – less than 0% ground cover
Stage 2– Development stage – from initial stage to
attainment of effective full ground cover (70 – 80 %)
Stage 3 – Mid-season stage – from full groundcover to
maturation
Stage 4 – Final season stage – full maturity to harvest
Fig. The relationship between the crop coefficient, K C
and the stage of crop growth

Step 3: Calculate the actual evapotranspiration, ETa by multiplying the potential evapotranspiration by stress
coefficient, 𝐾𝑆 (0 ≤ 𝐾𝑆 ≤ 1)
𝐸𝑇𝑎 = 𝐾𝑆 𝐾𝐶 𝐸𝑇0 𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑇𝑎 = 𝐾𝑆 𝐸𝑇𝑝

Example:
The monthly values of reference crop evapotranspiration E0, calculated using the combination method for
average conditions, are shown in the table below. The crop coefficients for corn K1 = 0.38, K2 = 1.00, and K3 =
0.55; t1 = April 1, t2 = June 1, t3 = July 1, t4 = September 1, and t5 = October 1. Calculate the actual
evapotranspiration from this crop assuming a well-watered soil.

Month April May June July Aug Sep Oct April – Oct total
ET0 4.14 5.45 5.82 6.60 5.94 4.05 2.34 34.3 mm

KC 0.38 0.38 0.69 1.00 1.00 0.78 0.55

Solution: 𝑬𝑻𝑷 = 𝑲𝑪 𝑬𝑻𝟎

ETp 1.57 2.07 4.02 6.60 5.94 3.16 1.29 24.7 mm

𝑬𝑻𝒂 = 𝑲𝑺 𝑬𝑻𝒑 ; 𝑲𝑺 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂 𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒍 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍

ETa 1.57 2.07 4.02 6.60 5.94 3.16 1.29 24.7 mm

19
 Engineering Hydrology

Monthly average values of 𝐾𝐶 are specified following the previous curve using the given values. In June, 𝐾𝐶 rises
from 0.38 at 𝑡2 = June 1 to 1.00 at 𝑡3 = July 1, so 𝐾𝐶 is taken as (0.38 + 1.00)/2 = 0.69. The values of 𝐸𝑇𝑎 are
computed using 𝐸𝑇𝑎 = 𝐾𝑆 𝐾𝐶 𝐸𝑇0 with 𝐾𝑆 = 1 for a well-watered soil.

Other Methods of calculating potential evapotranspiration

Blaney – Criddle method formula
This is suggested for areas where available climatic data cover air temperature data only.
ETp = p(0.457Ta + 8.13) mm/month

ETB&C = K × ET0 mm/month

where
ET0 reference crop evapotranspiration in mm/month for the month considered
ETB&C potential evapotransiration in mm/month
K crop coefficoent
p monthly percentage of day light hours in the year
Ta mean monthly air temperature (24 hour means) in 00C
Thornthwaite formula
Monthly potential evapotranspiration of a short crop (e.g. grass) is estimated from monthly average daily
temperatures:
𝐿 𝑁 10𝑇𝑑 ∝ 𝐷𝑛 𝑁𝑛
𝐸𝑇0 = 16 ( ) ( ) ( ) ; 𝐸𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑛 = 𝐸𝑇0 ( )
12 30 𝐼 360
Where
ET0 is reference evapotranspiration in mm/month
Td is the average daily temperature (degrees Celcius; if this is negative, use 0) of the month
being calculated
N is the number of days in the month being calculated
L is the average day length (hours)of the month being calculated
∝ = (6.75 × 10−7 )(I)3 − (7.71 × 10−5 )(I)2 + (1.792 × 10−2 )I + 0.49239
12
Tmi 1.514
I = ∑( ) is a heat index that depends on the 12 monthly mean temperatures, Tmi
5
i=1

ETThorn is potential evapotranspiration

Dn number of days; Nn is day length

Makkink’s formula
∆
ETMakkink = 0.61R m ( − 0.12)
∆+γ
20
 Engineering Hydrology

Where:
ETMakkink is potential evapotransiration in mm/month
R m is measured incoming radiation in mm/day
∆ is the slope of temperature − vapor pressure curve

γ is the psychrometer constant = 0.49mm. hg/ 0C

Pan evaporation method

E0 = 𝐾𝑝 × Epan mm/day

Where
Epan is pan evaporation in mm/day

E0 is the open water evaporation in mm/day

It represents the mean daily values of the period considered
K p is the pan coefficient

Pan evaporation method

E0 = 𝐾𝑝 × Epan mm/day

Where
Epan is pan evaporation in mm⁄𝑑𝑎𝑦

E0 is the open water evaporation in mm⁄𝑑𝑎𝑦

It represents the mean daily values of the period considered
K p is the pan coefficient

Types of pans
There are many different types of evaporation pans. The three well known pans include:
Class A evaporation pan: It is cylinder with a diameter of 47.5 in (120.7cm) that has a depth of 10 in (25cm).
The pan rests on a carefully leveled, wooden base and is often enclosed by a chain link fence to prevent animals
drinking from it. Evaporation is measured daily as the depth of water evaporates from the pan. The
measurement day begins with the pan filled to exactly 5 cm from the pan top. At the end of 24 hours, the
amount of water to refill the pan to exactly two inches from its top is measured.
If precipitation occurs in the 24-hour period, it is considered in calculating the evaporation. Sometimes
precipitation is greater than evaporation, and measured increments of water must be dipped from the pan.
Evaporation cannot be measured in a Class A pan when the pan's water surface is frozen.
The Class A Evaporation Pan is of limited use on days with rainfall events of >30mm (203mm rain gauge) unless
it is emptied more than once per 24hours. Analysis of the daily rainfall and evaporation readings in areas with
regular heavy rainfall events shows that almost without fail, on days with rainfall in excess of 30mm (203mm
Rain Gauge) the daily evaporation is spuriously higher than other days in the same month where conditions
more receptive to evaporation prevailed.
21
 Engineering Hydrology

The most common and obvious error is in daily rainfall events of >55mm (203mm rain gauge) where the Class
A Evaporation pan will likely overflow. The less obvious, and therefore more concerning, is the influence of
heavy or intense rainfall causing spuriously high daily evaporation totals without obvious overflow.
The Sunken Colorado pan: The sunken Colorado pan is square, 1 m on a side and 0.5 m deep and made of
unpainted galvanized iron. As the name suggests, it is buried in the ground to within about 5cm of its rim.
Evaporation from a Sunken Colorado Pan can be compared with a Class A pan using conversion constants. The
pan coefficient, on an annual basis, is about 0.8.

Other types of pans include:

(i) Floating pans (made of GI) of 90 cm square and 45 cm deep are mounted on a raft floating in water. The
volume of water lost due to evaporation in the pan is determined by knowing the volume of water required to
bring the level of water up to the original mark daily and after making allowance for rainfall, if there has been
any.
(ii) Land pan. Evaporation pans are installed in the vicinity of the reservoir or lake to determine the lake
evaporation.
Typical values for Kp are given in the following tables for different humidity and wind conditions: and pan
environment. The Kp values relate to pans located in an open field with no crops taller than 1 m within some 50
m of the pan. Immediate surroundings, within 10 m, are covered by a green, frequently mowed, grass cover or
by bare soils. The pan station is placed in an agricultural area. The pan is unscreened.
Pan coefficient (Kp) for class a pan for different groundcover and levels of mean relative humidity and 24 hour
wind

wind wind
Pan Pan

Green crop Green crop Dry surface

Dry surface

Varies 50 m or more Varies

50 m or more

Case A Case B

22
 Engineering Hydrology

Class A pan Case A: pan placed in short green cropped area Case B: pan placed in dry fallow area
RHmean % Low Medium 40 High Low Medium 40 High
<40 – 70 >70 <40 – 70 >70
Wind Windward side Windward side
km/day distance of green crop distance of green crop
(m) (m)
Light <175 1 0.55 0.65 0.75 1 0.7 0.8 0.85
10 0.65 0.75 0.85 10 0.6 0.7 0.8
100 0.7 0.8 0.85 100 0.55 0.65 0.75
1000 0.75 0.85 0.85 1000 0.5 0.6 0.7
Moderate 1 0.5 0.6 0.65 1 0.65 0.75 0.8
175-425
10 0.6 0.7 0.75 10 0.55 0.65 0.7
100 0.65 0.75 0.8 100 0.5 0.6 0.65
1000 0.7 0.8 0.8 1000 0.45 0.55 0.6
Strong 425- 1 0.45 0.5 0.6 1 0.6 0.65 0.7
700
10 0.55 0.6 0.65 10 0.5 0.55 0.65
100 0.6 0.65 0.7 100 0.45 0.5 0.6
1000 0.65 0.7 0.75 1000 0.4 0.45 0.55
Very strong 1 0.4 0.45 0.5 1 0.5 0.6 0.65
>700
10 0.45 0.55 0.6 10 0.45 0.5 0.55
100 0.5 0.6 0.65 100 0.4 0.45 0.5
1000 0.55 0.6 0.65 1000 0.35 0.4 0.45

Pan coefficient (Kp) for colorado sunken pan different groundcover and levels of mean relative humidity and 24
hour wind
Sunken Case A: pan placed in short green cropped area Case B: pan placed in dry fallow area
Colorado
RHmean % Low Medium 40 High Low Medium 40 High
<40 – 70 >70 <40 – 70 >70
Wind Windward side Windward side
km/day distance of green crop distance of green crop
(m) (m)
Light <175 1 0.75 0.75 0.8 1 1.1 1.1 1.1

10 1.0 1.0 1.0 10 0.85 0.85 0.85

100 1.1 1.1 1.1 100 0.75 0.75 0.8
1000 0.7 0.7 0.75
Moderate 1 0.65 0.7 0.7 1 0.95 0.95 0.95
175-425
10 0.85 0.85 0.9 10 0.75 0.75 0.75
100 0.95 0.95 0.95 100 0.65 0.65 0.7
1000 0.6 0.6 0.65
Strong 425- 1 0.55 0.65 0.65 1 0.8 0.8 0.8
700
10 0.75 0.75 0.75 10 0.65 0.65 0.65
100 0.8 0.8 0.8 100 0.55 0.6 0.65
1000 0.5 0.55 0.6
Very strong 1 0.5 0.55 0.6 1 0.5 0.6 0.65
>700
10 0.65 0.7 0.7 10 0.7 0.75 0.75
100 0.7 0.75 0.75 100 0.55 0.6 0.65
1000 0.45 0.5 0.55

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 Engineering Hydrology

The table below gives a summary data needed for the different methods
Method Temperature Humidity Wind Sunshine Radiation Evaporation Environment
Blaney – Criddle * 0 0 0 0

Thornthwaite * *

Makkink * 0 0 * (*) 0

Pan evaporation 0 0 * *
Penman * * * * (*) 0

* Measured data 0 Estimated data (*) if available, but not essential

Revision Questions:
1. For a large catchment the following data on precipitation P, free water evaporation E0, potential
evapotranspiration Epot and actual evapotranspiration Eact are given in an arbitrarily sequence in mm/year
as follows: 40, 100, 2500 and 3000. a. Give the values for P, E0, Epot and Eact. Explain your answer.

2. Measurements in Hodeidah (Yemen, 150 N, altitude 18 m) of the global radiation results in the following
data:
August 15, 1990: RS = 20.482 MJ/d/m2 August 16, 1990: RS= 16.758 MJ/d/ m2
n = 6.3 hours n = 4.2 hours

a. Compute the parameters a and b in the radiation equation Rs = (a + b n/N) RA

b. Compute the evaporation from a reservoir at Hodeidah for the month of June according to Penman
and Makkink, given the following data (24 hour mean values at 2 m height):
Sunshine duration : 10.4 hours
Air temperature : 31.0 0C
Relative humidity : 38.4 %
Wind speed : 2.0 m/s

3. The meteorological information given below was obtained over a lake

Mean daily temperature
Mean daily temperature of air at 4 m
Mean daily relative humidity at 4 m
Psychometric constant
Mean daily net radiation
Latent heat of vaporization
Specific heat of water

i. Determine the Bowen ratio

ii. Calculate the evaporation from the lake in mm/day
4. The following data was obtained from a meteorological station.
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 Engineering Hydrology

Average net radiation = 185 W/m2

Air temperature = 28.50C
Relative humidity = 55 %
Wind speed = 2.7 m/s at 2 m and wind run of 90 km/day
Calculate the open water evaporation rate in mm/ day using
a. The energy balance method (assume H and G are zero)
b. The aerodynamic method
c. The combination method

5. The following data was obtained over a well-watered grass surface for the month of May:
Air temperature = 17 0C
Vapor pressure = 1. kPa
Net radiation = 169 W/m2
Wind run of 167 km/day

Determine the evaporation rate in mm/ day using

a. The energy balance method (assume H and G are zero)
b. The aerodynamic method
6. Describe the three evapotranspiration concepts
7. Discuss the factors affecting evapotranspiration
8. Distinguish between evaporation and evapotranspiration
9. Describe the methods that are used to measure and/or estimate (1) open water evaporation (2)
evapotranspiration
10. Describe the equipment that is used in the measurement of 1) open water evaporation (2)
evapotranspiration
11. The following data show climatic conditions over a well-watered grass surface in May, July, and
September in Davis California (Latitude 38 0N). Calculate the corresponding evapotranspiration rate
(mm/day) by the energy balance method, the aerodynamic method, the combination method, and the
Priestley-Taylor method. Assume standard atmospheric pressure. Use the Doorenbos and Pruitt vapor
transfer coefficient.
12.
Month Temperature Vapor pressure Net radiation Wind run
(℃) (kPa) (W/m2) km/day)
May 17 1.1 169 167
July 23 1.4 189 121
September 20 1.2 114 133

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Engineering Hydrology

26
 Engineering Hydrology

Interception
Interception is the amount of precipitation which does not reach the ground due to surface cover. It is one of
the components of the hydrologic cycle that belong to the atmospheric subsystem. It is comprised of three
parts:
1. The part of precipitation retained by surface cover e.g. Vegetation
2. The through flow i.e. the part of precipitation that is trapped and subsequently falls to the ground i.e. the
through flow
3. The stem flow: the water that dips from the leaves through the stem to the ground.
Interception is very important especially in soil erosion control

Factors affecting amount of precipitation

a. Type of lad cover
b. Intensity of rainfall
c. Frequency of rainfall
d. Wind speed

Measurement of interception
One way is to install two rain gages, one inside the vegetation and the other in the open and compare the
quantity of precipitation collected

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